Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1 – 16

The machinability of nickel-based alloys: a review

E.O. Ezugwu a,*, Z.M. Wang a, A.R. Machado b
a
School of Engineering Systems and Design, South Bank Uni6ersity, 103 Borough Road, London, SE1 0AA, UK
b
Federal Uni6ersidade de Uberlandia, MG-Brazil, Brazil

Abstract

This paper presents a detailed review of the various types of nickel-based alloys available on a commercial basis and their
development including alloying additions as well as processing techniques employed to achieve specific mechanical and/or
chemical properties. Problems associated with the machining of nickel-based alloys as well as tool wear and the mechanisms
responsible for tool failure are identified and discussed. The integrity of the machined surfaces and tool life are the most important
considerations during machining. These and other factors governing the machinability of nickel-based alloys are mainly affected
by notching of the cutting tool, primarily at the depth of cut region, as well as by flank wear and insert chipping/fracture; and
by failure modes caused singly or jointly by diffusion, attrition, and abrasion wear mechanisms in addition to mechanical and
thermal fatigue loading of the cutting tools. Most of the failure modes can be minimised when machining in the presence of
coolants and in an oxygen-rich environment. The use of a high pressure coolant supply, despite improved chip segmentation and
machining in the presence of argon and nitrogen-rich environments, tend to accelerate tool wear rate leading to lower tool life.
Improvements in tool performance can be achieved with an increase in the included angle and/or the nose angle of cutting tools
due to the increased edge strength and tool–chip contact area plus a reduction in the approach angle. Recently developed cutting
tool materials such as mixed oxide, SiC whisker reinforced alumina ceramics, sialon and multi-layer coated cemented carbide
cutting tool material have all exhibited the capability to machine nickel-based alloys at higher speed conditions than those
achieved with conventional cemented carbide tools. © 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Nickel-based alloys; Processing techniques; Machinability

1. Introduction contributing to notch wear at the tool nose and/or

depth of cut line; (iii) cutting tools suffer from high
Nickel-based alloys play an extremely important role abrasive wear owing to the presence of hard abrasive
in gas turbine engines. In addition to their use in carbides in the superalloy; (iv) chemical reaction occurs
aircraft, marine, industrial and vehicular gas turbines, at high cutting temperatures when machining with com-
nickel-based alloys are now also used in space vehicles, mercially available cutting tool materials, leading to a
rocket engines, experimental aircraft, nuclear reactors, high diffusion wear rate; (v) welding/adhesion of nickel
submarines, steam power plants, petrochemical equip- alloys onto the cutting tool frequently occur during
ment and other high-temperature applications. Nickel- machining, causing severe notching as well as spalling
based alloys are known as some of the most on the tool rake face due to consequent pull-out of the
difficult-to-machine superalloys in order to satisfy pro- tool materials; (vi) production of a tough and continu-
duction and quality requirement [1,2]. The properties of ous chip, which is difficult to control during machining,
Ni-based alloys contributing to poor machinability may thereby contributing to the degradation of the cutting
be summarised as follows [3 – 5]: (i) a major part of their tool by seizure and cratering; and (vii) the poor thermal
strength is maintained during machining due to their diffusivity of nickel-based alloys often generates high
high temperature properties; (ii) work hardening occurs temperature at the tool tip as well as high thermal
rapidly during machining, which is a major factor
gradients in the cutting tool.
Of factors impairing the machinability of nickel-
* Corresponding author. Fax: +44 171 8157699; e-mail: ezug- based alloys, short tool life and severe surface abuse of
[email protected] machined workpiece are the most important consider-

0924-0136/99/$ - see front matter © 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII S0924-0136(98)00314-8
2 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

ations [1,2]. The surface alteration (such as residual from the turbine engine designer for improvement in
stresses) induced during machining may result in distor- high temperature capability, increased amounts of tita-
tion which adversely affect the mechanical properties nium and aluminium were added and further solid
and stress-corrosion properties of the machined compo- solution strengthening was achieved by the addition of
nent. Extreme care must be taken therefore, to ensure molybdenum. This led to the development of Nimonic
the surface integrity of the component during machin- 105, 115, etc. Waspaloy and M-252 are also two impor-
ing. Tool lives obtained when machining nickel-based tant wrought nickel-based alloys, which were devel-
alloys are severely inadequate. Most of the major oped, respectively, by Pratt and Whitney Aircraft and
parameters including the choice of tool materials, tool the General Electric Company in the late 1940s [3].
geometry, machining method, cutting speed, feed, depth Unique to these alloys was the addition of molybdenum
of cut, etc. must be controlled in order to achieve as a solid-solution and carbide-forming strengthener.
adequate tool lives during machining. These wrought alloys were predominantly used in tur-
With the increasing complexity and the higher oper- bine blades.
ating temperatures of modern aircraft engines, superal- Rene% 41 and 95 are high-strength precipitation-hard-
loy development has evolved from the simple ened sheet alloys, often used in welded fabrications.
nickel–chromium matrix to the multi-element, multi- Inconel 718, an iron-containing alloy, provides moder-
phase systems of today to meet more stringent operat- ate high temperature strength as well as good resistance
ing conditions. Nickel-based superalloys now contain to strain-age cracking in welding. Incoloy 901 is an-
additions of chromium, aluminium, titanium, cobalt, other prominent member of nickel–iron based alloys.
molybdenum and other elements in varying quantities These alloys, as well as some wrought nickel alloys such
to give higher performance. With a material of such as Waspaloy and Astroloy, find their largest application
composition, the problems of short tool life and metal- in turbine disks because they can provide the necessary
lurgical damage to the workpiece during machining are high strength at turbine-disk operating temperatures.
more prominent. Although nickel-based alloys are not The progressive improvement of nickel-based alloys
exceptionally hard (the hardness range being about has not simply been a function of composition, it is also
250 – 350 HV), their outstanding high temperature associated with the method of melting, the hot working
strength and extreme toughness create difficulties dur- conditions applied and the optimisation of the heat
ing machining due to their work hardening tendency treatment process(es). The early nickel-based alloys
which results in very high cutting forces and significant such as Nimonic 80A were air melted using the high-
burr formation during machining. frequently melting technique. It was well known even in
those early days that further strengthening could be
achieved by increasing the hardening elements but this
2. Development and application of nickel-based alloys was not possible with air melting. A major break-
through in the development of nickel-based alloys oc-
Nickel-based alloys constitute 45 – 50% of the total cured in the 1950s with the introduction of vacuum
material required in the manufacture of an aircraft induction melting and refining. Vacuum melting pre-
engine due to their outstanding strength and oxidation vents the oxidation of the reactive hardening elements.
resistance at elevated temperatures in excess of 550°C It thus became possible to incorporate more titanium
[3,6]. Nickel-based alloys are manufactured from and aluminium (for g% precipitation) in the production
wrought (bar, sheet, large forgings) and castings. process. Vacuum refining also removes some of the
volatile trace elements (bismuth, lead, tellurium, etc.)
2.1. Wrought nickel-based alloys present in the raw materials used that adversely affected
the creep strength and ductility of nickel-based alloys.
The range of wrought nickel-based alloys in use A further benefit of reducing the trace element content
today was developed from the basic 80% nickel, 20% is a marked improvement in hot workability. Thus, the
chromium alloy used for over 50 years in electrical presence of vacuum melting and refining opened the
resistance applications. They were first employed as way for the development of still stronger wrought
materials for turbine blades in the early 1940s due to nickel-based alloys, culminating in compositions such
their admirable oxidation resistance and creep rupture as Nimonic 115 and Udimet 700 [5]. Typical wrought
strength which were considerably improved by the ad- nickel-based alloys are listed in Table 1 [3].
dition of small amounts of titanium and aluminium [5].
The first alloy produced was Nimonic 80 which was 2.2. Cast nickel-based alloys
subsequently modified to Nimonic 80A. Later it was
established that the addition of 20% cobalt resulted By the late 1950s, turbine-blade operating tempera-
in an alloy (Nimonic 90) with 50°C temperature tures, which were always challenging, were clearly lim-
advantage over Nimonic 80A. With increasing demands ited by the capability of the best available wrought
Table 1
Nominal chemical composition (weight %) and density of wrought nickel-based alloys

