Chapter 1: Types of Cargoes

The range of cargoes now available for maritime transportation is wide and varies. This therefore points to the
necessity that in fulfilling the purpose of a ship, its personnel has a duty to become familiar with the overall
requirements of cargo handling and shipping practices.
Cargoes which are carried around and across continents may be broadly classed into the following groups
1. BULK CARGOES – Carried in;
 Dry Bulk Ships
 Liquid Bulk Ships
 O.B.O (Ore, Bulk, Oil) Vessels
 Tanker Conventional Oils
 Tanker Chemicals
 Tanker Natural Gases
2. BREAK BULK CARGOES – Carried in;
 General Freighters
 Cargo liners
 Barge and Lash vessels
3. UNITIZED AND CONVENTIONAL TRAFFIC – Carried in;
 General Freighter
 Multi-purpose (Combi) vessels
 Container Vessels
 Roll on Roll off Vessels
4. INDIVISIBLE LOADS (Very Heavy Lifts) – Carried in;
 Specialized Designed Vessels
5. REFRIGERATED PRODUCE – Carried in;
 Multi-purpose vessels having refrigerated compartments
 Fully refrigerated vessels
 Refrigerated Container Compartments
6. FRUIT CARGOES – Carried in;
 Vessels fitted with appropriately cooled compartments
7. PARTICULAR SPECIALIZED CARGOES – Carried in;
 Forest Products Carriers
 Uncased carrier cars
 Roll on Roll Off Vessels
 Train Ferries
8. PASSENGERS – Carried in;
 Passenger vessels
 Cruise vessels
 Passenger ferries
9. NON – FREIGHT CARGOES – Carried in;
  Catched Fish in fishing vessels
10. OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS – Carried in;
 Services in Auxilliary ships such as Tug vessels
 Research activities in Research vessels

Chapter 2: Terminology and Defivition related to Cargo Handling

DEADWEIGHT CARGO: Is a cargo on which freight is usually charged on its weight, that is, no hard and
fast rules are in force. However, cargoes stowing at less than 1.2m3/tonne (40ft3/tonne) is likely to be rated as
deadweight cargo.
MEASUREMENT CARGO: Is a cargo on which freight is usually charged on the volume occupied by the
cargo. Such cargo is usually light and bulky, stowing at more than 1.2m3 per tonne (40cu.ft/tonne), but may
also be heavy castings of awkward shape where a lot of space is occupied.
BALE CAPACITY: Is that cubic capacity of cargo space when the breadth is measured from the inside of the
cargo battens (spar ceiling) and the measured depth is from the wood tank top ceiling to the deck beams. The
length is measured from the inside of the fore and aft bulkhead stiffeners.
GRAIN CAPACITY: Is that cubic capacity of a cargo space when the length, breadth and depth are measured
from the inside of the ships shell plating, all allowances being made for the volume occupied by frames and
beams.
STOWAGE CAPACITY: This is defined as that volume occupied by unit weight of cargo, usually expressed
as cubic meters per tonne (m3/tonne or ft3 per tonne). It does not take into account of any space which may be
lost due to broken stowage.
BROKEN STOWAGE: Is the space between packages which remains unfilled. The percentage that has to be
allowed varies with the type of cargo and with the shape of the ships hold. It is the greatest when large cases
are stowed in an end hold or at the turn of a bilge.
DIRTY CARGO: A very general classification for dirty cargoes could include paint and crude oils, steel
work, coal etc
CLEAN CARGO: General classification of clean cargo could include food products and manufacturing
products eg. Cloth, Cotton bales etc
OPTIONAL CARGO: Is a cargo which is described for the discharge at either one or two or more ports. It
must be stowed so as to be available for discharge at any of the optional ports.
OVER CARRIED CARGO: Is a cargo destined for a calling port but must have been over carried to another
port due to wrongful stowage in a compartment or defaced marking etc. It can cause a great deal of
inconvenience and expense. To avoid over carried cargo, a system of checking the stowage plan and manifest
should be employed.
CARGO PLAN OR STOWAGE PLAN: Is a ships plan which shows the distribution of all cargo parcels
stowed on board the vessel for the voyage. Each entry unto to the plan would detail the quantity, the weight,
volume and port of discharge. The plan is constructed by the ship’s cargo officer and would effectively show
special loads such as heavy lifts, hazardous cargoes, any valuable cargo, in addition to all other commodities
being shipped.
Additional information, such as the following, generally appears on most plans:

i) Name of the vessel.

ii) Name of the Master.
iii) List of loading ports.
iv) List of discharging ports, in order of call.
v) Sailing draughts.
vi) Tonnage load breakdown.
vii) Hatch tonnage breakdown.
viii) Voyage number.
ix) Total volume of empty space remaining.
x) List of dangerous cargo, if any.
xi) List of special cargo, if any.
xii) Statement of deadweight, fuel, stores, water etc.
xiii) Details of cargo separations.
xiv) Recommended temperatures for the carriage of various goods.
xv) Chief Officer’s signature.

CARGO INFORMATION: Means appropriate information relevant to the cargo and with its stowage
segregation and securing which should specify in particular, the precautions necessary for the carriage of that
cargo by sea.
CARGO SECURING MANUAL: A manual that is pertinent to an individual ship and which will show the
lashing points and details of the securing of relevant cargoes carried by the vessel. It is a ships reference which
specifies the on-board securing arrangements for cargo units including vehicles, containers and other entities.
The securing examples are based on the transverse, longitudinal and vertical forces which may arise during
adverse weather conditions at sea. The manual is drawn up to the standard contained in Maritime Safety
Committee (MSC) Circular number MSC/Circ. 745

Chapter 3: Cargo Documentation

KEY POINTS
 Cargo documentation comes in various forms ; some because they are mandatory and some because of commercial
necessity
 The documentation of a cargo consignment always follows the cargo
 Each interchange of responsibility for the cargo is covered by a document
 Some cargo documentation is mandatory and required by legislation such as the IMDG code

Dock Receipts
When the cargo consignment is delivered to the terminal, a dock receipt is issued to the person delivering it. It
is used to calculate freight and other handling cost, i.e. weight, volume, No. of pieces.
Mates Receipts
When the cargo is transferred to the carrying vessel, the terminal issues a mates receipt which is signed by the
vessel. Is usually a piece of receipt or paper for the goods loaded, prepared and signed by the mate hence the
term ‘‘Mates Receipt’’. It contains the quantity, marks and description of goods and in addition the apparent
condition may be stated particularly if the goods appear to be damaged. If the tallies of the ship and shipper do
not agree, the mates receipt should be signed for the smaller amount which has been tallied and claused Where
there is the difference between ship and shipper tallies.
Bill Of Lading
The bills of lading are the consignee’s title to the goods stated thereon and he or she therefore expects to
receive the goods as they are described. It is therefore necessary that the details of the cargo should be
correctly stated on the mate’s receipts as it is from these that the bill of lading (B/L) will be prepared. It
performs three (3) main functions:
 Is a receipt for goods carried.
 Is an evidence of the contract of carriage.
 Is a document of title.

Cargo Manifest
Is a document in which one will find at the particulars of the cargo loaded, the shipper, consignee etc. One
copy to the shipper, one to the agent of port of call, one to the ship. Is a document used for customs clearance
in the destination Country.
Boat Notes
Are the receipts for goods actually received on board from a boat alongside given from the boat and signed by
the mate. The advantage of the mate receipt over the boat note is that, the chief officer starts with a blank sheet,
where as the boat note may require amendment with associated crossing out marks sailing in counter signing
etc.

Chapter 4: Cargo Preparation

KEY POINTS
 Before loading Charterers should give an absolute warranty that ports to which they will load &
discharge the vessel will be good and safe.
 The cargo space should be inspected and prepared for the particular material that they are intended to
load.
 Proper ventilation: moisture damage can be a source of significant cargo claims
 Correct Lying of dunnage: permanent (spur ceiling) and temporal.

HOLD PREPARATIONS FOR GENERAL CARGO SHIPS

How to prepare cargo holds prior loading
1. The compartment should be swept clean, and all traces of the previous cargo removed. The amount of
cleaning is dependent on the nature of the previous cargo: some cargoes, such as coal, will require the
holds to be washed before the carriage of a general cargo. Washing is always carried out after the
compartment has been swept. Drying time for washed compartments must be allowed for, before
loading the next cargo; this time will vary with the climate, but two to three days must be expected.
2. Bilge areas should be cleaned and all ‘bilge suctions’ seen to be working satisfactorily. All ‘holes’ in
rose boxes should be clear to allow the passage of water and the lines’ non-return valves seen to be in a
working condition. Should the bilges be contaminated from odorous cargoes, it may become necessary
to ‘sweeten’ them by a wash of chloride of lime. This acts as a disinfectant as well as providing a
coating against corrosion.
3. The fire/smoke detection system should be tested and seen to function correctly.
4. The holds drainage system and ‘tween deck scuppers should be clear and free from blockage.
5. Spar ceiling (cargo battens) should be examined and seen to be in a good state of repair.
 6. Steel hatch covers should be inspected for their watertight integrity about any joints. If hard rubber
seals are fitted, these should be inspected for deterioration.
7. Ladders and access points should be inspected for damage and security.
8. Hold fitments such as built-in lighting and guard rails should be checked and seen to be in good order.
9. Soiled dunnage should be disposed of. New dunnage, clean and dry, should be laid in a manner to suit
the next cargo, if needed.
10. Hold ventilation system should be operated to check fan conditions.

