processes

Article
Mechanism of Acetyl Salicylic Acid (Aspirin)
Degradation under Solar Light in Presence of a
TiO2-Polymeric Film Photocatalyst
Debjani Mukherjee *, Ajay K. Ray and Shahzad Barghi *
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B9,
Canada; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (D.M.); [email protected] (S.B.);
Tel: +1-519-661-2111 (ext. 81275) (D.M. & S.B.); Fax: +1-519-661-3498 (D.M. & S.B.)

Academic Editor: Michael Henson

Received: 8 November 2015; Accepted: 24 February 2016; Published: 14 April 2016

Abstract: Application of titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) as a photocatalyst has presented a promising

avenue for the safe photocatalytic degradation of pollutants. Increasing levels of the release of
pharmaceuticals in the environment and formation of the intermediates during their degradation
may impose health and environmental risks and therefore require more attention. Photocatalytic
degradation of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) was carried out in the presence of the TiO2 -filled polymeric
film as a photocatalyst under solar light irradiation. The polymeric film incorporates TiO2 in the
matrix, which acts as a photocatalyst under solar illumination and degrades the acetyl salicylic
acid (ASA) into a range of organic compounds before complete demineralization (formation of
carbon dioxide and water as final products). Among the intermediates, acetic acid was found to be
present in a larger amount compared to other organic acids. The qualitative/quantitative analyses of
the intermediates resulted in the determination of the most probable reaction’s mechanism in the
degradation process. The mechanism of degradation of acetylsalicylic acid and its reaction pathway
were developed from liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (LC/MS), Fourier Transform Infra
Red (FTIR) and UV spectrophotometric analysis. It was found that hydroxyl groups were dominant
in the degradation process compared to electrons and holes generated by TiO2 . The total organic
carbon (TOC) analysis was also carried out to analyze the organic carbon content of the intermediates
formed during the course of degradation.

Keywords: photocatalysis; TiO2 -polymeric film; aspirin; degradation; reactions mechanism/pathway

1. Introduction
The increasing release of pharmaceutical organic compounds into ground water and the toxic
nature of these drugs and the intermediates resulting from their degradation may cause health and
environmental issues. These compounds are usually resistant to conventional biological treatments
and may require new technologies such as advanced oxidation processes. Aspirin, known as
acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a commonly used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) for
relieving minor aches and pains. It is also used as an antipyretic to reduce fever, as an anti-inflammatory
medication, and for reduction of death risk due to heart attack. The main undesirable side effects
of aspirin are gastrointestinal ulcers, stomach bleeding, and tinnitus, especially in higher doses [1,2].
Aspirin degrades in an aqueous medium into several toxic intermediates causing environmental
pollution, which affects human health. Removal of these organic compounds by traditional techniques
(adsorption, ozonization, etc.) is challenging and costly. These methods usually generate concentrated
effluent streams and gaseous emissions, which are harmful to the environment and require additional

Processes 2016, 4, 13; doi:10.3390/pr4020013 www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2016, 4, 13 2 of 9

treatment before being discharged into a landfill or nearby river [3,4]. Recent advanced technologies
in photocatalytic oxidation of organic materials can be safely employed in the treatment of organic
wastes as the final products are mostly carbon dioxide and water. The electrochemical method
was successfully employed for the degradation of wastewater with a high concentration of aspirin
using new electrodes, which provided a high mass transfer and mineralization current efficiency,
and lower energy consumption [5]. Hydrogen peroxide was found to be effective in accelerating
aspirin degradation using the conventional electrochemical method. A degradation mechanism was
also proposed based on the formation of a hydroxyl group involving hydrogen peroxide [6]. In
another attempt, complete mineralization of aspirin was obtained through anodic oxidation over
a boron-doped diamond electrode following pseudo-first-order kinetics [7]. A nickel-doped PbO2
electrode (1 wt.% Nickel) was shown to substantially enhance the electrochemical degradation of
aspirin in aqueous solutions due to an increase in the utilization rate of the hydroxyl group and
lower energy requirements [8]. Carlsson et al. introduced negative surface charges onto cellulose
nanofibrils and showed that the aspirin degradation rate had increased significantly by electrochemical
degradation [9]. The application of titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) in the photocatalytic oxidation of organic
compounds has been extensively studied in recent years. TiO2 is also capable of producing a hydroxyl
radical (. OH) when exposed to ultraviolet/solar light. Upon illumination of TiO2 by UV light, electrons
are promoted from the valence band to the conduction band to provide electron-hole pairs. The holes
in TiO2 react with water molecules or hydroxide ions and produce hydroxyl radicals. The interaction
of the positive holes or the negative electrons with the adsorbed organic pollutants provides unstable
intermediates, which are further attacked by hydroxyl or peroxyl species, occasioning a carbon-carbon
bond rupture (e.g., disintegration of the molecules and aromatic ring opening) with concomitant
release of low molecular weight products, which may in turn be further oxidized to CO2 and water.
Contradictory results have been reported for the contribution of TiO2 in the degradation of organic
materials. It was shown that at low pH, the positive holes are considered the main oxidizing species,
whereas hydroxyl radicals are considered the predominant species at neutral or basic pH levels [4].
Interestingly, it was claimed in another report that holes are the major oxidizing species at pH = 3,
while below and above this pH the hydroxyl radicals are the major degrading agents [10]. Such
a discrepancy is most likely due to the nature of the organic compounds and operating conditions.
Aspirin undergoes the following three general reactions when exposed to the photocatalyst illuminated
by ultraviolet /solar light:
rAspirin ` hvb + Ñ Oxidation productss (1)