Alloy designation Ni Cr Co Mo W Ta Cb Al TI Fe Mn Si C B Zr Other Density (g cm−2)

Astroloy 55.1 15.0 17.0 5.25 — — — 4.0 3.5 — — — 0.06 0.030 — — 7.91
D-979 45.0 15.0 — 4.0 4.0 — — 1.0 3.0 27.0 — — 0.05 0.010 — — 8.19
Hastelloy alloy X 47.3 22.0 1.5 9.0 0.6 — — — — 18.0 0.50 0.50 0.10 — — — 8.22
Inconel alloy 600 76.6 15.8 — — — — — — — 7.2 0.20 0.20 0.04 — — — 8.33
Inconel alloy 601 60.7 23.0 — — — — — 1.35 — 14.1 0.50 0.25 0.05 — — — 8.04
Inconel alloy 625 61.6 22.0 — 9.0 — — 4.0 0.2 0.2 3.0 0.15 0.30 0.05 — — — 8.44
Inconel alloy 706 41.5 16.0 0.5 0.5 — — 2.9 0.2 1.75 40.0 0.18 0.18 0.03 — — — 8.08
Inconel alloy 718 53.0 18.6 — 3.1 — — 5.0 0.4 0.9 18.5 0.20 0.30 0.04 — — — 8.19
Inconel alloy X-750 73.0 15.0 — — — — 0.9 0.8 2.5 6.8 0.70 0.30 0.04 — — — 8.30
IN-102 67.9 15.0 — 3.0 3.0 — 3.0 0.4 0.6 7.0 — — 0.06 0.005 0.03 0.02 Mg 8.55
IN-587 47.2 28.5 20.0 — — — 0.7 1.2 2.3 — — — 0.05 0.003 0.05 — 8.08
IN-597 48.4 24.5 20.0 1.5 — — 1.0 1.5 3.0 — — — 0.05 0.012 0.05 0.02 Mg 8.04
IN-853 74.6 20.0 — — — — — 1.5 2.5 — — — 0.05 0.007 0.07 1.3 Y2O3 8.09
M-252 55.2 20.0 10.0 10.0 — — — 1.0 2.6 — 0.50 0.50 0.15 0.005 — — 8.25
Nimonic alloy 75 78.8 20.0 — — — — — — 0.4 — 0.10 0.70 0.01 — — — 8.37
Nimonic alloy 80A 74.7 19.5 1.1 — — — — 1.3 2.5 — 0.10 0.70 0.06 — — — 8.22
Nimonic alloy 90 57.4 19.5 18.0 — — — — 1.4 2.4 — 0.50 0.70 0.07 — — — 8.18
Nimonic alloy 105 53.5 14.5 20.0 5.0 — — — 1.2 4.5 — 0.50 0.70 0.20 — — — 7.99
Nimonic alloy115 57.3 15.0 15.0 3.5 — — — 5.0 4.0 — — — 0.15 — — — 7.85
Nimonic alloy PE.11 39.0 18.0 1.0 5.25 — — — 0.85 2.35 33.5 — — 0.05 — — — 8.02
Nimonic alloy PE.16 43.5 16.5 1.0 3.3 — — — 1.2 1.2 33.0 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.020 — — 8.02
Nimonic alloy PK.33 55.9 18.5 14.0 7.0 — — — 2.0 2.0 0.25 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.030 — — 8.21
Nimonic alloy 120 63.8 12.5 10.0 5.7 — — — 4.5 3.5 — — — 0.04 — — — 7.95
Nimonic alloy 942 49.5 12.5 1.0 6.0 — — — 0.6 3.9 27.5 — — 0.03 — — — 8.12
Pyromet 860 43.0 12.6 4.0 6.0 — — — 1.25 3.0 30.0 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.010 — — 8.23
RA-333 45.0 25.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 — — — — 18.0 1.50 1.20 0.05 — — — 8.25
Rene% 41 55.3 19.0 11.0 10.0 — — — 1.5 3.1 — — — 0.09 0.005 — — 8.25
Rene% 95 61.3 14.0 8.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 — 3.5 2.5 — — — 0.15 0.010 0.05 — 8.23
TD nickel 98.0 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2.0 ThO2 8.90
TD nic 78.0 20.0 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2.0 ThO2 8.41
E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

Unimet 500 53.6 18.0 18.5 4.0 — — — 2.9 5.9 — — — 0.08 0.006 0.05 — 8.02
Unimet 520 56.9 19.0 12.0 6.0 1.0 — — 2.0 3.0 — — — 0.05 0.005 — — 8.22
Unimet 700 53.4 15.0 18.5 5.2 — — — 4.3 3.5 — — — 0.08 0.030 — — 7.91
Unimet 710 54.9 18.0 15.0 3.0 1.5 — — 2.5 5.0 — — — 0.07 0.020 — — 8.08
Unitemp AF2-1DA 59.5 12.0 10.0 3.0 6.0 1.5 — 4.6 3.0 — — — 0.32 0.015 0.10 — 7.99
Waspaloy 58.3 19.5 13.5 4.3 — — — 1.3 3.0 — — — 0.08 0.006 0.06 — 8.19
3
4 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

