Sake

Sake
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This article is about the beverage. For other uses, see Sake (disambiguation).

Sake bottle, Japan, ca. 1740

Sake served in a clear glass

 Sake barrel offerings at the Shinto shrine Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura

Sake, also spelled saké (/ˈsɑːkeɪ/ SAH-kay,[1][2] also referred to as Japanese rice wine),

[3]
 is an alcoholic beverage made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove
the bran. Despite the name, unlike wine, in which alcohol is produced
by fermenting sugar that is naturally present in fruit (typically grapes), sake is produced
by a brewing process more akin to that of beer, where starch is converted into sugars,
which ferment into alcohol.
The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer, where the conversion
from starch to sugar and then from sugar to alcohol occurs in two distinct steps. Like
other rice wines, when sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously.
Furthermore, the alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer; while most beer
contains 3–9% ABV, wine generally contains 9–16% ABV,[4] and undiluted sake contains
18–20% ABV (although this is often lowered to about 15% by diluting with water prior to
bottling).
In Japanese, the word sake (kanji: 酒, Japanese pronunciation: [sake]) can refer to
any alcoholic drink, while the beverage called "sake" in English is usually
termed nihonshu (日本酒; meaning 'Japanese liquor'). Under Japanese liquor laws,
sake is labelled with the word "seishu" (清酒; 'clear liquor'), a synonym not commonly
used in conversation.
In Japan, where it is the national beverage, sake is often served with special ceremony,
where it is gently warmed in a small earthenware or porcelain bottle and sipped from a
small porcelain cup called a sakazuki. As with wine, the recommended serving
temperature of sake varies greatly by type.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Oldest sake brewery
 2Production
o 2.1Rice
o 2.2Water
o 2.3Kōji-kin
o 2.4Fermentation
o 2.5Maturation
o 2.6Tōji
 3Varieties
o 3.1Special-designation sake
o 3.2Ways to make the starter mash
o 3.3Different handling after fermentation
o 3.4Others
 4Taste and flavor
 5Serving sake
 6Seasonality
 7Storage
 8Ceremonial use
 9Events
 10See also
 11References
o 11.1Citations
o 11.2General sources
 12Further reading
 13External links

History[edit]
The origin of sake is unclear. The earliest reference to the use of alcohol in Japan is
recorded in the Book of Wei in the Records of the Three Kingdoms. This 3rd-century
Chinese text speaks of the Japanese drinking and dancing. [5] Alcoholic beverages
(Japanese: 酒) are mentioned several times in the kōjiki, Japan's first written history,
which was compiled in 712. Bamforth (2005) places the probable origin of true sake
(which is made from rice, water, and kōji mold (麹, Aspergillus oryzae) in the Nara
period (710–794). In the Heian period, sake was used for religious ceremonies, court
festivals, and drinking games.[6][page  needed] Sake production was a government monopoly for
a long time, but in the 10th century, temples and shrines began to brew sake, and they
became the main centers of production for the next 500 years. The Tamon-in Diary,
written by abbots of Tamon-in (temple) from 1478 to 1618, records many details of
brewing in the temple. The diary shows that pasteurization and the process of adding
ingredients to the main fermentation mash in three stages were established practices by
that time.[citation needed] In the 16th century, the technique of distillation was introduced into the
Kyushu district from Ryukyu.[5] The brewing of shōchū, called "Imo—sake" started, and
was sold at the central market in Kyoto.
Title page of Bereiding van Sacki, by Isaac Titsingh: earliest explanation of the sake brewing process in a
European language. Published in 1781, in Batavia, Dutch East Indies.