CARGO CARE
PREPARATION OF CARGO COMPARTMENTS
The general preparation of a cargo compartment will be the same for all types of container and non-container vessels and is as
follows;
DUTIES OF THE CARGO OFFICER BEFORE LOADING, DURING LOADING AND AFTER LOADING
The safety of the cargo, stevedores and crew must be ensured. The cargo handling gears must be checked for efficiency.

Before Loading:
1. The holds and tween decks should be thoroughly swept down to remove all traces of the previous cargo. On occasions the hold
will need to be washed in order to remove the heavy dust or residue.
2. Bilges, bays and suctions should be cleaned out while the hold is being swept down.
3. Tween deck scuppers should be tested and strum boxes cleared of dirt.
4. Test bilge pumping system and non return valves must be inspected to work satisfactorily.
5. Check that all limber boards or bilge bay covers are in good condition.
6. Spar ceiling (picture at pg) should be examined and replaced where necessary
7. Any soiled dunnage should be removed and clean dunnage laid as appropriate to receive the incoming cargo.
8. Check on the fire extinguishing system and fire detection system established.

During Loading:
1. Log the times of commencement of loading
2. Ensure safety precaution in and around the working hatch or on the deck eg. Lightening system.
3. Check stowage plan and ensure that port destination cargoes are loaded into the appropriate hold.
4. Ensure proper dunnage and separation are effected during the loading process
5. The OOW to ensure proper dunnage and separation are effected during the loading process.
6. Check cargo gears constantly and if necessary stop work and remedy the situation
7. Tally special cargoes and secure the stowage
8. Display dangerous cargo and precaution signals.
9. Check stability of the ship at frequent intervals.
10. Mooring should be attended to as often as possible.

After Loading
1. Note and log the time of completion of cargo
2. Check final draft, fore, midship and aft.
3. Check the dock density and confirm permissible draft.
4. Inspect the lashing of the cargoes and ensure that derricks are secured in place.
5. Bill of lading / Manifest procedures must be completed
6. Notice of sailing posted.

CARGO HOLD INSPECTION

Cargo compartment provides assurance that the hold is free of potential contaminants prior to the loading of the cargo. Therefore
visual inspection of the cargo hold prior to loading reduces the opportunity for cargo to differ at the discharge port from the product
specification and quality requested by the buyer.
The officer responsible for loading is responsible for verifying that the hold is suitable and can receive the intended cargo. The
officer for loading is to check the hold cleanliness, dryness and ventilation. And that there is provision for cargo separation.
The inspection will also verify the remnants from other shipment will not affect your load.
Buyers and sellers can request for a visual inspection of the cargo hold prior to loading and it will give both parties the confidence
that the cargo will not be contaminated by any material already in the hold.

FACTORS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT DURING STOWAGE

 Prepare a suitable and effective stowage plan taking into account;
I. List of destination
II. List cargoes for destinations
III. Colour codes
 Distribute the cargoes so that they can be discharged in correct order and quickly. Eg; First port last and last port first.
 The weight should be distributed to ensure proper trim and a good stability. Eg; Adequate GM, Sufficient Trim.
 Avoid incompatible cargoes going into the same hold and avoid contaminations. Eg, cargoes that react and destroy.
 Heavy cargoes should be conveniently stowed with the view of avoiding crashing of other cargoes. Eg, Light cargoes on top
 Group cargoes that are compatible and require similar ventilation
 Ensure that separation of dangerous cargo and a special cargo are properly done.
 Tally systems should be initiated by the ship party or requisite officer. It is important to avoid disputes on quality and
quantity etc
 Adopt a system to differentiate several cargoes designated ports. Eg, Colour coding

DUNNAGE
Is a sizeable piece of a second hand timber used in the cargo operations. New wood is scarcely used due to its strong smell of a new
wood and the odour may affect the cargo.
Dunnage should always be free of stains, odour, nails and large splinters.

INTERNATIONAL LAWS
When unloading a ship, sometimes there is a problem as to what to do with the dunnage. Sometimes the
dunnage cannot be landed because of customs duties on imported timber, or quarantine rules to avoid foreign
insect pests getting offshore, and as a result often the unwanted dunnage is later furtively jettisoned over side
and adds to the area's driftwood problem. According to U.S. and International Law (MARPOL73/78) it is
illegal for ships to dump dunnage within 25 nautical miles (46 km) of the shore. Presently, the International
Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), an international regulatory agency, mandates its 134 signatory countries
to comply with the ISPM 15, (International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures) which requires all dunnage to be
heat treated or fumigated with pesticides and marked with an accredited seal. There are several instances where
foreign insects have entered by land and caused devastation to the ecosystem, even ruining crops and causing
famine in Africa.
TYPES OF DUNNAGE
1. Non permanent dunnage as described above are moveable and can easily be disposed off when it is damaged or stained. Top
of the cargo is normally protected by matting, wood dunnage or waterproof paper

2. Permanent dunnage are of a fixed type and found in the ship side in the hold, known as spar ceiling or cargo battens, fixed
over the side frames (Size – 150 x 50mm or 6`` x 2``)
Permanent wooden ceiling not less than 65mm or 21/2`` thick is often laid on the tank top at the square of the hatch. It is to
protect the tank top and it is not replacing the non permanent one.

EXAMPLES OF DUNNAGE

 Boards,
 Air bag ,
 Batten,
 Bamboo,
 plywood fibre board,
 hardboard,
 Kraft paper,
 plastic sheeting
 Coconuts or
 Wood etc.

Dunnage bags

Stabilizing capabilities of dunnage bags in container

Dunnage bags are air-filled pouches that can be used to stabilize, secure and protect cargo during
transportation. Dunnage bags are placed in the voids between the cargo items. Dunnage bags can be used in all
modes of transportation; road, railway, ocean or air.

Originally rubber bags were used to brace pallets inside trucks. They evolved into kraft paper bags with a
plastic bag interior. As metal strapping became less popular, many companies now use polyethylene or vinyl-
based bags because of their low cost. It is important to match the size of the bag to the void. If this does not
match, the bags will not function properly, with potential for damage to cargo and people.

IMAGE OF SPUR CEILING

DUNNAGE SERVES THE FOLLOWING PURPOSES:
 To protect it (cargo) from contact with water from bilges, leakage from other cargoes or from the DB
Tank.

 To protect it from moisture or sweat which condenses on ships structures.

 To provide air course for heated moisture laddened air to ascend towards uptakes (ventilator suchess.)

 To prevent chafing as well as to chop off and secure cargo by filling in broken stowage.

 To evenly spread out the weight of loads of deep stows.

 Dunnage in reefer cargoes also provide channels for the thorough circulation of cool air

through the mass of cargo. To ensure this, the dunnage should be in line with the airflow.

STOWAGE SEPERATION AND SEGREGATION OF CARGO

STOWAGE
1. Suitable and effective plan must be prepared for all cargoes, listing destination, weights and volumes of cargoes and appropriately
coded for separation if required.
2. The cargo must be well distributed so that they can be discharged in correct order and quickly.
3. The weight should be distributed to ensure proper trim and stability.
4. Incompatible cargoes going into the same hold must be avoided. It may result in contamination and reaction.
5. Heavy cargo should be conveniently stowed with the view of avoiding crushing of other cargoes.
6. Crashing of more fragile goods by heavier goods must be avoided.
7. If possible, group in the same compartment cargoes which require similar ventilation.
8. Ensure segregation rules are appropriately applied to dangerous cargoes and give special cargoes proper attention.
9. To avoid dispute on quality and quantity of goods loaded or to be discharged, ship party to initiate a tally system.
10. Adopt a system for the identification of cargo for the various ports.

