1 INTRODUCTION TO GIS

Videos: GIS for Landscape Analysis & NPTEL

1.1 Background
GIS stands for Geographical Information System. It is defined as an integrated tool, capable of
mapping, analyzing, manipulating and storing geographical data in order to provide solutions to
real-world problems and help in planning for the future. GIS deals with what and where
components of occurrences. For example, to regulate rapid transportation, the government
decides to build fly-over (what component) in those areas of the city where traffic jams are
common (where component).
GIS means differently to different people and therefore has different definitions. For example,
Burrough (1998) defined GIS as “ a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at
will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes”
1.2 Objectives of GIS
Some of the major objectives of GIS are to
● Maximizing the efficiency of planning and decision making
● Integrating information from multiple sources
● Facilitating complex querying and analysis
● Eliminating redundant data and minimizing duplication
1.3 Components of a GIS
GIS has the following components:
● Hardware: It consists of the equipment and support devices that are required to capture,
store process and visualize the geographic information. These include a computer with a
hard disk, digitizers, scanners, printers and plotters etc.
● Software: Software is at the heart of a GIS system. The GIS software must have the
basic capabilities of data input, storage, transformation, analysis and providing desired
outputs. The interfaces could be different for different software. The GIS software being
used today belong to either of the category –proprietary or open-source. ArcGIS by ESRI
is the widely used proprietary GIS software. Others in the same category are MapInfo,
Microstation, Geomedia etc. The development of open source GIS has provided us with
freely available desktop GIS such as Quantum, uDIG, GRASS, MapWindow GIS etc.,
GIS software.
● Data: The data is captured or collected from various sources (such as maps, field
observations, photography, satellite imagery etc) and is processed for analysis and
presentation.
● Procedures: These include the methods or ways by which data has to be input in the
system, retrieved, processed, transformed and presented.
● People: This component of GIS includes all those individuals (such as programmer,
database manager, GIS researcher etc.) who are making the GIS work, and also the
individuals who are at the user end using the GIS services, applications and tools.

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 2 MAPS AND MAP SCALES
A map is a two-dimensional representation of earth surface which uses graphics to convey
geographical information. It describes the geographical location of features and the relationship
between them. Maps are fundamental to society. Cartography refers to the art and science of map
preparation. Though the earliest of the maps were technically not as impressive as they are today
but they certainly highlighted their role in communicating information about the location and
spatial characteristics of the natural world and of society and culture. The new discoveries in
Science and Geography fortified maps with facts and technical details. Improvements in the
fields of Geodesy, Surveying and Cartography helped in bringing the maps to their present form.
The digital technology has altered the way of creating, presenting and distributing the geographic
information. The conventional cartography is now getting replaced by computer-aided designs
and graphics, and the analogue maps (paper maps) by digital maps. The growing field of
technology promises to bring more advances to Cartography to render maps and allied services
that serve the society in a better manner.
2.1 Types of Maps
The maps can be classified on the following criteria:
● Scale
● Purpose
Scale is important for correct representation of geographical features and phenomenon. Different
features require different scales for their display. For example, preparation of a cadastral map of
a village and the soil map of a state would use a different scale for representing the information.
According to scale, maps can be classified as follows:
1. Cadastral: These maps register the ownership of land property. They are prepared by the
government to realize tax and revenue. A village map is an example of a cadastral map
which is drawn on a scale of 16 inches to the mile or 32 inches to the mile.
2. Topographical: Topographical maps are prepared on a fairly large scale and are based on
a precise survey. They don’t reveal land parcels but show topographic forms such as
relief, drainage, forest, village, towns etc. The scale of these maps varied conventionally
from 1/4 inch to the mile to one inch to the mile. The topographical maps of different
countries have varying scales.
● Topographical survey map of the British Ordnance Survey is one-inch maps.
● The scale of European toposheets varies from 1:25000 to 1:100000. (BHUTAN
also has this scale)
● USA toposheets are drawn on the scale 1:62500 and 1:125000.
● The international map which is a uniform map of the world is produced on the
scale of 1:1000000.
3. Chorographical/Atlas: Drawn on a very small scale, atlas maps give a generalized view of
physical, climatic and economic conditions of different regions of the world. The scale of
the atlas map is generally greater than 1:1000,000.

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On the basis of Purpose or the content, the maps can be classified as follows:
2.1.1 Natural Maps:
These maps represent natural features and the processes associated with them. Given
below is the list of some such maps:
1. Astronomical map: It refers to the cartographic representation of the heavenly
bodies such as galaxies, stars, planets, moon etc.
2. Geological map: A map that represents the distribution of different type of rocks
and surficial deposits on the Earth.
3. Relief map: A map that depicts the terrain and indicates the bulges and the
depressions present on the surface.
4. Climate map: A climate map is a depiction of prevailing weather patterns in a
given area. These maps can show daily weather conditions, average monthly or
seasonal weather conditions of an area.
5. Vegetation map: It shows the natural flora of an area.
6. Soil map: A soil map describes the soil cover present in an area.
2.1.2 Cultural Maps:
These maps tell about the cultural patterns designed over the surface of the earth. They
describe the activities of man and related processes. Given below is the list of such maps:
1. Political map: A map that shows the boundaries of states, boundaries between
different political units of the world or of a country which mark the areas of
respective political jurisdiction
2. Military map: A military map contains information about routes, points, security,
and battle plans.
3. Historical map: A map having historical events symbolized on it.
4. Social map: A map giving information about the tribes, languages and religions of
an area.
5. Land-utilization map: A map describing the land and the ongoing activities on it.
6. Communication map: A map showing means of communication such as railways,
road, airways etc.
7. Population map: A map showing the distribution of human beings over an area.
2.2 Map Scale
The size of the earth is too big to be represented as it is on a map. To represent the whole earth or
part thereof on a small map, the concept of scale is used. The proportion chosen for a map is its
scale. It is the relationship between distance on map and distance on the ground that tells what
distance on the map corresponds to what distance on the ground.
2.2.1 Representation of scale
There are three ways in which a scale can be depicted on a map:

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Expressed in words such as ‘2 centimetres to the kilometre’ which means two centimetres
on the map represents one kilometre on the ground. Though it is the simplest way of
expressing a scale it has the following drawbacks associated with it:
1. Statement
● The fractional distances
involve mathematical
calculations
● Different countries have
different units of length,
expressing a statement scale
on a map may not be
understood by the foreigners.

Figure 2- 1. Map with scale in Statement

2. Representative fraction
It is expressed in fraction. If the
scale is 1:50000, it means that 1
unit of measurement on the map
represents 50,000 units on the
ground. It is also known as a
numerical scale.

The distance on the map and the

Figure 2-2. Map with scale in
Representative fraction

distance on the ground must be in the same units of length. The advantage of this scale is
that- it can be read into different units of length. For example the map with a scale
1:50,000 would mean that a distance of 1 cm on the ground represents 50,000 cm on the

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ground or it can also be said that a distance of 1 foot on the ground represents 50,000 feet
on the ground.
3. Graphic
The scale is shown in the form of a strip, where the strip is divided into a number of equal
parts and is marked to show what these divisions represent on the actual ground. It is also
known as a plain scale or linear scale.
For example, the above scale
represents that 1 division of a
strip on the map represents 10
km on the ground.

