UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

STATUS CONFIRMATION FOR UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT REPORT

PROPERTIES OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH (EFB) FIBRE CEMENT

BOARDS WITH DIFFERENT PERCENTAGE OF MAGNESIUM
CHLORIDE ADDITIVE

ACADEMIC SESSION : 2019/2020

I, MAZIMA AHMAD ZAIDI, agree to allow this Undergraduate Project Report to

be kept at the library under the following terms:

1. This Undergraduate Project Report is the property of the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia.
2. The library has the right to make copies for educational purposes only.
3. The library is allowed to make copies of this report for educational exchange between higher
educational instituition.
4. ** Please mark ()
(Contains information of high security or of great
CONFIDENTIAL importance to Malaysia as STIPULATED under
OFFICIAL SECRET ACT 1972)

(Contains restricted information as determined by the

RESTRICTED organization/instituition where research was conducted)

 FREE ACCESS

Approved by,

__________________________ ____________________________
(MAZIMA AHMAD ZAIDI) (EN. NIK MOHD ZAINI B. NIK SOH)

Permanent Address: FACULTY OF CIVIL AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING,
NO 19, JALAN ST 1C/10, UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN
TAMAN ANGGERIK, MALAYSIA
BANDAR BARU SALAK TINGGI,
43900 SEPANG, SELANGOR.

Date: _________________________ Date: _________________________

NOTE:

** If this Undergraduate Project Report is classified as CONFIDENTIAL or RESTRICTED,

please attach the letter from the relevant authority/organization stating reasons and duration
for such classifications.
 PROPERTIES OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH (EFB) FIBRE CEMENT
BOARDS WITH DIFFERENT PERCENTAGE OF MAGNESIUM
CHLORIDE ADDITIVE

MAZIMA AHMAD ZAIDI

This thesis is presented as part of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
Bachelor in Civil Engineering with Honours

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

JAN 2020
 ii

I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is my own except for quotations and
summaries which have been duly acknowledged

Student : …………………………………………….
(MAZIMA AHMAD ZAIDI)
Date : …………………………………………….

Supervisor : ……………………………………………..
(EN NIK MOHD ZAINI B. NIK SOH)
 iii

For my parents, thank you for your encouragement and love. For my supervisor and
assistant laboratory, thank you for your guidance and words of wisdom. For my
friends, thank you for helping me until finish my project. Alhamdulillah, thanks to
Allah.
 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Syukur Alhamdulillah, praise to Allah for giving me a chance and strength to

complete my Final Year Project (FYP) that contains in requirement of graduation.
First, I would like to give a thanks and appreciation especially to my supervisor, En.
Nik Mohd Zaini B. Nik Soh for helping me a lot in finishing of this research. With
his guidance and great contribution, the project was finished on the track before
presentation.
Besides, I would like to thank my friends for giving a good cooperation and
helping me during the project. Other than that, a special thanks to my parents,
Ahmad Zaidi B. Suhaili and Maznah Bt Karim for their supporting in financial and
encouragement to finished this project. My appreciation also goes to all my lecturers
for sharing the knowledge and opinion. Finally, I would like to thanks to those who
give a contribution directly or indirectly to complete my research. Thank you.
 v

ABSTRACT

Empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the agriculture wastes from palm oil industry. In
order to achieve the sustainable construction industry in Malaysia, waste production
must be cut down or convert wastes to useful construction materials. This study
focused on the utilization of EFB fibre as reinforcement in the production of cement
boards. However, the use of natural fibre such EFB could reduce or inhibit the
hydration rate of cement – EFB mixture and eventually reduces the performance of
cement board. Therefore, the properties of EFB cement board can be improved with
addition of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) as additive. There are six percentage of
MgCl have been introduced, 0 %( control sample), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5%. Each
percentage consists of three repeated samples and the total sample for this study was
18 samples with the size of sample are 350mm x 350mm. The EFB length used in
this study consist of the fibre that passing the mesh size of 7 and retained on mesh
size at 14 during sieving process. The mechanical properties testing that were
performed for this study included modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture
(MOR), internal bonding (IB) and for the physical properties testing is thickness
swelling (TS), thickness monitoring and density. From this study, it is found that the
cement board with 1% of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) produces the best
performance of physical and mechanical properties of empty fruit bunch cement
board (EFBCB) with MOE, MOR, IB, TS and density obtained is 2119 N/mm 2, 4.8
N/mm2, 0.025N/mm2, 5.45% and 1211.41kg/m3.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Tandan kosong kelapa sawit (EFB) merupakan salah satu bahan buangan pertanian
daripada industri minyak sawit. Untuk mencapai industri pembinaan yang mampan
di Malaysia, bahan buangan haruslah dikurangkan atau menukarkan bahan buangan
kepada bahan binaan yang berguna. Kajian ini menumpukan penggunaan serat (EFB)
yang digunakan sebagai bahan penguat di dalam penghasilan papan simen. Walau
bagaimanapun, penggunaan serat semulajadi seperti EFB boleh mengurangkan atau
menghalang kadar penghidratan simen – campuran EFB dan mengurangkan prestasi
papan simen. Oleh itu, sifat papan simen dapat ditingkatkan dengan penambahan
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) sebagai bahan tambahan. Terdapat enam peratus
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) yang diperkenalkan di dalam kajian ini iaitu 0%
(sampel kawalan), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% dan 5%. Tiga sampel yang sama akan dihasilkan
bagi setiap peratus dan menjadikan keseluruhan sampel untuk kajian ini sebanyak 18
sampel dengan saiz sampel yang berukuran 350mm x 350mm. Panjang serat yang
digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah serat yang melepasi saiz yang berukuran 7 dan
yang kekal di saiz yang berukuran 14 semasa proses ayakan. Ujian sifat mekanikal
yang akan dijalankan terhadap papan simen adalah modulus keanjalan (MOE),
modulus patahan (MOR) dan ikatan dalaman (IB). Manakala, ujian sifat fizikal pula
adalah penebalan ketebalan (TS), pemantauan ketebalan dan kepadatan. Dari kajian
ini, didapati bahawa 1% Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) menghasilkan prestasi fizikal
dan mekanikal yang optimum bagi papan simen yang diperbuat dari tandan buah
kosong (EFB) dengan nilai MOE, MOR, IB, TS dan ketumpatan adalah 2119
N/mm2, 4.8 N/mm2, 0.025N/mm2, 5.45% and 1211.41kg/m3.
 vii

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLE x

LIST OF FIGURE xi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Objective 4

1.4 Scope of Study 4

1.5 Significant of Study 5

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Cement Board 6

2.2.1 Composition of Cement Boards 7

2.2.2 Fabrication Method 8

2.3 Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 9

2.3.1 Applications of EFB Fibre 10

2.4 Natural Fibre Cement Composition 10

2.4.1 Application of EFB as Cement Board Reinforcement11

2.5 Mechanical and Physical Properties of Cement Board 11

 viii

2.5.1 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture

(MOR)12

2.5.2 Internal Bonding (IB) 13

2.5.3 Thickness Swelling (TS) 14

2.6 Compatibility of Cement – Natural Fibre 15

2.6.1 Compatibility Improvement of Natural Fibre Cement

Board 17

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 18

3.1 Introduction 18

3.2 Material Preparation 20

3.2.1 Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 20

3.2.2 Cement 21

3.2.3 Water 21

3.2.4 Fibre 21

3.3 Cement Board Fabrication 22

3.3.1 Weight 22

3.3.2 Mixing 23

3.3.3 Forming 23

3.3.4 Pressing 25

3.3.5 Curing 26

3.3.6 Cutting 27

3.4 Testing 27

3.4.1 Modulus of Elastic (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture

(MOR)28

3.4.2 Internal Bonding 29

3.4.3 Thickness Swelling (TS) 30

3.4.4 Thickness Monitoring 31

3.4.5 Density 32
 ix

CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 33

4.1 Introduction 33

4.2 Physical Characteristic of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) Samples

33

4.2.1 Physical Appearance 33

4.2.2 The Relationship of Thickness Monitoring (TM) and

Densities of Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFBCB)
Samples 34

4.3 Physical and Mechanical Performance Properties Based On

Different Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) 38

4.3.1 Thickness Swelling (TS) 38

4.3.2 Density 40

4.3.3 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) 41

4.3.4 Modulus of Rupture (MOR) 42

4.3.5 Internal Bonding (IB) 44

4.4 Linear Regression 45

4.4.1 Linear Regression Prediction for Physical and

Mechanical Properties of Based On Magnesium Chloride
(MgCl) Percentage 45

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 49

5.1 Introduction 49

5.2 Recommendation 50

REFERENCES 52

APPENDIX 56
 x

LIST OF TABLE

2.1: Mechanical and Physical Properties of Cement-Bonded Oriented Strand Board

(OSB) 13
2.2: Internal Bonding (IB) Bamboo Cement Board 14
2.3: Thickness Swelling (TS) Bamboo Cement Board 15
Y
3.1: Minimum Requirements for Specified OPC Bonded Particleboards 28
3.2: Formula for MOE and MOR Formula Based on BS EN 310:1993 29
3.3: The Allowable Thickness for Cement Board 31
 xi