SEPARATION OF CARGO
Separation by identification is often necessary to separate different parcels of the same cargo or different cargoes but compatible in
stowage.
The method of separation depends on the type of cargo. For instance bagged cargoes are frequently separated by separation cloth
made of burlap.
Steel rails can be separated by chalk marks, water paint or strands of wire.
Bulk cargo is often separated by old tarpaulins and separation cloths and bales can be separated by rope yarns.
Cargoes for different ports can be separated by polythene sheeting made of different colours.
It is useful when large consignments of the same cargo are to be discharged at different ports.
To avoid different cargoes from mixing up, adequate vertical or horizontal separation may be given to the loading .
All cargoes are subjected to proper stowage, separation and segregation rules and these includes;
 Dangerous goods (Separated from other goods for protection against risk)
 Dry cargo (eg. TV’s, separated from wet cargo to avoid damage in case of leakage)
 Wet cargo (eg. Lubricating oil – wet cargo, separated from above for similar reasons)
 Clean cargo (eg. Cotton – separated from dirty cargo in order to preserve the quality of the clean cargo and to attract the
appropriate freight rated)
 Dirty cargo (Separated from the above for similar reasons given above)
 Delicate cargo (Separated from the others for safe handling and stowage)
 Valuable cargo ( eg. Bank notes, personal effects etc and normally attract special freight rates, stowage and kept in special
lockers)

Different materials that may be used for the separation of cargoes:

 Thin netting with different colour

 Ropes
 Paint
 Marking pen (for carton and cased good)
 Chalk
 Layers of dunnage
 Construction of bulkhead from timber/ steel plate
 Separation cloth (burlap)
 Plastic sheet (ensure restricted vent would not result to spoiling cargo)
 Natural separation (cargo of different from, shape or packing)
SEGREGATION OF CARGO
If there is any doubt about the reactivity or compatibility of two cargoes, the data sheets for each cargo and a cargo compatibility
chart should be checked and advice sought from shippers or other authority. If this advice seems inconclusive, the cargoes should be
treated as incompatible and positive segregation provided.

Chapter 5: Ventilation and Controll

VENTILATION
 Shipboard ventilation systems supply and remove air to/from spaces throughout the ship. In doing so,
these systems control quality of breathing air and protect personnel and sensitive equipment from
potentially hazardous airborne contaminants, fires, explosions, and excessive heat. The ability of
ventilation systems to protect personnel from these hazards is particularly important aboard Navy ships,
which are like floating cities fitted into a very limited space. Well designed and easily maintained
ventilation systems are critical to a safe and comfortable shipboard work environment.
 Ventilation systems include a supply, or makeup air system and an exhaust system. Supply systems
replace contaminated air exhausted from a workspace with uncontaminated outside air. Supply
ventilations systems also provide replenishment air to air conditioning recirculation systems.
 Exhaust system removes odors, heated air, and airborne contaminants from the workspace. Both supply
and exhaust airflow quantities must be balanced.
 All components of ventilation systems such as fans, motors, ducts, dampers, air intakes and outlets,
filters, and access panels, must work properly in order for the systems to operate safely and efficiently.
If air is cooled, the temperature below, which the water vapour it contains condenser into water droplets is the
dew point.
This phenomenon manifest itself in 2 ways which are a major concern to the officer – ships sweat and cargo
sweat.

Ship sweat occurs when the temp of structure is lower than the dew points of the air. Condensation takes place
on the shell, frames, bulkhead, etc and may form into the cargo which may cause damage and give rise to cargo
claims.

FORMATION OF SWEAT IN SHIPS CARGO HOLD

SWEAT:
Is formed when the water vapour in the atmosphere condense out into water droplets when the air is cooled below the dew point. The
water droplets may be deposited onto the ship’s structure or onto the cargo. If the former occurs, it is known as ship sweat and this
may run down or drip onto the cargo. The latter is known as cargo sweat and occurs when the cargo is cold and the incoming air is
warm.

SHIP SWEAT:
When condensation takes place directly upon the ship structure e.g. Deck heads. Usually found on voyage from warm places to cold
places.
CARGO SWEAT:
When condensation takes place directly upon the cargo due to the temperature of cargo being less than the dew point of the air.
Usually occurs on voyage from cold to warmer places.

CONDITION FOR SHIP AND CARGO SWEAT TO OCCUR

If the temperature of the outside air is less than the dew point of the air already in the compartment ship sweat will occur.
If the temperature of the air in the compartment is lower than the dew point of the incoming air, cargo sweat will occur.

PRECAUTIONS TO RESTRICT SWEAT

1. To avoid sweat and its effect, it is imperative that wet and dry bulb temperatures of the air are registered and the
temperature of air contained in the cargo compartment taken at frequent intervals, say once a watch.
2. Read temperature of holds and check its dew point.
3. Read wet and dry bulb thermometers and find out dew point of the outside air.
4. Compare the outside and inside temperature and do the following to minimize sweat.

a) Ventilate: when the temperature of the outside air is lower than the dew point of the inside air, ventilate otherwise
danger of ship sweat e.g. West Africa to Baltimore in Jamaica with general cargo outside temperature -14 0C
Hygroscopic cargo. Dew point hold temperature 150C.
b) Restrict ventilation when the dew point of the outside air is higher than the temperature of the inside air otherwise
danger of cargo sweat e.g. warm hygroscopic cargo steel from Cape Town to U.K (general cargo)
c) Re-circulate ; outside dew point 200C
Hold temperature 190C
Note it should be noticed that indiscriminate ventilation often does more harm to the cargo than no ventilation whatsoever.
Sweat is formed when air is cooled below dew point temperature. As such, water vapour in the atmosphere condense out into water
droplets. The water droplets may be deposited onto the ship structure or the cargo. If the former occurs, it is known as ship sweat and
the latter is known as cargo sweat.

SYSTEMS OF VENTILATIONS
1. THROUGH VENTILATION (NATURAL)

This type of ventilation depends upon the air flow from the outside. The air flows occur when the ventilation are turned to wind and
the weather ventilation are trimmed away from the wind. It should be noted that variation in the angles of the ventilators from the
wind cause very different rates of airflow within the compartment. The angle which the ship’s course makes with the wind also
affects the flow of air.

Showing air circulation with lee vents on the wind and weather vents off.

This is THROUGH VENTILATION.

2. MECHANICAL VENTILATION (FORCED)

With mechanical ventilations baffle plates are fitted in the hold and tween deck ventilation so that the air can be prevented from the
outside when conditions are unfavourable. At these times, the air in the hold is re-circulated and if necessary it can be died by
passing it through a dehumidifying unit.
a. When ventilating, the air is drawn in from outside through the natural vent fans.
b. The air pass through the tween deck and holds to be drawn out by the exhaust.
c. The exhaust air is delivered to the outside air.

It uses the power driven devices for carrying out the ventilation. Fans, blowers etc are some of the devices that are used to carry out
the ventilation in the mechanical ventilation. This helps the manufacturer to use the small ducts system, supply of air is not affected
by the weather conditions that are present outside. In this type of system, the quantity of air handled is less and hence this makes it
more economical as compared to the natural ventilation -

3. TO RECIRCULATE
The cargo space is sealed from the outside air. The fan draws air from the hold delivers it to the drying unit and sent back to
the hold in the tween deck and this re-circulated air is discharged once again into the hold and the processes continue till it is
stopped.

DP=20°C
Air=24°C
W L

DP=18°C

19°C
cargo
VENTILATION PROBLEMS

 If the Hold is not ventilated, there will be little chance of ship sweat or the dew point in the hold is
lower than the temp of the structure, both above and below the waterline.
 There will be no immediate threat of cargo sweat for the dew point is below the cargo temperatures if
the hold is ventilated.
 There is little chance is ship sweat as the dew point of the outside air is well below the temp of the
structure above and below the waterline.
 Cargo sweat is certain as the dew point of the outside air is higher than the temp of the cargo.
 Conclusions : It will be advisable to recirculation the air or recirculation and add dry air

DP=12°C
Air=14°C
W L
DP=15°C

17°C
cargo

b
If the hold is not ventilated

 There will be ship sweat as the dew point of the air in the hold is higher than the temp of the
structures both above and below the waterline.
 There is no likely hold of cargo sweat as the dew point of the air in the hold is lower than the
temp of the cargo. If the hold is ventilated.
 Assuming the air in the hold can be replaced and entirely by the outside air there will be no ship
sweat, since the dew point of the outside air is lower than the temp of the ship structure above
and below the waterline.
 There will be no cargo sweat as the dew point of the outside air is much lower than the temp of
the cargo.
 Conclusion: This situation requires vigorous ventilation.
Chapter 6: Bulk Cargo

BULK CARGOES (DRY)

KEY POINT
 Terminology
 Hazards of bulk cargoes
 Loading and discharging of bulk cargo
 International regulations concerning the carriage of solid bulk cargoes ( B.C & BLU)

Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in either liquid or granular,
particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum, grain, coal, or gravel. This cargo is usually dropped or
poured, with a spout or shovel bucket,

EXAMPLES OF DRY BULK CARGO

 Bauxite
 Bulk minerals (sand & gravel, copper, limestone, salt, etc.)
  Cement
 Chemicals (fertilizer, plastic granules & pellets, resin powder, synthetic fiber, etc.)
 Coal
 Dry edibles (for animals or humans: alfalfa pellets, citrus pellets, livestock feed, flour, peanuts, raw or
refined sugar, seeds, starches, etc.)
 Grain (wheat, maize, rice, barley, oats, rye, sorghum, soybeans, etc.)
 Iron (ferrous & non-ferrous ores, ferroalloys, pig iron, scrap metal, pelletized taconite), etc.)
 Wood chips

HAZARDS OF BULK CARGOES

The main hazards of bulk cargoes are:

 Liquefaction
 Cargo shift
 Structural damage due to improper distribution
 Chemical hazards
 Other health hazards

What is Liquefaction?