rAspirin ` ecb ´ Ñ Reduction productss (2)

rAspirin ` OH Ñ Oxidation productss (3)

Several mechanisms have been proposed to account for the initial steps of semiconductor-
mediated photodegradation of aliphatic and aromatic organics. The heterogeneous reaction
mechanisms proposed are similar to their homogeneous counterparts [10–13]. These mechanisms
can be summarized as: (i) direct charge transfer from the semiconductor to the dissolved molecule;
(ii) generation of radicals from water decomposition, which then attack the organic molecules. Most
of the studies on photocatalytic degradation of several drugs include a detailed examination of the
so-called primary processes under different operating conditions, while little information is available
on the reaction mechanisms involved in the degradation process. To the best of our knowledge, there
is no published study regarding the degradation mechanism of aspirin in the presence of a TiO2
photocatalyst. In this study, the photocatalytic degradation of aspirin exposed to TiO2 under solar light
is studied. The most probable reactions and the mechanism were suggested based on the qualitative
and quantitative measurements of the intermediates and final products of degradation.
Processes 2016, 4, 13 3 of 9

2. Experimental Setup

2.1. Materials and Methods

The catalyst was prepared by mixing 24.3% w/w polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and 11% w/w gelatin in
distilled water. Next, 21.6% w/w polyvinyl pyrolidone dissolved in the solution of ethyl alcohol and
water, which was mixed with PVA-gelatin solution. The solution was mixed and reacted properly at
50 ˝ C, followed by dispersion of 43% w/w of TiO2 Degussa P25 powder in the mixture. Thereafter, the
polymeric-TiO2 solution was cross-linked by physical cross-linking method while storing the solution
at ´2 ˝ C.

2.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography

A number of analytical techniques such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC),
FTIR were employed for determination of several organic intermediates for degradation of several
dyes [2,13]. Aspirin molecules are non-volatile and highly soluble in hot water and cannot be
analyzed by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy GC/MS. Therefore, liquid chromatography
technique was employed for analysis of the mixtures of aspirin photodegradation and identification
of the intermediates. HPLC (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was used to analyze the intermediates.
A capillary column (C-18, 5 µm, 100 mm ˆ 4.6 mm length) (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was
used with eluent acetonitrile and water (70:30 wt.%) with flow rate of 0.1 mL/min. UV detection was
at 298 nm. Peaks were observed within 15 min of retention time. The present study is focused on
degradation of acetylsalicylic acid in the presence of solar light and TiO2 /polymeric photocatalyst,
and to identify degradation products of aspirin by LC/MS and FTIR (Thermo Scientific, Toronto, ON,
Canada) to propose the most probable mechanism for aspirin photocatalytic degradation.

