Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

1 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

Chapter One

Highways History; Highway Location and economic; Highway surveying

1.1 Road Construction Development

The earliest human road builders predate recorded history by thousands of years.
With the advent of modern man, road building - the purposeful construction of general
public ways - became a common sign of an advancing civilization.
Covering these roads with a hard smooth surface (pavement) helped make them
durable and able to withstand traffic and the environment. Some of the oldest paved
roads still in existence were built by the Roman Empire.
By in large, Roman roads (see Figure) were constructed during the Republican times -
the oldest road dates back to 312 B.C.
The Roman road network consisted of over 100,000 km (62,000 miles) of roads.
The superior quality and structure of its pavements have allowed many Roman roads
to survive to this day.

Historically, the Babylonians built the earliest roads using natural asphalt as a binder; also
the Egyptians constructed roads to transport stones during the building of the pyramids. The
Chinese built the Silk Route, which is amongst the best known roads, in about 2600 BC; and
the Persian Empire also benefited from this route through its lands for trade between China
and Europe. In Europe, in about 2500 BC, roads were built using log-rafts; such roads have
been discovered in Britain: one crosses the Somerset peat bogs to Glastonbury. In Indian
civilization, brick paving with proper piped surface water drainage systems dating from
about 3000BC has been discovered.

2 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

(All dimensions in mm)

Figure (1-1) Roman Road Structure

The first insight into today's modern pavements can be seen in the pavements of Thomas
Telford (born 1757). Teleford served his apprenticeship as a building mason and extended
his masonry knowledge to bridge building. During lean times, he carved grave-stones and
other ornamental work (about 1780). Telford attempted, where possible, to build roads on
relatively flat grades (no more than a 1 in 30 slope) in order to reduce the number of horses
needed to haul cargo.

Telford's pavement section was about 350 to 450 mm in depth and generally specified three
layers. The bottom layer was comprised of large stones 100 mm wide and 75 to 180 m in
depth . It is this specific layer which makes the Telford design unique . On top of this were
placed two layers of stones of 65 mm maximum size (about 150 to 250 mm total thickness)
followed by a wearing course of gravel about 40 mm thick (see Figure). It was estimated
that this system would support a load corresponding to about 88 N/mm (500 lb per in. of
width).

Macadam pavements introduced the use of angular aggregates. John MacAdam (born
1756 and sometimes spelled "Macadam") observed that most of the paved U.K. roads in
early the 1800s were composed of rounded gravel . He knew that angular aggregate over a
well-compacted subgrade would perform substantially better. He used a sloped subgrade
surface to improve drainage (unlike Telford who used a flat subgrade surface) on which he

3 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

placed angular aggregate (hand-broken with a maximum size of 75 mm in two layers for a
total depth of about 200 mm . On top of this, the wearing course was placed (about 50 mm
thick with a maximum aggregate size of 25 mm). Macadam's reason for the 25 mm
maximum aggregate size was to provide a "smooth" ride for wagon wheels .

Telford’s method Macadam’s method

Figure (1-2 ):Telford’s and Macadam’s road structures

However, the development in vehicles in terms of extra weight and speed has led to the need
for new roads and highways; as a result, for example, dual carriageway roads were
constructed and road geometric designs were advanced. Also, vehicle development put a
huge stress on pavement constructors to build structures that could resist high stresses and
bad weather conditions. Accordingly, construction techniques were advanced; more
structural layers were built; and the structural layers and subgrade were compacted using
different materials to improve their mechanical properties. During the 20 th century
significant developments in road and highway construction were achieved to satisfy the
traffic requirements. Today, roads and highways represent a great achievement, but of
course the development will not stop and continued developments are still in demand.

The first research dedicated to highway engineering was initiated in the United Kingdom
with the introduction of the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), in 1930. In the USA,
highway engineering became an important discipline with the passing of the Federal-Aid

4 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

Highway Act of 1944, which aimed to connect 90% of cities with a population of 50,000 or
more. With constant stress from vehicles which grew larger as time passed, improvements to
pavements were needed. With technology out of date, in 1958 the construction of the first
motorway in Great Britain (the Preston bypass) played a major role in the development of
new pavement technology.

Design policies standards used in the United States are typically based on publications of
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials as well as research
promulgated by the Transportation Research Board, the Institute of Transportation
Engineers, the Federal Highway Administration, and the Department of Transportation.

In Iraq total length of highway network is 45,550 km , paved: 38,400 km and

unpaved: 7,150 km. The highways are geometrical designed by [State Commission of Roads
and Bridges (SCRB), (2005), Republic of Iraq, Ministry of Housing and Construction,
Department of Planning and Studies, Baghdad].