LIST OF FIGURE

Y3.1: Flow Chart Research Methodology

3.2: Raw Material of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 20
3.3: Short EFB after Grind Using Hammer Mill 20
3.4: Weighted of Material 22
3.5: Mixer Machine 23
3.6: Spreading the Mixed Material at Wooden Mould 24
3.7: Flattening the Mixed Material 24
3.8: Pre-Pressing Process 24
3.9: Pre-Forming Process 25
3.10: Clamped Using Steel Mould 25
3.11: Steel Mould Placed In the Pressing Machine 26
3.12: Curing the Cement Board 26
3.13: Cutting the Cement Board 27
3.14: MOE and MOR Testing 28
3.15: Internal Bonding (IB) Testing 30
3.16: Cement Board after Complete Immersion in Water 31

4.1 : Appearances of Cement Boards from Different Percentage of MgCl 34

4.2 : Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 0% MgCl 35
4.3 : Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 1% MgCl 36
4.4 : Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 2% MgCl 36
4.5: Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 3% MgCl 37
4.6: Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 4% MgCl 37
4.7 : Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 5% MgCl 38
4.8: The Conditions of Cement Board before and after Being Soaked in Water 39
 xii

4.9: The Result for Thickness Swelling vs Thickness for Different Percentage of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards 39
4.10: The Result for Density vs Thickness for Different Percentage of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards 40
4.11: The Result for Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) for Different Percentage of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards 41
4.12: The Result for Modulus of Rupture (MOR) for Different Percentage of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards 43
4.13: The Result for Internal Bonding (IB) for Different Percentage of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards in Cement Boards 44
4.14: The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Thickness Swelling Based On
Different MgCl in Cement Boards 46
4.15: The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Density Based On Different
MgCl in Cement Boards 46
4.16 : The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)
Based On Different MgCl in Cement Boards 47
4.17: The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Modulus of Rupture (MOR)
Based On Different MgCl in Cement Boards 47
4.18 : The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Internal Bonding (IB) Based
On Different MgCl in Cement Boards 48
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Construction industry is one of the major sectors that contribute to the economy
development in Malaysia. The increasing of the construction industry affected the
building material source that will reduce every day. Building construction is a
material intensive activity and consumes large amounts of materials. To achieve a
more sustainable construction industry, raw materials consumption and waste
production must be cut down. The use of renewable resources by the construction
industry will help to achieve a more sustainable consumption pattern of building
materials.

According to Abdullah & Lee (2017), the large demand in construction

materials in building industry has brought the need to convert wastes to useful
construction materials such mostly used around the world. Due to the renewable and
biodegradable, natural fiber has been increasingly adopted to replace man-made
fibers in building materials.

During the last two decades, the application of fibres in cement based
composites have been gaining momentum and been applied to enhance the properties
of these construction materials. One of the most important cement composites is
Fibre Cement Board (FCB) that is used in flat or corrugated shape and is
manufactured by Hatscheck process. They can be used as a material for roofing,
 2

internal or external wall and facade. The most important ingredients to produce FCB
are fibres, cement and water (Khorami & Ganjian, 2011).

After banning asbestos fibres due to its hazardous effects on human health,
finding alternatives fibres has drawn the researcher’s attention. The investigations for
a replacement of asbestos fibres resulted in many synthetic and natural fibres being
examined in numerous laboratories around the world.

Due to the increasing environmental concern and awareness of the

sustainable development, the interest in using natural fibre as bio-composites has
been accepted globally because it is cheap, sustainable, biodegradable and reduces
the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Nowadays, the use of wood fibre as a natural
composite in cement based products has been increased rapidly, for example cement
bonded board. Therefore, the utilization of wood fibre will lead to the increase
demand of forest sources. Ultimately, the use of wood fibre as a bio-composites
material will increase the rate of deforestation. Therefore, other option that can be
used to replace wood fibre is waste from agriculture activities such as oil palm waste.

Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibre (OPEFB) is the most important fibre that is
readily available within Malaysia. Empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibres are one of the
materials as a bio composite product to replace wood fibre or other natural fibre
product especially for the cement bonded board. Unfortunately, empty fruit bunch
(EFB) fibre was contain hemi-cellulose, starch, sugar, tannins and lignin which
appear to inhibit significantly the setting of cement hydration that caused the
incompatibility issue between empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre and cement mixture
(Wei et al,. 2002). Therefore, this fibre cannot be used solely, it is need to go through
cement-fibre compatibility improvement process such as cement additive or cement
accelerator.

This research focuses on the study of effect of MgCl as additive in EFB

cement board fabrication with respect to physical and mechanical properties. In this
study, there are six percentage of MgCl will be introduced, 0 %( control sample),
1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5%. The properties of the samples will be observed include
 3

modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bonding (IB),

density and thickness swelling (TS).

1.2 Problem Statement

Malaysia is one of the major contributors of palm oil in agricultural. Palm oil was the
product that has helped Malaysia in agriculture and economy. However, the
manufacturing processes of palm oil generate large quantities of solid waste. The
presence of solid waste from the abundance quantity of empty fruit bunch (EFB) has
created a major disposal problem and affects the environmental. Some of empty fruit
bunch (EFB) will burn and harm the environment due to unwanted excessive dust
and smoke but there is only 30% awareness of recycling EFB among Malaysian palm
oil mill (Azni, Norhan, & Lofflad, 2015). Many studies have been carried out on the
utilization of the oil palm EFB fibres such as in particle board, pulp, medium density
fibre board, and composites (Abdul et al., 2012).

The use of wood fibre has been increased rapidly as a natural composite in
cement based product. However, the production of wood fibre cement as composite
material was began due to the growing public concern about health hazard associated
with the use of asbestos (Safitri Zen et al., 2013). Due to the use of wood fibre as a
bio-composites material will lead to the increase demand of forest sources and
increase the rate of deforestation (Dullah et al,. 2017). Therefore, this study came out
with EFB Fibre as a bio composite product to replace wood fibre for the cement
board. Natural fibre cannot be used directly because of residual oil that interrupts the
penetration of binding agent and affecting the properties of EFB product. There is
compatibility issue between cement and fibre due to the existing of hemi-cellulose,
starch, sugar, tannins and lignin which appear to inhibit significantly the setting of
cement hydration (Wei et al., 2002). The incompatibility of fibre and cement can be
improved by using some modification of fibre method mainly physical, chemical and
thermal pre-treatments (Dullah et al., 2017). Chemical additive is one of the
modification method commonly found to accelerate the setting time of cement matrix
 4

which is suitable for application of natural fibre cement composite products.

Therefore, this study focuses on the properties of EFB cement board can be
improved with addition of MgCl as additive with respect to physical and mechanical
properties.

1.3 Objective

The objective of this study:

1) To identify the effect of MgCl of empty fruit bunch cement board (EFBCB)
on uniformity of board density and thickness.
2) To identify the percentage of MgCl that produces the best performance of
physical and mechanical properties of empty fruit bunch cement board
(EFBCB).
3) To develop linear regression prediction for physical and mechanical
properties of empty fruit bunch cement board (EFBCB) based on MgCl
percentage.

1.4 Scope of Study

1. Use of empty fruit bunch from oil palm (EFB) as reinforcement in cement
boards.
2. The untreated EFB fibre will be used with fibre length after sieving that
passing mesh size 7mm and retaining mesh size 14mm and MgCl will be
added as additive for the composite.
3. The percentage of MgCl used as 0% (control), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5%.
Each percentage will be fabricated 3 samples and the total sample for this
study is 18 samples with the size of sample are 350mm x 350mm.
4. All the testing will be done according to British Standard. The testing
involves for physical properties are thickness swelling (BS EN 317:1993),
 5

density (BS EN 323:1993) and mechanical properties are modulus of

elasticity (BS EN 310:1993), modulus of rupture (BS EN 310:1993) and
internal bonding (BS EN 319:1993).

1.5 Significant of Study

The issue of incompatibility between natural fibre and cement is the primary obstacle
in utilizing the natural fibre or wood in cement board production. The same problem
expected to be occurring for EFB as cement board reinforcement. Therefore by
conducting this study, the related issues can be clearly understood and the method of
solution with respect to application of MgCl can be established.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the literature review of the study that discuss about material
characteristic which focus on oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre and fabrication
of cement board and the physical and mechanical properties. Besides, this part also
provides detail about fabrication method of cement board and types of testing will be
conduct at this study.

2.2 Cement Board

A cement board is one of innovation in building material. Cement board become

more popular in construction industry because it one of precast concrete and
lightweight concrete panel. Cement board can be used for both internal and external
application, roofing and façade. The most important ingredients to produce a cement
board are fibre, cement and water.
 7

2.2.1 Composition of Cement Boards

Cement boards are form in thick sheet with the combination of cement as a binder,
fibre as reinforcement, water and chemical as an additive. Cement defined as a
hydraulic binder that undergoes a process of hydration, when it combines with water,
it will be harder and remain the strength.

In the beginning cement bonded composites (CBCs), particularly low-density

boards, were mainly used for insulating purposes. In 1973, a Swiss company called
Durisol was among the first manufacturers that produced a building panel consisting
of small wood particles bonded in a cement matrix (Wolfe & Gjinolli, 1996). Many
composites have evolved in the last decades, e.g. cement-bonded wood wool boards
(CBWW), cement-bonded particleboards (CBPB), and fibre-reinforced cement
boards. These CBCs are used for thermal as well as acoustic insulation purposes and
consist of particles of different sizes such as strands, flakes, chips, fibres and it shows
high potential as a building material.

Bamboo and wood fibre cement composites are not only eco-friendly nature
but also most economic and socially useful outlet for bamboo chips, wood residues
and agricultural wastes. The combination of bamboo or wood particles and an
inorganic cementitious binder can produce a new class of building products that can
reflect the good characteristics of wood and concrete. Cement-bonded particleboards
(CBP), as they are generally called, can be designed to possess good engineering
properties for a wide range of applications in the building, housing and other
commercial or infrastructure projects. The cementitious binder encapsulates the
wood or bamboo particles, fibre and aggregates, and the composite can be designed
to have high resistance to fire, termites, fungus and other bio-degrading agents.
Further, their high weather resistance and low sound transmission properties
combined with the ability to accept a wide range of surface treatments make these
products highly attractive for a variety of applications such as partitions, internal and
external walls, roof elements and permanent formwork (Sudin & Swamy, 2006).
 8

According to (Asasutjarit et al,. 2005) found that by using coconut coir

cement board as a construction component with low thermal conductivity will reduce
heat transferred into building which decrease energy consumption of building
facilities (air condition). This will reduce the utility cost. Coconut coir cement boards
are composites to alternative option to save energy consumption of building. The
main parameter was investigated namely mixture ratio of coconut coir fiber, cement
and water. Three mixing ratio by weight were varied 1:2:1, 1:1:1, and 2:1:2,
respectively (cement: coconut coir: water).

2.2.2 Fabrication Method

According to Ashori, Tabarsa, & Sepahvand (2012) found the study about poplar
(Populus deltoides) ring-cut strands with an average strand size of 40 mm x 5mm x
0.5 mm (length x width x thickness) were used. One of the most common methods of
preparing wood for the manufacture of cement boards is to soak it in water at
ambient temperature to remove inhibitory water-soluble extractives. All the boards
were made with 40:60, 60:40 and 70:30 weight ratios for cement or wood and a
1.00:0.60 weight ratio for cement/water (the amount of water in the wood strands
was included). The boards containing CaCl2 (3 and 7% w/w cement) were
fabricated. The boards were conditioned in a controlled room for 28 days at 25 °C
and 65% RH to reach the equilibrium moisture content of 12% and the cement
boards produced were processed into samples for physical and mechanical testing.

Refer to Ferraz et al,.(2011), the experimental design included three

treatments: addition of 4% CaCl2 in the mixture of cement and fibers (treatment 1),
immersion of fibers in hot water at 80°C for 90 minutes before blending (treatment
2), and immersion of fibers in NaOH aqueous solution at 5% for 72 h before
blending. Two cement: coir ratios (3:1 and 4:1) were also evaluated. CaCl2 was not
added in the mixture for treatments 2 and 3. The cement: water ratio was constant
and equal to 2.5:1. The combination of those factors generated a total of six
treatments with four panels being produced for each treatment (Table 2), totalling 24
 9

panels, each measuring 350 mm x 350 mm x 12.5 mm (length, width, and thickness)
and having a nominal density of 1200 kg/m³. Previously ground coir fiber was added
to a mechanical mixer and sprayed with water by aid of an air spraying system to
moisten the fiber. Once the coir fiber was moistened, the cement was added to the
mixture. After mixture was prepared, the mat assembling began. Two smooth surface
metal plates measuring 500 mm x 500 mm were used for each mat. The mats were
assembled on the plates, with the help of a mat forming box (350 mm x 350 mm),
which was placed on the metal plate with a plastic to prevent the mixture from
sticking to the plate.

2.3 Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)

The oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) natural fibres were comprehensively
reviewed to assess their potential as reinforcing materials in polymer composites for
energy absorption during low-velocity impact. The typical oil palm wastes include
trunks, fronds, kernel shells, and empty fruit bunches. This has a tendency to burden
the industry players with disposal difficulties and escalates the operating cost. Thus,
there are several initiatives have been employed to convert these wastes into value
added products. The objective of this study is to review the potential of oil palm
empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) as natural fibre polymer composite reinforcement to
absorb the energy during low-velocity impact as another option for value added
products (Faizi et al., 2017).

Aziz, Paramasivam, & Lee (1981) reported that coconut coir, sisal,
sugarcane bagasse, bamboo, jute and wood cement composites had already been
investigated in more than 40 countries world-wide. In Malaysia, where oil palm
cultivation has reached a staggering 3 million hectares and producing over 8 million
tons of oil annually, oil palm industries has left a huge amount of lignocellulosic
materials residues mainly in the form of fibres that can be readily turned into useful
value added products. Oil palm fibre whether from trunk or empty fruit bunch (EFB)
is a unique reinforcing material as it is non-hazardous, renewable, and readily
 10

available at relatively low cost due to established technology to extract the fibres
compared to other commercially available fibres. To date only a small percentage of
these residues are turned into useful products and the rest is either left to rot or worst,
burnt and polluting the environment.

2.3.1 Applications of EFB Fibre

Most of the EFB residues will be use as the plantation fertilizer and some of it used
to generate electricity and industrial steam. Some of EFB will burn and harm the
environment due to unwanted excessive dust and smoke. Other application include
the use of EFB fiber is as mattress component, insulation, wall partition, erosion
control mat or blanket for landscaping, medium density fiber board, paper and pulp
production, acoustic medium, fertilizer and compose medium. However, there is
about only 30% awareness of recycling EFB among Malaysian palm oil mill. The
sources and the access for the product availability is very easy and should be have
the fully optimize. A research on EFB fiber mix with the cement is a continuation of
the world famous wood wool cement board that introduced by Austrian carpenter in
early 1900 (Azni et al., 2015).

2.4 Natural Fibre Cement Composition

Composite material as natural fibre has attracted many researcher in worldwide due
to the fibres ability to increase the strength, reduce environmental impact and reduce
cost of the material. In addition, natural fibres can be used in composite materials to
reduce weight, increase strength and are also very safe during handling, processing
and use. Requirement for economical and environmentally friendly materials has
extended an interest in natural fibres.
 11

The use of natural fibres in composite materials will not only increase the
strength of the composite but sustainability issues. In addition, these materials will
not pollute the environment, utilize local skills, be available and abundant, and be
low-cost. Natural fibres in composite can be applied in civil engineering for
plastering, use as roofing material, slabs, boards, wall paneling systems, house
construction and slope stabilization (Danso, 2017).

Natural fibre needs to be modified before being utilized on cement bonded

board, thus reducing carbohydrate contained in EFB fibre is essential to improve the
bonding between EFB fibre and cement. On the other hand, some studies carried out
a series of tests designed to improve the natural fibre- cement mixtures by addition of
some chemicals such as magnesium chloride and calcium chloride. Chemical
additive is one of the modification method commonly found to accelerate the setting
time of cement matrix which is suitable for application of natural fibre cement
composite products (Dullah et al., 2017).

2.4.1 Application of EFB as Cement Board Reinforcement

There are very limited researches from public in elsewhere. However, (Onuorah et
al., 2016) has been done research of cement bonded composites can be made from
EFB, Tropical hardwood sawmill residue (THSR) or it randomly mixed particles
when CaCl2 accelerator is used at 2 to 3% level and the cement: furnish: water ratio
(wt/wt) is in the range of 2.5:1:1.5 to 2.5:1:2 or initial water content of 30–36.36%.
The use of EFB and THSR as furnish in cement bonded composite manufacture is
highly recommended because of the environmentally friendliness and is a case of
creating wealth from waste.

2.5 Mechanical and Physical Properties of Cement Board

 12

Mechanical properties described the behavior of material that measures a material’s

reaction to applied force such as modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture
(MOR) and internal bonding (IB). Besides, physical properties are defined as an
aspect of matter that can be observed and measured or describe the state of material,
which is observable or measurable. In the case of cement boards, physical properties
classified as thickness swelling (TS) and density.

According to Sudin and Swamy (2006) found that the agricultural waste from
oil palm trees can be utilized to produce cement-bonded particleboards for
applications in the housing and building industries and in infrastructure construction.
The bamboo flakes contained a high amount about 4.92% of sugars which had a
significant retarding effect on the setting and strength development of Portland
cement matrix. It was found that the addition of chemical admixtures was necessary
to counteract this adverse effect. With a bamboo–cement ratio of 1:2.75 and 2%
aluminium sulphate alone or in combination with sodium silicate, it was possible to
produce a board which satisfied the strength and dimensional stability requirements.

2.5.1 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture (MOR)

The modulus of elasticity (MOE) or Young’s modulus is a material property that

describes its stiffness. In elastic deformation the shape change is a result of stretching
of interatomic bonds, and no dislocation motion occurs. The modulus of rupture
(MOR) is the ultimate strength determined in a flexure or torsion test. MOR in
condition of plastic deformation refers to irreversible deformation or change in shape
that occurs when the force or stress that caused it is removed.

Refer to (Asasutjarit et al., 2005) the result production of cement board that
use coconut coir cement fibre shows that the board density increased and modulus of
elasticity (MOE) increased proportionally to the increase of cement ratio in the
mixture. Then the modulus of rupture (MOR) also increased when the cement ratio
higher than or same with coconut coir fibre.
 13

Refer to (Papadopoulos, Ntalos, & Kakaras, 2006), the relationship between

cement-wood ratio and MOR values is considerably different from that of MOE or
IBS or TS. The MOR values decrease with an increase of cement-wood ratio, if
exclude the failure in boards made from 1.0 cement-wood ratio shows in Table 2.1.
The higher proportion of wood in the board may enhance the flexural property of the
board. When wood occupies more volume in the board, the areas of stress
concentration around the component particles are more diffused, resulting in
increased applied stresses. To manufacture OSB with acceptable bending properties
(MOR in particular), an optimum cement-wood ratio has to be lower than 2.0;
probably lower than 1.5. The longer and thinner the raw materials the stronger, stiffer
and more dimensionally stable are the boards.

Table 2.1: Mechanical and Physical Properties of Cement-Bonded Oriented Strand

Board (OSB)
Cement Density MOR MOE IBS TS
Wood (g/cm3) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (%)
1.0 0.972 3.10 466.7 0.13 34.14
2.0 1.111 12.25 4949.1 0.87 9.42
3.0 1.087 8.27 5212.5 0.94 4.28

2.5.2 Internal Bonding (IB)

The internal bond is varying proportional to the increase of the coconut coir mixture
ratio and particleboards density. In fact, during the mat forming process, the increase
of board density produces more intimate contact between the particles in the internal
board. Hence, an increase of density in particleboards’ structure will accommodate a
higher internal bond value. In addition, by considering the mixture ratio, if
particleboards have a high percentage of coconut coir content, they will also have a
high internal bond value. This is due to the high percentage of lignin content of
coconut coir, which in- creases the cross-link in particleboards.
 14

Refer to Asasutjarit et al., (2005), the internal bonding (IB) increased when
the cement ratio higher than or equal with coconut coir fibre. It shows that the
cement board tends to expand when the value of cement ratio and internal bonding
decrease. Besides that, the test result of the table shows that the bamboo cement ratio
overall 1:2.75 gave the best board properties of internal bonding that is below than
0.50. The effects of bamboo cement ratio and chemical admixtures except for CaC12
and MgC12 make the value of internal bonding larger than MS standard and will
cause the occurrence of the spring back effect.

Table 2.2: Internal Bonding (IB) Bamboo Cement Board (Sudin & Swamy, 2006)
Bamboo Cement Ratio Chemical Additives IB (MPa)
1:2.50 - 0.07
1:2.75 - 0.12
1:3.0 - 0.23
1.2.75 CaC12 0.19
1:2.75 MgC12 0.43
1:2.75 A12(SO4)3 0.63
1:2.75 A12(SO4)3 + Na2SiO3 0.77
MS 934 - 0.50

2.5.3 Thickness Swelling (TS)

The thickness swelling is inversely proportional to the increase of the coconut coir
mixture ratio but varies following the particleboards density. For the same board
thickness, light particleboards (low density) have more space and void than heavy
particleboards (high density). This caused the spring back value of number to
decrease when thickness swelling actives. Consequently, low-density particleboards
will have a low thickness swelling value, while high-density particleboards will have
a high thickness swelling value.

Furthermore, at the same board density, the mixture ratio that has a high
percentage of durian peel by weight will have a high thickness swelling. This high
thickness swelling is caused by the high hemi-cellulose content of durian peel.
Inversely, mixture ratio that has a high percentage of coconut coir by weight will
 15

have a low-thickness swelling value, which is caused by the coconut coir high lignin
content (Khedari et al,. 2004).

According to (Asasutjarit et al., 2005), thickness swelling (TS) decreased

when the cement ratio higher than or equal to coconut coir fibre. The chemical
composition of coir is lignin, cellulose, water-soluble, pectin and related compounds,
ash and hemi-cellulose. For these reasons, the cement board easily swollen.
Meanwhile, the table shows that the best bamboo cement ratio is 1:2.75 and 1:3
without the chemical additives because the value of TS is below than 2 that follow
the MS required. If the percentage of thickness swelling is high, then spring back
will occur and board density will decrease. For the past research, show that the
thickness swelling after a long duration of water immersion tends to increase with
decreasing board density because of the greater spring back of compacted particle in
boards of lower density in case of natural fibreboard (Sarkar et al., 2012).

Table 2.3: Thickness Swelling (TS) Bamboo Cement Board (Sudin & Swamy, 2006)
Bamboo Cement Ratio Chemical Additives TS (%)
1:2.50 - 2.15
1:2.75 - 1.17
1:3.0 - 1.26
1.2.75 CaC12 2.26
1:2.75 MgC12 1.11
1:2.75 A12(SO4)3 0.76
1:2.75 A12(SO4)3 + Na2SiO3 0.82
MS 934 - < 2.00

2.6 Compatibility of Cement – Natural Fibre

According to Dullah et al., (2017), found the issue of compatibility between natural
fibre and cement has been highlighted in many previous studies on application of
bio-composites. The combination of cement and fibre cause the compatibility issue
due to the existing of hemi-cellulose, starch, sugar, tannins and lignin which appear
to inhibit significantly the setting of cement hydration. To resolve this issue, previous
research suggested the most effective method is pre-treatment of the natural fibre
 16

using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and cement-curing accelerator to accelerate the

curing time of cement which could improve the compatibility of natural fibre with
the cement. It was observed that additional chemical additive can modify the setting
time of cement hydration for utilization of natural fibre into cement bonded fibre
board products. To improve the natural fibre- cement mixtures by addition of some
chemicals such as magnesium chloride and calcium chloride. Chemical additive is
one of the modification method commonly found to accelerate the setting time of
cement matrix which is suitable for application of natural fibre cement composite
products. The study on utilization of oil palm fibre is to product cement bonded fibre
board product is to enhance the mechanical performance with addition of 5-7 % of
MgCl2. However, the additional of other accelerator need to be emphasized based on
previous studies that applied several types of chemical accelerator on different type
of natural fibre which have same structural composition with EFB fibre. Therefore,
other types of chemical additive should also need to be considered to accelerate the
setting time of EFB fibre-cement mixture.

According to Kochova, Schollbach, & Brouwers (2015) found that the main
problem for production of wood cement composites, such as WWCB, is the
incompatibility between cement and organic fibres, due to the carbohydrates in the
fibres which may hinder or stop the hydration of cement. The biggest influence can
be sucrose, glucose, and fructose. These components are soluble especially in an
alkali environment and react with the cement paste to slow down hydration. This can
cause lower mechanical strength of wood cement composites compared to the neat
cement. Nevertheless, not all types of carbohydrates have the same effect. Glucose
and sucrose are observed to have the biggest inhibitory influence. Sucrose has a
greater retarding effect than glucose at the same concentration. The quality and
quantity of the leached carbohydrates depend on the type of wood fibres.

There are some disadvantages of using lignocellulosic wastes such as low

modulus of elasticity, high moisture absorption, decomposition in alkaline
environments, dimensional instability and variable physico-mechanical properties.
These problems cannot be completely vanished. However, research is in progress to
reduce the magnitude of these problems. For example, moisture absorption and
 17

dimensional instability can be controlled by impregnating water soluble polymers in

the cell wall of lignocellulosic materials like natural fibres (Karade, 2010).

2.6.1 Compatibility Improvement of Natural Fibre Cement Board

There are three method of improving the wood-cement compatibility, involving the
pre-treatment of wood, addition of cement curing accelerators, and CO2 injection
(Bin Na et al ,. 2014). However, this research has focus on addition of cement curing
accelerator. Usually, by additing of some chemicals that act as cement curing
accelerators can effect of improving the compatibility of a wood-cement composites
and also be made after an extraction of the furnish to further improve the cement
setting.