2.3. Photodegradation and LC/MS Analysis

The photodegradation of 2 ppm aspirin solution was carried out in a batch reactor (250 mL) at pH
3.5, under solar light of intensity ´77 mW/cm2 . Samples taken at various time intervals were analyzed
by LC/MS (Shimadzu LCMS-2010 EV Liquid Chromatography Mass spectrometer, Kyoto, Japan)
to identify the intermediate compounds. The mobile phase was a mixture of acetonitrile-water
(70/30, v/v) with 0.04% glacial acetic acid to maintain acidic pH. The flow rate of elute was
0.1 mL¨ min´1 and the injection volume was 20 µL. The eluent from the chromatographic column
successively entered the UV-Vis diode array detector, the Electrospray Ionization (ESI) interface and
the quadruple ion trap mass analyzer. MS analysis in the negative ions mode was performed on a mass
spectrometer equipped with an ESI ion source. The ESI probe tip and capillary potentials were set at
2.5 kV and 25 V, respectively. The mass range was 50–750 m/z. The heated capillary was set to 200 ˝ C.

2.4. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)

Fourier transform infrared analysis of the aspirin solution and its degraded products were carried
out in Bruker FTIR (Vector 22) to analyze the intermediates formed at different time intervals. The
analysis of one broad banded pass of radiation through the sample gives rise to a complete IR spectrum.
The radiation containing all IR wavelengths ranges from 400 to 5000 cm´1 . Results of 32 scans were
combined to average out random absorption artifacts, and excellent spectra from very little amount of
samples were obtained.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Results
The samples taken at different time intervals were subjected to HPLC for determination of
intermediates. The rate of information of each intermediate was also obtained by measuring the
concentration and the degradation time. Products formed during the photodegradation process were
Processes 2016, 4, 13 4 of 9
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analyzed by HPLC which reported the formation of six new intermediates at different intervals as
analyzed by HPLC which reported the formation of six new intermediates at different intervals as 
shown in Figure 1.
shown in Figure 1. 
mAU(x100)

/42.101
210nm,4nm (1.00)
1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
/48.367

0.4

0.3

0.2
/3.178
/1.580

/3.956
/0.565

/0.048
/0.205
0.1

0.0

-0.1

-0.2
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 min  
Figure 1. Liquid chromatography results.
Figure 1. Liquid chromatography results. 

Most of the peaks were observed within the first 15 min of the process. The concentrations of the 
Most of the peaks were observed within the first 15 min of the process. The concentrations of the
intermediates were calculated from the area of the peaks. However, it was not possible to detect the 
intermediates were calculated from the area of the peaks. However, it was not possible to detect the
compounds directly;
compounds directly;  therefore, 
therefore, intermediates 
intermediates werewere  further 
further analyzed 
analyzed by  LC/MS. 
by LC/MS. The  components 
The components eluted
eluted  with  different  retention  times 
with different retention times were subjected to mass spectrometry and identified by interpretation by 
were  subjected  to  mass  spectrometry  and  identified  of
interpretation 
their fragment of ionstheir  fragment 
in the ions  in the 
mass spectra. mass spectra.  The 
The chromatographic chromatographic 
and and  Total Organic 
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) data
Carbon  (TOC) 
suggested data 
that all the suggested 
components that  all  the  components 
disappeared disappeared  after 
after 5 h of photocatalytic 5  h  of  photocatalytic 
degradation.
degradation. 
Figure 2 shows typical mass spectra obtained in the experiments. The mass spectra of degraded
Figure 2 shows typical mass spectra obtained in the experiments. The mass spectra of degraded 
products showed species at 59 m/z which was acetic acid and 137 m/z which was salicylic acid.
products  showed  species 
Further, hydroxylation at  59 products
produced m/z  which  was 
at 110 acetic 
m/z, acid 
which and formed
again 137  m/z  which upon
species was hydroxylation,
salicylic  acid. 
showing fragments at 116 m/z (maleic acid) and at 90 m/z (oxalic acid). Further hydroxylation upon 
Further,  hydroxylation  produced  products  at  110  m/z,  which  again  formed  species  gave
hydroxylation, 
species at 104 m/zshowing 
(malonicfragments  at  116 
acid), which m/z  (maleic  acid) 
on hydroxylation formedand  at  90  m/z 
products and(oxalic 
showedacid).  Further 
fragments at
hydroxylation gave species at 104 m/z (malonic acid), which on hydroxylation formed products and 
59 m/z. Mass spectroscopy and the chromatograms showed the presence of only eight intermediates.
showed fragments at 59 m/z. Mass spectroscopy and the chromatograms showed the presence of only 
A few more compounds which were assumed to have formed during the degradation were not detected
by theintermediates. 
eight  A  few  more 
instrumental analysis. compounds 
The absence which 
of these were  assumed 
compounds to  have 
may be due formed 
to their during 
unstable the 
nature,
degradation were not detected by the instrumental analysis. The absence of these compounds may 
which made them degrade too fast to be detected. Benzoquinone, oxalo-acetic acid, and formic acid
be due to their unstable nature, which made them degrade too fast to be detected. Benzoquinone, 
were not detected in LC/MS.
oxalo‐acetic acid, and formic acid were not detected in LC/MS. 
Table 1 shows the obtained data for aspirin and the six intermediates formed during the
Table  1 process.
degradation shows  the  obtained  data  for  aspirin  and  the  six  intermediates  formed  during  the 
degradation process. 
Among h + , e ´ and OH, based on the observed reactions pathway, it seems that the hydroxyl
vb cb
radical is the most dominant factor in the degradation of aspirin in an aqueous TiO2 suspension [14].
Table 1. Identification of intermediates. 
On the basis of chemical structures and concentration profiles of identified intermediates, possible
reaction pathways during the photocatalyticReaction Time 
degradation have been proposed. Rates 
Residence Time 
Compounds  Area of Peaks 
(min)  (min)  (ppm/min) 
1520362    0–14.3   
Aspirin  14.3  ‐ 
100  20 
1398683    20   
Salicylic acid  136.8    60    13.2  0.008 
83.6  130 
 Muconic acid  12.5  0.009 
1052590  130 
15455    130   
Maleic acid  10.5  0.005 
1000  220 
505    130   
Malic acid  6.2  0.004 
Processes 2016, 4, 13 14000  220  5 of 9
Oxalic acid  19005  130  1.5  0.008 