In the 18th century, Engelbert Kaempfer[7] and Isaac Titsingh[8] published accounts

identifying sake as a popular alcoholic beverage in Japan; but Titsingh was the first to
try to explain and describe the process of sake brewing. The work of both writers was
widely disseminated throughout Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. [9]
During the Meiji Restoration, laws were written that allowed anybody with the money
and know-how to construct and operate their own sake breweries. Around 30,000
breweries sprang up around the country within a year. However, as the years went by,
the government levied more and more taxes on the sake industry and slowly the
number of breweries dwindled to 8,000.[citation needed]
Most of the breweries that grew and survived this period were set up by wealthy
landowners. Landowners who grew rice crops would have rice left over at the end of the
season and, rather than letting these leftovers go to waste, would ship it to their
breweries. The most successful of these family breweries still operate today. [citation needed]
During the 20th century, sake-brewing technology grew by leaps and bounds. The
government opened the sake-brewing research institute in 1904, and in 1907 the very
first government-run sake-tasting competition was held. Yeast strains specifically
selected for their brewing properties were isolated and enamel-coated steel tanks
arrived. The government started hailing the use of enamel tanks as easy to clean,
lasting forever, and being devoid of bacterial problems. (The government considered
wooden barrels to be unhygienic because of the potential bacteria living in the wood.)
Although these things are true, the government also wanted more tax money from
breweries, as using wooden barrels means that a significant amount of sake is lost to
evaporation (somewhere around 3%), which could have otherwise been taxed. This was
the end of the wooden-barrel age of sake and the use of wooden barrels in brewing was
completely eliminated.[citation needed]
In Japan, sake has long been taxed by the national government. In 1898, this tax
brought in about ¥5 million out of a total of about ¥120 million, about 4.6% of the
government's total direct tax income.[10]
During the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–1905, the government banned the home
brewing of sake. At the time, sake still made up an astonishing 30% of Japan's tax
revenue. Since home-brewed sake is tax-free sake, the logic was that by banning the
home brewing of sake, sales would go up, and more tax money would be collected. This
was the end of home-brewed sake, and the law remains in effect today even though
sake sales now make up only 2% of government income. [citation needed]
When World War II brought rice shortages, the sake-brewing industry was dealt a hefty
blow as the government clamped down on the use of rice for brewing. As early as the
late 17th century, it had been discovered that small amounts of alcohol could be added
to sake before pressing to extract aromas and flavors from the rice solids, but during the
war, pure alcohol and glucose were added to small quantities of rice mash, increasing
the yield by as much as four times. 75% of today's sake is made using this technique,
left over from the war years. There were even a few breweries producing "sake" that
contained no rice at all. Naturally, the quality of sake during this time varied greatly. [citation
needed]

After the war, breweries slowly began to recover, and the quality of sake gradually went
up. However, new players on the scene—beer, wine, and spirits—became very popular
in Japan, and in the 1960s beer consumption surpassed sake for the first time. Sake
consumption continued to go down while, in contrast, the quality of sake steadily
improved.
Today, sake has become a world beverage with a few breweries springing up in China,
Southeast Asia, South America, North America, and Australia. [11] More breweries are
also turning to older methods of production.
While the rest of the world may be drinking more sake and the quality of sake has been
increasing, sake production in Japan has been declining since the mid-1970s. [12] The
number of sake breweries is also declining. While there were 3,229 breweries
nationwide in fiscal 1975, the number had fallen to 1,845 in 2007. [13]
Oldest sake brewery[edit]
The oldest known sake brewery is from the 15th century near an area that was owned
by Tenryū-ji, in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto. Unrefined sake was squeezed out at the brewery and
there are about 180 holes (60 cm wide, 20 cm deep) for holding storage jars. A hollow
(1.8 meter wide, 1 meter deep) for a pot to collect drops of pressed sake and 14th-
century Bizen ware jars were also found. It is estimated to be utilized until the Onin
War (1467-1477). Sake was brewed at Tenryū-ji during the Muromachi Period (1336-
1573).[14]

Production[edit]
Sake brewery, Takayama, with a sugitama (杉玉) globe of cedar leaves indicating sake.