alloys which were forged with great difficulty. Alloys characterised, and strengthened by some alloying ele-
with improved strength were available, but were impos- ments which tend to improved their microstructure or
sible to forge by existing methods. The required phase described below:
strength was obtained by turning to investment cast 1. Alloy matrix (g). The continuous matrix is a face
alloys [3]. Cast nickel-based alloys did not gain wide- centred cubic (FCC) nickel-based austenitic phase,
spread acceptance until the development of vacuum which usually contains a high percentage of solid-
melting and casting techniques in the late 1950s. One of solution elements such as cobalt, chromium, molyb-
the first alloys to be vacuum cast was Inco 713C. The denum and tungsten.
high carbon content of the alloy gave rise to excessive 2. Gamma prime (g%). Aluminium and titanium are
primary carbides and poor low temperature ductility, added in amounts and mutual proportions to pre-
and caused problems in integrally bladed disk castings. cipitate high volume fractions of FCC g%, which
A low carbon version of the alloy was developed to invariably precipitates coherently with the austenite.
overcome this problem and is also used widely for 3. Carbides. Carbon is added at levels of 0.05–
turbine blades. 0.2%, and is often made to react with reactive and
As with the wrought alloys, the demand for stronger refractory elements present to form primary MC
cast alloys was initially met by increasing the titanium carbides. During heat treatment and in service, these
and aluminium content and the development of In 100. decompose and generate lower carbides such as
In the mid 1960s, General Electric introduced Rene% 77 M23C6 and M6C, which populate the grain
and later Rene% 80 with similar titanium and aluminium boundaries.
content by the end of the 1960s. This new alloy exhib- 4. Grain boundary g%. For many alloys, heat treatment
ited higher rupture strength and corrosion resistance techniques have been developed to generate a film of
than Rene% 77 [5]. g% along the grain boundaries which is believed to
Since it was impractical to further increase the tita- optimise rupture properties.
nium and aluminium content in order to increase 5. Topologically close packed (TCP) phases. Under
strength, another approach had to be adopted during certain conditions, plate-like phases such as s, m and
the late 1960s. It was then established that a reduction Laves form and promote lower rupture strength and
in the titanium content improved castability. This led to ductility.
cast alloys such as B-1900, with a low titanium-to-alu-
minium ratio and with greater additions of molybde- 2.3.1. Alloying elements in nickel-based alloys
num and tantalum to increase the solid solution Nickel alloys have little inherent resistance to high
strengthening. Martin Metals favoured the replacement temperature oxidation. The addition of chromium pro-
of molybdenum with tungsten and introduced Mar-M duces an adherent protective scale containing Cr2O3 on
200. This was found to give problems with inadequate the surface of the material when heated in an oxidising
intermediate temperature creep rupture ductility and environment. Optimum oxidation resistance in nickel–
creep life consistency [3]. In 1969, Martin Metals chromium alloys is obtained with chromium content in
patented a method by which these properties were the range 15 to 30% [3]. Chromium also forms
improved. This development consisted of the addition chromium carbides which can play an important role in
of 2% hafnium to the cast alloy composition. The strengthening the material at high temperature.
beneficial effect of hafnium was found to apply to a Aluminium, titanium and niobium are added to
whole range of cast alloys, e.g. Inco 713LC and B1900. strengthen the material by the formation of g% gamma
IN-792 and Mar-M 432 combine the strength of IN-100 prime, (Ni3(Al,Ti)). Niobium can be substituted to
with the excellent hot-corrosion resistance of Udimet some extent for titanium or aluminium in g% or if the
500 (an early cast alloy) by maintaining a moderately niobium content is high enough (above 4%) it can
high chromium content together with a relatively high form a separate hardening phase, Ni3Nb. Titanium and
titanium–aluminium ratio and using a careful balance niobium can also form carbides. Aluminium has a
of refractory metal additions. Typical cast nickel-based beneficial effect on oxidation resistance as it forms
and wrought nickel – iron based alloys and their main stable Al2O3 in the oxide scale at high temperatures.
compositions are listed in Table 2 [3]. The formation of either Al2O3 or Cr2O3 in the scale
depends on the relative amounts of the two elements in
2.3. Alloying elements and microstructure of the alloy. During the development of high temperature
nickel-based alloys alloys it was considered necessary to lower the
chromium content in order to maintain microstructural
It is the continuous study of alloying elements and stability and to allow more g%-elements, i.e. aluminium,
the microstructure of nickel-based alloys that has led to titanium and niobium, to be added to obtain creep
the development of nickel alloys. From general consid- rupture properties. The loss in oxidation resistance due
eration, it can be stated that nickel-based alloys are to lower chromium content has been compensated for
Table 2
Nominal chemical composition (weight %) and density of cast nickel-based and wrought nickel – iron based alloys

Alloy designation Ni Cr Co Mo W Ta Cb Al TI Fe Mn Si C B Zr Other Density (g cm−2)

Nickel-based
Alloy 713C 74 12.5 — 4.2 — — 2.0 6.1 0.8 — — — 0.12 0.012 0.10 — 7.91
Alloy 713LC 75 12.0 — 4.5 — — 2.0 5.9 0.6 — — — 0.05 0.010 0.10 — 8.00
B-1900 64 8.0 10.0 6.0 — 4.0 — 6.0 1.0 — — — 0.10 0.015 0.10 — 8.22
FORD 406 60 6.0 10.0 1.0 8.5 6.0 2.0 4.5 2.0 — — — 0.13 0.018 0.06 —
IN-100 60 10 15.0 3.0 — — — 5.5 4.7 — — — 0.18 0.014 0.06 1.0 V 7.75
IN-162 73 10.0 — 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 6.5 1.0 — — — 0.12 0.020 0.10 — 8.08
IN-731 67 9.5 10.0 2.5 — — — 5.5 4.6 — — — 0.18 0.015 0.06 1.0 V 7.75
IN-738 61 16.0 8.5 1.7 2.6 1.7 0.9 3.4 3.4 — — — 0.17 0.010 0.10 — 8.10
IN-792 61 12.4 9.0 1.9 3.8 3.9 — 3.1 4.5 — — — 0.12 0.020 0.10 — 8.25
M22 71 5.7 — 2.0 11.0 3.0 — 6.3 — — — — 0.13 — 0.60 — 8.63
MAR-M 200 60 9.0 10.0 — 12.0 — 1.0 5.0 2.0 — — — 0.15 0.015 0.05 — 8.53
MAR-M 200(DS) 60 9.0 10.0 — 12.0 — 1.0 5.0 2.0 — — — 0.13 0.015 0.05 — 8.53
MAR-M 246 60 9.0 10.0 2.5 10.0 1.5 — 5.5 1.5 — — — 0.15 0.015 0.05 — 8.44
MAR-M 421 61 15.8 9.5 2.0 3.8 — 2.0 4.3 1.8 — — — 0.15 0.015 0.05 — 8.08
MAR-M 432 50 15.5 20.0 — 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.8 4.3 — — — 0.15 0.015 0.05 — 8.16
NX188(DS) 74 — — 18.0 — — — 8.0 — — — — 0.04 — — — 8.19
Rene% 77 58 14.6 15.0 4.2 — — — 4.3 3.3 — — — 0.07 0.016 0.04 — 7.91
Rene% 80 60 14.0 9.5 4.0 4.0 — — 3.0 5.0 — — — 0.17 0.015 0.03 — 8.16
Rene% 100 60 9.5 15.0 3.0 — — — 5.5 4.2 — — — 0.18 0.014 0.06 1.0 V 7.75
SEL 51 15.0 22.0 4.5 — — — 4.4 2.4 — — — 0.08 0.015 — — 8.02
SEL-15 58 11.0 14.5 6.5 1.5 — 0.5 5.4 2.5 — — — 0.07 0.015 — — 8.00
TAZ-8A 68 6.0 — 4.0 4.0 8.0 2.5 6.0 — — — — 0.12 0.004 1.00 — 8.63
TRW-NASA VIA 61 6.1 7.5 2.0 5.8 9.0 0.5 5.4 1.0 — — — 0.13 0.020 0.13 0.5 Re, 0.4 Hf 8.66
UDIMET 500 52 18.0 19.0 4.2 — — — 3.0 3.0 — — — 0.07 0.007 0.05 — 8.02
WAZ-20(DS) 72 — — — 20.0 — — 6.5 — — — — 0.20 — 1.50 — 9.02
Nickel –iron based
Incoloy alloy 901 42.5 12.5 — 5.7 — — — 0.2 2.8 36.0 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.015 — 8.22
E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