Figure 2-3. Scale bar (Graphic) The advantage of a graphic scale

is that it is reduced or enlarged in
the same proportion in which the map is reduced or enlarged.
A qualitative nomenclature used to express the relative scale of a map consists of small or
large scale. The qualitative differences between these two scales are:

Table 2-1. Large scale map Vs Small scale map

Large scale map Small scale map

Area covered is small Area covered is large

Details are more, objects are seen as large Less details, objects are seen as small

To understand the difference, we can take help of the representative fraction method.
A map on a scale of 1:5,000 means that the size of the objects on the map is 1/5000 of
their size on the ground. Similarly, a map on a scale of 1:50,000 mean that the size of the
objects on the map is 1/50000 of their size on the ground.
As the map on the scale of 1:5000 shall show the objects on map bigger (as well as
smaller objects not visible earlier shall become visible) than those shown by 1:50,000
scale map, therefore, it is a large scale map.
Given below are the images to depict this difference clearly:

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Figure 2-4. Figure 4: A portion of the map showing the same area on different scales (Left) 2.3
1:25,000 [Large scale], (Right) 1:50,000 [Small scale] M
ap and Globe
The word globe comes from the Latin word globus which
means round mass or sphere. A terrestrial globe is a three-
dimensional scaled model of Earth. The fact that earth
resembles a sphere was established by Greek astronomy in
the third century BC and the earliest globes came from that
period. Unlike maps, the globe is a representation which is
free from distortions (distortion in shape, area). The
modern globes have longitudes and latitudes marked over
it so that one is able to tell the approximate coordinates of
a specific place. To make the illustration better, people
have tried depicting variations of earth surface over the
globe. The relief raised globes to allow a user to visualize
the mountain ranges and plains as the features are
modelled using elevations and depressions.
Figure 2- 5. A Globe depicting relief (Image But the relief is not scaled rather
source: exaggerated. The raised relief would be
http://www.1worldglobes.com/1WorldGlobes/class virtually invisible if a scale representation
room_relief_globe.htm) were attempted.

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The map and the globe are similar in a manner that both of them represent earth (on particular
scales) but there also exist a few differences between them, which are enumerated below:

Table 2-2. Globe vs Map

Globe Map

Three-dimensional representation of the earth Two-dimensional representation of the earth

in the form of a sphere in the form of a flat surface

Impossible to see all the countries of the All countries of the world can be seen on a
world at a glance as only half of the globe can world map at a glance
be seen at a time

The shape and size of geographical features is Due to projection, there are distortions in the
correctly represented. shape and size of geographical features.

Accurate tracing of the maps is not possible Maps can be accurately traced
due to the curvature of the globe

A part of earth can’t be separately represented A part of the earth can be separately
on the globe represented on the map

Inconvenient to carry Easy to carry

3 DATA MODEL AND DATA STRUCTURES

3.1 Introduction
Since DBMS used to store one-dimensional data, like integer or real numbers and strings,
considerable interest has been developed in using DBMS to store spatial data as well. It has been
observed that that ordinary DBMS do not handle spatial data such as boxes, polygons, or even
points in a multidimensional space efficiently.
3.1.1 Spatial and non-spatial data
Spatial data refers to the data or information that describes the absolute or relative
location of geographic features on the earth. The non-spatial data or the attribute data on
the other hand describes the characteristics of the spatial features. These characteristics
can be quantitative or qualitative.
3.1.2 Representation of Space
Burrough & McDonnell (1998) described two ways to represent the space (an area,
landscape or some bigger unit), which are as follows:

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  Discrete Entities: The space could be seen as occupied with entities that are described by
their properties and can be located on earth using coordinate systems. The entities have a
clear boundary. Buildings, roads, land parcels etc. are the example of discrete entities.
 Continuous fields: The variation of an attribute over the space as a continuous field. No
physical boundary can ever be observed in such case.
Temperature, pressure, elevation etc. across an area are the examples of continuous fields
3.2 Geodatabase
The term ‘Geodatabase’ was introduced by Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc.
(ESRI) and is defined as a collection of geographic datasets of various types that are held in a
common file system folder such as MS Access database, Oracle, SQL Server, DB2 etc. The
geodatabase is built on an extended relational database. In this model, entities are represented as
objects with properties, behaviour, and relationships.
Geodatabase supports various elements of GIS such as attribute data, CAD data, geographic
features, satellite and aerial images, GPS data and survey measurements. These types of data can
be represented as data objects viz. annotation, dimension, feature class, geometric network, raster
dataset, tables, topology, relationship class etc. Geodatabase design is based on a fundamental
step of GIS design which involves organizing geographic information into a series of data
themes then specifying the content and representation of the thematic layers. Advance
capabilities (network, topology, subtypes etc.) are added later to the geodatabase to model GIS
behaviour and maintain data integrity. Other key properties of geodatabase design include a
definition of coordinate properties and spatial properties, tolerances, coordinate resolution and
metadata documentation for each dataset
3.3 Metadata
Metadata is structured information that describes and makes it easier to retrieve, use, or manage
an information resource. It is also known as data about data.
Need for metadata
● To enable the process of search over distributed archives: Similar to a library catalogue, it
sorts data and makes it easy for a user to find it.
● Helps to assess the fitness of a dataset for a given use: Metadata is needed to determine
whether a dataset will satisfy a user’s requirement. Does the data have acceptable
quality? It may also have comments from previous users.
● Provides information about data content: In the case of remotely sensed images, it may
include the percentage of cloud obscuring the scene and some other information.
● Provide information about handling the dataset: It includes technical specification of the
data format, software compatible with the data, data volume etc.
Geospatial metadata commonly keep records of Geographic Information System (GIS) files,
geospatial databases, and earth imagery. It can also be used to document data catalogues,
mapping applications, data models and related websites. Metadata has the information on library
catalogue elements such as title, abstract, and publication; geographic elements such as the
geographic extent and projection information; and database elements such as attributes and their
values.

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The most widely used standard for metadata is the US Federal Geographic Data Committee’s
Content Standards for Digital Geospatial Metadata (CSDGM). CSDGM describes the items that
should be present in a metadata archive but doesn’t prescribe the format to present it. Developers
implement the standards that suit their own ways but make sure that the implementations are
interoperable i.e. can be understood by others.

