TECHNICAL ENGLISH

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
At this point, we have discussed some of the fundamental
characteristics of engineering materials with respect to how they
respond when subjected to stress. The next step involves deciding
what type of material should be used in a particular design
application. A wide variety of materials is available for engineering
products, and choosing the correct ones is an important aspect of the
design process. Mechanical engineers select materials in the context
of both the product’s purpose and the processes that will be used
during its manufacture.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
The main classes of materials encountered in mechanical engineering
are:
• Metals and their alloys
• Ceramics
• Polymers
• Composite materials

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Engineers select materials based on their performance, cost,
availability, and past track record in similar applications. Because the
production of engineering materials involves the consumption of
natural resources and energy, environmental concerns are also
factors involved in the selection process. The more manufacturing
steps that are required to produce the material and form it into a
final product, the greater the material’s cost both economically and
environmentally. The full life cycle of a material involves the use of
natural resources, for instance in the form of ores; processing raw
materials; fabricating and manufacturing products; using the product;
and then either disposing of the product or recycling its materials.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
In selecting the materials to be used in a product, an engineer first
needs to decide on the class of materials to use. Once the class has
been chosen (for instance, metals and their alloys), an engineer next
determines which material within the class is most appropriate (for
instance, steel or aluminum). Many products are designed to use
combinations of different classes of materials, each one best suited
for a specific task. Automobiles, for instance, contain about 50–60%
steel in the frame, engine, and drivetrain components; 5–10%
aluminum for engine and body components; and 10–20% plastics
used for trim and interior components. The remaining fraction
includes glass for the windows, lead for the battery, rubber for the
tires, and other materials.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Some metals, by virtue of their processing and alloys, have high
degrees of ductility, that is, the ability of a material to withstand a
significant amount of stretching before it fractures. In the stress–
strain curve of Figure 5.10, a ductile material has a wide region over
which plastic deformation occurs; the steel that is used in paper clips
is a good example of a ductile metal. A brittle material like glass, on
the other hand, exhibits essentially no plastic deformation. For
obvious reasons, ductile metals are well suited for use in structures
and machines because, when they become overloaded, the materials
give prior warning by noticeably stretching or bending before they
break.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Ductility is the ability of a material to withstand a significant amount
of stretching before it fractures.

Brittle materials like glass, exhibit essentially no plastic deformation.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Metals include a number of important alloys such as aluminum,
copper, steel, and titanium:
• The 3003 grade aluminum alloy is often produced in the form of
wide flat sheets, and it can be easily bent and shaped to form
boxes and covers for electronic equipment, among other products.
Used for machined mechanical components that are subjected to
moderate forces, the 6061 alloy is available either annealed (A) or
tempered (T6). Annealing and tempering are processing steps that
involve heat treatment to improve the material’s strength.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
• Copper alloys include brasses (which are yellowish alloys of copper and
zinc) and bronzes (which are brownish alloys of copper and tin). These
materials do not have particularly high strengths, but they are resistant to
corrosion and can be easily joined by soldering. Copper alloys are used in
gears, bearings, and the tubing in condensers and heat exchangers.

• Grade 1020 steel is a common, easily worked, and relatively inexpensive

medium-grade alloy of steel. The 4340 grade is a higher-strength and
more expensive material than grade 1020. Although all steels are
comprised primarily of iron and a small fraction of carbon, they are
differentiated based on mechanical and heat treatments and on the
presence of additional alloying metals, including carbon, manganese,
nickel, chromium, and molybdenum.
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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Steels are comprised primarily of iron and a small fraction of carbon.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
• For stainless steels, the 316 alloy is used for corrosion-resistant
nuts, bolts, and pipe fittings, and the higher-strength material
440C is used to form the raceways of rolling element bearings.
• Titanium alloys are strong, lightweight, and corrosion resistant. On
the other hand, they are also far more expensive and difficult to
machine than other metals. Titanium is used in chemical industrial
pipes, gas turbine blades, high-performance aircraft structures,
submarines, and other demanding material applications.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Ceramics
When you think of ceramics, images of coffee mugs, dinner plates,
and artwork probably come to mind. Engineering ceramics, on the
other hand, are used in the automotive, aerospace, electronics,
telecommunications, computer, and medical industries for
applications encompassing high temperatures, corrosion, electrical
insulation, and wear resistance. Ceramics are produced by heating
naturally occurring minerals and chemically treated powders in a
furnace to form a rigid mechanical component.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Ceramics are hard, brittle, crystalline materials that can comprise
metals and nonmetals. Ceramics have large values of the elastic
modulus, but, because they are brittle and tend to break suddenly
when overloaded, ceramics are not appropriate for supporting large
tensile forces. Mechanical components made from ceramics become
significantly weakened by the presence of small defects, cracks,
holes, and so forth.
An important characteristic of ceramics is that they can withstand
extreme temperatures and insulate other mechanical components
from heat. Ceramics are used as thermal barrier coatings to protect
turbine blades from the high temperatures developed in jet engines.
The space shuttle used tens of thousands of lightweight ceramic tiles
to insulate the spacecraft’s structural frame from temperatures that
reached 2300°F during reentry.
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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Ceramics are brittle and tend to break suddenly when overloaded.
Therefore, ceramics are not appropriate for supporting large tensile
forces.