A-286 26.0 15.0 — 1.3 — — — 0.2 2.0 53.6 1.35 0.50 0.05 0.015 — 7.91
Discaloy 26.0 13.5 — 2.7 — — — 0.1 1.7 54.3 0.90 0.80 0.04 0.005 — 7.97
N-155 20.0 21.0 20.0 3.0 2.5 — 1.0 — — 30.3 1.50 0.50 0.15 — — 8.19
V-57 27.0 14.8 — 1.25 — — — 0.25 3.0 52.0 0.35 0.75 0.08 0.010 — 0.5 V 7.94
5
6 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

Table 3
The relationship between composition and temperature capability of wrought nickel-based alloys

by increasing the aluminium content. Some superalloys 2.3.2. Microstructure of nickel-based alloys
such as Inconel 718 and Nimonic 901 contain high
(18 – 36 wt.%) iron contents. Increasing the iron content 2.3.2.1. Gamma prime (g%). g% has an ordered FCC
in nickel-based alloys tends to decrease their oxidation structure and is the precipitation hardening constituent
resistance because of the less adherent oxide scale. in nickel-based alloys. The normal composition is Ni3Al
The addition of cobalt affords slight solid solution although it is usually designated Ni3(Al,Ti) since as
strengthening and reduces the solubility of aluminium much as 65% of the aluminium can be replaced by
and titanium in the nickel – chromium FCC austenitic titanium. The nickel can be replaced to a limited degree
matrix, thus increasing the g% solvus temperature. This by chromium, cobalt, molybdenum and iron [5].
therefore help to maintain strength at elevated tempera- During ageing after a solution treatment, g% nucleates
ture. Cobalt also has greater solubility for carbon than initially as a coherent precipitate with its crystallo-
nickel. This means that either more carbon can be graphic orientation identical to that of the g matrix and
tolerated or, for an equivalent carbon content, fewer develops as fine homogeneous particles with a spherical
carbides will be present. morphology which grow and become cuboidal as co-
Molybdenum, tungsten and tantalum are all used herency is lost. g% can also form at boundaries and
primarily to provide solid-solution strengthening at second-phase particle interfaces during relatively high
high temperature. They also form complex carbides, temperature ageing treatments or during the partial
and tantalum in particular is soluble in g%.
solution treatment applied to some alloys.
Boron and zirconium are added to improve creep
g% (Ni3Al) is a unique intermetallic phase. By disloca-
strength and ductility. It is well established that these
tion interaction, it contributes antiphase boundary
elements segregate in the grain boundaries and conse-
(APB) strengthening to the g–g% alloy, and the strength
quently modify the formation of the grain boundary
of the g% increases as the temperature increases. Fur-
carbides. The presence of boron and zirconium in
thermore, the inherent ductility of g% helps to prevent
nickel alloys is not entirely beneficial since they can
adversely affect weldability. Carbon is added in limited severe embrittlement, unlike strengthening that is devel-
amounts to improve creep strength due to the forma- oped by phases of higher hardness, such as carbides.
tion of carbides. Other trace elements that are added This is also in direct contrast to the severe embrittle-
deliberately to improve workability, oxidation resis- ment created by the formation of brittle s and Laves
tance, etc., are calcium, magnesium and yttrium. In phases [3].
recent years the addition of small amounts of hafnium, Much of the aluminium in Ni3Al can be replaced by
mainly to the cast alloys, has been found to be benefi- titanium, niobium or tantalum leaving the possibility of
cial, providing improvements in both ductility and producing metastable g%. The titanium-rich metastable
strength at low and intermediate temperatures, as well g% can transform, on prolonged exposure to tempera-
as raising the hot tear resistance in directional tures ranging from 700 to 900°C, to Ni3Ti (h) which
solidification. has a hexagonal close packed (HCP) structure. The
The effect of alloying elements on temperature capa- transformation involves a change from a coherent to a
bility of wrought nickel-based alloys and cast nickel- non-coherent precipitate. Increasing the titanium to
based alloys are shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. aluminium ratio, therefore, decreases the stability of the
Table 5 illustrates the relationship between composition alloy. Transformation of g% to h results in a reduction in
and strength of some nickel-based alloys [5]. the alloy strength, which is undesirable.
 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16 7

Table 4
The relationship between composition and temperature capability of cast nickel-based alloys

When niobium content is \4% in alloys such as have a significant effect on the properties of nickel
Inconel 718, a similar transformation of g% to Ni3Nb is alloys. When present as discrete particles in grain
found. The transformation process is g% “g%% “Ni3Nb. boundaries, their critical location promotes a significant
g%% has a body centred tetragonal (BCT) structure. This effect on rupture strength, apparently through inhibi-
phase precipitates as small platelets that are coherent tion of grain boundary sliding. However, properties are
with the matrix. It can co-exist with g% if the aluminium adversely affected when M23C6 carbides exist in the
and/or titanium contents are also high enough. The form of cellular structures or as films in grain
Ni3Nb has an orthorhombic structure. When present as boundaries.
large platelets it is detrimental to properties, but small The M6C carbides can be formed during higher-tem-
discrete grain boundary Ni3Nb particles are essential perature heat treatment in alloys containing relatively
for satisfactory creep rupture properties. high molybdenum content. They can also be formed as
a result of the breakdown of MC. Chromium, nickel
2.3.2.2. Carbides. The role of carbides in superalloys is and cobalt can substitute for the major M elements,
complex and dynamic. Most investigators believe that Molybdenum and tungsten; unlike more rigid M23C6,
carbides do exert a significant and beneficial effect on the composition can vary widely. Since M6C carbides
rupture strength at elevated temperatures. In addition, are stable at higher temperatures than M23C6 carbides,
it is quite clear that carbide morphology can influence M6C is more beneficial as a grain boundary precipitate
ductility, and also that carbides can influence the chem- to control grain size in the wrought alloy.
ical stability of the matrix through the removal of
reacting elements. The three main types of carbides 2.3.2.3. Borides. Many nickel-based high temperature
found in nickel-based alloy are MC, M23C6 and M6C. alloys have small boron addition. Normally the addi-
Cr7C3 can also be present but is rare. tion of boron is associated with the M23C6 type car-
The MC carbides are a major source of carbon for bides. However, if present in amounts greater than
the alloy to use later if it interacts chemically. They  0.01%, a boride of the form M3B2 can form. The M
have a FCC structure and are normally considered radical is usually molybdenum-rich but chromium, tita-
amongst the most stable compounds in nature. They nium and nickel may also be present. The M3B2 boride
are formed either in the liquid state or at high tempera- has a tetragonal unit cell and tends to precipitate at the
ture after solidification. They exist in blocky or script grain boundaries.
morphologies within the grains and along the grain
boundaries. The elements titanium, tantalum, niobium 2.3.2.4. Topologically close packed (TCP) phases. The
and hafnium are the main MC forming elements with TCP phases which are formed in certain alloys as a
the less reactive elements such as molybdenum and result of exposure to elevated temperature and stresses
tungsten also being involved. are s, g, m and Laves. The s phase can precipitate in
The M23C6 carbides are usually predominant in al- the nickel–chromium based alloys in the temperature
loys of high chromium content, where they form during region between 650 and 925°C, especially when the
lower-temperature (760 – 980°C) heat treatment and ser- alloy is subjected to stress. It is an intermetallic com-
vice, both from the degeneration of MC carbides and pound which forms from the transition metal elements
from soluble carbon residue in the alloy matrix. They and exhibits a tetragonal structure. It forms by a nucle-
8 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