According to Bin Na et al., (2014), there are a number of metal salts, such as
CaCl2, FeCl3 and Al2(SO4)3 can be used to accelerate cement setting, and CaCl2
with low cost in particular has been successfully used to improve the strength
properties of wood-cement composites. Some mineral additives added to a mixture of
cement and wood improve its quality. One of the most promising additives for the
wood- cement boards industry is silica fume. The rapid growth of the silica fume use
in cement-based materials is attributed to its beneficial effects on physical-
mechanical properties of cement based composites, such as increased strength and
decreased permeability.

According to Tun et al., (2019), the physical and mechanical properties were
observed in EFB cement board for sustainable building shows the result indicated
that the best percentage of NaOH is 1% as pre-treatment for the fibres, meanwhile
minimum percentage of 0.3% and 0.4% CaCl2 should be consider as cement
accelerator in board production. Other than that, the minimum requirements for
physical and mechanical properties were met by EFB fibre treated with 4% NaOH
with or without cement accelerators.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter explained the material preparation, process of cement board fabrication
and the testing that would be conducted to achieve the objective of this study. The
overall process that involved is summarized by the process flowchart as indicated in
Figure 3.1.
 19

Start

Materials Preparation

Oil Palm Empty Fruit Cement Water Magnesium

Bunch (EFB) fibre Chloride

Cement Board
Fabrications

Weight Mixing Forming Pressing Curing Cutting Testing

Experimental Tests

Mechanical Properties
 Modulus of Physical Properties
 Thickness
Elasticity (MOE)
Swelling (TS)
 Modulus of
 Thickness
Rupture (MOR)
Monitoring
 Internal Bonding
 Density
(IB)

Result and Analysis

End

Figure 3.1: Flow Chart Research Methodology

 20

3.2 Material Preparation

3.2.1 Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)

For this research, the raw material used to produce a cement board for this study is
empty fruit bunch (EFB) is required. EFB is agricultural waste from oil palm
industry. The materials are collected from Syarikat Perusahaan Kelapa Sawit Sdn
Bhd factory located at Jalan Labis, Yong Peng, Johor. Figure 3.2 shows the raw
material of EFB before grind using a hammer mill. Meanwhile, Figure 3.3 shows the
short EFB after grind using hammer mill.

Figure 3.2: Raw Material of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)

Figure 3.3: Short EFB after Grind Using Hammer Mill

 21

3.2.2 Cement

Cement is a binder which sets and hardens when mixed with water. The type of
cement that used for this study is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Type 1. In
Malaysia production of OPC must follow the quality requirements specified in the
Malaysian Standard MS 522: Part 1: 1989 Specifications for Ordinary Portland
Cement. There are several types of OPC depends on the features and applications.

3.2.3 Water

The function of water was to mixing the material. The water was taken at the
FKAAS Laboratory through tap water. The water must be clean to avoid impurities
that can affect the mixing process of cement board. Usually, the pH value of the
water used was at 7 and the amount of water used is based on the water- cement
ratio.

3.2.4 Fibre

The agriculture waste that used as a fibre is EFB. The raw EFB from factory with
range length of 200mm to 300mm will be air dried for two days. The dried EFB
would be transformed to short fibre using hammer mill machine. The fibre would be
screened using a vibration sieve machine. The fibre length would be used in this
study is EFB fibre that passing mesh size 7mm and retaining mesh size 14mm. The
range for the fibre length is 8.88mm to 16.55mm and the mean length is 14.37mm.
After that, the fibre must be oven dried for 24 hours to ensure the moisture content
completely removed.
 22

3.2.5 Magnesium Chloride

Chemical additive is one of the modification methods to accelerate the setting time of
cement matrix which is suitable for application of natural fibre cement composite
products. For this study, Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) flakes have been used as
additive. MgCl ratio used in this study is 0%,1%,2%,3%,4% and 5% of cement
weight.

3.3 Cement Board Fabrication

3.3.1 Weight

The production of cement board in this study which is Ordinary Portland Cement,
Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) fibre and water was weighed depends on the ratio that
have been set as shown in Figure 3.4. This step has been done carefully to avoid
mistakes that affected the results of producing the cement board.

Figure 3.4: Weighted of Material

3.3.2 Mixing
 23

The material has been mixing by using a mixer machine shows in Figure 3.5. It is
used to mixing EFB Fibre with cement and water. In this study, magnesium chloride
(MgCl) would be used as an accelerator. The ratio of cement and EFB is
3(cement):1(fibre). The ratio of water is 40% of cement weight and MgCl ratio used
in this study is 0%,1%,2%,3%,4% and 5% of cement weight. Each percentage would
be fabricated 3 samples and the total sample of cement boards is 18 samples. The
fibre and water would be placed in the mixer and blended for 2 minutes. Then, the
Ordinary Portland Cement would be added. The paste would be left mixed for
another 8 minutes to obtain a homogenous mix. The total duration would be needed
for this mixing process is 10 minutes.

Figure 3.5: Mixer Machine

3.3.3 Forming

The mixed material must be transferred immediately to the wooden mould with
dimension 350 mm x 350 mm after the mixture was uniformly blended. Mixed
material would be spreading and flattening by hand show in Figure 3.6 and Figure
3.7 and the plate of plywood was placed on top in pre-pressing and pre-forming
cement board as shown in Figure 3.8 and Figure 3.9. The mixed material was
clamped on a 450 mm x 450 mm steel mould before placing into pressing machine.
 24

Figure 3.6: Spreading the Mixed Material at Wooden Mould

Figure 3.7: Flattening the Mixed Material

Figure 3.8: Pre-Pressing Process

 25

Figure 3.9: Pre-Forming Process

3.3.4 Pressing

The mixed material would be clamped with the steel mould and would be placed in
the pressing machine show in Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11. The machine would be
press at a specific pressure of 40 tonnes via a hydraulic cold press machine with
press capacity 2.45 N/mm2 for 350 x 350 x 12 mm sample size to reduce the mixing
height. The hydraulic cold press machines are function to generate a compressive
force by using a hydraulic cylinder. A spacer with thickness 12mm would be placed
between steel moulds before the compaction in order to form a sample of cement
board with thickness 12mm when compressed under high pressure.

Figure 3.10: Clamped Using Steel Mould

 26

Figure 3.11: Steel Mould Placed In the Pressing Machine

3.3.5 Curing

There are two methods in curing of cement board which is hot curing and air curing.
The air curing methods are used for this study. Air curing is the process to maintain
satisfactory moisture content and reasonable temperature range. The sample of
cement board would be cured at ambient temperature for 48 hours before cement
board unclamped and left cured another for 26 days as shown in Figure 3.12. Total
duration for the curing process is 28 days.

Figure 3.12: Curing the Cement Board

 27

3.3.6 Cutting

All the cement board would be cut into small sample by using arm saw machine
based on the type of testing and size required as guided by a Malaysian Standard
specification (MS 934:1984) and British Standard (BS EN 326-1:1993) for each
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Internal Bonding (IB),
thickness swelling (TS) and density testing as shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13: Cutting the Cement Board

3.4 Testing

The laboratory tests would be performed to get the result of physical and mechanical
properties of cement boards. All the cement boards sample need to be test and must
be fulfilled the minimum requirement as stated in BS EN 634-2:2007. Table 3.1
shows the minimum requirements for specified OPC bonded particleboards.
 28

Table 3.1: Minimum Requirements for Specified OPC Bonded Particleboards

Standard Requirement (All
Properties Unit
Requirement Thickness)
Modulus of Class 1:4500
BS EN 310:1993 N/mm2
Elasticity (MOE) Class 2:4000
Modulus of
BS EN 310:1993 N/mm2 9
Rupture (MOR)
Internal Bonding
BS EN 319:1993 N/mm2 0.5
(IB)
Thickness Swelling
BS EN 317:1993 % 1.5
in 24 hours (TS)
Density BS EN 323:1993 Kg/m3 1000

3.4.1 Modulus of Elastic (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture (MOR)

According to BS EN 310:1993, mechanical properties of cement board EFB would

be determined to obtain the results of MOE and MOR testing shows in Figure 3.14.
The sample for testing must be measured 300 mm x 50 mm x 12 mm. The test would
be done at the laboratory, the data result for MOE testing would be generate from
computer but for MOR testing must be calculate manually using the formula given in
BS EN 310:1993 in Table 3.2. From this testing, the result would show the value of
the maximum load that can be applied to the cement board.