Inten.(x1,000,000)
6.50 119.000

6.25
59.050
6.00

5.75

5.50

5.25

5.00

4.75

4.50

4.25

4.00

3.75

3.50

3.25

3.00
143.200
2.75
465.250
2.50

2.25
182.900
254.950
2.00

1.75 311.250 579.500

483.000
325.000
1.50 586.000
519.550
1.25 797.150
753.450
668.950
1.00 411.300
225.150
353.150
0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 m/z  
Figure 2. Mass spectra for aspirin degradation. 
Figure 2. Mass spectra for aspirin degradation.

Among hvb+, ecb− and OH, based on the observed reactions pathway, it seems that the hydroxyl 
Table 1. Identification of intermediates.
radical is the most dominant factor in the degradation of aspirin in an aqueous TiO2 suspension [14]. 
On the basis of chemical structures and concentration profiles of identified intermediates, possible 
Compounds Area of Peaks Reaction Time (min) Residence Time (min) Rates (ppm/min)
reaction pathways during the photocatalytic degradation have been proposed. 
1520362 0–14.3
Aspirin 14.3 -
100 20
3.2. Mechanism of Photodegradation of ASA 
1398683 20
Salicylic acid 136.8 60 13.2 0.008
Initially,  aspirin  got  hydrolyzed 
83.6 in  water, 
130 forming  salicylic  acid  and  acetic  acid.  The  main 
products identified were salicylic acid, acetic acid, fumaric acid or maleic acid, malic acid and malonic 
1091680
Hydroquinone 60 13 0.006
acid.  Salicylic  acid  got 1091680
oxidized  to  1,2‐dihydroxybenzene,  which  further  oxidized  to  form 
hydroquinone. While a part of the salicylic acid also got oxidized to 2,3‐dihydroxybenzoic acid, it 
Muconic acid
289863 60
12.5 0.009
was  less  prominent  than  1052590 130
the  1,2‐dihydroxybenzene  formation  reaction  [13].  Hydroquinone 
15455 130
hydroxylated to benzoquinone, which, being unstable in aqueous solution, underwent ring‐opening 
Maleic acid 10.5 0.005
1000 220
followed by further oxidation to muconic acid [13]. The addition of a hydroxyl radical to the double 
505 130
bond of muconic acid yielded maleic acid and oxalic acid. Maleic/fumaric acid then got oxidized to 
Malic acid
14000 220
6.2 0.004
malic acid, which is a precursor of malonic acid. Malonic acid further produces acetic acid and carbon 
Oxalic acid 19005 130 1.5 0.008
dioxide [14]. Oxalic acid got oxidized to CO2, through the formation of formic acid. Acetic acid was 
observed to form both by the hydrolysis of aspirin at the initial stage and also by the oxidation of 
3.2. Mechanism of Photodegradation of ASA
malonic acid. It was then oxidized to form CO2 through the formation of CH4, C2H6 and H2O. The 
Initially, aspirin got hydrolyzed in water, forming salicylic acid and acetic acid. The main products
pathway of conversion of acetic acid to carbon dioxide [3,4,14] fit well in the degradation reaction 
identified
pathway. were The salicylic
adsorbed acid,CHacetic
3COOH acid,dissociated 
fumaric acidto orCHmaleic
3COOacid, malic acid
−  species,  and malonic
which  reacted  acid.
with 
Salicylic acid got oxidized to 1,2-dihydroxybenzene,
photogenerated holes to form CH which further oxidized to form hydroquinone.
3 radicals and CO2 (known as the photo‐Kolbe reaction) [10]. The 