Table 5
The relationship between composition and strength of nickel-based alloys

ation and growth process as needles or plate-shaped have a large difference in atomic size with the matrix;
particles at grain and twin boundaries as well as at the and (iii) it should have a high melting point.
interfaces of carbides or borides. The solid solution elements typically found in the g
The occurrence of s and the other TCP phases has a phase are likely to include aluminium, chromium, iron,
detrimental effect on the mechanical properties of the titanium, tungsten, vanadium, cobalt and molybdenum
alloy. The compounds themselves are brittle and hard [3]. The difference in atom diameter from that of nickel
and are therefore liable to fracture. The plate-like mor- varies from + 1% for cobalt to + 13% for tungsten.
phology is a source for crack initiation and propagation
leading to reduced impact strength. Perhaps of even 2.4.1.2. Precipitation hardening. Precipitation hardening
more significance is their effect on elevated temperature in nickel-based alloys really implies g% precipitation.
rupture strength. The TCP phases contain a high pro- Other phases such as borides and carbides provide little
portion of the refractory elements and therefore denude strengthening at low temperature because of their low
the matrix of these elements, causing weakening. volume fraction; they, however, influence the creep rate
and rupture life of nickel alloys.
2.4. Strengthening and heat treatment of nickel-based The increase in strength caused by the interaction
alloys between the dislocation and the g% precipitate can be
related to several basic factors such as: (i) the volume
2.4.1. Strengthening of nickel-based alloys fraction of g% present; (ii) the size of the g% particle; and
The strengthening mechanisms of nickel-based alloys (iii) the anti-phase boundary (APB) energy.
include solid solution strengthening, precipitation hard- At a given temperature, the volume fraction of g% is
ening and dispersion hardening. The properties of the directly proportional to the amounts of total hardening
grain boundaries are largely controlled by the type, elements present, i.e. aluminium, titanium and niobium.
amount and morphology of the carbides and also by The volume fraction directly affects the high tempera-
the presence of g% in these regions. ture strength of nickel alloys. The influence of g% vol-
ume fraction on the high temperature strength of
2.4.1.1. Solid solution strengthening. As already dis- nickel-based alloys is illustrated in Fig. 1 [3]. This effect
cussed, commercial austenitic superalloys always con- is probably the major guide used by alloy designers.
tain substantial alloying additions in solid solution to The increase in the strength of alloys is also related
provide strength, creep resistance or resistance to sur- to the size of the g% particle. Normal heat treatment
face degradation. In addition, the stronger alloys con- practice for commercial wrought nickel-based alloys is
tain elements, that, after suitable heat treatment or aimed at obtaining a g% particle size corresponding to
thermal-mechanical processing, result in the formation peak hardness or just below it. If, during service, the
of small coherent particles of an intermetallic com- alloy is exposed to a temperature that is much higher
pound. Therefore, typical nickel-based alloys are varia- than the prior ageing treatment, the g% will coarsen and
tions of an austenitic nickel – chromium – tungsten (or the strength will drop.
molybdenum) matrix. In order to obtain useful solid The anti-phase boundary (APB) energy is a function
solution strengthening, an alloying element should sat- of the degree of ordering of the precipitate. When a
isfy the following requirements: (i) it should have a dislocation cuts through a coherent ordered g% particle
wide range of solid solubility in the matrix; (ii) it should it creates an area of high energy, impeding the move-
 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16 9

Fig. 1. The influence of the g% volume fraction on the high-temperature strength of nickel-based alloys.

ment of the dislocation. The passage of a further dislo- 2.4.2.1. Annealing or softening. Treatments of this type
cation along the same slip plane is assisted since it are only required for materials subjected to operations
destroys the APB. The overall effect is a net addition to that work-harden the alloy. In this case, both interme-
shear strength. diate and final treatments are given to produce a soft
ductile end product. Softening is usually associated with
2.4.1.3. Dispersion hardening. The most effective way to recrystallisation but may also cause some solution of
maintain strength at high temperature above which g% chromium carbides. Annealing is generally required for
goes into solution is to employ a different, stable, solid solution hardened alloys. Softening treatments are
non-metallic dispersoid phase that is essentially insolu- also applied during the fabrication of precipitation
ble in the matrix. For high temperature service, the best hardenable alloys and it is important to recognise that
dispersoid materials are oxides having high free energies the temperature and time used for this operation may
of formation, such as thoria, yttria and lanthana. The not be such that will fully dissolve the precipitation
size and distribution of the dispersoid phase govern its hardened phases [3].
effectiveness as a strengthener. The particles must be
2.4.2.2. Solution treatment. The main objective of solu-
small and uniformly distributed. The level of strength-
tion treatment is to dissolve the precipitable phases,
ening that can be achieved is limited by the low volume
principally g% and in some cases carbides, prior to their
fraction of oxide that can be added while maintaining
controlled precipitation during reheating/ageing or in
adequate ductility [5].
special cases during cooling. The selection of a particu-
The development of the strength of nickel-based al-
lar solution treatment temperature is dependent on the
loy strength can be summarised as follows: (i) solid-so- solvus temperature of the various phases present, the
lution strengthening g; (ii) increase volume percent g%; grain coarsening temperature. The finer the grain size,
(iii) increase fault energy of g%; (iv) solid solution hard- the better the low temperature tensile and fatigue prop-
ening g%; (v) reduction in the formation of h, Ni3Nb, erties; hence a low solution treatment temperature is
Laves and s phases; (vi) control of carbide formation preferred. The elevated temperature creep rupture prop-
to prevent M23C6 grain boundary films and cellular erties on the other hand tend to be improved by the
structures (for tensile strength); and (vii) control car- coarser grain produced by a higher solution treatment
bides and g% (grain size, etc.) to enhance rupture temperature.
strength.
2.4.2.3. Ageing/precipitation hardening. The objective of
2.4.2. Heat treatment of nickel-based alloys this treatment is to precipitate the hardening phases in
The heat treatments that contribute to improvement a form that develops the required mechanical proper-
in the required properties of nickel-based alloys can be ties. A set of ageing curves for a nickel-based alloy—
usefully discussed under three main headings. Nimonic 80A, illustrating the relationship between
10 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