Figure 3- 6. Screenshot of metadata of a shapefile displayed in ArcCatalog

3.4 Raster Data Structure
In a simple raster data structure, the geographical entities are stored in a matrix of rectangular
cells. A code is given to each cell which informs users which entity is present in which cell. The
simplest way of encoding raster data into computers can be understood as follows:
a) Entity model: It represents the whole raster data. Let us assume that
the raster data belongs to an area where land is surrounded by water.
Here a particular entity (land) is shown in green colour and the area
where land is not present is shown by white.

b) Pixel values: The pixel value for the full image is shown. Cells
having a part of the land are encoded as 1 and others where land is
not present are encoded as 0.

c) File structure: It demonstrates the method of coding raster data. The

first row of the file structure data tells that there are 5 rows and 5

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 columns in the image, and 1 is the maximum pixel value. The subsequent rows have cells
with value as either 0 or 1 (similar to pixel values).
The huge size of the data is a major problem with raster data. An image consisting of twenty
different land-use classes takes the same storage space as a similar raster map showing the
location of a single forest. To address this problem many data compaction methods have been
developed which are discussed below:
3.4.1 Run-length encoding
● Reduction of data on a row by row basis
● Stores a single value for a group of cells rather than storing values for individual cells
● First-line represents the dimension of the matrix (5×5) and the number of entities (1)
present. In second and subsequent lines, the first number in the pair represents
absence (0) or presence (1) of the entity and the second number indicates the number
of cells referenced.

3.4.2 Block encoding

● Data is stored in blocks in the raster matrix.
● The entity is subdivided into hierarchical blocks and the blocks are located using
coordinates.
● The first cell at top left hand is used as the origin for locating the blocks

3.4.3 Chain encoding

● Works by defining the boundary of the entity i.e. sequence of cells starting from and
returning to the given origin
● Direction of travel is specified using numbers. (0 = North, 1 = East, 2 = South, 3 =
West)
● The first line tells that the coding started at cell (4, 2) and there is only one chain. In
the second line, the first number in the pair tells the direction and the second number
represents the number of cells lying in this direction.

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3.4.4 Quadtree
● A raster is divided into a hierarchy of quadrants that are subdivided based on similar
value pixels.
● The division of the raster stops when a quadrant is made entirely from cells of the
same value.
● A quadrant that cannot be subdivided is called a leaf node.

A satellite or remote sensing image is a raster data where each cell has some value and together
these values create a layer. A raster may have a single layer or multiple layers. In a multi-layer/
multi-band raster each layer is congruent with all other layers, have identical numbers of rows
and columns, and have the same locations in the plane. Digital elevation model (DEM) is an
example of a single-band raster dataset each cell of which contains only one value representing
surface elevation.
A single layer raster data can be represented using

Figure 3-7. Two colours (binary): The raster

is represented as a binary image with cell A satellite
values as either 0 or 1 appearing black and image can
white respectively have
Figure 3-8. Grayscale: Typical remote multiple
sensing images are recorded in an 8-bit bands, i.e.
digital system. A grayscale image is thus the
represented in 256 shades of gray which
range from 0 (black) to 255 (white). However,
a human eye can’t make distinction between
the 255 different shades. It can only interpret
8 to 16 shades of gray.

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scene/details are captured at different wavelengths (Ultraviolet-visible-infrared portions) of the
electromagnetic spectrum. While creating a map we can choose to display a single band of data
or form a colour composite using multiple bands. A combination of any three of the available
bands can be used to create RGB composites. These composites present a greater amount of
information as compared to that provided by a single band raster.
3.5 Comparison between Vector and Raster Data Models
Table 3-3. Vector vs Raster

Data Advantages Disadvantages

Model

Simple data structure Cell size determines the resolution at

which the data is represented

Compatible with remote sensing or scanned Requires a lot of storage space

Raster data

Spatial analysis is easier Projection transformations are time-

consuming

Simulation is easy because each unit has Network linkages are difficult to
the same size and shape establish

Data is represented at its original resolution The location of each vertex is to be

and form without generalization stored explicitly

Require less storage space Overlay based on criteria is difficult

Vector
Editing is faster and convenient Spatial analysis is cumbersome

Network analysis is fast Simulation is difficult because each

unit has a different topological form

Projection transformations are easier  

3.6 Vector data structure

Geographic entities encoded using the vector data model, are often called features. The features
can be divided into two classes:
1. Simple features: These are easy to create, store and are rendered on screen very quickly.
They lack connectivity relationships and so are inefficient for modeling phenomena
conceptualized as fields.

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 2. Topological features: A topology is a mathematical procedure that describes how features
are spatially related and ensures data quality of the spatial relationships. Topological
relationships include following three basic elements:
a. Connectivity: Information about linkages among spatial objects
b. Contiguity: Information about the neighbouring spatial object
c. Containment: Information about the inclusion of one spatial object within another
spatial object
3.6.1 Connectivity
Arc node topology defines connectivity - arcs are connected to each other if they share a
common node. This is the basis for many network tracing and path finding operations.
Arcs represent linear features and the borders of area features. Every arc has a from-node
which is the first vertex in the arc and a to-node which is the last vertex. These two nodes
define the direction of the arc. Nodes indicate the endpoints and intersections of arcs.
They do not exist independently and therefore cannot be added or deleted except by
adding and deleting arcs.

Figure 3- 9. Arc-node Topology

Nodes can, however, be used to represent point features which connect segments of a
linear feature (e.g., intersections connecting street segments, valves connecting pipe
segments).

Figure 3-10. Node showing

intersection

Arc-node topology is supported through an arc-node list. For each arc in the list, there is a
from node and a to node. Connected arcs are determined by common node numbers.

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 Figure 3- 11. Arc-Node Topology with list
3.6.2
Contiguity

Figure 3-12. Polygon Topology

Polygon topology defines contiguity. The polygons are said to be contiguous if they share a
common arc. Contiguity allows the vector data model to determine adjacency.
The from node and to node of an arc indicate its direction, and it helps to determine the polygons
on its left and right side. Left-right topology refers to the polygons on the left and right sides of
an arc. In the illustration above, polygon B is on the left and polygon C is on the right of arc 4.
Polygon A is outside the boundary of the area covered by polygons B, C and D. It is called the
external or universe polygon and represents the world outside the study area. The universe
polygon ensures that each arc always has a left and right side defined.
3.6.3 Containment

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Figure 3-13. Polygon arc topolgy
Geographic features cover distinguishable area on the surface of the earth. An area is represented
by one or more boundaries defining a polygon. The polygons can be simple, or they can be
complex with a hole or island in the middle. In the illustration given below assume a lake with an
island in the middle. The lake has two boundaries, one which defines its outer edge and the other
(island) which defines its inner edge. An island defines the inner boundary of a polygon. The
polygon D is made up of arc 5, 6 and 7. The 0 before the 7 indicates that the arc 7 creates an
island in the polygon.
Polygons are represented as an ordered list of arcs and not in terms of X, Y coordinates. This is
called Polygon-Arc topology. Since arcs define the boundary of polygon, arc coordinates are
stored only once, thereby reducing the amount of data and ensuring no overlap of boundaries of
the adjacent polygons.
3.6.4 Simple Features
Point entities: These represent all geographical entities that are positioned by a single
XY coordinate pair. Along with the XY coordinates the point must store other
information such as what does the point represent etc.
Line entities: Linear features made by tracing two or more XY coordinate pair.
● Simple line: It requires a start and an end point.
● Arc: A set of XY coordinate pairs describing a continuous complex line. The
shorter the line segment and the higher the number of coordinate pairs, the closer
the chain approximates a complex curve.
Simple Polygons: Enclosed structures formed by joining set of XY coordinate pairs. The
structure is simple, but it carries few disadvantages which are mentioned below:
● Lines between adjacent polygons must be digitized and stored twice, improper
digitization give rise to slivers and gaps
● Convey no information about neighbour
● Creating islands is not possible
3.6.5 Topologic Features

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a) Networks: A network is a topologic feature model which is defined as a line graph
composed of links representing linear channels of flow and nodes representing their
connections. The topologic relationship between the features is maintained in a
connectivity table. By consulting connectivity table, it is possible to trace the
information flowing in the network
b) Polygons with explicit topological structures: Introducing explicit topological
relationships takes care of islands as well as neighbours. The topological structures
are built either by creating topological links during data input or using software. Dual
Independent Map Encoding (DIME) system of US Bureau of the Census is one of the
first attempts to create topology in geographic data.