While a part
active CH of the salicylic acid also got oxidized
3 radicals then reacted with H to 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic
2O to release CH acid, it was less prominent
4, or they reacted with another CH 3 radical 

than the 1,2-dihydroxybenzene formation reaction [13]. Hydroquinone hydroxylated

to produce C2H6. In consequence, CH3 radicals reacted with OH radicals to generate CH3OH. Next,  to benzoquinone,
which, being unstable in aqueous solution, underwent ring-opening followed by further oxidation
to muconic acid [13]. The addition of a hydroxyl radical to the double bond of muconic acid yielded
maleic acid and oxalic acid. Maleic/fumaric acid then got oxidized to malic acid, which is a precursor
of malonic acid. Malonic acid further produces acetic acid and carbon dioxide [14]. Oxalic acid got
oxidized to CO2 , through the formation of formic acid. Acetic acid was observed to form both by the
hydrolysis of aspirin at the initial stage and also by the oxidation of malonic acid. It was then oxidized
to form CO2 through the formation of CH4 , C2 H6 and H2 O. The pathway of conversion of acetic acid
Processes 2016, 4, 13 6 of 9

to carbon dioxide [3,4,14] fit well in the degradation reaction pathway. The adsorbed CH3 COOH
dissociated to CH3 COO´ species, which reacted with photogenerated holes to form CH3 radicals
and CO2 (known as the photo-Kolbe reaction) [10]. The active CH3 radicals then reacted with H2 O to
release CH4 , or they reacted with another CH3 radical to produce C2 H6 . In consequence, CH3 radicals
reacted with OH radicals to generate CH3 OH. Next, the photogenerated holes attacked the produced
CH3 OH to form HCHO, which was further oxidized by both OH radicals and photogenerated holes to
produce HCOOH [11]. At the last step, the HCOOH was decarboxylated by the photo-Kolbe reaction
to release CO2 . Decarboxylation of the COOH group forms CO2 using the photo-Kolbe reaction [15].
Based on the analyses of the data and the nature of the identified intermediate, the following reaction
scheme is proposed as the most probable reaction mechanism for the photodegradation of aspirin:

ASA paspirinq ` H2 O Ñ SA psalicylic acidq ` Ac pacetic acidq (4)

SA psalicylic acidq Ñ HQ phydroquinoneq (5)

HQ ` OH Ñ BQ pbenzoquinoneq ` H2 O (6)

BQ ` OH Ñ Muconic acid (7)

Mc pMuconic acidq ` OH Ñ MA pMaleic acidq ` Oxalic acid (8)

MA ` OH Ñ Malic acid (9)

MA ` OH Ñ Oxaloacetic acid (10)

decarboxylation
Oxaloacetic acid ÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÑ pMLq Malonic acid ` CO2 (11)

ML ` OH Ñ Ac ` CO2 (12)
dissociates
Ac ÝÝÝÝÝÝÑ CH3COO´ ` H` (13)

CH3 COO´ ` hvb+ Ñ CH3 ` CO2 (14)

CH3 ` OH Ñ CH3 OH (15)

CH3 ` H2 O Ñ CH4 ` OH (16)

CH3 ` CH3 Ñ C2 H6 (17)

CH3 ` OH Ñ CH3 OH (18)

CH3 OH ` hvb + Ñ ` H ` CH2 OH (19)

CH2 OH ` hvb + Ñ HCHO (20)

HCHO ` OH ` hvb + Ñ HCOOH (21)

photokolbe reactio
HCOOH ÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÑ CO2 ` H2 O (22)

Dai et al. [5,6] proposed the reaction mechanism for the electrochemical degradation of aspirin and,
despite some similarities between the proposed mechanism in this study and that reported mechanism,
there are differences which are most likely due to the inherently different methodologies employed.