In fine grained moisture laden cargo the spaces between cargo grains are filled with both air and water. Whilst
at sea the cargo is subject to forces due to the vibration and rolling of the vessel. These forces cause the inter-
grain spaces to contract. The water in the spaces between grains is subject to a compressive force but as it is a
liquid it cannot be compressed. This has the effect of reducing the inter-grain frictional force that holds the
cargo in a solid state. Where enough moisture is present the reduction in inter-grain friction due to the ship’s
motion and vibration can be sufficient to cause the cargo flow like a liquid i.e. to liquefy.
Consequences of Liquefaction

The most significant consequence for the vessel resulting from liquefaction is cargo shift leading to loss of
stability. This may produce dangerous angles of list and in some instances the resulting loss of stability can be
such that the vessel and the lives of those onboard are lost. It is therefore imperative that seafarers are aware of
the types and condition of cargo that may give rise liquefaction. Bulk

Bulk Cargo (Not Grain)

Loading, unloading and stowage of bulk cargoes

To enable the master to prevent excessive stresses in the ship’s structure, the ship shall be provided with a
booklet, which shall be written in a language with which the ship’s officers responsible for cargo operations
are familiar. The booklet shall, as a minimum, include:

1. stability data,

2. ballasting and de-ballasting rates and capacities;

 3. maximum allowable load per unit surface area of the tank top plating;

4. maximum allowable load per hold;

5. general loading and unloading instructions with regard to the strength of the ship’s structure including
any limitations on the most adverse operating conditions during loading, unloading, ballasting
operations and the voyage;

6. any special restrictions such as limitations on the most adverse operating conditions imposed by the
Administration or organization recognized by it, if applicable; and

7. Where strength calculations are required, maximum permissible forces and moments on the ship’s hull
during loading, unloading and the voyage.

8. Before a solid bulk cargo is loaded or unloaded, the master and the terminal representative shall agree
on a plan* which shall ensure that the permissible forces and moments on the ship are not exceeded
during loading or unloading, and shall include the sequence, quantity and rate of loading or unloading,
taking into consideration the speed of loading or unloading, the number of pours and the de-ballasting
or ballasting capability of the ship. The plan and any subsequent amendments thereto shall be lodged
with the appropriate authority of the port State.

9. Bulk cargoes shall be loaded and trimmed reasonably level, as necessary, to the boundaries of the cargo
space so as to minimize the risk of shifting and to ensure that adequate stability will be maintained
throughout the voyage.

References for bulk cargoes (INTERNATIONAL REG. ON CARRIAGE OF BULK)

Before and during loading, transport and unloading of bulk cargoes, all necessary safety precautions including
any regulations or requirements should be observed, including the following:

1. Dangerous Bulk Material Regulations

2. Safe Working Practices Regulations

3. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code)

4. Emergency Procedures For Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods

5. Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Goods (MFAG)

6. IMO BC Code - Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes

Outline of the contents of the IMO Code of Safe Practice for solid Bulk Cargoes (BC CODE)
The primary aim of the code is to promote the safe stowage and shipment of bulk cargoes and list materials currently shipped in bulk
together with advice on their properties and handling.
The IMO code of safe practice for bulk cargoes which is a code and provides a guide and recommendation to governments and
shipowners for the carriage of bulk cargoes and various types.
There are several hazards that mentioned together with suggestions to counteract the effect of poor stability and strength.
THE BC CODE CONTENTS OUTLINES THE FOLLOWING:
 General Precautions
 Safety of Personnel and ship, ie, Health hazards due to dust, flammable atmosphere and ventilation systems
 The assessment of acceptability of consignments for safe shipment, that is, determination of flow moisture point and
moisture content
 Methods of determining the Angle of Repose
 Materials possessing chemical hazards

HAZARDS
The hazards associated with the shipment of bulk cargo fall into one of the following categories.
1. Structural Damage due to improper cargo distribution
2. Loss/Reduction of stability on voyage due either to a shift of cargo in heavy weather or the cargo liquefying and stowing to one
side of the hold.
3. Chemical Reactions, example emission of toxic or explosive gases, spontaneous combustion or severe corrosion effects.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS (All Bulk Cargoes)
 STABILITY: Anticipate worst conditions ie, weather, stability etc
 STRUCTURAL STRESSES: Avoid too much weight in specific localities Eg, Tank Top
Height of Load = SF x Ht of TD
50
 DECK LOADING RATE: Found in stability books onboard.
 CENTER LOADING: Causes stresses and must be avoided. If possible load in alternate holds.
 DUST: Dirt could be a problem mainly through entering machinery.
 HIGH DENSITY CARGO: If loading high density cargo at speeds, sound bilges afterwards and test bilges.
 FLAMMABILITY: Many bulk cargoes can spontaneously heat or combust or may be flammable.
DETERMINING THE ANGLE OF REPOSE AND MOISTURE CONTENT
 ANGLE OF REPOSE: Is the maximum slope angle of non-cohesive granular material. It is the angle between a horizontal
plane and the cone slope of such material.

 FLOW MOISTURE POINT: Is the percentage moisture content at which a flow state develops under the prescribed
method of test in a representative sample of the material.
 MOISTURE CONTENT: Is that portion of a representative sample consisting of water, ice or other liquid expressed as a
percentage of the total wet mass of the sample.
 MOISTURE MIGRATION: Is the movement of moisture contained in material by settling and consolidation of the
material due to vibration and ship’s motion. Water is progressively displaced which may result in some portions or all of the
materials developing a flow state.
 TRANSPORTABLE MOISTURE LIMIT: Is the maximum moisture content deemed safe for carriage by sea in general
cargo vessel. It is 90% of the flow moisture point.
 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FOLLOWING TO THE SHIP OFFICER
1. ANGLE OF REPOSE: Is given for each commodity in the code book. A low angle of repose indicates a relatively unstable
cargo eg. Grain, a high angle indicates stable cargo. An angle of repose of 350 is taking as the deciding line for bulk cargo of
lesser or greater shifting hazards.
2. MOISTURE CONTENT: High moisture content bulk cargo gives a distinct possibility of shifting and due care should be
taking when loading.
3. TRANSPORTABLE MOISTURE CONTENT: If the transportable moisture content of the bulk cargo is found to be more
than the required percentage then extreme care should be taking in loading the cargo.

STOWING AND SECURING A PARTLY FILLED COMPARTMENT

1. Bulk Cargo Having an Angle of Repose Greater Than 350
 In the lower hold leveled off in the hatch square so that it slopes out to the sides and ends
 In some cases, the cargo can even project into the Tween Deck. Therefore in the tween deck it must be leveled and
must extend from bulk head to bulk or in the bins.
 Much of the cargo can be stowed in the tween deck to give rise to the ship but ensure not to overstress the Tween
Deck.
2. Bulk Cargo Having an Angle of Repose Equal Or Less Than 350
 In such a case, bulk cargoes in general require to be leveled (possibly with bulldozer).
 It is preferable to have the compartment full than partly full in both cases.
 In a party filled hold shifting boards may be required or cargo may have to be put in bins.
 If the cargo is in tween deck, it should be leveled and shifting boards or bins employed if required.
Chapter 7: GRAINS
 These include wheat, maize, oats, rice rye, barley, pulses and seeds. The proper carriage and a sound
and correct delivery of grain calls for a constant and expert attention from master and officers of the
vessel.
 Grain which is apparently unfit for shipment should be rejected all together and should charterers insist
upon shipment, a survey should be held by company’s surveyors and protest promptly noted. If any
doubt exists as to the condition of the cargo the bill of lading should be suitably claused.

CARRIAGE OF GRAINS AND OTHER BULK CARGOS IMO GRAIN RULES MS( GRAIN)
REGULATIONS 1980.
I. These rules were given the force of law by the ms (Grain) Rules 1980. The principle upon which the
rules are based is in the carriage of grain and there is a minimum level of acceptable stability which
intends of initial meter centric height and angle of heel and residual dynamic stability after taking into
account the adverse heeling effect carried by an assumed grain movement in the void spaces lying
directly above the grain surface. When for the first time it is intended that a ship is to carry grain, a
submission is made to the appropriate authority for approval. The submission is to demonstrate that
the ship meets the requirement of the rules. Included in the submission are plans showing the grain
loading arrangements and grain loading stability information which is in the form of booklet

II. If the authorizes are satisfied that the ship complies with the rules, they will issue a document of
authorization. This documentation will be attached to the grain stability booklet and the plan will be
endorsed. At the commencement of each grain laden voyage, the stability condition should be
calculated to demonstrate that the ship will remain within acceptable minimum requirement
throughout the voyage.

1. BULK GRAINS: This requires surface ventilation to remove heat and moisture. If ventilation is restricted
or halted, the grain will germinate.
.
2. BAGGED RICE: Ventilate to remove heat, moisture and gases. The stowed usually incorporates duct to
achieve ventilation throughout the cargo.