Fig. 2. The effect of ageing time and temperature on the hardness of Ni-based alloy (Nimonic 80A).

hardness (strength), ageing time and temperature, is use of multi-layer (TiN+ TiCN+ TiN) coated carbide
shown in Fig. 2. It is clear that optimum hardening can tools, produced by the physical vapour deposition
be achieved after about 128 h at 700°C or 500 h at (PVD) technique have also shown remarkable improve-
650°C. These times are not acceptable commercially ment in the machining of nickel-based alloys [7,8].
and the treatment adopted in practice for any alloy is Cubic boron nitride (CBN) cutting tools appear to give
generally a compromise between those giving optimum better overall performance than cemented carbides
properties (not necessarily maximum hardness) and when machining nickel-based alloys [9], although the
those that are economically acceptable. principal application areas for CBN are in the machin-
ing of ferrous materials [10]. The cost of CBN tools do
however place a strict limitation on their use.
3. Tool materials for machining nickel-based alloys
3.1. Machining with carbide tools
Of the many variables affecting any machining oper-
ation, the cutting tool, although small and relatively The recommended cutting speeds range from 10 to 30
inexpensive, is one of the most critical. The require- m min − 1 when machining nickel-based alloys with
ments for any cutting tool material used for machining cemented carbide tools [1]. Severe flank wear and
nickel-based alloys should include [3]: (i) good wear notching at the tool nose and/or the depth of cut line
resistance; (ii) high strength and toughness; (iii) high are the dominant failure modes when machining with
hot hardness; (iv) good thermal shock properties; and carbide tools [7,8,11]. Cemented carbide tools cannot be
(v) adequate chemical stability at elevated used to machine nickel-based alloys at high speed since
temperatures. they cannot withstand the conditions of extreme high
High-speed steels and cemented-carbide cutting tools temperature and stress in the cutting zone. Rapid in-
are widely used for machining nickel-based alloys and crease in notching occurs on carbide tools at higher
these tool materials were the only choice for the ma- cutting speed. This usually leads to the premature frac-
chining of exotic superalloys for several decades. High ture of the entire insert edge [12]. Premature fracture of
speed steels are usually employed for intermittent cut- cutting tools can be avoided by employing the taper
ting operations (milling, drilling, tapping and broach- turning (or ramping) technique where the depth of cut
ing, etc.), whilst cemented carbides are mainly used for is gradually shifted during machining, thus shifting the
continuous cutting operations (turning, boring and fac- notch wear along the entire flank face of the tool. This
ing). Currently, some new ceramic tool materials (such will consequently lead to the generation of a uniform
as Al2O3 –TiC mixed ceramics, Si3N4 ceramics/Sialon flank wear on the cutting edge. Recent advances in
and the latest SiC whisker-reinforced Al2O3 ceramics coating technology have led to the introduction of
(containing  25% SiC whiskers) have been used in- multiple coatings on cemented carbide cutting tools
creasingly for machining nickel-based alloys [4]. The which tend to increase the achievable cutting speed up
 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16 11

to 50 m min − 1 and beyond in single-point turning 901 with silicon nitride based tools. This improved
operation. performance gave a 57% cost saving in comparison
Lower cutting speeds are usually employed when with plain carbide tools in the semi-finish turning of
milling (interrupted cutting) nickel-based alloys with Inconel 718 [31]. It has also been reported that sialon
carbide cutting tools. Chipping and/or fracture of the tools outperform SiC whisker-reinforced tools in the
tool edges are the dominant failure modes due to a machining of Incoloy 901 [27]. One recommendation is
combination of high temperature, thermal and mechan- that sialon ceramic tools perform better in machining
ical shock/stress, as well as the adhesion of the work the nickel-based alloy Waspaloy in the presence of
material on the tool rake face [13 – 15]. K20 grade of coolant [21].
cemented carbide has been found to give optimum
performance when milling nickel-based alloys (Nimonic 3.3. Machining with CBN tools
75 and Inconel 718) at various cutting conditions
[11,16]. Turning tests on Inconel 718 using CBN tools with
30–95% CBN contents showed that notching decreased
3.2. Machining with ceramic tools significantly with increasing CBN content, while aver-
age flank wear showed little variation, reaching a mini-
Pure oxide (Al2O3 +ZrO2) ceramic tools have not mum at  55% CBN content [33]. Pressure welding of
been effective in machining nickel-based alloys despite the work material onto the tool cutting edge was also
their good chemical stability, high hot hardness and observed: the degree of the welding was found to
high wear resistance. The poor performance of pure increase with decrease in the CBN content, thus in-
oxide ceramic tools can be attributed to their poor creasing notching. The high notch wear resistance of
thermal shock resistance, low fracture toughness or low the high-CBN-content tools make them suitable for
resistance to mechanical shock at elevated temperature. machining nickel-based alloys [34,35]. The superior per-
Single-point continuous turning tests on Inconel 718 formance of the high CBN content tools is due to their
showed that the mixed (Al2O3 +TiC) ceramics out-per- higher hardness, since their hardness increases almost
formed the pure oxide [17]. The use of mixed ceramic linearly with increases in the CBN content [36,37].
tools was first reported in the late 1970s, with achiev-
able cutting speeds of between 120 and 240 m min − 1,
almost ten times faster than those used for plain car- 4. Surface integrity when machining nickel-based alloys
bides [18]. Tool life under these conditions was severely
limited by excessive notching at the depth of cut region It has been reported that nickel-based alloys
via welding and pull-out, which may be caused by the strengthened by heat treatment are very sensitive to
relatively low mechanical toughness of ceramic tools microstructure change due to their high strength at high
[19]. Reasonable tool lives have been recorded when temperature, high ductility, high tendency to work
machining Incoloy 901 with mixed ceramic tools at hardening, etc. [38]. Major changes in the machined
high cutting speeds up to 300 m min − 1 [20,21]. The surface layer may include: (i) residual stresses (tensile or
high speed machining of nickel-based alloy (Inconel compressive) induced in machining; (ii) changes in
718) has also been achieved with another grade (Al + hardness of the surface layer due to work hardening;
Zr+ W) of mixed ceramics [22,23]. (iii) microcracking or macrocracking, particularly in
SiC whisker-reinforced alumina ceramic tools were grinding; (iv) tears, laps and crevice like defects associ-
developed especially for machining nickel-based alloys ated with the ‘built-up edge’ produced in machining
[24]. They have also shown encouraging results when and severe flank wear; (v) plastic deformation as a
machining hardened steels and cast iron [25,26]. High result of hot or cold work; (vi) metallurgical transfor-
cutting speeds (200 – 750 m min − 1) and high feeds mations attributed to high temperature; and (vii) chem-
(0.125–0.375 mm rev − 1) can be achieved when machin- ical change including high temperature oxygenation
ing nickel-based alloys with whisker reinforced alumina and diffusion action between the workpiece and tool
ceramic tools [4,21]. Machining trials on nickel-based materials.
alloys showed that whisker-reinforced alumina ceramic From some grinding tests on nickel-based alloys [2,3],
tools were more favourable for machining the nickel- varying amounts of residual stress are induced in the
based alloy Inconel 718 in dry and/or wet cutting machined surface. The tests show that the stress levels
conditions [21,26,28]. on a machined workpiece surface vary with different
The relatively high toughness of sialon ceramic tools metal removal rates and the residual stress may be
also enables them to machine superalloys, hardened either tensile or compressive. For single point turning,
steels and cast iron at high speeds and high feed rates the use of a sharp tool with a zero wear land and
[29 – 32]. Up to 70% reduction in the rate of notch positive rake face tends to minimise the amounts of
formation has been reported when machining Incoloy residual stress, plastic deformation and work hardening
12 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

[3,17]. The shape of the cutting tool can also affect the hardened layer often results in burr formation during
machined surfaces. Improved surface finish and mini- machining. Further machining in the presence of signifi-
mum surface damage can be obtained when machining cant burr usually leads to catastrophic fracture of the
with round inserts. Prolonged machining tends to in- entire insert edge.
crease the hardness of the surface layer and also deteri- Shaw et al. [41] reported that the chip had red hot
orates the machined surfaces [16,17]. This can be edges and a dark, cooler centre when machining nickel-
attributed to severe flank wear, and consequently in- based alloy (Waspaloy). They concluded that the edge
creased component forces and cutting temperature due of the chip, which is not restricted, receives a greater
to the increased contact area and relative motion be- specific energy input than the centre, and which induces
tween the flank land of the tool nose region and the large welds and heavy pull-out of the tool materials at
freshly machined surface of the workpiece. It has also the edges. However, this anomalous phenomenon was
been reported that significant tearing and considerable not observed in later work by Khamsehzadeh, who
microstructural changes occurred on the machined sur- separated the possible ways for notching into two pro-
face of the nickel-based alloy, Inconel 718 [8,17]. Ma- cesses [21]. The chip–workpiece separation process oc-
chining conditions that introduce high tensile strength curs with extensive lateral plastic flow of workpiece
on the machined surfaces should always be avoided and material at the edge of the shear zone. This first causes
efforts should be made to ensure a compressive stress side flow to form a burr and then side flow on the chip
wherever possible. Undesirable effects in the machined which causes the chip to spread, both of which occur
surfaces can be minimised by the use of proper machin- cyclically. Lee et al. [38] also reported that the high
ing methods and machining conditions. strength of nickel-based alloys causes high temperature
and stress in the tool–chip contact area and that the
separation of the edge of the chip from the workpiece is
5. Tool failure modes and wear mechanisms when largely a tearing process. The fatigue loading on the
machining nickel-based alloys tool, the work-hardened layer and the adherence of
work material on the notched area and subsequent
5.1. Tool failure modes and wear mechanisms dislodgement, contributed to notching wear [21].
Notching has also been attributed to diffusion–attrition
Cutting tool materials generally undergo severe ther- wear mechanisms [21,42].
mal and mechanical changes when machining nickel- It is interesting to note that severe notching of cut-
based alloys. The applied stresses and temperatures ting tools occurs when machining nickel-based alloys
generated at and/or close to the cutting edge greatly under low speed conditions. The wear rate of ceramic
influence the wear rate and hence, the tool life. Notch- tools when machining under high speed conditions is
ing at the tool nose and/or depth of cutting regions is often not as great as may be expected under lower
the prominent failure mode when machining nickel- speed conditions [43]. This is supported by turning tests
based alloys. This is caused by combination of high on Incoloy 901 [37] and may be attributed to the
temperature, high workpiece strength, work hardening, softening of the workpiece. Another advantage of ma-
abrasive chips, etc. [4,7,8,21,27]. Flank wear, chipping chining nickel-based alloys under high speed conditions
and catastrophic failure are other causes of tool rejec- is chip control. Tough continuous stringy chips are
tion when machining nickel-based alloys. usually produced when machining under lower speed
Much work has been carried out to investigate notch conditions. These tend to change to small segmented
formation and a number of theories have been pro- chips when the cutting speed is increased to \120 m
posed. The special physical conditions such as steep min − 1 [44].
stress and temperature gradients have been suspected as Although the exact details of various investigations
probable causes. The heavily work-hardened surface on notch formation during machining do not agree,
being machined has been considered as a probable their principles are generally similar. In order to min-
cause. No consensus of opinion exists as to the cause of imise notching at the depth of cut region, it is recom-
notching when machining nickel alloys. However, a mended to use a cutting tool with a large side cutting
common agreement is that notch formation results edge angle and negative rake. A recent investigation has
from a combination of many factors and not necessar- demonstrated how notching of the cutting tool can be
ily from a single wear mechanism. It has been reported suppressed or even eliminated by employing recently
that a large temperature gradient has little effect on developed multi-layer coated carbide tools as well as by
depth of cut notching [39], thus leaving the work-hard- using the taper-turning (or ramping) technique where
ened layer as the main cause of notch formation during the depth of cut is continually varied along the length
machining [16,21,40]. The prevailing theory is that of cut [8,12]. The temperature distribution in cutting
notching is a result of chip – tool welding and conse- tools used to machine nickel-based alloys has been
quent pull-out of tool materials [4,40,41]. The work studied [12]. The outstanding feature in the machining
 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16 13