Rice[edit]
The rice used for brewing sake is called saka mai 酒米 (sake rice), or officially shuzō
kōtekimai 酒造好適米 (sake-brewing suitable rice). There are at least 80 types of sake
rice in Japan. Among these, Yamadanishiki, Gohyakumangoku, Miyamanishiki and
Omachi rice are very popular. The grain is larger, stronger (If a grain is small or weak, it
will break in the process of polishing), and contains less protein and lipid than the
ordinary rice eaten by the Japanese. Sake rice is used only for making sake, because it
is unpalatable for eating.
Sake rice is usually polished to a much higher degree than rice that is used for eating.
The reason for polishing is a result of the composition and structure of the rice grain
itself. The core of the rice grain is rich in starch, while the outer layers of the grain
contain higher concentrations of fats, vitamins and proteins. Since higher concentration
of fat and protein in the sake would lead to off-flavors and contribute rough elements to
the sake, the outer layers of the sake rice grain is milled away in a polishing process,
leaving only the starchy part of the grain (some sake brewers remove over 60% of the
rice grain in the polishing process). That desirable pocket of starch in the center of the
grain is called the shinpaku (心白). It usually takes two to three days to polish rice down
to less than half its original size. The rice powder that is a by-product of the polishing is
very often used for making rice crackers, or Japanese sweets (i.e. Dango), and other
food stuffs.
If the sake is made with rice that has a higher percentage of its husk and outer portion
of the core milled off, then more rice will be required to make that particular sake, and it
will take longer to make. As a result, sake made with rice that has been highly milled
(much of the rice has been polished off) is usually more expensive than a sake that has
been made using less polished rice. However, this does not always mean that sake
made by highly milled rice is of better quality than sake made by rice that has been
milled less.
Rice polishing ratio, called Seimai-buai 精米歩合 (see Glossary of sake terms)
measures the degree of rice polishing. For example, rice polishing ratio of 60% means
that the 60% of the original rice grain remains and the 40% has been polished away.
Water[edit]
Water is one of the important ingredients for making sake. It is involved in almost every
major process of sake brewing from washing the rice to dilution of the final product
before bottling. The mineral content of the water can play a large role in the final
product. Iron will bond with an amino acid produced by the kōji to produce off flavors
and a yellowish color. Manganese, when exposed to ultraviolet light, will also contribute
to discoloration. Conversely potassium, magnesium, and phosphoric acid serve as
nutrients for yeast during fermentation and are considered desirable. [15] The yeast will
use those nutrients to work faster and multiply resulting in more sugar being converted
into alcohol. While soft water will typically yield sweeter sake, hard water with a higher
nutrient content is known for producing drier-style sake.
The first region known for having great water was the Nada-Gogō in Hyōgo Prefecture.
A particular water source called "Miyamizu" was found to produce high quality sake and
attract many producers to the region. To this day Hyōgo has the most sake brewers of
any prefecture.[15]
Typically breweries source their water from wells, though lakes and rivers can be used
as well. Also breweries may use tap water and filter and adjust components as they see
fit.[15]
Kōji-kin[edit]
Kōji-kin (Aspergillus oryzae) spores are another important component of sake. Kōji-kin
is an enzyme-secreting fungus.[16] In Japan, kōji-kin is used to make various fermented
foods, including miso (a paste made from soybeans) and shoyu (soy sauce).[16] It is also
used to make alcoholic beverages, notably sake. [16] During sake brewing, spores of kōji-
kin are scattered over steamed rice to produce kōji (rice in which kōji-kin spores are
cultivated).[17] Under warm and moist conditions, the kōji-kin spores germinate and
release enzymes called amylases that convert the rice starches into glucose.[18] This
process of starch conversion into simpler sugars (e.g. glucose or maltose) is called
saccharification.[19] Yeast then turns this glucose into alcohol via fermentation.
[17]
 Saccharification also occurs in beer brewing, where malt is used to convert starches
from barley into maltose.[17] However, whereas fermentation occurs after saccharification
in beer brewing, saccharification (via kōji-kin) and fermentation (via yeast)
occur simultaneously in sake brewing (see "Fermentation" below).[17]
As kōji-kin is a microorganism used to manufacture food, its safety profile with respect
to humans and the environment in sake brewing and other food-making processes must
be considered. Various health authorities, including Health Canada and the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA), consider kōji-kin (A. oryzae) generally safe for use in
food fermentation, including sake brewing. [16] When assessing its safety, it is important to
note that A. oryzae lacks the ability to produce toxins, unlike the closely
related Aspergillus flavus.[16] To date, there have been only several reported cases of
animals (e.g. parrots, a horse) being infected with A. oryzae.[20] In these cases, however,
the animals infected with A. oryzae were already weakened due to predisposing
conditions like recent injury, illness, or stress, and were therefore especially susceptible
to infections in general.[20] Aside from these cases, there is no evidence to indicate A.
oryzae is a harmful pathogen to either plants or animals in the scientific literature.
[20]
 Therefore, Health Canada considers A. oryzae “unlikely to be a serious hazard
to livestock or to other organisms,” including "healthy or debilitated humans." [20] Given its
safety record in the scientific literature and extensive history of safe use (spanning
several hundred years) in the Japanese food industry, the FDA and World Health
Organization (WHO) also support the safety of A. oryzae for use in the production of
foods like sake.[16] In the U.S., the FDA classifies A.oryzae as a Generally Recognized as
Safe (GRAS) organism.[16]
Fermentation[edit]