Inspection services during the loading of grain on a vessel

 Checking the suitability of vessels. Inspection of the vessel holds, and the state of readiness for the
loading of cargo
 Monitoring the accuracy of loading and controlling of the entire process of the loading of grain into the
hold of the vessel
 Tally and weight control using terminal or elevator weight
  Visual inspection of cargo for damage (water damage, oil damage, adulteration, etc.) during the loading
 Sampling during the loading of grain into the vessel’s hold 
 Draft survey of a vessel/quantification of bulk cargoes
 Conducting rapid analyses of samples of grain with involvement of on-site inspection (humidity,
nature, foreign materials, bedbug-tortoise damage, contents of damaged grains, protein content, gluten
content, etc.) 
 Keeping the client informed on the progress of works and about the current quality of the grain
Immediately informing the client about possible problems with the quality or condition of the goods
 Conducting laboratory analyses of grain crops in the accredited laboratories at the loading
port(humidity, nature, foreign materials, bedbug-tortoise damage, contents of damaged grains, protein
content, gluten content, falling number, rheological properties of dough – W, and so on) 
 Provision of reports/certificates on the inspection results

Inspection Services for the unloading of grain from a vessel

 Monitoring the accuracy of the unloading and control of the entire process of unloading of grain from
the vessel’s holds
 Tally and weight control of the unloaded grain using terminal or elevator weight
 Visual inspection of cargo for damage (water damage, oil damage, adulteration, etc.) during the
unloading. Control of completeness and lack of discharge of cargo loss during the unloading (spillage
etc.)
 Sampling during the unloading of grain into the vessel’s hold
 Draft survey of a vessel/quantification of bulk cargoes
 Conducting rapid analyses of samples of grain with involvement of on-site inspection (if necessary)
 Keeping the client informed on the progress of works and about the current quality of the fodder.
Immediately informing the client about any possible problems with the quality or condition of the
goods
 Conducting laboratory analyses of grain crops in accredited grain laboratories
 Provision of reports/certificates on the inspection results

LOADING GRAIN ONTO SHIP WHILE CHECKING TRIMMING

VENTILATION OF GRAIN CARGOES:
Ample ventilation is necessary for the correct carriage of practically all grain cargoes. With part cargo,
avoid overlaying of timber in such a manner as blank ventilation of the grain and to prevent the
moisture given off by the grain from escaping.

THE GRAIN RULES

The rule requires that the list due to grain shift must not exceed 12˚. When an assumed shift of free grain
would produce a list greater than 12˚, there the surface must be secured in approved manner. In a fitted
compartment, the bulk grain must be trimmed as so to fill, to the highest possible level the space beneath the
deck and hatch covers. In order to reduce the address heeling effects of an assumed grain shift (15˚) in a filled
compartment, longitudinal divisions must be used. If the filled compartment is at/deck and a longitudinal
division created, it must extent from deck to deck head. If the filled compartment is a lower hold a
longitudinal division must extend downwards from the underside of deck or hatch cover to 0.6m below the
lowest level of the assumed grain surface following the shift.

METHODS OF SECURING GRAINS

Following are recommended methods for securing grain as per international grain code

1. Shifting boards (Filled/partly filled)

2. Saucers (Filled)
3. Bundling of bulk grain (Filled)
4. Overstowing arrangements (Filled/partly filled)
5. Strapping or lashing (Filled/partly filled)
6. Feeders (Filled)
7. Securing with wire mesh (Filled/partly filled)

SECURING WITHOUT LONGITUDINAL DIVISIONS

Except for linseed and girrilas seeds, a longitudinal division beneath a hatch way may be replaced by a saucer
or bundle of bulk. The saucer is lined with a stout material such as tarpaulin and in the case of building
suitable means of securing at the top.

STRAPPING / LASHING
As an attention to securing with bagged grain, strapping or lashing may be adopted. The grain is trimmed to a
slight crown and Covered with separation cloth tarpaulin or similar material overlapping by a least (1.8m).
This is overlaid with 2 solid timber floors one over the other. Each to consist rough timber with the given
measurements 25x (150x300) mm. The lower floor is laid athwartship, and the upper fore and aft and nailed to
the lower one. Alternatively, a solid floor of 50mm timber laid fore and aft nailed over bearers which are
50x150mm may be used. The bearers are to extend over the full breadth of the compartment spaced not more
than 2.11mm apart. The floors are then secured by overlaid wire ropes or chains.
 These lashings are to be secured at the side framming at a point approx 450mm below the anticipated grain
surface and set-up tight by a bottle screw or tightening device. The spacing for the lashings is to be not more
than 2.4mm apart. An inspection of the lashing should be made regularly during the voyage.

STRAPPING/ LASHING

LONGITUDINAL DIVISION

• This may be used to reduce the adverse effect of grain shift or to reduce the depth of bagged cargo required
to secure the free grain surface. When used to reduce grain shift moments, the division should extend
B/8 above and below the level grain surface. When used to reduce the height of over-stow, the
division must project about the level grain surface B/8 but not less than 0.6m and down wards B/8.
The height of over stow will be at least 1/16th of the Breadth of free grain surface.
In partly filled compartment the free grain surface is to be trimmed level. If the ship would not be
adversely affected by an assumed shift of grain of 25˚, the surface need not be secured otherwise the
grain is to be topped up with bagged grain tightly stowed extending to a height not less that1/16th of the
breadth of free grain or 1.2m whichever is greater. Other suitable cargoes may be used instead of
bagged grain. The bags are to be laid on separation cloth or a platform consisting of bearers not more
than 1.2m apart overlaid with 25mm not more 100mm apart.
 SAUCERS
 For the purpose of reducing the heeling moment a saucer may be used in place of a longitudinal
division in way of a hatch opening only in a filled, trimmed, compartment as defined in A 2.2, except in
the case of linseed and other seeds having similar properties, where a saucer may not be substituted for
a longitudinal division. If a longitudinal division is provided, it shall meet the requirements of A 10.9.

The depth of the saucer, measured from the bottom of the saucer to the deck line, shall be as follows:

1. For ships with a moulded breadth of up to 9.1 m, not less than 1.2 m.
2. For ships with a moulded breadth of 18.3 m or more, not less than 1.8 m.
3. For ships with a moulded breadth between 9.1 m and 18.3 m, the minimum depth of the saucer shall be
calculated by interpolation.

 The top (mouth) of the saucer shall be formed by the underdeck structure in way of the hatchway, i.e.
hatch side girders or coamings and hatch end beams. The saucer and hatchway above shall be
completely filled with bagged grain or other suitable cargo laid down on a separation cloth or its
equivalent and stowed tightly against adjacent structure so as to have a bearing contact with such
structure to a depth equal to or greater than one half of the depth specified in IGC(INT. GRAIN
CODE). If hull structure to provide such bearing surface is not available, the saucer shall be fixed in
position by steel wire rope, chain, or double steel strapping as specified in IGC and spaced not more
than 2.4 m apart.
 THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN PRIOR TO ACCEPTING THE FOLLOWING CARGOES
AND THE STOWAGE INVOLVED
a) Barrels of wine
b) Cartons of tinned goods
c) Bales of Cotton
d) Uncrated Motor Cars

GENERAL : The following precautions will be taken prior to loading;

1. Examine all handling gears to be used for safety and quantity
2. Hatches well cleaned and suctions tested
3. Adequate dunnaging at required position and all bulkhead, stiffeners etc should be fully packed with dunnage.
4. Fire fighting appliances like extinguishers, fire hoses etc on a standby
5. No smoking notices displayed at vantage positions
6. Spark arrestors fitted on main and galley funnels
7. Use of naked light on should be prohibited
8. Refer to ”ALME” book cotton fire

STOWAGE
a. BARRELS OF WINE

 Prior to loading check barrels for leakages, bung light, secured bands.
 Stowage should commence on the centerline towards the bilge
 Barrels to be kept well apart from cargo which is liable to heat, also from engine and boiler space, also from oils and strong
smelling commodities.
 Barrels to stowed bung up
 The barrels should be laid on quoins
 Bilges should be cleaned with all bands on tank.

DRUMS ARRANGED ON QUOINS

b. CARTONS OF TINNED GOODS

 Damp cartons to be rejected

 Cartons not to be stowed with cargo liable to sweat and throw off moisture
 Special stowage for this cargo if necessary in order to avoid pilferages
 Keep close watch on the use of forklift
 Ensure a block tight stow to avoid damage from chafage
 All ventilations to be switched off because of cargo sweat. Restrict ventilation if necessary
 Bales close to the deck head must be covered with matting or waterproof paper to prevent damage from drifting sweat

c. BALES OF COTTON

 Should be stowed on single dunnage.