Figure 3-14. Polygon as a topological feature

 Polygons are formed using the lines and their nodes.

 Once formed, polygons are individually identified by a unique identification number.
 The topological information among the polygons is computed and stored using the
adjacency information (the nodes of a line, and identifiers of the polygons to the left
and right of the line) stored with the lines.

c) Fully topological polygon network structure: A fully topological polygon network

structure is built using boundary chains that are digitized in any direction. It takes
care of islands and lakes and allows automatic checks for improper polygons.
Neighborhood searches are fully supported. These structures are edited by moving the
coordinates of individual points and nodes, by changing polygon attributes and by
cutting out or adding sections of lines or whole polygons. Changing coordinates
require no modification to the topology but cutting out or adding lines and polygons
requires recalculation of topology and rebuilding the database.
d) Triangular Irregular Network (TIN): TIN represents surface as contiguous non-
overlapping triangles created by performing Delaunay triangulation. These triangles
have a unique property that the circumcircle that passes through the vertices of a

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 triangle contains no other point inside it. TIN is created from a set of mass points with
x, y and z coordinate values. This topologic data structure manages information about
the nodes that form each triangle and the neighbors of each triangle.

Figure 3-15. Delaunay Triangulation

Advantages of Delaunay triangulation

 The triangles are as equiangular as possible, thus reducing potential numerical
precision problems created by long skinny triangles
 The triangulation is independent of the order the points are processed
 Ensures that any point on the surface is as close as possible to a node

Because points can be placed irregularly over a surface a TIN can have higher resolution
in areas where surface is highly variable. The model incorporates original sample points
providing a check on the accuracy of the model. The information related to TIN is stored
in a file or a database table. Calculation of elevation, slope, and aspect is easy with TIN
but these are less widely available than raster surface models and more time consuming
in term of construction and processing.

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 The TIN model is a vector data model which is stored using the relational attribute tables.
A TIN dataset contains three basic attribute tables: Arc attribute table that contains
length, from node and to node of all the edges of all the triangles.
 Node attribute table that contains x, y coordinates and z (elevation) of the vertices
 Polygon attribute table that contains the areas of the triangles, the identification
number of the edges and the identifier of the adjacent polygons.
Storing data in this manner eliminated redundancy as all the vertices and edges are stored
only once even if they are used for more than one triangle. As TIN stores topological
relationships, the datasets can be applied to vector based geoprocessing such as automatic
contouring, 3D landscape visualization, volumetric design, surface characterization etc.
3.6.6 MasterMap
The UK Ordnance Survey MasterMap is a framework for the referencing of geographic
information in Great Britain. It comprises four layers that provide detailed topographic,
address, aerial imagery and road network features positioned on the National Grid.

The MasterMap has following main features:

 Data layers provide a seamless topographic database for the UK at the scales of
1:1250 and 1:2500
 Real world features are represented by points, lines and polygons each with their
own unique reference called TOID
 The data can be supplied in a topologically structured format.

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 There are over 430 million features in the MasterMap database and around 5000 updates
are made every day. The data have been used successfully in a range of projects.

4 GEOREFERENCING AND PROJECTION (Video link)

Georeferencing
4.1 Introduction on Georeferencing
It is a process of locating an entity in real world coordinates. It aligns geographic data to a
known coordinate system representing earth defined through projection systems so it can be
viewed, queried, and analysed with other geographic data.
To georeference a geographic data, the positions of known points, called control points, are
determined. The Ground Control Points (GCPs) are defined as the points with known
geographical location, whose positions on map correspond to their positions on earth. GCPs are
collected from fixed objects and are marked on the data to be georeferenced that define where
the data is on earth. The whole data adjusts itself according to these GCPs. At least three control
points are required for georeferencing a data.  Additional control points help increasing the
accuracy. Once the data is georeferenced, each point has a coordinate associated to it which
means the location of any object in the data (map) can now be determined

Figure 4- 16. Georeferencing an image

In brief, the process of georeferencing establishes control points; inputs the known geographic
coordinates of these control points, chooses the coordinate system and other projection
parameters and then minimizes residuals. Residuals are the difference between the actual
coordinates of the control points and the coordinates predicted by the geographic model created
using the control points. The residuals help in determining the level of accuracy of the
process. The quality of the rectification depends on the number, accuracy, and distribution of the
control points and the choice of transformation model.
4.2 Georeferencing Raster Data
The raster data occupy a raster space which is defined as a digital image of the arrangement of
the pixels in a grid. The computer reads the header of the data file and determines the dimension
of the raster space. The position of a cell in the raster space is referenced by row and column
(row, column). This system of referencing the raster cells is called raster coordinate system. The

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origin for this system lies at the upper left corner of the monitor because the computer monitor
displays an image from left to right and from top to bottom. The method of referencing positions
in raster space is different from that on maps. The origin of the map coordinate system is the
lower left corner. To visualize raster data spatially raster data needs to be transformed into a map
coordinate system i.e. the raster coordinates (row, column) are transformed into corresponding
ground coordinates (East, West).
There are two approaches to georeferencing:
a) Image to Map rectification
b) Image to Image registration
Image to Map rectification is the process by which geometry of an image is made planimetric.
It involves the measurement of the image coordinates of the reference cells (GCPs) and the
corresponding ground coordinates to relate the image with the real world. The two sets of
coordinates are used to solve a set of polynomial equations whose order depends upon the
amount of geometric distortion in the raster image. Generally affine transformation is used for
the purpose:

Where X and Y are the ground coordinates, and, x and y are the image coordinates.
A minimum of three GCPs are required to solve these equations, though greater the GCPs more
accurate is the rectification. On solving the equations, we get the values of the six (a, b, c, d, e
and f) coefficients. Any image coordinate can then be substituted in the equations to get the
corresponding ground position on the used map coordinate system. The positions of the original
grid cells will have to be interpolated in the mapping coordinate system
After the coordinate transformation the raster cells may have been oriented differently than the
way they were originally in the raster coordinate system. The attribute value is to be interpolated
for the cells oriented to the new coordinate system. This is called resampling. There are three
common methods of resampling:
a) Nearest neighbour: In this method, the attribute value of the original cell nearest to a cell
in the output raster layer is assigned to the corresponding cell.
b) Bilinear interpolation: It assigns the value to a cell in the output raster layer by taking
weighted average of the surrounding four cells in the original grid nearest to it.
c) Cubic convolution: It assigns the value to a cell in the output raster layer by taking
weighted average of the surrounding sixteen cells in the original grid nearest to it.
Among these three the nearest neighbor is preferred because it doesn’t change the values of the
original grid cells assigned to the reoriented grid cells but it produces blocky images. The cubic
convolution on the other side does change the values but it generates smoother images.
The result of an image to map rectification is a geometrically correct grid of raster cells.
Image to Image registration is a method of georeferencing a raster layer with the help of
another raster, which is already georeferenced by the process of image to map rectification. The
already georeferenced raster is used as a reference for the raster which is to be rectified. Control
points are selected from the two raster layers, the coordinate transformation and resampling are

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then done in the similar manner as it is done for image to map rectification. Image to Image
registration is used to spatially match several raster layers to a single reference raster layer.
4.3 Transformation
The process of transformation maps every point from one coordinate space to another. Using
transforms, one can rotate, translate, and scale content freely in two-dimensional space.
1) Rotation
A rotation is a transformation that is performed by spinning the object around a fixed point
known as the centre of rotation. It can be performed clockwise as well as counterclockwise. The
angle by which the object is turned is called the angle of rotation.

Figure 4-17. Rotation (a) Clockwise (b) Counterclockwise

2) Translation
It is the process of moving each point of an object by the same distance in the same direction. It
involves shifting the origin of the current coordinate system horizontally and vertically by a
specific amount

Figure 4-18. Illustrating translation of (2, 1).

3) Scaling
Scaling changes the size of the grid. It lets the stretching and shrinking of the grid along the x
and y axes independently.

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Figure 4-19. Scaling
(Image Source: http://commons.oreilly.com/wiki/index.php/Image:SVG_Essentials_I_5_tt74.png
It does not change the origin of the grid but makes the grid multiplied by a given value. The
figure above shows scaling transformation, which doubles the scale of both axes. The square
maintains its origin at (10, 10) even after scaling. Because the scale is made twice, therefore
origin i.e. (10, 10) of the new grid lies at (20, 20) of the original grid.
4.4 Changing Map Projections
To transform data from one coordinate system to another, forward and inverse equations are
used. The inverse equation of the source projection transforms the coordinates of source
projection into geographic coordinates. Then, the forward equation of the target projection is
used to transform the geographic coordinates into the target projection coordinates.

4.4.1 Cartesian coordinate Transformation

Two dimensional Cartesian coordinates (x, y) can be transformed from one coordinate
system to another coordinate system using three primary transformation methods which
are:
Conformal Transformation: It is a linear transformation which changes one coordinate
system into another by the process of rotation, uniform scale change followed by
translation
Affine Transformation: It is a linear transformation which changes one coordinate
system into another by the process of rotation, scale change in x and y direction, followed
by translation.
The difference between the conformal and affine transformations could be understood by
the figure given below

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 Figure 4-20. Transformation (a) Conformal (b) Affine
(Source:http://kartoweb.itc.nl/geometrics/Coordinate%20transformations/coordtrans.html
The shape of the original rectangular grid is maintained due to the uniform scale change
in the case of conformal transformation whereas in affine transformation the shape of the
rectangular grid is changed due to the difference in scale in x and y direction.
Polynomial Transformation: It is a non-linear transformation which relates two 2D
Cartesian coordinate systems through a translation, a rotation, and a variable scale change
4.4.2 Datum transformation
Datum transformation is a transformation of a three dimensional coordinate system into
another three dimensional coordinate system. It is done when the source projection is
based on a different datum than the target projection. The transformation parameters are
estimated on the basis of a set of selected points whose coordinates are known in both
datum systems.
Mathematically a datum transformation can be realized directly by relating the
geographic coordinates of both datum systems or indirectly by relating the geocentric
coordinates of the datums.
1) Datum transformation via geographic coordinates
2) Geographic Offset
3) Molodensky and Abridged Molodensky transformation
Multiple regression transformation
1) Datum transformation via geocentric coordinates
2) Geocentric translation
3) Helmert 7-parameter transformations
4) Molodensky-Badekas 10-parameter transformation

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Map Projection
4.5 Introduction on Map Projection
Map projection is a mathematical expression using which the three-dimensional surface of earth
is represented in a two dimensional plane. The process of projection results in distortion of one
or more map properties such as shape, size, area or direction.
A single projection system can never account for the correct representation of all map properties
for all the regions of the world. Therefore, hundreds of projection systems have been defined for
accurate representation of a particular map element for a particular region of the world.
4.6 Classification of Map Projections
Map projections are classified on the following criteria:
1. Method of construction
2. Development surface used
3. Projection properties
4. Position of light source
4.6.1 Method of Construction
The term map projection implies projecting the graticule of the earth onto a flat surface
with the help of shadow cast. However, not all of the map projections are developed in
this manner. Some projections are developed using mathematical calculations only.
Given below are the projections that are based on the method of construction:
Perspective Projections: These projections are made with the help of shadow cast from
an illuminated globe on to a developable surface
Non Perspective Projections: These projections do not use shadow cast from an
illuminated globe on to a developable surface. A developable surface is only assumed to
be covering the globe and the construction of projections is done using mathematical
calculations.
4.6.2 Development Surface
Projection transforms the coordinates of earth on to a surface that can be flattened to a
plane without distortion (shearing or stretching). Such a surface is called a developable
surface. The three basic projections are based on the types of developable surface and are
introduced below:
1. Cylindrical Projection
 It can be visualized as a cylinder wrapped around the globe.
 Once the graticule is projected onto the cylinder, the cylinder is opened to get a
grid like pattern of latitudes and longitudes.
 The longitudes (meridians) and latitudes (parallels) appear as straight lines
 Length of equator on the cylinder is equal to the length of the equator therefore is
suitable for showing equatorial regions.

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Aspects of cylindrical projection:

a) Normal: when cylinder has line of tangency to the equator. It includes

Equirectangular Projection, the Mercator projection, Lambert's Cylindrical Equal
Area, Gall's Stereographic Cylindrical, and Miller cylindrical projection.
b) Transverse: when cylinder has line of tangency to the meridian. It includes the
Cassini Projection, Transverse Mercator, Transverse cylindrical Equal Area
Projection, and Modified Transverse Mercator
c) Oblique: when cylinder has line of tangency to another point on the globe. It only
consists of the Oblique Mercator projection.
2. Conic Projection
 It can be visualized as a cone placed on the globe, tangent to it at some parallel.
 After projecting the graticule on to the cone, the cone is cut along one of the
meridians and unfolded. Parallels appear as arcs with a pole and meridians as
straight lines that converge to the same point.
 It can represent only one hemisphere, at a time, northern or southern.
 Suitable for representing middle latitudes.

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Aspects of conic projection:

a) Tangent: when the cone is tangent to only one of the parallel.

b) Secant: when the cone is not big enough to cover the curvature of earth, it
intersects the earth twice at two parallels.
3. Azimuthal/Zenithal Projection
 It can be visualized as a flat sheet of paper tangent to any point on the globe
 The sheet will have the tangent point as the centre of the circular map, where
meridians passing through the centre are straight line and the parallels are seen as
concentric circle.
 Suitable for showing polar areas

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 Aspects of zenithal projection:

(a) Equatorial zenithal: When the plane is tangent to a point on the equator.
(b) Oblique zenithal: when the plane is tangent to a point between a pole and the
equator.
(c) Polar zenithal: when the plane is tangent to one of the poles.
4.7 Projection Properties
According to properties map projections can be classified as:
1. Equal area projection: Also known as homolographic projections. The areas of different
parts of earth are correctly represented by such projections.
2. True shape projection: Also known as orthomorphic projections. The shapes of different
parts of earth are correctly represented on these projections.
3. True scale or equidistant projections: Projections that maintain correct scale are called
true scale projections. However, no projection can maintain the correct scale throughout.
Correct scale can only be maintained along some parallel or meridian.

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4.8 Position of light source
Placing light source illuminating the globe at different positions results in the development of
different projections. These projections are:
1. Gnomonic projection: when the source of light is placed at the centre of the globe
2. Stereographic Projection: when the source of light is placed at the periphery of the
globe, diametrically opposite to the point at which developable surface touches the globe
3. Orthographic Projection: when the source of light is placed at infinity from the globe
opposite to the point at which developable surface touches the globe

Figure 4-21. Projections and position of light source

(Imagesource:http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/~jochen/GTECH201/Lectures/Lec6concepts/Map%20coordinate
%20systems/Perspective.htm)
4.9 Selection of Map Projection
Choosing a correct map projection for an area depends on the following:
4.9.1 Map Purpose
Considering the purpose of the map is important while choosing the map projection. If a
map has a specific purpose, one may need to preserve a certain property such as shape,
area or direction
On the basis of the property preserved, maps can be categorized as following
a) Maps that preserve shapes.
Used for showing local directions and representing the shapes of the features. Such
maps include:
 Topographic and cadastral maps.
 Navigation charts (for plotting course bearings and wind direction).
 Civil engineering maps and military maps.
 Weather maps (for showing the local direction in which weather systems are
moving).

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 b) Maps that preserve area
The size of any area on the map is in true proportion to its size on the earth. Such
projections can be used to show
 Density of an attribute e.g. population density with dots
 Spatial extent of a categorical attribute e.g. land use maps
 Quantitative attributes by area e.g. Gross Domestic Product by country
 World political maps to correct popular misconceptions about the relative sizes of
countries.
c) Maps that preserve scale
Preserves true scale from a single point to all other points on the map. The maps that
use this property include:
 Maps of airline distances from a single city to several other cities
 Seismic maps showing distances from the epicenter of an earthquake
 Maps used to calculate ranges; for example, the cruising ranges of airplanes or the
habitats of animal species
d) Maps that preserve direction
On any Azimuthal projection, all azimuths, or directions, are true from a single
specified point to all other points on the map. On a conformal projection, directions
are locally true, but are distorted with distance.
e) General purpose maps
There are many projections which show the world with a balanced distortion of shape
and area. Few of these are Winkel Tripel, Robinson and Miller Cylindrical.For larger-
scale maps, from continents to large countries, equidistant projections are good at
balancing shape and area distortion. Depending on the area of interest, one might use
Azimuthal Equidistant,Equidistant Conic and Plate Carrée.
4.9.2 Study area
Geographical location
The line of zero distortion for a cylindrical projection is equator. For conical projections
it is parallels and for Azimuthal it is one of the poles. If the study area is in tropics use
cylindrical projection, for middle latitudes use conical and for Polar Regions use
Azimuthal projections.
Shape of the area
Young in 1920 described a way of selecting the map projection which is known as
Young’s rule. According to this rule, if the ratio of maximum extent (z) (measured from
the centre of the country to its most distant boundary) and the width (δ) of the country
comes out to be less than 1.41, Azimuthal projection is preferable. If the ratio is greater
than 1.41 a conical or cylindrical projection should be used. Z/δ < 1.41 Azimuthal
Projection Z/δ >1.41 Conical or Cylindrical projections

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4.10 Coordinate System
A coordinate system is a reference system used for locating objects in a two- or three-
dimensional space
4.10.1 Geographic Coordinate System
A geographic coordinate system, also known as global or spherical coordinate system is a
reference system that uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to determine locations
on the earth. Any location on earth can be referenced by a point with longitude and
latitude.
We must familiarize ourselves with the geographic terms with respect to the Earth
coordinate system in order to use the GIS technologies effectively
1) Pole: The geographic pole of earth is defined as either of the two points where the
axis of rotation of the earth meets its surface. The North Pole lies 90º north of the
equator and the South Pole lies 90º south of the equator
2) Latitude: Imaginary lines that run horizontally around the globe and are measured
from 90º north to 90º south. Also known as parallels, latitudes are equidistant from
each other.
3) Equator: An imaginary line on the earth with zero degree latitude, divides the earth
into two halves–Northern and Southern Hemisphere. This parallel has the widest
circumference.

Figure 4-22. Division of earth into hemispheres

4) Longitude : Imaginary lines that run vertically around the globe. Also known as
meridians, longitudes are measured from 180º east to 180º west. Longitudes meet at
the poles and are widest apart at the equator
5) Prime meridian : Zero degree longitude which divides the earth into two halves–
Eastern and Western hemisphere. As it runs through the Royal Greenwich
Observatory in Greenwich, England it is also known as Greenwich meridian.
Equator (0º) is the reference for the measurement of latitude. Latitude is measured north
or south of the equator. For measurement of longitude, prime meridian (0º) is used as a
reference. Longitude is measured east or west of prime meridian. The grid of latitude and
longitude over the globe is known as graticule. The intersection point of the equator and
the prime meridian is the origin (0, 0) of the graticule.

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 Figure 4-23. Latitude and longitude measurements

4.10.2 Coordinate measurement

The geographic coordinates are measured in angles. The angle measurement can be
understood as per following:
A full circle has 360 degrees 1 circle = 360º

A degree is further divided into 60 minutes 1º = 60′

A minute is further divided into 60 seconds 1′ = 60″

An angle is expressed in Degree Minute Second.

While writing coordinates of a location, latitude is followed by longitude. For example,
coordinates of Delhi is written as 28° 36′ 50″ N, 77° 12′ 32″ E.
Decimal Degree is another format of expressing the coordinates of a location. To convert
a coordinate pair from degree minute second to decimal degree following method is
adopted:

We have 28 full degrees, 36 minutes - each 1/60 of a degree, and 50 seconds - each 1/60
of 1/60 of a degree
While writing coordinates of a location, latitude is followed by longitude. For example,
coordinates of Delhi is written as
Similarly, 77° 12′ 32″ can be written as 77.2088. So, we can write coordinates of Delhi in
decimal degree format as: 28.6138 N, 77.2088 E

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4.10.3 Local Time and Time Zones
With rotation of earth on its axis, at any moment one of the longitudes faces the Sun
(noon meridian), and at that moment, it is noon everywhere on it. After 24 hours the earth
completes one full rotation with respect to the Sun, and the same meridian again faces the
noon. Thus each hour the Earth rotates by 360/24 = 15 degrees.
This implies that with every 15º of longitude change a new time zone is created which is
marked by a difference of one hour from the neighboring longitudes specified at 15º gap.
The earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian (0º) and the time at Prime
meridian is called Greenwich Mean Time. Thus, there are 24 time zones created around
the globe.
4.10.4 Date
The International Date Line is the imaginary line on the Earth that separates two
consecutive calendar days. Generally, it is said to be lying exactly opposite to the prime
meridian having a measurement of 180º meridian but it is not so. It zigs and zags the 180º
meridian following the political jurisdiction of the states but for sake of simplicity it is
taken as 180º meridian. Starting at midnight and going east to the International Date Line,
the date is one day ahead of the date on the rest of the Earth.
4.11 Projected Coordinate system
A projected coordinate system is defined as two-dimensional representation of the Earth. It is
based on a spheroid geographic coordinate system, but it uses linear units of measure for
coordinates. It is also known as Cartesian coordinate system.
In such a coordinate system the location of a point on the grid is identified by (x, y) coordinate
pair and the origin lies at the centre of grid. The x coordinate determines the horizontal position
and y coordinate determines the vertical position of the point.

Figure 4-24. Cartesian coordinate system

In such a coordinate system the location of a point on the grid is identified by (x, y) coordinate
pair and the origin lies at the centre of grid. The x coordinate determines the horizontal position
and y coordinate determines the vertical position of the point.

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ADDITIONAL NOTE ON PROJECTTION
4.12 Projection Systems
Given below is the description of the projection systems that are mostly used:
4.12.1 Cylindrical Projection
A. Equirectangular projection
This is a Projection on to a cylinder which is tangent to the equator. It is believed to
be invented by Marinus of Tyre, about A.D. 100.

(Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Equirectangular_projection_SW.jpg)

1) Poles are straight lines equal in length to the equator
2) Meridians are straight parallel lines, equally spaced and are half as long as the
equator. All meridians are of same length therefore scale is true along all
meridians.
3) Parallels are straight, equally spaced lines which are perpendicular to the
meridians and are equal to the length of the equator.
4) Length of the equator on the map is the same as that on the globe but the length of
other parallels on map is more than the length of corresponding parallels on the
globe. So the scale is true only along the Equator and not along other parallels.
5) Distance between the parallels and meridians remain same throughout the map.
6) Since the projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic, maps on this
projection are used for general purposes only.
B. Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection 
It is devised by JH Lambert in 1772. It is a normal perspective projection onto a
cylinder tangent at the equator

Page 33 of 44
 (Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lambert_cylindrical_equal-
area_projection_SW.jpg)
1) Parallels and meridians are straight lines
2) The meridians intersect parallels at right angles
3) The distance between parallels decrease toward the poles but meridians are
equally spaced
4) The length of the equator on this projection is same as that on globe but other
parallels are longer than corresponding parallels on globe. So, the scale is true
along the equator but is exaggerated along other parallels
5) Shape and scale distortions increase near points 90 degrees from the central
line resulting in vertical exaggeration of Equatorial regions with compression
of regions in middle latitudes
6) Despite the shape distortion in some portions of a world map, this projection
is well suited for equal-area mapping of regions which are predominantly
north-south in extent, which have an oblique central line, or which lie near the
Equator.
C. Gall's stereographic cylindrical projection
Invented by James Gall in 1855, this projection is a cylindrical projection with two
standard parallels at 45ºN and 45ºS.

(Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gall

%E2%80%93Peters_projection_SW.jpg)
1) Poles are straight lines.
2) Meridians are straight lines and are equally spaced.
3) Parallels are straight lines but the distance between them increases away from the
equator.
4) Shapes are true at the standard parallels. Distortion increases on moving away
from these latitudes and is highest at the poles.
5) Scale is true in all directions along 45ºN and 45ºS.
6) Used for world maps in British atlases
D. Mercator projection
Gerardus Mercator in 1569 invented this projection.

Page 34 of 44
 (Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mercator_projection_SW.jpg)
1) Parallels and meridians are straight lines
2) Meridians intersect parallels at right angle
3) Distance between the meridians remains the same but distance between the
parallels increases towards the pole
4) The length of equator on the projection is equal to the length of the equator on the
globe whereas other parallels are drawn longer than what they are on the globe,
therefore the scale along the equator is correct but is incorrect for other parallels
5) As scale varies from parallel to parallel and is exaggerated towards the pole, the
shapes of large sized countries are distorted more towards pole and less towards
equator. However, shapes of small countries are preserved
6) The image of the poles are at infinity
7) Commonly used for navigational purposes, ocean currents and wind direction are
shown on this projection
E. Transverse Mercator 
This projection results from projecting the sphere onto a cylinder tangent to a central
meridian.

(Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transverse_Mercator_projection)

1) Only centre meridian and equator are projected as straight lines. The other
parallels and meridians are projected as curves.
2) The meridians and the parallels intersect at right angles

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 3) Small shapes are maintained but larger shapes distort away from the central
meridian.
4) The area distortion increases with distance from the central meridian
5) Used to portray areas with larger north-south extent. British National Grid is
based on this projection only
4.12.2 Pseudo-cylindrical Projections
A pseudo cylindrical projection is that projection in which latitudes are parallel straight
lines, but meridians are curved.
A. Mollweide Projection

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?

Projection=69#Mollweide)
1) The poles are points and the central meridian is a straight line
2) The meridians 90º away from central meridians are circular arcs and all other
meridians are elliptical arcs.
3) The parallels are straight but unequally spaced.
4) Scale is true along 40º 44' North and 40º 44' South.
5) Equal –area projection
6) Used for preparing world maps
B. Sinusoidal Projection

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?Projection=110#sinusoidal)

Page 36 of 44
 1) The central meridian is a straight line and all other meridians are equally spaced
sinusoidal curves.
2) The parallels are straight lines that intersect centre meridian at right angles.
3) Shape and angles are correct along the central meridian and equator
4) The distortion of shape and angles increases away from the central meridian and
is high near the edges
5) Equal area projection
6) Used for world maps illustrating area characteristics. Used for continental maps of
South America, Africa, and occasionally other land masses, where each has its
own central meridian.
C. Eckert VI

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?

Projection=54#Eckert%20VI
1) Parallels are unequally spaced straight lines.
2) Meridians are equally spaced sinusoidal curves.
3) The poles and the central meridians are straight lines and half as long as equator.
4) It stretches shapes and scale by 29% in the north-south direction, along the
equator. This stretching reduces to zero at 49º 16' N and 49º 16' S.
5) The areas near the poles are compressed in north-south direction.
6) Suitable for thematic mapping of the world.
4.12.3 Conical Projection
A. Bonne’s Projection
1) Pole is represented as a point and parallels as concentric arcs of circles
2) Scale along all the parallels is correct
3) Central meridian is a straight line along which the scale is correct.
4) Other meridians are curved and longer than corresponding meridians on the globe.
Scale along meridians increases away from the central meridian
5) Central meridian intersects all parallels at right angle. Other meridians intersect
standard parallel at right angle but other parallels obliquely. Shape is only
preserved along central meridian and standard parallel

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 6) The distance and scale between two parallels are correct. Area between projected
parallels is equal to the area between the same parallels on the globe. Therefore, is
an equal area projection
7) Maps of European countries are shown in this projection. It is also used for
preparing topographical sheets of small countries of middle latitudes.

Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bonne_projection_SW.jpg
B. Polyonic Projection

(Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polyconic_projection_SW.jpg )
1) The parallels are arcs of circles with different centers
2) Each parallel is a standard parallel i.e. each parallel is developed from a different
cone
3) Equator is represented as a straight line and the pole as a point
4) Parallels are equally spaced along central meridian but the distance between them
increases away from the central meridian.
5) Scale is correct along every parallel.
6) Central meridian intersects all parallels at right angle so the scale along it, is
correct. Other meridians are curved and longer than corresponding meridians on
the globe and so scale along meridians increases away from the central meridian.
7) It is used for preparing topographical sheets of small areas.

Page 38 of 44
4.12.4 Azimuthal/Zenithal Projection
A. Polar Zenithal Equal area projection
This projection is invented by J.H Lambert in the year 1772. It is also known as
Lambert’s Equal Area Projection

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?

Projection=167#zenithal%20equal-area)
1) The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are
concentric circles.
2) The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular
distance between them.
3) The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.
4) The scale along the parallels increases away from the centre of the projection.
5) The decrease in the scale along meridians is in the same proportion in which there
is an increase in the scale along the parallels away from the centre of the
projection. Thus the projection is an equal area projection.
6) Shapes are distorted away from the centre of the projection. Scale along the
meridians is small and along the parallels is large so the shapes are compressed
along the meridians but stretched along the parallels.
7) Used for preparing political and distribution maps of polar regions. It can also be
used for preparing general purpose maps of large areas in Northern Hemisphere.
B. Polar Zenithal Equidistant Projection
1) The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are
concentric circles.
2) The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular
distance between them.
3) The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.
4) The spacing between the parallels represent true distances, therefore the scale
along the meridians is correct.
5) The scale along the parallels increases away from the centre of the projection.
6) The exaggeration and distortion of shapes increases away from the centre of the
projection.
7) The projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.

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 8) It is used for preparing maps of polar areas for general purposes.

Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?

Projection=168#zenithal%20equidistant)
C. Gnomonic Projection
It is also known as great-circle sailing chart.

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?

Projection=156#gnomonic)
1) The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are
concentric circles.
2) The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular
distance between them.
3) The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.
4) The parallels are unequally spaced. The distances between the parallels increase
rapidly toward the margin of the projection. This causes exaggeration of the scale
along the meridians.
5) The scale along the parallels increases away from the centre of the projection.

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 6) The exaggeration and distortion of shapes increases away from the centre of the
projection. The exaggeration in the meridian scale is greater than that in any other
zenithal projection.
7) It is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.
8) An arc on the globe which is a part of a great circle is represented as a straight
line on this projection. This is because the radii from the centre of the globe are
produced to meet the plane placed tangentially at the pole.
9) It is used to show great-circle paths as straight lines and thus to assist navigators
and aviators in determining appropriate courses.
D. Sereographic Projection

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?

Projection=162#stereographic)
1) The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are
concentric circles.
2) The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular
distance between them.
3) The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.
4) The parallels are unequally spaced. The distances between the parallels
increase toward the margin of the projection. The exaggeration in the meridian
scale is less than that in the case of Gnomonic projection.
5) The scale along the parallels also increases away from the meridian and in the
same proportion in which it increases along the meridians. At any point scale
along the parallel is equal to the scale along the meridian.
6) The areas are exaggerated on this projection and the exaggeration increases
away from the centre of the projection.
7) A circle drawn on the globe is represented by a circle on this projection.
8) It is used to show world in hemispheres. Also used for preparing aeronautical
charts and daily weather maps of the polar areas.

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 E. Orthographic Projection

(Image source: http://www.mapthematics.com/ProjectionsList.php?
Projection=159#orthographic
1) The pole is a point forming the centre of the projection and the parallels are
concentric circles.
2) The meridians are straight lines radiating from pole having correct angular
distance between them.
3) The meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.
4) The parallels are not equally spaced. The distances between them decrease rapidly
towards the margin of the projection. So, the scale along the meridians decreases
away from the centre of the projection.
5) The scale along the parallel is correct.
6) The distortion of the shapes increases away from the centre of the projection.
7) It is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.
8) The projection is used to prepare charts for showing the celestial bodies such as
moon and other planets
4.13 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
UTM projection divides the surface of the Earth into a number of zones, each zone having a 6
degree longitudinal extent, Transverse Mercator projection with a central meridian in the center
of the zone. UTM zones extend from 80 degrees South latitude to 84 degrees North latitude. The
zones are numbered from west to east. The first zone begins at the International Date Line
(180°).

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The particular transverse Mercator map that is used to represent each zone has its central
meridian running north-to-south down the center of the zone. This means that no portion of any
particular zone is very far from the central meridian of the transverse Mercator map that is used
to depict the zone. Since a Universal Transverse Mercator zone is 6° of longitude wide, no
portion of a UTM zone is more than 3° of longitude from the zone's central meridian. Since the
distortion in a transverse Mercator map is relatively low near the map's central meridian, the
result of this close proximity to the map's central meridian is that the transverse Mercator map
used to depict each zone within the coordinate system contains relatively little distortion.
Adapted from the report Map Projections of Europe (2001), the table gives an account of the
commonly used projection systems.
Developable
Property Aspect Projections Extent of use
surface
Equatorial regions (east-
Normal Mercator
west extent)
UTM (Universal
Transvers Whole world except polar
Cylinder Transverse
e areas
Mercator)
Rosenmund Small regions, oblique &
Oblique
Oblique Mercator east - west extent
Conformal
(True shape) Small regions, oblique &
Lambert
Cone Normal east - west extent (1 or 2
Conformal Conic
standard parallels)
Small regions upto the
Any Stereographic
hemisphere
Plane UPS (Universal
Polar Polar Polar regions
Stereographic)
Homolographi Lambert Equal Equatorial areas (east-west
c (Equal area) Cylinder Normal
Area extent)
Cone Normal Albers Equal Smaller regions &
Area continents with east-west
extent

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 Lambert Smaller regions about same
Any Azimuthal Equal north-south, east-west
Plane Area extent
Equatorial Hammer-Aitoff World
Cylinder Normal Plate Caree World
Transvers Locally used for large scale
  Cassini Soldner
e mapping
Smaller regions &
Equidistant continents with (1 or 2
Cone Normal Equidistant Conic
standard parallels) east-west
extent
Smaller regions about same
Azimuthal
Plane Any north-south, east-west
Equidistant
extent

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