An important characteristic of ceramics is that they can withstand

extreme temperatures and insulate other mechanical components
from heat. Thus, Ceramics are used as thermal barrier coatings to
protect turbine blades from the high temperatures developed in jet
engines.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Some examples of ceramics are the compositions silicon nitride
(Si3N4), alumina (Al2O3), and titanium carbide (TiC). Alumina is
sometimes formed into a honeycomb-like support structure that is
used in an automobile’s exhaust system and catalytic converter.
Because of its mechanical, electrical, and thermal characteristics, the
advanced ceramic AlTiC (64% Al2O3 and 36% TiC) is used in computer
hard disk drives to support the recording heads above the surface of
the rotating disks.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Polymers
Plastics and elastomers are two types of polymers. The root of “polymer” is a
Greek word meaning “of many parts,” and it emphasizes the fact that
polymers are giant molecules formed as long chains of smaller, building block
molecules. These polymer macromolecules have enormous molecular
weights, and they can contain hundreds of thousands of atoms. Each
macromolecule is made up of a large number of simpler units that are joined
together in a regular repeating pattern. Polymers are organic compounds;
that is, their chemical formulation is based on the properties of the element
carbon. Carbon atoms are able to attach themselves to one another more
than other elements can, and other atoms (such as oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and chlorine) are attached to those carbon chains. From a chemical
standpoint, therefore, engineering polymers are formed from large-chained
molecules having a regular pattern and based on carbon.
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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Rubber and silk are two naturally occurring macromolecules, but chemists and
chemical engineers have developed hundreds of useful macromolecular
materials. Synthetic polymers are classified into two groups: plastics (which can
be extruded into sheets and pipes or molded to form a wide range of products)
and elastomers (which are compliant in a manner characteristic of rubber).
Unlike the first two classes of materials—metals and their alloys and ceramics—
plastics and elastomers are relatively soft materials. They typically have an
elastic modulus that is many times smaller than metals. In addition, their
properties also change significantly with temperature. At room temperature,
polymers may stretch and behave elastically, but, as the temperature is lowered,
they become brittle. These materials are not well suited for applications where
strength is required or for operation at elevated temperatures. Nevertheless,
plastics and elastomers are widely used and remarkable engineering materials.
They are relatively inexpensive, lightweight, good insulators against heat and
electricity, and easy to shape and mold into complex parts.
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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Plastics are one of the most utilized engineering materials in any
industry, and some of the most common forms are polyethylene,
polystyrene, epoxy, polycarbonate, polyester, and nylon. Elastomers,
the second category of polymers, are the synthetic rubber-like
macromolecules that are elastic and stretchable in a manner that is
characteristic of rubber. Elastomers can be greatly deformed and still
return to their original shape after being released.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
In one of their largest applications, elastomers are used to make tires
for vehicles ranging from mountain bikes to aircraft. Other elastomers
include the polyurethane foam that is used to insulate buildings,
silicone sealant and adhesive, and neoprene, which is resistant to
chemicals and oils. Elastomers are also used to make supports and
mounting blocks that can reduce the vibration produced by a machine.
Vibration isolation mounts that incorporate elastomers are used to
attach an automobile’s engine to its chassis and to isolate the hard disk
drive in a laptop or tablet computer from shock and vibration in the
event the computer is accidentally dropped.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Composite Materials
As their name implies, composites are mixtures of several materials,
and their formulation can be customized and tailored for specific
applications. Composite materials are generally comprised of two
components: the matrix and the reinforcement. The matrix is a
relatively ductile material that holds and binds together the strong
reinforcing particles or fibers embedded in it. Some composite
materials comprise a polymer matrix (usually epoxy or polyester) that
is reinforced by many small-diameter fibers of glass, carbon, or
Kevlar®.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Composites are not well suited for high temperatures because, like
plastics and elastomers, the polymer matrix softens as the
temperature increases. The main idea behind fiber-reinforced
composites is that the strong fibers carry most of the applied force.
Other examples of composite materials are concrete that has been
reinforced with steel rods, automobile tires that include steel
reinforcing belts in an elastomer matrix, and power transmission
belts that use fiber or wire cords to carry the belt’s tension.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
Composite materials are an example of the adage that “the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts” in that their mechanical properties
are superior to those of the constituent materials alone. The primary
advantages of composites are that they can be made very stiff,
strong, and lightweight. However, the additional processing steps
necessary to produce these materials raise their cost.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
The widespread usage of fiber-reinforced composite materials began
in the aerospace industry (Figure 5.21) where weight is at a premium.
A substantial amount of an aircraft’s weight can be reduced by
incorporating composite materials into the airframe, horizontal and
vertical stabilizers, flaps, and wing skins. Approximately 30% of the
external surface area of the Boeing 767 commercial airliner is formed
from composite materials.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
As the technology of composites has matured and costs have
decreased, these materials have been adopted in automobiles,
spacecraft, boats, architectural structures, bicycles, skis, tennis
rackets, and other consumer products.

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Source: An introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert, Kemper Lewis, 2013
VOCABULARY Rubber: kauçuk, lastik
Application: uygulama Density: yoğunluk
Natural resources: doğal kaynaklar Alloy: alaşım
Selection: seçim Heat treatment: ısıl işlem
Ore: cevher Deteriorate: kötüleşmek, bozulmak
Raw material: ham madde Susceptible: duyarlı, çabuk etkilenen,
Dispose: atmak dayanıksız
Recycle: geri dönüşüm Ductility: süneklik
Drivetrain: aktarma organları Ductile: sünek
Trim: araba döşemesi Brittle: gevrek
Tire: lastik (taşıt) Glass: cam
Sheet: sac
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Anneal: tavlama Heat exchanger: eşanjör, ısı değiştiricisi
Annealed: tavlanmış Manganese: mangan
Temper: temperleme, menevişleme Nickel: nikel
Tempered: temperlenmiş, menevişlenmiş Chromium: krom
Copper: bakır Molybdenum: molibden
Brass: pirinç Stainless: paslanmaz
Bronze: bronz Nut: somun
Zınc: Çinko Bolt: civata
Tin: kalay Pipe fitting: boru bağlantısı
Soldering: lehimleme Raceway: kanal
Condenser: kondenser, yoğuşturucu Bearing: yatak

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turbine blade: türbin kanadı Crack: çatlak
medical: medical, tıbbi Withstand: dayanmak
encompass: kapsamak Extreme: aşırı
insulation: yalıtım, izolasyon Coat: kaplamak
wear: aşınma Coating: kaplama
wear resistance: aşınma direnci, aşınma space shuttle: uzay mekiği
dayanımı tile: fayans, karo, kremit
Powder: toz silicon nitride: silisyum nitrür
Furnace: fırın titanium carbide: titanyum karbür
Appropriate: uygun honeycomb structure: petek yapısı
Hard: sert exhaust: egzoz
Defect: kusur
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catalytic converter: katalitik dönüştürücü Elastomer: elastomer
hip: kalça Utilize: yararlanmak, kullanmak
corrosive: korozif Polyethylene: polietilen
valve: valf Polystyrene: polisitiren
Building block: yapı taşı Vehicle: araç, vasıta
Enormous: muazzam, kocaman, devasa Foam: köpük
Compound: bileşik Silicon: silisyum (element)
Regular: düzenli Silicone: Silikon (polimer)
Chain: zincir Sealant: sızdırmazlık malzemesi
Silk: ipek Adhesive: yapıştırıcı, adezif
Elevated: yüksek Vibration: titreşim

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Chassis: şasi, şase Transmission: iletim, aktarım
Resistant to: dirençli, dayanıklı Cord: şerit
Composite material: kompozit Wire: tel
malzeme, karma malzeme Belt: kayış
Tailored: uygun hale getirilmiş Adage: ata sözü
Matrix: matris Superior: üstün
Reinforcement: takviye Constituent: bileşen
Bind: bağlamak Advanced: ileri, gelişmiş
Fiber: fiber, elyaf Elevated temperature: Yüksek
Embedded: gömülü sıcaklık
Concrete: beton Fiber-reinforced: Elyaf (fiber)
takviyeli
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