 Cotton normally is highly inflammable and may be liable to spontaneous heating and combustion if the bale bands
are broken and contents loose or wet, oil or grease stained.
 The bales of cotton to be carefully examined and all wet, stained or damp bales rejected.
 Also those with wrappers torn off and marks missing or bands missing should be rejected.
 The bales should be stowed flat on dunnage

UNCRATED MOTOR CARS

 Must be stowed in the lower hold on own ground or on top in tween deck
 Floor out with plywood boards on top of other cargoes
 In the absence of special and permanent fittings for securing the cars, each should be secured by not less than 4 strong
lashings
 The cars should be connected to suitable anchorages such as fitting ladder eyebolts etc with wire ridge ropes
 CARS AND TRUCKS UNDER LASHED

SPECIAL PRECAUTION FOR VEHICLES

When vehicles are in the stowed position, batteries are to be disconnected.
 Petrol tank empty, hand brakes applied and doors locked.
 Keys labeled with names, number of cars and actual position.
 Also avoid damage to cars.
 In the case of heavier cars, the wheels are cradled.
SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS IN THE CARRIAGE OF THE FOLLOWING CARGOES
 Cotton
 Steel Bars and Pipes
 Coal
 Containers

i) COTTON:
 Prepare the hold making it clean and dry;
 Lay dunnages at least two tiers high. The first one should be atwartship for drainage purposes and second
longitudinally.
 Lay new dunnages which are not oil soiled.
 Cotton is highly inflammable and all fire precautions should be taken while loading and discharging.
 No smoking sign should be exhibited and smoking prohibited in or near the hold.
 Spontaneous heating and combustion may also occur if the bales have been in contact with oil. These bales of
cotton should not be stowed in this same compartment.
 If possible reject wet bales.
ii) STEEL BARS AND PIPES:
 Lay dunnages before loading steel bars and pipes.
 They must be as far as practicable loaded first since they are very heavy and may damage other cargo.
 They should be solidly stowed to avoid rolling.
 In ensuring fair distribution of weight, consult weight distribution and capacity plan to avoid damage of
vessels deck.
 Independent over all lashing of closed link chain or with flexible steel wire rope at about 3m apart, secured to
eye plate on the sheer strake.
COAL:
 Reference should be made to the code of safe practice for bulk cargoes before loading coal.
 Coal is very liable to spontaneous heating and if there is sufficient oxygen available, combustion will take
place.
 Remove all spar ceiling or cargo battening to avoid them being damaged and also to avoid unwanted air
pockets in the coal.

 Prevent undue breakages in the coal while loading to avoid spontaneous heating of small coals. Only surface
ventilation should be carried out.
 Thermometers should be fixed in the holds to check the temperatures especially below hatch ways, deck and
madhouses, chain lockers and similar spaces since flammable gas from the hold may find its way to these
spaces.
 Naked lights should not be used around holds and spaces where gases will accumulate until they are well
ventilated.
 Avoid chipping or hot work, smoking and oily waste.
 Electric cables should be disconnected before loading.
 Ventilate holds before discharging.
 Test and standby breathing apparatus and fire fighting appliances but steam and water must not be used for
smothering in case of fire.
CONTAINERS:
 Containers which from external inspection is considered structurally unsafe must be rejected.
 Avoid large units which if stowed atwartship would result in an overhang of the ship’s side.
 Except where there is provision enabling a twist lock or other similar device to be inserted in the bottom corner
fittings of the container or fabricated deck stocks of appropriate strength.
 Containers stowed on deck should be one high only in such cases, the containers should be stowed in fore and
aft direction to avoid sliding atwartships and secure against tiproing and shifting with chains and / or wire and /
or heavy webbing straps with suitable tensioners such as bottle screw.
 The deck loaded containers should at no time overstress the hatch covers or hatchway structure.
 In case of doubt of stress limitation, this information should be obtained from classification society.
CONTAINER SECURING ARRANGEMENT
a. Rods and wire lashing to be sufficiently tight
b. The correct bridging pieces and host locks should be checked in position between tiers. Twist locks positions should be
clearly understood.
c. In cellular vessels, containers are put down through cell guides and landed one on top of the other no further securing is
required.
d. Some ships exist with guides above deck for similar purposes
e. Containers stacked one above the other without the benefit of cell guides must be secured one to the other with twist locks,
locating cones, bridging pieces, lashing rods, wires and shores to prevent any form of stiffing.
f. Ships without cell guides have deck fittings suitably placed for holding the container

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF CONTAINERS IN USE TODAY

i) Flat Containers
Basically a floor container fitting at each corner but no corner post. Not suited to be lifted by conventional spreader but
easily handled by ‘’over height’’ frames, frames with wire legs. May have forklift pockets and may be secured by the
bottom corner castings. It is sometimes used to form a ‘’deck’’ on cellular ships.

ii) Closed Box Container for General Purposes

Usually has doors at one end only, has a relatively low tare weight and a relatively low capital cost. It can carry a
variety of different commodities.

iii) Open Top (Soft Top)

Has doors at one end, portable roof supports (roof bowl) and a cover for weather protection. Principally used for very
heavy cargoes or cargoes that can only be loaded with an overhead crane. Also for over height cargoes.
iv) Open Sided Containers
Can be loaded from either side, usually has tilts or covers that drop down on either side, relatively high tare weight. It is
suitable for cargoes that have to be loaded from the side e.g. packages of plywood and also for cargoes that need to be
exposed to ventilation e.g. fresh vegetables.

v) Dry Bulk Containers

It has loading hatches in the roof, doors at one end and a discharge thatch in the wall opposite the doors. May be used
for dry bulk cargoes and general cargo.
vi) Tank Container
High cost, relatively high tare weights, suitable for a variety of bulk liquids, for which may require approvals, may be
heated or non heated very stiff construction.

vii) Half Height Containers

 Half height of nearly all the above containers (except dry bulk) are used principally for high density cargoes.

PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED ONBOARD CONTAINER SHIPS

BAD STOWAGE
Occurs when heavy weight containers find their way into the upper tiers of container stacks on deck.
COLLAPSE OF CONTAINER
Occurs when heavy weight containers find their way into the upper tiers of container stacks on deck.
BAD LOADING STABILITY
Careful monitoring of the ships stability during loading operations is required or else the ship might capsize.
OUT OF GAUGE CARGO
That is cargo which is slightly higher or wider than standard containers may damage it, therefore may still be carried in open top,
open side or flat rack containers.
ADVERSE WEATHER
The combined static and dynamic loads acting on a securing system when adverse weather was causing severe ship motions,
particularly rolling.
 SECURING AND LASHING
The securing and lashing of containers on ship’s decks is a difficult operation in terms of the work environment. There are great
problems during loading and discharge of containers. The stevedores who carry out this work, known as riggers, have to work on
container stacks which often are 13 meters high or more above the ship’s deck. Safety arrangements are in some ports and the work
frequently has to be performed in the dark, under windy and rainy or sometimes icy conditions.
Containers are secured by cross bracing with turnbuckles and lashing bars and anchored to slots or fitting on the deck. Containers are
locked together using twist locks. They come in many variations but their purpose is to lock the container stack together at the corner
post. Lashings were still applied throughout the stow in accordance with the manufacturer’s manual.
Panamax vessels ie. Vessels capable of carrying up to 8500 TEU’s and small container ships down to coaster / feeder vessels of a few
hundred TEU’s and ‘Post-Panamax’ ships ie. Large container vessels all have adopted the twistlock and lashing bar / turnbuckle
system.
One relied on the use of twistlocks in conjunction with lashing bars or chains and the second relied on the use of stacking cones and
bridge pieces in conjunction with lashing bars or chains. Gradually, due to the increased utilization of differing height containers, the
second method became redundant and it became common practice to use twistlocks throughout the stow .

CONTAINER CARGO
There are four main operational systems in the container terminal operation; the ship operation, the quay transfer operation, the
container yard operation (including container storage and in-terminal movements) and the receipt/delivery operation.
The ship operation which involves the movement of containers between the quayside and the ship. In the ship operation, quayside
cranes are moved into position opposite the hatch and bay to be discharged or loaded. Containers are lifted off and into the ship. The
preferred method of loading container vessels is with a rail mounted gantry crane.
The operation is carried out by port workers located onboard the vessel, working above deck and in some cases at least below deck,
others working on the quayside beneath the cranes that is including the checkers or tally clerks and the crane operators of course in
their cabs.

STOWAGE
To enable the position of a container on a ship to be specified, a standard numbering system is used. Container slot positions aboard
ship are expressed by three co-ordinates indicating;

Bays:
A numbered lengthwise from bow to stern with odd numbers for 201 containers and even numbers for 401 containers. The even
number between two 201 containers is used to define 401 bays.
Rows:
Are numbered from centre line to portside with even numbers and from centre line to starboard with odd numbers. The container
row stowed on the center line is marked.
Tiers:
In under-deck stows, containers are numbered vertically downwards with even numbers from top to bottom. The bottom row will be
02, except where as a result of the hull contour, the bottom of an adjacent row is at a higher level. In case of two half heights, the
bottom ones are to be numbered by an odd number. On deck stowage is indicated by code key 8 followed by an even number
sequence.
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION ON
ROLL ON ROLL OFF VESSELS
The main factors that affect the efficiency of operation of Ro-Ro are as follows;
a. The gradient of each ramp especially ship shore, the angle of the ramp is normally affected by the rise and fall of the tide,
height of draft of the vessel and also subjected to a greater flow of traffic.
b. Where width of the ramp is sufficient for two lane vehicular traffic, speed can be affected if too many vehicles have to pass
each other on the ramp.
c. Bends and turns to be negotiated and blind corners which is time consuming
d. The speed of operation of elevators or other similar handling equipments can greatly be affected if the efficiency of the
equipment is below normal.
e. The vehicle envelope which is the total space required by the whole vehicle end its load as it negotiates a change. Gradient
should be enough to provide easy passage otherwise it may retard the speed.
f. A change of slope if too severe can ground vehicle either at the center or at their extremely, thus affecting the speed of
operation.
g. Experienced drives greatly improve the speed of operation, on the other hand if inexperienced drives are employed, this
affects the speed.
CARGO HANDLING GEARS
 STUELCKEN DERRICK
The Stuelcken derrick is probably the best known of all heavy lift designs. The ‘fork type’ Stuelcken mast was first introduced in
1954 and since then many hundreds of Stuelcken mast derricks have been installed on many types of ship. There are five basic
versions but a general arrangement plan of a typical Stuelcken mast. All the Stuelcken derricks have common features;
1. The ability to swing through the vertical and plumb two hatches without re-rigging, i.e. the working area is doubled as the
one derrick can serve the hatches forward and aft of its position.
2. The twin V masts give a large distance between the base of the topping lift spans and thus a large horizontal arc of
operation.
3. The twin span system means that slewing guys do not obstruct the cargo working area.
4. A portable remote control device which is slung around an operator’s neck means that the operator’s view is never
obstructed and gives a very large scope for automatic remote control.
5. There is no necessity to re-rig the derrick at any stage of the operation.
6. All blocks, swivels, goose necks etc are equipped with anti friction bearing and are scaled. Thus the derricks are practically
maintenance free for at least four years.
7. The derrick is secured for sea in a short period of time.
8. To reduce top weight there is much use of low alloy high-strength steels.
9. There is very accurate spot loading capability.
10. Two derricks can combine their SWL’s e.g. Two 130tonne derricks can lift 260 tonnes

SHIP CRANES
Cranes have replaced derricks on many modern ships. Generally they are considered as an alternative to the union purchase rig. Deck
cranes have a number of advantages, the rigging time being negligible and the crane is able to pick up and land permitted loads
anywhere within its working radius. Crane is perhaps less efficient with very light loads.
The safe working loads of cranes is generally of the order of 10 to 15 tonnes and larger cranes available are capable of lifts from 30
to 40 tonnes. As with the union purchase rig, the crane is intended for rapid cargo loading and discharging duties with loads which
only occasionally exceed, say, 8 tonnes.
Cranes may often be positioned on the ship’s center line, but this may require an extreme long jib when the ship’s beam is large and a
reasonable outreach is desired. Transverse positional cranes may then be fitted which when not under load, can be moved to portside
or starboard and secured to work the hatch and give the desired outreach. Alternatively fixed cranes, one at each end of the hatch may
be placed at opposite corners. This is an arrangement which is useful in discharging to portside and starboard simultaneously. There
is also a crane which is mounted on a hatch cover section capable of tavelling under load along the hatch coming in the longitudinal
direction.
Derrick cranes are available from specialist manufacturers and the shipbuilder would be responsible for installation, any local
strengthening and seatings. They are normally positioned between the holds, often on a platform which can be rotated through 360 0
provides an immediately operational unit requiring only one man to operate it. Double gearing is a feature of most designs, providing
a higher speed at lighter loads. Various types of crane exist for particular duties, for example a general duty crane using a hook and a
grabbing crane for use with bulk cargoes.
Three separate drives provide the principal movements; a hoisting motor for lifting the load, a luffing moto for raising or lowering
the jib and a slewing motor for rotating the crane. The operator’s cab is designed to provide clear view of all the cargo working area
so that the crane operator can function alone.
The crane is usually mounted on a pedestal to offer adequate visibility to the operator. For occasional heavy loads arrangements for
two cranes to work together, i.e. twinning, can be made with a single operator using a master and slave control system in the two
cranes. A common revolving platform will be necessary for this arrangement. The operating medium for deck crane motors may be
hydraulic or electric, utilizing circuits referred to earlier.

LIFTING APPLIANCE
It means a crane, winch, hoist, derrick boom and any other description of lifting appliance, derrick and mast bands, goose necks,
eyebolts and all other permanent attachments to a derrick, mast or deck, used on a vessel for the purposes of hoisting or lowering a
connection with works.
SHIP DERRICKS
A derrick system includes the winch, derrick boom, mast, permanent attachments and accessories.
UNION PURCHASE
COMPONENTS
Masthead span block, derrick heel lead block, derrick head cargo block, standing guy, goose neck, span wire, winches, spider band,
emergency stop button, preventer, shackles, securing points, guy wire, midship guy, topping lift stopper, monkey face.
FUNCTION
Married Gear very often referred to as Union Purchase and sustains a married of two derricks and a married of two runners. The rig is
used for light loads up to ½ tonnes.
RIGGING
The derricks are secured in the plumbing positions, one over the quay and the other over the hatch, by means of standing guys and
preventer wires (lazy guys).
The preventer wires are fitted to the outboard sides of the derricks to assist in absorbing the strong side stresses. The load is lifted on
one derrick and hove across the deck on the other and slack away on the first one.

PRECAUTION IN THE USE OF UNION PURCHASE

When using union purchase the following precautions should be strictly taken to avoid excessive tensions or danger to operation.
i) The minimum operating angle of either derrick should be not less than 15% to the horizontal and it is recommended
that the angle be not less than 300
ii) The outreach beyond the midship breadth of the ship should not be less than 4m.
iii) The angle between the married runners should not normally exceed 900 and an angle of 1200 should never be exceeded.

THE HALLEN DERRICK

1. Is a single swinging derrick which is fact incorporated and can work against a list of up to 150.
2. They are usually manufactured in the 25-40 tonne SWL range.
3. When engaged it operates under a single man control.
4. The derrick employs a joystick control for lifting and slewing, which is achieved port and slewing guys incorporated into the
topping lift arrangements.
5. Hallen derricks use outriggers from a ‘’Y’’ mast structure provides clear leads even when the derrick is working at 90 0 to the
ship fore and aft line.
6. The Hallen derrick is labour saving and can be operated by a single controller, operating the lifting and slewing movement
together with the cargo hoist movement.

ADVANTAGE
a. One man operates.
b. It is labour saving over and above the use of conventional derricks.
c. It keeps the deck area clear of guy ropes and preventers.
d. Should heavy loads be involved, only the cargo hoist would need to be changed to satisfy different load requirements.

OPERATION OF ‘’SWINGING THROUGH’’ WHEN USING;

The Stulken ‘’Pendulous Block’’ type heavy derrick
NOTES:
a. Hook, tie bar, removed from lifting purchases
b. Derrick continually raised into vertical position by span tackles.
c. Lifting purchase hangs in two parts by sides of derrick.
d. Bull wire pulls derrick through vertical and span tackles.
e. Lifting purchase pass through either side of derrick pendulous.
f. Connect up with tie bar and hook on other side.
SNOTTER: May be made of either rope or wire by forming an eye at each end of a 16mm-20mm wire (2’’ – 2 ½ ’’) or 50mm –
60mm rope (3’’ – 4’’) or 4 to 6 meters (2 – 3 fathoms) in length. It is used for slinging cases, bales, wet hides and timber.

CHAIN SLING: Consists of a length of chain with a large ring at one end and a hook or smaller ring at the other end. It is used for
lifting heavy logs, bundles of iron and most steel work. Care must always be taken so that no kinks will be allowed to form in the
chain when goods are being lifted.
ROPE SLING: This is formed by joining the ends of a piece of 25mm – 30mm rope (3’’ – 3 ½ ’’) about to 10meters – 12meters (5
to 7 fathoms) in length with a short splice. The sling is in very common use. Bags, Baled goods, Barrels and cases may all be slung
with this;

CANVAS SLING: This is formed by sewing a piece of canvas between the parts of a rope sling. It is used for bagged grain, rice,
coffee and similar cargoes where the contents of the bag are small. Any spillage is retained in the canvas and is not wasted. The stress
on the outside bags are spread more evenly and thus the chance of splitting is reduced.
BOARD SLING: Is similar to the canvas sling but wood is used in place of the canvas. This is used for slinging fragile cargo such
as bags of cement.

PLATE CLAMPS: There are various types of these, but the principle is that the plate is gripped when the weight is taken, so that
there is no chance of the plate slipping as it could do if the chain sling was used.

CAN HOOKS: The hook slips under the lip of the drum or barrel. There are frequently four or five sets of hooks on a ring which
enables drums and barrels to be handled very rapidly. They are not to be recommended for handling heavy barrels as there is a
possibility that the staves will be pulled out.