The pavement structure is designed by AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures
in 1993, and The material quality and test results are compared with State Commission of
Roads and Bridges (SCRB), (2007), "General Specification for Roads and Bridges",
Republic of Iraq, Ministry of Housing and Construction, Department of Planning and
Studies, Baghdad.

5 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

Pavement Structures

The main purpose of the pavement or pavement layers is to minimize stresses generated by
traffic on the subgrade to such a level where no deformations occur. Simultaneously, the
pavement layers themselves should be withstanding the stresses and strains which are
imposed on each layer for the entire life of the pavement. Typically, modern pavement
structures are either flexible, rigid or a composite of the two. As can be seen in Figure (1-4),
normally bituminous, hydraulic bound or concrete layers are built on foundation courses
depending on the design decision. The decision and selection of course and layer type is
generally dependent on common practices, availability of the materials, site characteristics,
etc.

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 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

Figure (1-3) Modern pavement types

Construction of the pavement normally starts with enhancing the subgrade “natural soil”
bearing capacity by compaction, and then layers are constructed one by one. A capping
course may be constructed over the subgrade depending on the site terrain, and then the sub-
base course is placed; both capping and sub-base form the pavement foundation.

In a rigid pavement type, a quality concrete layer is normally constructed over the
foundation; in some cases a base course is used. The concrete slab could be reinforced or
plain concrete; also it could be jointed or continuous. Rigid pavement is preferred for some
sites such as petrol stations and heavy vehicle lots.

Flexible pavement courses over the foundation may include base, binder and surface
courses. The base course is the main structural element and it could be constructed from
granular material which may sometimes be mixed with asphalt material. Binder and surface
courses are asphalt mixtures; the surface course is exposed directly to weather and traffic
actions, so this course should withstand traffic loading, weather action and wearing from
tires. Furthermore, the surface course has to provide high riding quality and sufficient skid
resistance.

1.3 Highway Geometric Design

7 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi
 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

— Factors Influencing Highway Design

Highway design is based on several design standards & controls.Which depend on:
 Functional classification
 Expected traffic volume and vehicle mix
 Design speed
— Design of the Alignment
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Super-elevation

1.4 The Concept of Functional Classification

• Hierarchies of Movements and Components –Six

stages:
• Main movement, transition, distribution,
collection, access, and termination
• The movement hierarchy is based on the total
amount of traffic volume

1.4.1 Functional Relationships

Functional classification groups streets and highways according to the character of service
they are intended to provide.

Rural highway system Urban highway system

8 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

1.4.2 Access Needs and Controls

Mobility = the ability to travel to many different destinations

Accessibility = the ability to gain entry to a particular

site or area

1.4.3 Functional System Characteristics

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 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

1.4.4 Functional System of Rural Roads

Urban Serves the major activity centers of activity of urbanized areas , highest
principal traffic volume and the longest trip. Urban principal arterial system should be
arterials stratified as follows : Interstate, expressways, other principal arterials
(Interstate, Other freeways, & other principal arterials). Design speed is (90-
110 km/h)

Principal arterials Serves mostly interstate long uninterrupted trips , highest level of
mobility and highest speeds. Posted speed is between (100-120 km/h) .
Principal arterial system includes : freeway and other principal arterials

Minor arterials Augments the principal arterials, connects cities, large towns, other large
traffic generators (such as resort areas) . Posted speed limits (90-110
km/h).

Major collectors Carry traffic to and from county seats and large cities not served by the
arterial system. Collectors provide less mobility than arterial at lower
speed (70- 90km/h) and for shorter distance.

Minor collectors Collects traffic from local roads and convey it to other facilities

Local roads All roads within the rural area not classified above. Local road system
provides access to land adjacent to the collator network and serves travel
over relatively short distances with posted speed between (50-70 km/h)

1.4.5 Functional system of urban roads

10 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

Urban Interconnect with and augment principal arterials. It accommodates trips of

minor moderate length at lower level of travel mobility than principal arterial.
arterials Design speed is (70-90 km/h)

Urban Collect traffic from local streets and convey it to the arterial system. It
collector provides both land access and traffic circulation within residential ,
streets commercial and industrial areas. Design speed is (50-70 km/h)

Urban local It comprises all facilities not in one of higher systems. It permits direct
streets access to abutting lands and connections to the higher order systems. Design
speed is (20-40 km/h) .

1.5 System of Iraqi Highways

1. Primary System
Highways of international importance (the main highways connecting main
cities) and highways of special importance should form the primary system of
national highways. These highways are to be designed to the highest standards.