3.3. Reaction Pathways of Acetyl Salicylic Acid

Generally the sites near double bonds are attacked first in the degradation process. Aromatic
intermediates were identified at the initial stages of degradation. The intermediates formed were
most probably aromatic acids and aliphatic acids. Therefore, the following reaction pathway may
be proposed:
 3.3. Reaction Pathways of Acetyl Salicylic Acid 
3.3. Reaction Pathways of Acetyl Salicylic Acid 
Generally the sites near double bonds are attacked first in the degradation process. Aromatic 
Generally the sites near double bonds are attacked first in the degradation process. Aromatic 
intermediates 
intermediates  were  identified 
were  identified  at  the 
at  the  initial  initial 
stages  of stages  of  degradation. 
degradation.  The  intermediates 
The  intermediates  formed  were 
formed  were 
Processes 2016, 4, 13probably  aromatic acids and aliphatic acids.  Therefore,  the  following  reaction  pathway 
most 
most  probably  aromatic acids and aliphatic acids.  Therefore,  the  following  reaction  pathway  7may  of 9
  may   
be proposed: be proposed: 
HO O HO O

COOH COOH
O CH3O CH3 (23)  (23) 
+ CH3COOH
+ CH3COOH
O O
OH   OH   (23)

  (24)  (24) 
Processes 2016, 4, 13 
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Processes 2016, 4, 13 
  7 of 8 
(24)
7 of 8 
7 of 8 
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Processes 2016, 4, 13  7 of 8 
7 of 8 

(25) 
(25) 
(25) 
(25) 
  (25)
   
  (26) 
    (26)
(26) 
(26) 
(26) 
  (27) 
    (27) 
(27) 
(27)
(27) 
(28) 
  (28) 
(28) 
(28)
(28) 
   
  (29) 
    (29) 
(29) 
(29)
(29) 
(30) 
(30) 
(30)  
(30)
(30) 
   
(31) 
  (31) 
(31) 
(31)
(31) 
   
  (32) 
    (32) 
(32) 
(32)
(32) 
  (33) 
    (33) 
(33) 
(33) 
(33)
Among the intermediates, acetic acid was detected almost in larger amounts compared to other 
Among the intermediates, acetic acid was detected almost in larger amounts compared to other 
Among the intermediates, acetic acid was detected almost in larger amounts compared to other 
Among the intermediates, acetic acid was detected almost in larger amounts compared to other 
Among the intermediates, acetic
aromatic acids. The formation of CO acid was detected almost in larger amounts compared to other
2 is generally related to the degree of mineralization that occurred 
aromatic acids. The formation of CO
aromatic acids. The formation of CO
aromatic acids. The formation of CO
aromatic acids. The formation of CO 22222 is generally related to the degree of mineralization that occurred 
2 is generally related to the degree of mineralization that occurred 
 is generally related to the degree of mineralization that occurred 
is generally related to the degree of mineralization that occurred
during the photodegradation. In general, at low reactant levels, reactants disappear exponentially, 
2
during the photodegradation. In general, at low reactant levels, reactants disappear exponentially, 
during the photodegradation. In general, at low reactant levels, reactants disappear exponentially, 
during the photodegradation. In general, at low reactant levels, reactants disappear exponentially, 
during the photodegradation. In general, at low reactant levels, reactants disappear exponentially, but
but at higher reactant levels, mineralization is slower than the degradation of the parent compound [15]. 
but at higher reactant levels, mineralization is slower than the degradation of the parent compound [15]. 
but at higher reactant levels, mineralization is slower than the degradation of the parent compound [15]. 
but at higher reactant levels, mineralization is slower than the degradation of the parent compound [15]. 
at higher reactant levels, mineralization is slower than the degradation of the parent compound [15].
Table 2 shows the total organic carbon analysis for the aspirin solution. 
Table 2 shows the total organic carbon analysis for the aspirin solution. 
Table 2 shows the total organic carbon analysis for the aspirin solution. 
Table 2 shows the total organic carbon analysis for the aspirin solution. 
Table 2 shows the total organic carbon analysis for the aspirin solution.
Table 2. Total organic carbon content of aspirin solution. 
Table 2. Total organic carbon content of aspirin solution. 
Table 2. Total organic carbon content of aspirin solution. 
Table 2. Total organic carbon content of aspirin solution. 
Table 2. Total organic carbon content of aspirin solution.
Time (min) Carbon Content (mg/L)
Time (min)
Time (min)
Time (min) Carbon Content (mg/L)
Carbon Content (mg/L)
Carbon Content (mg/L)
0  (min)
Time 1.19  (mg/L)
Carbon Content
0 
0 
0  1.19 
1.19 
1.19 
20  0 1.13 
1.19
20 
20 
20  1.13 
1.13 
1.13 
180  20 0.35
1.13
180 
180 
180  0.35
0.35
0.35
180
300  0.35
0.01 
300 
300 
300 
300 0.01 
0.01 
0.01 
0.01
TOC values decreased with the increase of the irradiation time. This can be explained by the fact 
TOC values decreased with the increase of the irradiation time. This can be explained by the fact 
TOC values decreased with the increase of the irradiation time. This can be explained by the fact 
TOC values decreased with the increase of the irradiation time. This can be explained by the fact 
that,  with  time,  the  acetylsalicylic  acid  gets  hydrolyzed  and  oxidized  to  lower  molecular  weight 
that, 
that,  with 
with 
TOC
that,  time, 
time, 
time, the 
with values the  acetylsalicylic 
acetylsalicylic 
decreased
the  with the
acetylsalicylic  acid 
acid  gets 
gets 
increase
acid  hydrolyzed 
gets hydrolyzed 
hydrolyzed  and 
and  oxidized 
and oxidized 
of the irradiation time. This
oxidized  to 
to  lower 
to lower 
can molecular 
bemolecular 
lower  weight 
explainedweight 
molecular  by the
weight 
compounds so the TOC content was observed to decrease with time. Though the TOC value does not 
compounds so the TOC content was observed to decrease with time. Though the TOC value does not 
compounds so the TOC content was observed to decrease with time. Though the TOC value does not 
fact that, with time, the acetylsalicylic acid gets hydrolyzed and oxidized
compounds so the TOC content was observed to decrease with time. Though the TOC value does not  to lower molecular weight
reach zero at the end, it becomes negligible as compared to the initial value of the solution before 
reach zero at the end, it becomes negligible as compared to the initial value of the solution before 
reach zero at the end, it becomes negligible as compared to the initial value of the solution before 
compounds so the TOC content was observed to decrease with time. Though the TOC value does
reach zero at the end, it becomes negligible as compared to the initial value of the solution before 
degradation.  Towards  the  end  of  the  reaction,  the  parent  compound  forms  acetic  acid,  which 
degradation. 
not reach zeroTowards 
degradation. 
degradation.  Towards 
at the end,
Towards  the 
the  end 
end of 
end  of the 
of 
it becomes
the  the  reaction, 
reaction, 
negligible
the  the 
the parent 
the 
as compared
reaction,  tocompound 
parent 
parent  compound 
the initial value
compound  forms of acetic 
forms 
forms  acetic 
the acid, 
acid, which 
acid, 
solution
acetic  which 
before
which 
gradually forms carbon dioxide through the formation of CH 4 and C2H6. It can be assumed that some 
gradually forms carbon dioxide through the formation of CH
gradually forms carbon dioxide through the formation of CH
degradation. Towards the end of the reaction,