Moromi (the main fermenting mash) undergoing fermentation

Sake fermentation is a 3-step process called sandan shikomi.[21] The first step,

called hatsuzoe, involves the steamed rice, water, and kōji-kin being added to the yeast
starter called shubo, which is made from a mixture of steamed rice, water, kōji, and
yeast.[21] This mixture becomes known as the moromi (the main mash during sake
fermentation).[21] The high yeast content of the shubo promotes the fermentation of
the moromi.[21]
On the second day, the mixture is left to stand for a day to allow the yeast to multiply. [21]
The second step (the third day of the process), called nakazoe, involves the addition of
a second batch of kōji, steamed rice, and water to the mixture. [21] On the fourth day of the
fermentation, the third step of the process, called tomezoe, takes place.[21] Here, the third
and final batch of kōji, steamed rice, and water is added to the mixture to complete the
3-step process.[21]
The fermentation process of sake is a multiple parallel fermentation, which is unique to
sake.[21] Multiple parallel fermentation is the conversion of starch into glucose followed by
immediate conversion into alcohol.[22] This process distinguishes sake from
other liquors like beer because it occurs in a single vat, whereas with beer, for instance,
starch to glucose conversion and glucose to alcohol conversion occur in separate vats.
[22]
 The breakdown of starch into glucose is caused by the kōji-kin fungus, while the
conversion of glucose into alcohol is caused by yeast. [22] Due to the yeast being available
as soon as the glucose is produced, the conversion of glucose to alcohol is very
efficient in sake brewing.[22] This results in sake having a generally higher alcohol content
than other types of liquor.[22]
After the fermentation process is complete, the fermented moromi is pushed through a
press to remove the sake lees and then pasteurized and filtered for color.[21] The sake is
then stored in bottles under cold conditions (see "Maturation" below). [21]
The entire process of making sake can range from 60–90 days (2–3 months), while the
fermentation alone can take two weeks.[23]
Maturation[edit]
Like other brewed beverages, sake tends to benefit from a period of storage. Nine to
twelve months are required for sake to mature. Maturation is caused by physical and
chemical factors such as oxygen supply, the broad application of external heat, nitrogen
oxides, aldehydes and amino acids, among other unknown factors. [24]
Tōji[edit]
Tōji (杜氏) is the job title of the sake brewer, named after Du Kang. It is a highly
respected job in the Japanese society, with tōji being regarded
like musicians or painters. The title of tōji was historically passed on from father to son;
today new tōji are either veteran brewery workers or are trained at universities. While
modern breweries with refrigeration and cooling tanks operate year-round, most old-
fashioned sake breweries are seasonal, operating only in the cool winter months.
During the summer and fall most tōji work elsewhere, and are commonly found on
farms, only periodically returning to the brewery to supervise storage conditions or
bottling operations.[25][unreliable source?]

Varieties[edit]
Special-designation sake[edit]
There are two basic types of sake: Futsū-shu (普通酒, ordinary sake) and Tokutei
meishō-shu (特定名称酒, special-designation sake). Futsū-shu is the equivalent
of table wine and accounts for the majority of sake produced. Tokutei meishō-shu refers
to premium sake distinguished by the degree to which the rice has been polished and
the added percentage of brewer's alcohol or the absence of such additives. There are
eight varieties of special-designation sake.[26]
The four main grades of sake are junmai, honjozo, ginjo and daiginjo.
Generally junmai (純米) is a term used for sake that is made of pure rice wine without
any additional alcohol.[27] The listing below has the highest quality at the top: