Pharmacology

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This article is about the science. For the book type ("a pharmacology"), see Materia
medica. For the journal, see Pharmacology (journal).

Pharmacology

Diagrammatic representation of organ bath used for studying the effect

of isolated tissues

MeSH Unique ID D010600

Pharmacology is a branch of pharmaceutical sciences which is concerned with the

study of drug or medication action,[1] where a drug can be broadly or narrowly defined as
any man-made, natural, or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a
biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism (sometimes
the word pharmacon is used as a term to encompass
these endogenous and exogenous bioactive species). More specifically, it is the study
of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect
normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they
are considered pharmaceuticals.
The field encompasses drug composition and properties, synthesis and drug design,
molecular and cellular mechanisms, organ/systems mechanisms, signal
transduction/cellular communication, molecular diagnostics, interactions, chemical
biology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two
main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics.
Pharmacodynamics studies the effects of a drug on biological systems, and
pharmacokinetics studies the effects of biological systems on a drug. In broad terms,
pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological receptors, and
pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
(ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous
 with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical
science, deals with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals which
show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation
to these chemicals. In contrast, pharmacy, a health services profession, is concerned
with the application of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings;
whether it be in a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast
between the two is their distinctions between direct-patient care, pharmacy practice,
and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2History
 3Divisions
o 3.1Systems of the body
o 3.2Clinical practice and drug discovery
 3.2.1Drug discovery
o 3.3Wider contexts
o 3.4Emerging fields
 4Theory of pharmacology
o 4.1Systems, receptors and ligands
o 4.2Pharmacodynamics
o 4.3Pharmacokinetics
 5Administration, drug policy and safety
o 5.1Drug policy
 6Societies and education
o 6.1Societies and administration
o 6.2Education
 7See also
 8References
 9External links
 10Further reading

Etymology[edit]
The word "pharmacology" is derived from Greek φάρμακον, pharmakon, "drug, poison,
(paranormal)|-λογία, -logia "study of", "knowledge of"[2][3] (cf. the etymology of  pharmacy).
Pharmakon is related to pharmakos, the ritualistic sacrifice or exile of a
human scapegoat or victim in Ancient Greek religion.

History[edit]
Main articles: List of drugs by year of discovery and History of pharmacy
Naturally derived opium from opium poppies has been used as a drug since before 1100 BCE. [4]

Opium's major active constituent, morphine, was first isolated in 1804 and is now known to act as an opioid
agonist.[5][6]

The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to the Middle Ages,

with pharmacognosy and Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, Peter of
Spain's Commentary on Isaac, and John of St Amand's Commentary on the Antedotary
of Nicholas.[7] Early pharmacology focused on herbalism and natural substances, mainly
plant extracts. Medicines were compiled in books called pharmacopoeias. Crude
drugs have been used since prehistory as a preparation of substances from natural
sources. However, the active ingredient of crude drugs are not purified and the
substance is adulterated with other substances.
Traditional medicine varies between cultures and may be specific to a particular culture,
such as in traditional Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan and Korean medicine. However
much of this has since been regarded as pseudoscience. Pharmacological substances
known as entheogens may have spiritual and religious use and historical context.
In the 17th century, the English physician Nicholas Culpeper translated and used
pharmacological texts. Culpeper detailed plants and the conditions they could treat. In
the 18th century, much of clinical pharmacology was established by the work of William
Withering.[8] Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-
19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period. [9] Before the second
half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of
drugs such as morphine, quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with
reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues.
[10]
 The first pharmacology department was set up by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847, in
recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced
their effects.[9] Subsequently, the first pharmacology department in England was set up
in 1905 at University College London.
Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the
principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts. [11] The advancement of
research techniques propelled pharmacological research and understanding. The
development of the organ bath preparation, where tissue samples are connected to
recording devices, such as a myograph, and physiological responses are recorded after
drug application, allowed analysis of drugs' effects on tissues. The development of
the ligand binding assay in 1945 allowed quantification of the binding affinity of drugs at
chemical targets.[12] Modern pharmacologists use techniques from genetics, molecular
biology, biochemistry, and other advanced tools to transform information about
molecular mechanisms and targets into therapies directed against disease, defects or
pathogens, and create methods for preventative care, diagnostics, and
ultimately personalized medicine.

Divisions[edit]
The discipline of pharmacology can be divided into many sub disciplines each with a
specific focus.
Systems of the body[edit]

A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including neuropharmacology, renal pharmacology,

human metabolism, intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation

Pharmacology can also focus on specific systems comprising the body. Divisions

related to bodily systems study the effects of drugs in different systems of the body.
These include neuropharmacology, in the central and peripheral nervous
systems; immunopharmacology in the immune system. Other divisions
include cardiovascular, renal and endocrine pharmacology. Psychopharmacology, is the
study of the effects of drugs on the psyche, mind and behavior,[citation needed] such as the
behavioral effects of psychoactive drugs.[citation needed] It incorporates approaches and
techniques from neuropharmacology, animal behavior and behavioral neuroscience,
and is interested in the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of action of
psychoactive drugs.[citation needed] The related field of neuropsychopharmacology focuses on
the effects of drugs at the overlap between the nervous system and the psyche.
Pharmacometabolomics, also known as pharmacometabonomics, is a field which stems
from metabolomics, the quantification and analysis of metabolites produced by the
body.[13][14] It refers to the direct measurement of metabolites in an individual's bodily
fluids, in order to predict or evaluate the metabolism of pharmaceutical compounds, and
to better understand the pharmacokinetic profile of a drug. [13][14] Pharmacometabolomics
can be applied to measure metabolite levels following the administration of a drug, in
order to monitor the effects of the drug on metabolic
pathways. Pharmacomicrobiomics studies the effect of microbiome variations on drug
disposition, action, and toxicity.[15] Pharmacomicrobiomics is concerned with the
interaction between drugs and the gut microbiome. Pharmacogenomics is the
application of genomic technologies to drug discovery and further characterization of
drugs related to an organism's entire genome.[citation needed] For pharmacology regarding
individual genes, pharmacogenetics studies how genetic variation gives rise to differing
responses to drugs.[citation needed] Pharmacoepigenetics studies the
underlying epigenetic marking patterns that lead to variation in an individual's response
to medical treatment.[16]
Clinical practice and drug discovery[edit]
Main articles: Drug development and Drug Discovery Hit to Lead

A toxicologist working in a lab

Pharmacology can be applied within clinical sciences. Clinical pharmacology is the

basic science of pharmacology focusing on the application of pharmacological principles
and methods in the medical clinic and towards patient care and outcomes. [citation needed] An
example of this is posology, which is the study of how medicines are dosed. [citation needed]
Pharmacology is closely related to toxicology. Both pharmacology and toxicology are
scientific disciplines that focus on understanding the properties and actions of
chemicals.[17] However, pharmacology emphasizes the therapeutic effects of chemicals,
usually drugs or compounds that could become drugs, whereas toxicology is the study
of chemical's adverse effects and risk assessment. [17]
Pharmacological knowledge is used to
advise pharmacotherapy in medicine and pharmacy.
Drug discovery[edit]
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Drug discovery is the field of study concerned with creating new drugs. It encompasses
the subfields of drug design and development.[citation needed] Drug discovery starts with drug
design, which is the inventive process of finding new drugs.[18] In the most basic sense,
this involves the design of molecules that are complementary in shape and charge to a
given biomolecular target.[citation needed] After a lead compound has been identified through
drug discovery, drug development involves bringing the drug to the market. [citation needed] Drug
discovery is related to pharmacoeconomics, which is the sub-discipline of health
economics that considers the value of drugs[19][20] Pharmacoeconomics evaluates the cost
and benefits of drugs in order to guide optimal healthcare resource allocation. [citation
needed]
 The techniques used for the discovery, formulation, manufacturing and quality
control of drugs discovery is studied by pharmaceutical engineering, a branch
of engineering.[21] Safety pharmacology specialises in detecting and investigating
potential undesirable effects of drugs.[citation needed]

The drug discovery cycle

Development of medication is a vital concern to medicine, but also has

strong economical and political implications. To protect the consumer and prevent
abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture, sale, and administration of
medication. In the United States, the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is
the Food and Drug Administration; they enforce standards set by the United States
Pharmacopoeia. In the European Union, the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals
is the EMA, and they enforce standards set by the European Pharmacopoeia.
The metabolic stability and the reactivity of a library of candidate drug compounds have
to be assessed for drug metabolism and toxicological studies. Many methods have
been proposed for quantitative predictions in drug metabolism; one example of a recent
computational method is SPORCalc.[22] A slight alteration to the chemical structure of a
medicinal compound could alter its medicinal properties, depending on how the
alteration relates to the structure of the substrate or receptor site on which it acts: this is
called the structural activity relationship (SAR). When a useful activity has been
identified, chemists will make many similar compounds called analogues, to try to
maximize the desired medicinal effect(s). This can take anywhere from a few years to a
decade or more, and is very expensive.[23] One must also determine how safe the
medicine is to consume, its stability in the human body and the best form for delivery to
the desired organ system, such as tablet or aerosol. After extensive testing, which can
take up to six years, the new medicine is ready for marketing and selling. [23]
Because of these long timescales, and because out of every 5000 potential new
medicines typically only one will ever reach the open market, this is an expensive way
of doing things, often costing over 1 billion dollars. To recoup this outlay pharmaceutical
companies may do a number of things:[23]

 Carefully research the demand for their potential new product before spending an
outlay of company funds.[23]
 Obtain a patent on the new medicine preventing other companies from producing
that medicine for a certain allocation of time.[23]
The inverse benefit law describes the relationship between a drugs therapeutic benefits
and its marketing.
When designing drugs, the placebo effect must be considered to assess the drug's true
therapeutic value.
Drug development uses techniques from medicinal chemistry to chemically design
drugs. This overlaps with the biological approach of finding targets and physiological
effects.
Wider contexts[edit]
Pharmacology can be studied in relation to wider contexts than the physiology of
individuals. For example, pharmacoepidemiology is the study of the effects of drugs in
large numbers of people and relates to the broader fields of epidemiology and public
health.[citation needed] Pharmacoenvironmentology or environmental pharmacology is a field
intimately linked with ecology and public health.[citation needed] Human health and ecology are
intimately related so environmental pharmacology studies the environmental effect of
drugs and pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment.[citation needed]
Drugs may also have ethnocultural importance, so ethnopharmacology studies the
ethnic and cultural aspects of pharmacology.[citation needed]
Emerging fields[edit]
Photopharmacology is an emerging approach in medicine in which drugs are activated
and deactivated with light.[citation needed] The energy of light is used to change for shape and
chemical properties of the drug, resulting in different biological activity. [citation needed] This is
done to ultimately achieve control when and where drugs are active in a reversible
manner, to prevent side effects and pollution of drugs into the environment. [24][25]