Figure 3.14: MOE and MOR Testing

Table 3.2: Formula for MOE and MOR Formula Based on BS EN 310:1993
 29

Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) Modulus of Rupture (MOR)

MOE=l 1 3 ¿ ¿
Where, l 1,b∧t are in millimetres,
F 2−¿ F ¿ is the increment of load on the 3 F max l1
1 MOR=
2b t 2
straight line portion of the load
Where, F maxis the maximum load in
deflection curve in Newton ( F 1
Newtons,
approximately 10% and ¿
l 1,b∧t are in millimetres
approximately 40%) of the maximum
load,
a 2−¿ a ¿ is the increment of deflection at
1

mid length (corresponding to F 2−¿ F ¿) 1

3.4.2 Internal Bonding

The purpose of internal bonding testing is to determine the strength bonding formed
between the EFB fibre and cement shows in Figure 3.15. From this testing, the result
will be shown that the value of the maximum load that can be obtained before it
breaks. The machine test would pull the sample of cement boards until it fails. This
test will be carried out using the Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The sample for
testing must be measured 50mm x 50mm. The internal bonding testing must be
calculated according to the following formula as stated in BS EN 319:1993:

F max
IB=
ax b
Where,
F maxis the breaking load, Newton(N)
a , b is the length and width of the test piece, Millimetres(mm)
 30

Figure 3.15: Internal Bonding (IB) Testing

3.4.3 Thickness Swelling (TS)

After curing process, the cement board sample would be testing the physical
properties of thickness swelling test show in Figure 3.16. Thickness swelling is
determined by measuring the increase in thickness of the cement board after
complete immersion in water by using a Vernier caliper. The sample for testing must
be measured 50mm x 50mm. The formula for thickness swelling refers to the BS EN
317:1993.

t 2−¿t
TS= 1
¿ x 100
t1
Where, t 1is the thickness before immersion, millimeter (mm)
t 2 is the thickness after immersion, millimeter (mm)
 31

Figure 3.16: Cement Board after Complete Immersion in Water

3.4.4 Thickness Monitoring

In order to achieve the objective, the thickness monitoring must be done every two
days until 28 days during the curing process to identify the thickness increase by
using Vernier caliper. There are 3 samples that would go through this process. A
value of thickness will be obtained by taking average reading of the 3 samples. The
sample for testing must be measured 50mm x 50mm. The allowable thickness for
cement board as stated in BS EN 634-1:1995 shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: The Allowable Thickness for Cement Board

Properties Requirement

Dimensional tolerance on nominal <12mm ±0.7mm

- Thickness t (unsanded) 12mm ≤ t < 15mm ±1.0mm
within board and between boards 15mm ≤ t < 19mm ±1.2mm
≥19mm ±1.5mm
- Length and width ± 5 mm
Edge straightness tolerance 1.5mm per m
Squareness tolerance 2mm per m
Moisture content 6% to 12%
 32

3.4.5 Density

After curing the cement board sample for 28 days, the cement board sample would
be testing the physical properties of density. Density is determined the density of
cement board by weighting the sample, measuring the thickness and length of the
sample after 28 days using a Vernier caliper. The sample for testing must be
measured 50mm x 50mm. The formula for density refers to the BS EN 323:1993.

m
ρ= x 106
b1 xb2 xt

Where, m is the mass of test pieces (g)

b 1 , b 2∧t 2(mm)
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, discussion would be focused on the performance of the effect of

Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFBCB) properties based on percentage of
MgCl. There are six percentage of MgCl have been introduced, 0% (control sample),
1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% to fabricated the cement boards. All the test method has
been described in the previous chapter. The results that presented in this chapter are
regarding on physical properties which is Thickness Swelling (TS), Density and
mechanical properties which is Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture
(MOR) and Internal Bonding (IB).

4.2 Physical Characteristic of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) Samples

4.2.1 Physical Appearance

Based on the study that has been conducted shows that cement boards with the
higher percentage of MgCl has higher aesthetic appearance compare to lower
 34

percentage of MgCl. Figure 4.1 shows the appearance of empty fruit bunch cement
boards (EFBCB) based on different percentage of MgCl.

Figure 4.1 : Appearances of Cement Boards from Different Percentage of MgCl

4.2.2 The Relationship of Thickness Monitoring (TM) and Densities of Empty

Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFBCB) Samples

Thickness monitoring is carried out during the curing condition for 28 days. This
testing have been conducted to see increment in thickness of Empty Fruit Bunch
Cement Board (EFBCB) that were recorded every two days interval until 28 days of
curing process. The design thickness for this study is 12mm with allowable ±1mm
based on BS EN 364:1995. The thickness must be in range 11mm to 13mm to make
it possible to use in construction industry. Figure 4.2 shows the result of thickness
monitoring for 0% MgCl was increased from 13.41 mm to 13.48 mm from day 2 to
day 28 but the weight of the sample was decreased every 2 days. Figure 4.3 shows
the result of thickness monitoring for 1% MgCl was increased from 13.49 mm to
13.54 mm but the weight of the sample was also decreased every 2 days. Figure 4.4
 35

shows the result of thickness monitoring for 2% MgCl was decreased from 14.39
mm to 14.14 mm and the weight of the sample was slightly decreased. Figure 4.5,
Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7 shows the result of thickness monitoring for 3%, 4% and
5% after monitored in 28 days of curing process, similar trend was observed in which
the weight and thickness of the cement board was decreased from day 2 until day 28.

Based on the result below, it can be seen that the final thickness monitoring
for cement board with different percentage 0% (control), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) is 13.42mm, 13.61mm, 14.16mm, 14.31mm, 13.90mm
and 14.07mm. From the visual observation shows that the thickness monitoring for
0% MgCl was increased but weight for samples was decreased during the curing
process in 28 days. Thickness monitoring and weight of sample for 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%
and 5% of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) was slightly decreased due to the effect of
MgCl of empty fruit bunch cement board (EFBCB).

Based on the specification from BS EN 364:1995, the requirement for design

thickness for this study is 12mm with allowable ±1mm need to achieve for cement
boards to be used as structural purpose. For this study, the thickness for the cement
boards did not achieved the requirement.

13.60 2.320
2.300
13.50
2.280
13.40
Thickness (mm)

2.260
Weight (kg)

13.30 2.240
2.220
13.20
2.200
13.10
2.180
13.00 2.160
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day

THICKNESS WEIGHT

Figure 4.2: Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 0% MgCl

 36

13.75 2.700

13.70 2.600
13.65 2.500
Thickness (mm)
13.60 2.400

Weight (kg)
13.55 2.300

13.50 2.200

13.45 2.100
13.40 2.000

13.35 1.900
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day

THICKNESS WEIGHT

Figure 4.3: Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 1% MgCl

14.50 2.700

14.40 2.600

14.30 2.500
Thickness (mm)

Weight (kg)
14.20 2.400

14.10 2.300

14.00 2.200

13.90 2.100

13.80 2.000
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day

THICKNESS WEIGHT

Figure 4.4: Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 2% MgCl

 37

14.60 2.600
14.50 2.550

14.40 2.500
Thickness (mm) 2.450
14.30

Weight (kg)
2.400
14.20
2.350
14.10
2.300
14.00 2.250
13.90 2.200
13.80 2.150
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day

THICKNESS WEIGHT

Figure 4.5: Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 3% MgCl

14.30 2.600

14.20
2.500
14.10
2.400
Thickness (mm)

14.00

Weight (kg)
13.90 2.300

13.80
2.200
13.70
2.100
13.60

13.50 2.000
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day

THICKNESS WEIGHT

Figure 4.6: Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 4% MgCl

 38

14.50 2.600
14.40
2.500
14.30
14.20 2.400
Thickness (mm)
14.10

Weight (kg)
2.300
14.00
13.90 2.200

13.80 2.100
13.70
2.000
13.60
13.50 1.900
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day

THICKNESS WEIGHT

Figure 4.7 : Thickness Monitoring vs Weight for 5% MgCl

4.3 Physical and Mechanical Performance Properties Based On Different

Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

4.3.1 Thickness Swelling (TS)

Thickness swelling is carried out by soaking the sample in water for 24hours. The
sample has been cut into 50mm x 50mm based on BS EN 317:1993. Figure 4.8
shows the conditions of cement boards before and after being soaked in water for 24
hours to identify which sample that has the higher water absorption which can
influenced the percentage of thickness swelling. Figure 4.9 shows the result for
thickness swelling.
 39

Figure 4. 8: The Conditions of Cement Board before and after Being Soaked in
Water

9.50 15.00
14.50
8.50
14.00
Thickness Swelling (%)

13.50
7.50

Thickness (mm)
13.00
6.50 12.50
12.00
5.50
11.50
11.00
4.50
10.50
3.50 10.00
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

Thickness Swelling (%) THICKNESS (mm)

Figure 4. 9: The Result for Thickness Swelling vs Thickness for Different Percentage
of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards

Based on the result obtained, it can be seen that the thickness swelling (TS)
for cement board with different percentage 0% (control), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) is 3.69%, 5.45%, 6.62%, 5.63%, 8.34% and 6.44%.
From the visual observation shows that the cement board with 4% of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl) has the higher thickness swelling and the cement boards with 0%
(control) MgCl has the lower thickness swelling. The cement board with the MgCl
has a presence of void that allow the water enter the cement board. The presence of
 40

more irregular void space in cement boards enchance water absorption which
influenced the percentage of thickness swelling (Sotannde et al, 2012). The higher
the water absoption of cement board, the higher the percentage of thickness swelling.

Based on the specification from BS EN 317:1993, the requirement for

thickness swelling for cement boards to be used as structural purpose need to
achieved 1.5% from the initial thickness. The thickness swelling for cement board
with different percentage 0% (control), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl) above did not achieve the requirement needed.

4.3.2 Density

Density is carried out by weighting the sample, measuring the thickness and length
of the sample after 28 days using a Vernier caliper. The sample for testing must be
measured 50mm x 50mm. Figure 4.10 shows the result for density in cement boards.

1300.00 14.80

14.60
1250.00
14.40
1200.00
Density (kg/m3)

Thickness (mm)
14.20

1150.00 14.00

13.80
1100.00
13.60
1050.00
13.40

1000.00 13.20
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

Density THICKNESS

Figure 4.10: The Result for Density vs Thickness for Different Percentage of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards
 41

Based on the result obtained, it can be seen that the density for cement board
with different percentage 0% (control), 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl) is 1242.02 kg/m3, 1211.41 kg/m3, 1118.32 kg/m3, 1157.92
kg/m3,1113.24 kg/m3 and 1151.71 kg/m3. From the result obtained, cement boards
with 0% (control) has the highest density of cement board because of the thickness of
cement board is lower. When the thickness of cement boards is decreased, the
density of the cement boards is increased. The time of curing also can affect the
weighted and the thickness of cement boards. The longer the time of curing, the
lower the weighted of cement boards. Longer curing time reduced the water content
and significantly reduced the weighed of cement board.

4.3.3 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)

The modulus of elasticity (MOE) test is done to observed the level of cement board
elasticity after the stress applied is released and it is resistance to bending. Modulus
of elasticity is measured the cement boards deflection. Figure 4.11 show the result
for modulus of elasticity (MOE).

3000.00 14.40

14.20
2500.00
Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2)

14.00
2000.00
Thickness (mm)

13.80

1500.00 13.60

13.40
1000.00
13.20
500.00
13.00

0.00 12.80
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

MOE THICKNESS (mm)

Figure 4.11: The Result for Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) for Different Percentage of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards
 42

Based on the result obtained, it can be seen that the optimum modulus of
elasticity (MOE) for cement board with different percentage 0% (control), 1%, 2%,
3%, 4% and 5% of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) is 2543.33 N/mm 2, 2119 N/mm2,
1446.42 N/mm2, 1723 N/mm2, 1557.87 N/mm2 and 1224.50 N/mm2. It was observed
that cement boards with 0% (control) of MgCl experience the higher of modulus of
elasticity. From this, it can be explained that increasing percentage of MgCl,
decreasing the modulus of elasticity of cement boards.

From the result, it can also observed that cement boards with higher
percentage of MgCl experience the higher thickness increment of cement boards.
From that, it can be assumed that the higher thickness increment of cement boards,
the lower the modulus of elasticity of cement boards. Based on the specification from
BS EN 310:1993, the requirement modulus of elasticity value for Class 1 is 4500
N/mm2 and Class 2 is 4000 N/mm2. The study has shown that cement board with
different percentage 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)
did not achieve the criteria in modulus of elasticity for cement boards to be used as
structural in construction.

4.3.4 Modulus of Rupture (MOR)

The modulus of rupture (MOR) test is done to measure the maximum load carrying
capacity or to observed the stress at which the material break or ruptures. This test is
done to determine the overall strength of cement board compare to modulus of
leasticity that only measure the deflection but not the ultimate strength of cement
boards. Figure 4.12 shows the result for modulus of rupture with different percentage
of magnesium chloride (MgCl) in cement boards.
 43

6 14.40

14.20
5

Modulus of Rupture (N/mm2)

14.00
4

Thickness (mm)
13.80

3 13.60

13.40
2
13.20
1
13.00

0 12.80
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

MOR THICKNESS (mm)

Figure 4. 12: The Result for Modulus of Rupture (MOR) for Different Percentage of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards

Based on the result obtained, it shows the modulus of rupture (MOR) with
different percentage of magnesium chloride (MgCl) in cement boards. The modulus
of rupture (MOR) for cement board with different percentage 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%
and 5% of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) is 5.25 N/mm2, 4.8 N/mm2, 2.95 N/mm2, 3.2
N/mm2, 2.3 N/mm2 and 2.6 N/mm2. It was observed that cement boards with 0%
(control) of MgCl experience the higher of modulus of rupture. From this, it can be
explained that increasing percentage of MgCl, decreasing the modulus of rupture of
cement boards.

It also can be observed that the cement board with higher percentage of MgCl
experience the higher thickness increment of cement boards. From that, it can be
assumed that the higher thickness increment of cement boards, the lower the modulus
of rupture of cement boards. It can be explained that MOR are significantly related to
MOE, if modulus of elasticity decreased, the modulus of rupture are also decreased.
The results obtained correspond with the research from (Kord et al, 2015)

Based on the specification from BS EN 310:1993, the minimum requirement

for modulus of rupture (MOR) is 9 N/mm2. From the observation, the MOR for
 44

cement board with different percentage 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl) did not achieve the requirement for cement boards to be used as
structural in construction.

4.3.5 Internal Bonding (IB)

The internal bonding (IB) test of cement board is done to observed the adhesive
strength of cement boards. It is also known as tensile strength. The tensile strength is
calculated by dividing the maximum load at failure by cross-sectional area of the
samples. Figure 4.13 shows the result for internal bonding in cement boards.
0.030 15.50

0.025 15.00
Internal Bonding (N/mm2)

0.020 14.50

Thickness (mm)
0.015 14.00

0.010 13.50

0.005 13.00

0.000 12.50
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

Internal Bonding THICKNESS (mm)

Figure 4. 13: The Result for Internal Bonding (IB) for Different Percentage of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) in Cement Boards in Cement Boards

Based on the result obtained, it shows the internal bonding (IB) with different
percentage of magnesium chloride (MgCl) in cement boards. The internal bonding
(IB) for cement board with different percentage 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) is 0.028 N/mm 2, 0.025 N/mm2, 0.005 N/mm2, 0.004
N/mm2, 0.003 N/mm2 and 0.005 N/mm2. It was observed that cement boards with 0%
(control) of MgCl experience the higher of internal bonding. From this, it can be
 45

explained that increasing percentage of MgCl, decreasing the internal bonding of

cement boards. The internal bonding also affected by the increment thickness of
cement board. The internal bonding significantly decreased when the thickness is
increased. This result is supported by research from (Sotannde et al, 2012) where
found that increased of MgCl, the decreased of internal bonding.

Based on the specification from BS EN 319:1993, the minimum requirement

for internal bonding (IB) is 0.5 N/mm2. From the observation, the IB for cement
board with different percentage 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl) did not achieve the requirement for cement boards to be used as
structural in construction.

4.4 Linear Regression

4.4.1 Linear Regression Prediction for Physical and Mechanical Properties of

Based On Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) Percentage

Linear regression is to determine the linear approach the relationship between

dependent variable and one or more independent variables. The linear regression
prediction is to predict whether the data is good or poor linear correlation coefficient
(R2) . When the R2 is below than 0.5 it can categorised as poor correlated linearly. In
this study, the discussion would be discuss on the linear regression prediction for
physical and mechanical properties of empty fruit bunch cement board (EFBCB)
based on MgCl percentage. Figure 4.14, Figure 4.15, Figure 4.16, Figure 4.17 and
Figure 4.18 shows the result of linear regression prediction for thickness swelling
(TS), density, modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR) and internal
bonding (IB).
 46

9.00

8.00

Thickness Swelling (%)

7.00 f(x) = 61.13 x + 4.5
R² = 0.55
6.00

5.00

4.00

3.00
0% 1% 1% 2% 2% 3% 3% 4% 4% 5% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

Thickness Swelling (%) Linear (Thickness Swelling (%))

Figure 4. 14: The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Thickness Swelling
Based On Different MgCl in Cement Boards

1300.00

1250.00

1200.00 f(x) = − 2018.51 x + 1216.24

Density (kg/m3)

R² = 0.54
1150.00

1100.00

1050.00

1000.00
0% 1% 1% 2% 2% 3% 3% 4% 4% 5% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

Density Linear (Density)

Figure 4. 15: The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Density Based On
Different MgCl in Cement Boards
 47

3000.00

Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2)

2500.00
f(x) = − 22859.95 x + 2340.52
2000.00 R² = 0.78

1500.00

1000.00

500.00

0.00
0% 1% 1% 2% 2% 3% 3% 4% 4% 5% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

MOE Linear (MOE)

Figure 4. 16 : The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Modulus of Elasticity
(MOE) Based On Different MgCl in Cement Boards

6
Modulus of Rupture (N/mm2)

5
f(x) = − 58.57 x + 4.98
R² = 0.81
4

0
0% 1% 1% 2% 2% 3% 3% 4% 4% 5% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

MOR Linear (MOR)

Figure 4.17: The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Modulus of Rupture
(MOR) Based On Different MgCl in Cement Boards
 48

0.030

0.025

Internal Bonding (N/mm2)

f(x) = − 0.52 x + 0.02
0.020 R² = 0.71

0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000
0% 1% 1% 2% 2% 3% 3% 4% 4% 5% 5%
Percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl)

Internal Bonding Linear (Internal Bonding)

Figure 4. 18 : The Result for Linear Regression Prediction for Internal Bonding (IB)
Based On Different MgCl in Cement Boards

Based on the result above, it shows that the R2 value for thickness swelling
(TS), density, modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR) and internal
bonding (IB) is 0.5538, 0.5415, 0.7821, 0.812 and 0.7091. It was observed the linear
regression prediction for thickness swelling (TS), density, modulus of elasticity
(MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR) and internal bonding (IB) is in good linear
correlated.
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

The maximum potential for utilization of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) fibre is by using
it in the construction industry in order to get strong structure. In this study, it focused
on the utilization of EFB fibre as reinforcement in the production of cement boards.
It was concluded that for the production of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) fibre:

1. The effect of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) of empty fruit bunch cement

board (EFBCB) on uniformity of board density and thickness is when the
density of the cement board increased, the thickness of the cement board
decreased. The density of the cement board decreased when the
percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) increased.

2. The percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) that produces the best

performance of physical and mechanical properties of empty fruit bunch
cement board (EFBCB) is the cement boards with 1% of Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl). It can be seen that cement boards with 1% of
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) have the highest value of Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Internal Bonding (IB),
thickness swelling (TS) and density is 2119 N/mm 2, 4.8 N/mm2,
0.025N/mm2, 5.45% and 1211.41kg/m3.
 50

3. Based on the result, the linear regression prediction for physical and
mechanical properties of empty fruit bunch cement board (EFBCB) based
on different percentage of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) is in good linear
correlation with the formula and value of R2:
Thickness Swelling (TS): 61.151x + 4.5001, R² = 0.5538
Density: -2018.5ρ + 1216.2, R² = 0.5415
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE): -22860x + 2340.5, R² = 0.7821
Modulus of Rupture (MOR): -58.571x + 4.981, R² = 0.812
Internal Bonding (IB): -0.52x + 0.0247, R² = 0.7091

4. As overall study that had be done, the result for physical and mechanical
properties of the cement board with different percentage 0%, 1%, 2%,
3%, 4% and 5% of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl) did not achieve the
standard requirement for cement boards to be used as structural in
construction.

5.2 Recommendation

There is a few problem has been occured during the preparation of this
sample. This problem may affect the performance of the test data collected.
Therefore, there is some suggestions were given below in order to improve the
performance of the study.

1. Other than treat the fibre with MgCl, the fibre also can be treated using hot
water bath that may give different resulted to the performance of physical and
mechanical properties of EFBCB.

2. In order to ensure that all the fibre mixed properly, increased the mixing time
of fibre and it will not affect the data collected when it mixed properly.
 51

3. To be more practical, after mixing all the material during the fabrication
process make sure to forming the mixing material as soon as possible to avoid
the mixing material loss the moisture content before pressing process.
 REFERENCES

Abdul, H. P. S., Jawaid, M., Hassan, A., Paridah, M. T., & Zaido, A. (2012). Oil
Palm Biomass Fibres and Recent Advancement in Oil Palm Biomass Fibres
Based Hybrid Biocomposites. Composites and Their Applications.

Abdullah, A. C., & Lee, C. C. (2017). Effect of Treatments on Properties of Cement-

fiber Bricks Utilizing Rice Husk, Corncob and Coconut Coir. Procedia
Engineering, 180, 1266–1273.

Asasutjarit, C., Hirunlabh, J., Khedari, J., Daguenet, M., & Quenard, D. (2005).
Coconut Coir Cement Board. International Conference On Durability of
Building Materials and Components, (April).

Asasutjarit, C., Shin, U. C., Khedari, J., Zeghmati, B., Hirunlabh, J., & Charoenvai,
S. (2005). Development of coconut coir-based lightweight cement board.
Construction and Building Materials, 21(2), 277–288.

Ashori, A., Tabarsa, T., & Sepahvand, S. (2012). Cement-bonded composite boards
made from poplar strands. Construction and Building Materials, 26(1), 131–
134.

Aziz, M. A., Paramasivam, P., & Lee, S. L. (1981). Prospects for natural fibre
reinforced concretes in construction. International Journal of Cement
Composites and Lightweight Concrete, 3(2), 123–132.

Azni, M. E., Norhan, A. S., & Lofflad, H. (2015). Feasibility Study on Empty Fruit
 53

Bunch ( Efb ) Cement. Proceeding of ISER 9th International Conference,

Berlin, Germany, (October), 33–37.

B., N., Z., W., H., W., & X., L. (2014). Wood-cement compatibility review. Wood
Research, 59(5), 813–825.

Danso, H. (2017). Properties of Coconut, Oil Palm and Bagasse Fibres: As Potential
Building Materials. Procedia Engineering, 200, 1–9.

Dullah, H., Akasah, Z. A., Nik Soh, N. M. Z., & Mangi, S. A. (2017). Compatibility
improvement method of empty fruit bunch fibre as a replacement material in
cement bonded boards: A review. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science
and Engineering, 271(1), 0–7.

Faizi, M., Shahriman, A., Majid, M. A., Shamsul, B., Ng, Y., Basah, S., … Wan, K.
(2017). An overview of the oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) potential as
reinforcing fibre in polymer composite for energy absorption applications.
MATEC Web of Conferences, 90, 01064.

Ferraz, J. M., del Menezzi, C. H. S., Teixeira, D. E., & Martins, S. A. (2011). Effects
of treatment of coir fiber and cement/fiber ratio on properties of cement-bonded
composites. BioResources, 6(3), 3481–3492.

Karade, S. R. (2010). Cement-bonded composites from lignocellulosic wastes.

Construction and Building Materials, 24(8), 1323–1330.

Khedari, J., Nankongnab, N., Hirunlabh, J., & Teekasap, S. (2004). New low-cost
insulation particleboards from mixture of durian peel and coconut coir. Building
and Environment, 39(1), 59–65.

Khorami, M., & Ganjian, E. (2011). Comparing flexural behaviour of fibre-cement

composites reinforced bagasse: Wheat and eucalyptus. Construction and
Building Materials, 25(9), 3661–3667.
 54

Kochova, K., Schollbach, K., & Brouwers, H. J. H. (2015). Use of alternative fibres
in Wood Wool cement boards and their influence on cement hydration. 19th
International Conference on Building Materials (Ibausil 2015), (2), 1375–1382.

Kord, B., Zare, H., & Hosseinzadeh, A. (2015). Evaluation of the mechanical and
physical properties of particleboard manufactured from Canola (Brassica napus)
straws. Maderas. Ciencia y Tecnología, 18(ahead), 0–0.

Onuorah, E. O., Okeke, C. A., Nwabanne, J. T., Nnabuife, E. L. C., & Obiorah, S. O.
M. (2016). The effects of production parameters on properties of single and 3-
layer cement-bonded composites made from oil palm empty fruit bunch and
tropical hardwood sawmill residue. World Journal of Engineering, 12(6), 577–
590.

Papadopoulos, A. N., Ntalos, G. A., & Kakaras, I. (2006). Mechanical and physical
properties of cement-bonded OSB. Holz Als Roh - Und Werkstoff, 64(6), 517–
518.

Safitri Zen, I., Ahamad, R., Gopal Rampal, K., & Omar, W. (2013). Use of asbestos
building materials in Malaysia: Legislative measures, the management, and
recommendations for a ban on use. International Journal of Occupational and
Environmental Health, 19(3), 169–178.

Sarkar, M., Asaduzzaman, M., Das, A., Hannan, M., & Shams, M. (2012).
Mechanical properties and dimensional stability of cement bonded particleboard
from rice husk and sawdust. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial
Research, 47(3).

Sotannde, O. A., Oluwadare, A. O., Ogedoh, O., & Adeogun, P. F. (2012).

Evaluation of cement-bonded particle board produced from Afzelia africana
wood residues. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 7(6), 732–743.

Sudin, R., & Swamy, N. (2006). Bamboo and wood fibre cement composites for
sustainable infrastructure regeneration. Journal of Materials Science, 41(21),
 55

6917–6924.

Tun, U., Onn, H., Dullah, H., Tun, U., Onn, H., Anting, N., … Boarding, P. (2019).
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Empty Fruit Bunch Fibre-Cement
Bonded Fibreboard for Sustainable Retrofit Building, (April).

Wei, Y. M., Tomita, B., Hiramatsu, Y., Miyatake, A., & Fujii, T. (2002). Study of
hydration behaviors of wood-cement mixtures: Compatibility of cement mixed
with wood fiber strand obtained by the water-vapor explosion process. Journal
of Wood Science, 48(5), 365–373.

Wolfe, R. W., & Gjinolli, A. (1996). Cement-Bonded Wood Composites as an

Engineering Material. The Use of Recycled Wood and Paper in Building
Applications, 84–91.
APPENDIX