2. Secondary system

Highways connecting major cities of economic or other importance, highways connecting

agricultural , commercial or recreational areas.

11 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

3. Tertiary system

Highway of district and local importance

1.6 Principles of Rural Highway Route Location Process

The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway elements such as curvature and
grade must blend with each other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of
traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design criteria and safety standards. The
highway should also cause a minimal disruption to historic and archeological sites and to
other land-use activities. Environmental impact studies are therefore required in most cases
before a highway location is finally agreed upon.

The highway location process involves four phases:

1. Office study of existing information.

2. Reconnaissance survey.

3. Preliminary location survey.

4. Final location survey.

1- Office study of existing information :

The first phase in any highway location study is the examination of all available data of the
area in which the road is to be constructed. This phase is usually carried out in the office
prior to any field or photogrammetric investigation. All the available data are collected and
examined. These data can be obtained from existing engineering reports, maps, aerial
photographs, and charts, which are usually available at one or more of the state’s
departments of transportation, agriculture, geology, hydrology, and mining. The type and
amount of data collected and examined depend on the type of highway being considered, but
in general, data should be obtained on the following characteristics of the area:

• Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes.

12 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi
 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

• Social and demographic, including land use and zoning patterns.

• Environmental, including types of wildlife; location of recreational, historic, and
archeological sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and water pollution.

• Economic, including unit costs for construction and the trend of agricultural, commercial,
and industrial activities.

2- Reconnaissance Survey:
The object of this phase of the study is to identify several feasible routes, each within a band
of a limited width of a few hundred meters. When rural roads are being considered, there is
often very little or no information available on maps or photographs, and therefore aerial
photography is widely used to obtain the required information. Feasible routes are identified
by a stereoscopic examination of the aerial photographs, taking into consideration factors
such as:

• Terrain and soil conditions.

• Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas.
• Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and other highways.
• Directness of route.

Control points between the two terminals are determined for each feasible route. For
example, a unique bridge site with no alternative may be taken as a primary control point.
The feasible routes identified are then plotted on photographic base maps.

3- Preliminary Location Survey :

During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set as closely as
possible by establishing all the control points and determining preliminary vertical and
horizontal alignments for each. Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the economic
and environmental feasibility of the alternative routes.
4- Final Location Survey :
The final location survey is the detailed layout of the selected route, during which time the
final horizontal and vertical alignments are determined and the final positions of structures
and drainage channels are also determined. The conventional method used is first to set out

13 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

the points of intersections (PI) of the straight portions of the highway and then to fit a
suitable horizontal curve between these. This is usually a trial-and-error process until, in the
designer’s opinion, the best alignment is obtained, taking both engineering and aesthetic
factors into consideration. Curve templates are available that can be used in this process.
Curve templates are transparencies giving circular curves, three-center compound curves,
and spiral curves of different radii and different standard scales. Detailed design of the
vertical and horizontal alignments are then carried out to obtain both the deflection angles
for horizontal curves and the cuts or fills for vertical curves and straight sections of the
highway.

1.7 Location of Urban Highway

Factors that affect location of highway in urban areas

 Connection to local streets (which street to connect ,traffic flow)
 Right-of-way acquisition (land cost, road on elevated structures, noise and aesthetics)
 Coordination with other transportation systems (integrated system, public transport)
 Provisions for bicycles and pedestrians (sidewalks ,crosswalks, traffic control devices,
ramps, bicycle path)

1.8Annual cost (H):-

Yearly amount required amortizing the total cost plus interest.

H  C 1 .K 1  C 2 .K 2
 ..........  M ………………(1)

H   C .K  M ………………….(2)

where:-

C = Construction cost of each item (I.D./year).

K = Corresponding recovery factor.

r 1  r 
n

K  …………………….(3)
1  r 
n
1

14 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi

 Highway Engineering Lectures 2017-2018 Fourth Year

Where

r = 6%

n = 40 or 20 years.

M = Annual maintenance cost (I.D./year).

a) User Cost
i. Running (fuel, tires,….etc.).
ii. Time value.
iii. Discomfort.
iv. Accidents.
User cost (R)   365.A.L.u ………………….(4)

A = Future ADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic).

L = Length (km).

I.D.
u = Combined unit user cost ( ).
vehicle.km

day vehicle I .D . I .D .
R  . . km . 
year day vehicle . km year

B
 1 .0 ……………….(5)
C

R1  R 2
B C   1 .0 ……………….(6)
H 2
 H 1

R1  R 3
B C   1 .0 …………….(7)
H 3
 H 1

15 Dr. Mohammad Abbas Al-Jumaili and Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi