DIODE APPLICATIONS

Because of their ability to conduct current in one

direction and block current in the other direction, diodes are
used in circuits called rectifiers that convert ac voltage into dc
voltage. Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that
During the negative alternation of the input voltage, the
operate from an ac voltage source. A power supply is an
current i=0. so the output voltage is also 0.
essential part of each electronic system from the rectifier, the
half-wave rectifier.

The dc power supply converts the standard 220 V, 60 Hz ac

available at wall outlets into a constant dc voltage. It is one of
the most common electronic circuits that you will find. The dc 60 Hz half-wave output voltage for three input cycles
voltage produced by a power supply is used to power all
Figure 2 illustrates the process called half-wave rectification.
types of electronic circuits.
A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor. R V
forming a half-wave rectifier. Keep in mind that all ground
symbols represent the same point electrically. Let's examine
what happens during one cycle of the input voltage using the
ideal model for the diode. When the sinusoidal input voltage
(Vin ) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and conducts
current through the load resistor, as shown in part (a). The
current produces an output voltage across the load RV which
has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input
voltage.
Basic block diagrams for a rectifier and complete
power supply are shown in the figure. The rectifier can be When the input voltage goes negative during the second half
either a half-wave rectifier or a full-wave rectifier. The of its cycle, the diode is reverse-biased. There is no current,
rectifier converts the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V. as shown in
voltage, which is half-wave rectified as shown in the figure. A Figure 2(b). The net result is that only the positive half-cycles
block diagram for a complete power supply is shown. The of the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the
filter eliminates the fluctuations in the rectified voltage and output does not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage
produces a relatively smooth dc voltage. The regulator is a with a frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in part (c).
circuit that maintains a constant de voltage for variations in
the input line voltage or in the load. Regulators vary from a Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage
single device to more complex integrated circuits. The load is
The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is
a circuit or device for which the power supply is producing
the value you would measure on a de voltmeter.
the dc voltage and load current.
Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under
the curve over a full cycle, as illustrated in the figure below,
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
and then dividing by 2π, the number of radians in a full cycle.
1. Half-Wave Rectifier The result of this is expressed in Equation, where V P is the
peak value of the voltage. This equation shows that V AVG is
approximately 31.8% of VP for a half-wave rectified voltage.

During the positive alternation of the 60 Hz input voltage, the

output voltage looks like the positive half of the input voltage.
The current path is through ground back to the source.
 VP VP alternation of the input voltage when the diode is reverse-
V AVG = V rms = biased.
π 2
PIV =V P (¿)

Example:What is the average value of the half-wave rectified

voltage in the figure.

Half-Wave Rectifier with Transformer-Coupled Input Voltage

Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier

Output

In the previous discussion, the diode was considered ideal.

When the practical diode model is used with the barrier
potential of 0.7 V taken into account, this is what happens.
A transformer is often used to couple the ac input
During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage must
voltage from the source to the rectifier, as shown in the
overcome the barrier potential before the diode becomes
figure below. Transformer coupling provides two advantages.
forward-biased. This results in a half-wave output with a peak
First, it allows the source voltage to be stepped up or stepped
value that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of the input, as
down as needed. Second, the ac source is electrically isolated
shown in the figure below. The expression for the peak
from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard in the
output voltage is
secondary circuit.
V P(out) =V P (¿) −0.7 V
From your study of basic ac circuits recall that the
secondary voltage of a transformer equals the turns ratio n
times the primary voltage, as expressed in Equation below.
We will define the turns ratio as the ratio of secondary turns
NSEC, to the primary turns,
Npri :
N sec
n=
N pri
It is usually acceptable to use the ideal diode model, which
neglects the effect of the barrier potential, when the peak V sec =nV pri
value of the applied voltage is much greater than the barrier
potential (at least 10 V. as a rule of thumb). However, we will If n > I, the secondary voltage is greater than the primary
use the practical model of a diode, taking the 0.7 V barrier voltage. If n < 1, the secondary voltage is less than the
potential into account unless stated otherwise. primary voltage. If n = I, then Vsec = Vpri.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) The peak secondary voltage, VP(sec), in a transformer-coupled
half-wave rectifier is the same as Vp(in) in Equation 2-2_
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak value of the Therefore, equation written in terms of Vp(sec) is
input voltage, and the diode must be capable of withstanding
this amount of repetitive reverse voltage. For the diode in the V P(out) =V P (sec)−0.7 V
figure below, the maximum value of reverse voltage,
designated as PlV occurs at the peak of each negative Therefore,
PIV =V P (sec) Types of Full-Wave Rectifiers

1. Bridge-Type Rectifier

 Four diodes are connected in a bridge configuration

 VDC = 0.636Vm
Example:

Determine the peak value of the output voltage for the figure
below if the turns ratio is 0.5.

PIV =≥ V m

FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way)

current through the load during the entire 360 0 of the input
cycle, whereas a half-wave rectifier allow¬ current through
the load only during one-half of the cycle. The result of full-
wave rectification is an output voltage with a frequency twice
the input frequency that pulsates every half-cycle of the
input, as shown in Figure.
 More widely used than center-tapped rectifier, using
four diodes (D1 to D4).
 On the positive half cycle of the input sine wave, D1
and D2 are forward biased acting as closed switches
appearing in series with the load.
 On the negative half cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse
biased and D3 and D4 are forward biased so current
The number of positive alternations that make up the fuJI- flows through the load in the same direction.
wave rectified voltage is twice that of the half-wave voltage
for the same time interval. The average value, which is the 2. Center-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier
value measured on a de voltmeter, for a full-wave rectified
Requires
sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half-wave, as shown in
the following formula:  Two diodes
 Center-tapped transformer
2V P  VDC = 0.636Vm
V AVG =
π

Example:

Find the average value of the full-wave rectified voltage in

figure ¬below:
PIV ≥2 V m

3. Determine the output waveform for the network of the

figure below and calculate the output dc level and the
required PIV of each diode.

 Uses only two diodes but a center-tap transformer is

required.
 During the positive half cycle, the upper diode is
forward-biased or closed while the lower diode is
reverse-biased or open
 During the negative half cycle, the lower diode is
forward-biased and the upper diode is reverse-
biased.
DIODE CLIPPERS
BRIDGE Versus. CENTER-TAPPED RECTIFIER
I. Series Clippers
 A center-tap rectifier saves on the diodes used
compared to a diode bridge (2 vs. 4). The former also The diode in a series clipper “clips” any voltage that
has less diode drops in each half-cycle (0.7V vs. does not forward bias it:
1.4V).
 A reverse-biasing polarity
 However, center-tap transformers are more
 A forward-biasing polarity less than 0.7 V (for a
expensive than the transformers used in bridge and
silicon diode)
are harder to find.

Examples:

1. a) Show the voltage wavefonns across each half of the

secondary winding and across R L when a 100 V peak sine
wave is applied to the primary winding in the figure.

b) What minimum PIV rating must the diodes have?

 Adding a DC source in series with the clipping diode

changes the effective forward bias of the diode.

2. Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier

in the figure below. Assuming the practical model, what PIV
rating is required for the diodes? The transformer is specified
to have a 12 V rms secondary voltage for the standard 110 V
across the primary.
 DIODE CLAMPERS

A diode and capacitor can be combined to “clamp”

an AC signal to a specific DC level.

II. Parallel Clippers

The diode in a parallel clipper circuit “clips” any

voltage that forward bias it.

 The input signal can be any type of waveform such

as sine, square, and triangle waves.
 The DC source lets you adjust the DC camping level.

 DC biasing can be added in series with the diode to

change the clipping level.

Summary of Clipper Circuits

Summary of Clamper Circuits

ZENER DIODES

The Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias at the

Zener Voltage (Vz).

• When Vi ³ VZ
 – The Zener is on
– Voltage across the Zener is VZ
– Zener current: IZ = IR – IRL Voltage Doubler
– The Zener Power: PZ = VZIZ
– When Vi < VZ
– The Zener is off
– The Zener acts as an open circuit

This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be calculated by:

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm
where Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer
• Positive Half-Cycle
o D1 conducts
Zener Resistor Values
o D2 is switched off
If R is too large, the Zener diode cannot conduct o Capacitor C1 charges to Vm
because the available amount of current is less than the • Negative Half-Cycle
minimum current rating, IZK. The minimum current is given by: o D1 is switched off
o D2 conducts
I Lmin = I R−I ZK o Capacitor C2 charges to Vm

The maximum value of resistance is:

VZ
R Lmax =
I Lmin

If R is too small, the Zener current exceeds the

maximum current rating, IZM . The maximum current for the Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler
circuit is given by:
VL VZ
I Lmax = =
RL R L min

The minimum value of resistance is:

RV Z
R Lmin=
V i−V Z

VOLTAGE-MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS Practical Applications

Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of  Rectifier Circuits

diodes and capacitors to step up the output voltage of  Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated
rectifier circuits. circuits
 Battery Charging Circuits
 Voltage Doubler
 Simple Diode Circuits
 Voltage Tripler
 Protective Circuits against overcurrent
 Voltage Quadrupler
 Polarity Reversal
 Currents caused by an inductive kick in a
relay circuit
 Zener Circuits
  Overvoltage Protection  Electronic filters are electronic circuits which
 Setting Reference Voltages perform signal processing functions, specifically to
POWER SUPPLY remove unwanted frequency components from the
A power supply is a device that supplies electric signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.
power to an electrical load. The term is most commonly  A capacitor or capacitor circuit that is used to reduce
applied to electric power converters that convert one form of the variation of the output voltage from a rectifier.
electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to  The output of a filter is a RIPPLED DC.
devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical,  Two most widely used filters are CAPACITOR-INPUT
chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power filter and RC filter.
supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a
Ripple
specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant
 Ripple is a small variation riding on the DC output
despite variations in either load current or the voltage
prior to small capacitor discharges between the
supplied by the power supply's energy source.
positive and negative pulses.
 The ripple appears to be sawtooth-shaped and is
POWER SUPPLY TYPES considered AC.
• Battery  A small amount of ripple can be tolerated in some
• AC Power supply circuits, and the lower the better.
• DC Power Supply
• Linear Regulated Power supply D. Regulator
• AC/DC supply  An electronic circuit or device that maintains an
• Switched-mode power supply essentially constant output voltage for a range of
• Programmable power supply input voltage or load values.
• High-voltage power supply  Regulators are classified as either DISCRETE or
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC). Both discrete and IC
regulators are further classified as either LINEAR or
DC SUPPLY Components of a DC Supply SWITCHING types.

A. Transformer
A transformer is a static electrical device that
transfers energy by inductive coupling between its winding
circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a
varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a
varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force
(emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.

B. Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts
alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction,
to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The
process is known as rectification. Rectification may serve in
roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source
of power.

C. Filter