gradually forms carbon dioxide through the formation of CH the parent 444 and C
compound
4  and C 222H
H
forms 666. It can be assumed that some 
. It can be assumed that some 
acetic acid, which
4 and C2H6. It can be assumed that some 
2 6 gradually
of these CH 3 radicals were unable to form carbon dioxide. 
of these CH
of these CH
forms carbon
of these CH 333 radicals were unable to form carbon dioxide. 
 radicals were unable to form carbon dioxide. 
dioxide through the formation of CH4 and C2 H6 . It can be assumed that some of these
3 radicals were unable to form carbon dioxide. 
CH3 radicals were unable to form carbon dioxide.
4. Conclusions 
4. Conclusions 
4. Conclusions 
4. Conclusions 
4. Conclusions
The degradation of acetylsalicylic acid by a solar stimulator in the presence of a TiO2‐polymeric 
The degradation of acetylsalicylic acid by a solar stimulator in the presence of a TiO
The degradation of acetylsalicylic acid by a solar stimulator in the presence of a TiO22222‐polymeric 
The degradation of acetylsalicylic acid by a solar stimulator in the presence of a TiO ‐polymeric 
‐polymeric 
film catalyst was studied. The intermediates formed during the degradation process were found to 
The degradation of acetylsalicylic acid by a solar stimulator in the
film catalyst was studied. The intermediates formed during the degradation process were found to 
film catalyst was studied. The intermediates formed during the degradation process were found to 
film catalyst was studied. The intermediates formed during the degradation process were found to  presence of a TiO 2 -polymeric
be more toxic than aspirin. The qualitative/quantitative analyses of the intermediates resulted in the 
film catalyst was studied. The intermediates formed during the degradation process were found to
be more toxic than aspirin. The qualitative/quantitative analyses of the intermediates resulted in the 
be more toxic than aspirin. The qualitative/quantitative analyses of the intermediates resulted in the 
be more toxic than aspirin. The qualitative/quantitative analyses of the intermediates resulted in the 
determination of the most probable reaction’s mechanism which governs the degradation process. 
determination of the most probable reaction’s mechanism which governs the degradation process. 
determination of the most probable reaction’s mechanism which governs the degradation process. 
determination of the most probable reaction’s mechanism which governs the degradation process. 
Although some of the intermediates were not identified due to their instability and fast degradation, 
Although some of the intermediates were not identified due to their instability and fast degradation, 
Although some of the intermediates were not identified due to their instability and fast degradation, 
Although some of the intermediates were not identified due to their instability and fast degradation, 
they  were  determined  through  the  reaction’s  pathways.  The  resulting  mechanism  showed  that 
they 
they  were 
they were  determined 
were determined  through 
determined through  the 
through the  reaction’s 
the reaction’s  pathways. 
reaction’s pathways.  The 
pathways. The  resulting 
The resulting  mechanism 
resulting mechanism  showed 
mechanism showed  that 
showed that 
that 
salicylic acid, acetic acid, and muconic acid were the dominant components in the reactions. Major 
salicylic acid, acetic acid, and muconic acid were the dominant components in the reactions. Major 
salicylic acid, acetic acid, and muconic acid were the dominant components in the reactions. Major 
salicylic acid, acetic acid, and muconic acid were the dominant components in the reactions. Major 
aliphatic acids such as muconic, malic and malonic acids were formed by the photocatalytic oxidation 
aliphatic acids such as muconic, malic and malonic acids were formed by the photocatalytic oxidation 
aliphatic acids such as muconic, malic and malonic acids were formed by the photocatalytic oxidation 
aliphatic acids such as muconic, malic and malonic acids were formed by the photocatalytic oxidation 
process, which explains the opening of the aromatic ring. The TOC results, combined with LC‐MS 
Processes 2016, 4, 13 8 of 9

be more toxic than aspirin. The qualitative/quantitative analyses of the intermediates resulted in the
determination of the most probable reaction’s mechanism which governs the degradation process.
Although some of the intermediates were not identified due to their instability and fast degradation,
they were determined through the reaction’s pathways. The resulting mechanism showed that salicylic
acid, acetic acid, and muconic acid were the dominant components in the reactions. Major aliphatic
acids such as muconic, malic and malonic acids were formed by the photocatalytic oxidation process,
which explains the opening of the aromatic ring. The TOC results, combined with LC-MS and FTIR,
concluded that the products formed during the reactions decomposed into carbon dioxide and water.

Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for financial support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) throughout the project.
Author Contributions: A.K.R. and S.B. conceived and design the experiments, D.M. (first author) did most of the
experiments and partially contributed to some of the analysis. A.K.R. and S.B. analyzed the experimental data,
A.K.R. contributed reagents/material/analysis tools and other financial supports, D.M., A.K.R. and S.B. wrote the
paper, A.K.R. and S.B. contributed to the publishing process.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

TiO2 Titatium Dioxide

FTIR Fourier Transform Infra Red
LC/MS Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy
TOC Total Organic Carbon content
Ppm Parts per million

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