of nickel-based alloys is that tool temperatures are far to irregular flow of the work material over the cutting
higher than in conventional steels due to their high edge of the tool, fatigue induced by the serrated chip,
strength, low thermal conductivity, etc. Furthermore, the formation of cracks generated by thermal and/or
the tip of the cutting edge was frequently the hottest mechanical fatigue, etc. Significant plucking of tool
region when machining nickel-based alloys, while the particles when milling Nimonic 75 can be reasonably
maximum temperature when machining steels was al- associated with attrition wear [16]. Breakdown of the
ways on the rake face some distance away from the cutting edge of cutting tools was also attributed to the
cutting edge. higher stresses applied immediately behind the cutting
It has been observed that cemented carbide tools edge when machining nickel-based alloys because the
used for machining nickel-based alloys at speeds \ 30 normal stresses on the tool are roughly twice as high
m min − 1 failed due to thermal softening of the cobalt for machining nickel-based alloys as for machining steel
binder phase and the subsequent plastic deformation of using the same cutting parameters [50]. The stress con-
the cutting edge [45]. Examination of worn tools re- centration at the cutting edge tends to deform the tool
vealed a layer of ‘disturbed material’ beneath the crater edge plastically, thereby encouraging tool wear by chip-
and the cutting edge [46]. In this layer, the tungsten ping, especially in interrupted cutting operations [17].
carbide grains were smaller and more rounded than in The abrasion wear mechanism has also been reported
the original material. A correlation between the loca- when machining nickel-based alloys with ceramic tools
tion of crater wear and the site of maximum tempera- [21,48]. The plucked-off particles from the tool sub-
ture exists to support these observations. The common strate and hard abrasive carbide particles contained in
crater location arising from steel machining is on the the nickel-based alloy are mainly responsible for abra-
rake face away from the cutting edge. Turning tests on sion wear which accelerates flank and crater wear in
Inconel 718 with a variety of tool materials showed that conjunction with the diffusion wear mechanism.
the crater started immediately behind the cutting edge
[46]. The crater profile changed as the cutting speed 5.2. Effect of cutting en6ironment on tool li6es
increased, the deepest point moving closer to the cut-
ting edge, where the highest temperature are developed. It has been reported that the machining of nickel-
It has been reported that diffusion or solution wear based alloys in the presence of argon and in nitrogen-
limits tool performance when machining Inconel 718 rich atmospheres accelerated the rate of notch
with cemented carbide tools [45]. This view is supported formation, while slower rate of notching took place in
by Ezugwu et al. [7,11,12,15]. Diffusion wear resulting the presence of air and oxygen gases [21]. The newly
in a smooth surface was also observed when machining generated surface during machining is highly reactive
nickel-based alloys with ceramic tools [21,47]. The wear and may chemically combine rapidly with atmospheres.
rate depends largely on the cutting temperatures and When machining in air and in an oxygen rich atmo-
the chemical composition of both the tool and the work sphere, oxygen is readily available and this will rapidly
material. Machining at high speeds will accelerate the form an oxide on the new surface. This new surface
diffusion process due to higher temperatures. Bhat- containing oxide tends to suppress potential bonding
tacharyya and Jawaid [48] reported a diffusion mecha- under these conditions. Cutting tool materials with high
nism when machining Incoloy 901 with Sialon tools. affinity for oxygen may become oxidised. These two
The titanium, chromium, nickel and iron from the work processes will hinder notch formation by reducing the
material reacted with aluminium, silicon, and yttrium forces locally and longer tool lives will be achieved [21].
from the tool material. They claimed that Ti and Cr The high rate of notching when machining in the
can have a stronger effect than Ni and Fe. These presence of argon and in nitrogen-rich atmospheres can
elements diffuse into the glassy phase of the tool matrix therefore be attributed to the absence of oxygen in the
and reduce its strength. Tool failures caused by flank vicinity of the cut and consequently higher bonding
wear and crater wear may partly be attributed to the forces leading to easier ‘pull-out’. Increase in tool lives
diffusion wear mechanism. has been reported when machining Incoloy 901 and
Chipping and/or fracture of the tool edge are the Inconel 718 with sialon and whisker-reinforced Al2O3
dominant failure modes when milling nickel-based al- ceramic tools, respectively in the presence of oxygen
loys (Inconel 718 and Nimonic 75) [11,16,47]. Attrition rich atmosphere [21,48]
wear and thermal cracking at high temperature were Coolant is one of the most influential factors affect-
found to be responsible for tool fracture. Attrition wear ing tool performance when machining nickel-based al-
is the removal of individual or aggregates of grains of loys [12,21]. The longer tool lives achieved when
tool material by the work material which subsequently machining Waspaloy with sialon ceramic tools are at-
leaves a rough area. This type of wear has been re- tributed to the reduction of the overall temperature in
ported by many researchers when machining nickel- the cutting area. The glassy phase (b prime grains) in
based alloys [21,47,49]. Attrition wear can be attributed the sialon tool matrix will start to soften \ 1000°C.
14 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16

The application of the coolant will retard the removal High speed machining trials on Inconel 718 and
of the b prime grains by preventing its softening. The Incoloy 901 alloys showed that notching on the tool
improved performance observed when machining In- materials can be suppressed by employing the taper-
coloy 901 and Inconel 718 with SiC whisker reinforced turning technique [27,46]. The taper-turning (or ramp-
alumna ceramic tools may also be attributed to the ing) technique is achieved by the variation of the depth
lower temperatures generated, which tends to reduce of cut during machining. This technique tends to con-
the thermal stresses arising from the differential expan- stantly shift the depth of cut along the cutting edge,
sion between the silicon carbide and alumina [21]. thus distributing the concentration of the expected
The presence of coolant during machining may re- notch wear. This technique also results in a significant
duce the process of fatigue by irregular contact of the reduction or complete elimination of fracture at the
hot chip on the cutting tool [21]. This will in turn tool edge caused primarily by excessive notching at the
reduce the cracks generated and limit the plucking tool nose and/or end of the depth of cut regions.
action of the cutting tool during machining. Coolant
may intermittently penetrate to the flank face and rake
face of the tool and induce rapid temperature changes. 6. Conclusions
Due to the presence of high cutting temperature and
periodic penetration of the coolant to the surface in 1. Factors governing the machinability of nickel-based
question, the cutting tool will be subjected to continu- alloys include tool life, limiting metal removal rate,
ous expansion and contraction. A tool material with cutting forces and power consumption, surface
adequate thermal conductivity and a low coefficient of finish and integrity of machined component, chip
thermal expansion will therefore minimise thermal shape/swarf disposal, high strength/hardness of the
damage by minimising the temperature fluctuation at work material, etc. Of these, the most important
the cutting edge. considerations are the surface abuse of the ma-
The use of a high-pressure coolant supply when chined workpiece and tool life.
machining nickel-based, Inconel 901, superalloy with 2. Notching, primarily at the depth of cut region, is the
cemented carbide tools gave lower tool lives than when dominant failure mode when machining nickel-
machining with the conventional coolant supply [12]. based alloys with different cutting tool materials due
The use of a high-pressure coolant supply results in a to the work-hardened layer, chip–tool welding and
significant reduction in the tool – chip contact length, consequent pull-out, attrition wear, etc. Flank wear
and hence in the contact area, which in turn increases and chipping/fracture are also tool-life-limiting fac-
the compressive stress at the tool edge with little change tors caused by diffusion wear, abrasion wear, attri-
in the cutting forces. This will encourage the formation tion wear, and mechanical and thermal fatigue
of notching, thus leading to a shorter tool life. loading on the cutting tools, acting singly or in
combination.
5.3. Effect of tool geometry and machining method on 3. The presence of different atmospheres produces dif-
tool li6es ferent effects on the tool wear rate when machining
nickel-based alloys. Notching decreases when ma-
The shape and geometry of the cutting tools play an chining in the presence of oxygen but becomes more
important role in determining tool life and the nature severe when cutting in the presence of argon and
of the machined surfaces. Rhomboid shaped ceramic nitrogen.
tools generally gave poor performance when machining 4. Coolant plays a very important role in the machin-
nickel-based alloys, whilst the round and square shaped ing of nickel-based alloys. The application of
inserts gave longer tool life as well as a better surface coolant will reduce the overall temperature of the
finish under similar cutting conditions [16,17,21]. This is cutting area and the process of fatigue induced by
due to the increase in included angles of round and irregular contact of the hot chip on the cutting tool.
square inserts which tends to increase the edge strength However, the use of high-pressure coolant supply to
of the inserts and tool – chip contact area, resulting in machine nickel-based alloys produces a shorter tool
lower stresses and temperature at cutting edge. The life despite the benefit of improved chip segmenta-
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chip curvature during machining, thereby enhancing 5. The machinability of nickel-based alloys can be
chip segmentation. This will have an adverse effect on affected by the cutting tool geometry. An increase in
the fatigue loading at the depth of cut and ultimately the included angle and/or the nose angle of the
on tool life. inserts will bring about an increase in tool strength
 E.O. Ezugwu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 1–16 15

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