NETS: They are used for handling small packages and mails. A wooden board is sometimes placed in the net if there is a risk of the
packages being crushed. A canvas net sling is sometimes used for slinging frozen meat.
CAR SLINGS: There are many types of these. All are designed for the rapid handling of cars and lorries. It is essential that
spreaders are fitted otherwise there is a possibility that the body work of the vehicle will be set in. When heavy lorries and buses or
big chassis are to be slung, wire slings are usually attached direct to the ends of the axles.

HEAVY LIFT SLINGS: They are used for the handling of locomotives and similar cargo. A large beam is employed to separate the
slings which are of large gauge wire. The slings are attached to the ends of the beam.

REQUIREMENTS REGARDING THE STOWAGE OF TIMBER ON DECK FOR A VESSEL WITH TIMBER
LOADLINES AND A VESSEL WITHOUT TIMBER LOADLINES
The loading of deck cargo must comply with Merchant Shipping (Loadline) Deck Cargo Regulation 1968 (S.I 1968/1089).
1. Deck cargo is to be distributed and stowed so as to avoid excessive loading of the deck and integral supporting structure
(Consult the capacity plan).
2. Ensure adequate stability throughout the voyage with particular regard being given to vertical data and effect on GM.
3. Take into account expected wind moment.
4. Loss of weight due to consumption of fuel and water and its effect on GM such stores and water.
5. Possible absorption of water and ice accretion estimated to be 15% of weight of timber.
6. Not to impair watertight integrity of the ship.
7. Ensure protection of vents and air pipes.
8. Height not to interfere with navigation and work of the ship.
9. Access to steering gear, including the emergency arrangement not obstructed.
10. Safe access to crew quarters, machinery spaces and work areas not obstructed.
11. Should not interfere with use of fire hydrants.
12. Guard rails or wire on side of the walking to be secured to the cargo stanchions to be secured.
13. Lashings and fittings of adequate strength to prevent movement at sea (M111O). Additionally minimum GM to be 0.1m.
 VESSELS WITH TIMBER LOADLINE
a. VESSELS WITH TIMBER LOADLINE
Height of timber deck cargo; in summer, the maximum height is a safe height but there is also a minimum height which is
the standard height which is the standard height of the super structure. In winter, the maximum height is 1/3 beam, while the
minimum height is the standard superstructure.

b. VESSEL WITHOUT TIMBER LOADLINE

Maximum height of timber deck cargo; in summer, a height commensurate with safe management and navigation of the
ship. In winter, a height not greater than 1/3 beam of the ship (provided there is adequate lashing arrangement)
DOCUMENTATION REQUIRED PRIOR TO AND DURING SHIPMENT OF DANGEROUS GOODS
The main statutory obligations under these rules are;
1. The shipper must furnish a certificate on IMO approved form that the shipment is properly marked, labeled and packed and
on it indicated the correct technical name and to which of the following classes the food belong

DANGEROUS GOODS

Classes, divisions, packing groups

Definitions

Substances (including mixtures and solutions) and articles subject to the provisions of this Code are assigned to one of the classes 1
-9 according to the hazard or the most predominant of the hazards they present. Some of these classes are subdivided into divisions.
These classes or divisions are as listed below:

Class 1: Explosives

Class 2: Gases

Class 3: Flammable liquids

Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances which, in contact with water, emit
flammable gases

Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides

Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances

Class 7: Radioactive material

Class 8: Corrosive substances

Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles

MARKING, LABELLING AND PLACARDING
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be durably marked with the correct technical name; trade names alone shall not be used.

Packages containing dangerous goods shall be provided with distinctive labels or stencils of the labels, or placards, as appropriate, so
as to make clear the dangerous properties of the goods contained therein.

The method of marking the correct technical name and of affixing labels or applying stencils of labels, or of affixing placards on
packages containing dangerous goods, shall be such that this information will still be identifiable on packages surviving at least three
months’ immersion in the sea. In considering suitable marking, labelling and placarding methods, account shall be taken of the
durability of the materials used and of the surface of the package.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be so marked and labeled except that:

.1 packages containing dangerous goods of a low degree of hazard or packed in limited quantities or

.2 when special circumstances permit, packages that are stowed and handled in units that are identified by labels or placards; may be
exempted from labelling requirements.

GENERAL INFORMATION PRIOR LOADING/ DISCHARGING

The duty officer entrusted with the loading of the dangerous goods should have all the relevant data regarding the dangerous goods
that would be loaded, these would include:

 Copy of the document from the shipper regarding the cargo

 Classification of the DG

 Quantity to be loaded

 Proposed stowage

 Type of packages

 Shipping name – that is the correct technical name

 Segregation required from other cargo as well as from other DG

 MFAG and EmS requirement for the safe handling of the cargo

 Any fire hazard as per IMDG

 Any temperature/ wetness restriction for the loading of the cargo

Segregation

General

The provisions of this chapter should apply to all cargo spaces on deck or under deck of all types of ships and to cargo transport
units.

The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended, requires in regulation 6.1 of part A of
chapter VII that incompatible goods should be segregated from one another.

For the implementation of this requirement, two substances or articles are considered mutually incompatible when their stowage
together may result in undue hazards in case of leakage or spillage, or any other accident.

The extent of the hazard arising from possible reactions between incompatible dangerous goods may vary and so the segregation
arrangements required should also vary as appropriate.

Such segregation is obtained by maintaining certain distances between incompatible dangerous goods or by requiring the presence of
one or more steel bulkheads or decks between them, or a combination thereof. Intervening spaces between such dangerous goods
may be filled with other cargo compatible with the dangerous substances in question.

The following segregation terms are used throughout this Code:

“Away from”;

“Separated from”;
“Separated by a complete compartment or hold from”;

“Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from”.

The general provisions for segregation between the various classes of dangerous goods are shown in the

segregation table”.

In addition to the general provisions, there may be a need to segregate a particular substance, material or article from other goods,
which could contribute to its hazard. Particular provisions for segregation are indicated in the Dangerous Goods List and, in the case
of conflicting provisions, always take precedence over the general provisions.

For example:

In the Dangerous Goods List entry for ACETYLENE, DISSOLVED, class 2.1, UN 1001, the following particular segregation
requirement is specified:

“separated from” chlorine

In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BARIUM CYANIDE, class 6.1, UN 1565, the following particular

segregation is specified:

“separated from” acids

Where the Code indicates a single secondary hazard (one subsidiary risk label), the segregation provisions applicable to that hazard
should take precedence where they are more stringent than those of the primary hazard.

Except for class 1, the segregation provisions for substances, materials or articles having more than two hazards (2 or more
subsidiary risk labels) are given in the Dangerous Goods List.

In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BROMINE CHLORIDE, class 2.3, UN 2901, subsidiary risks 5.1 and 8, the following
particular segregation is specified:

“segregation” as for class 5.1 but “separated from” class 7”.

Segregation of packages

Applicability

The provisions of this subsection apply to the segregation of:

packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way;

dangerous goods within cargo transport units; and

dangerous goods stowed in the conventional way from those packed in such cargo transport units.

Segregation of packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way

Definitions of the segregation terms Legend

Reference package - BLUE

Package containing incompatible goods - RED

Deck resistant to fire and liquid – BOLD LINE

NOTE. Full vertical lines represent transverse bulkheads between cargo spaces (compartments or holds) resistant to fire and liquid.
Away from:

Effectively segregated so that the incompatible goods cannot interact dangerously in the event of an accident but may be transported
in the same compartment or hold or on deck, provided a minimum horizontal separation of 3 metres, projected vertically, is obtained.

Separated from:
In different compartments or holds when stowed under deck. Provided the intervening deck is resistant to fire and liquid, a vertical
separation i.e. in different compartments, may be accepted as equivalent to this segregation. For on deck stowage, this segregation
means a separation by a distance of sit least 6 metres horizontally.
Separated by a complete compartment or hold from:

Either a vertical or a horizontal separation. If the intervening decks are not resistant to fire and liquid, then only a longitudinal
separation, i.e. by an intervening complete compartment or hold, is acceptable. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of at least 12 metres horizontally. The same distance has to be applied if one package is stowed on deck and
the other one in an upper compartment.

Note: One of the two decks must be resistant to fire and to liquid.

Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from:

Vertical separation alone does not meet this requirement. Between a package under deck and one on deck, a minimum distance of 24
metres, including a complete compartment, must be maintained longitudinally. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of at least 24 metres longitudinally.

LIQUID AND GAS CARGOES

PURPOSE OF HEATING COILS FITTED IN DEEP TANK AND REQUIREMENTS NEEDED FOR AN
EFFICIENT SYSTEM
Many of the vegetable oil in bulk carried in deep tanks solidify at normal ambient temperature and therefore
require heating because of the difficulty in pumping at low temperature. Also, because chemical change takes
place in the cargo due to cooling and heating. It is usual for these oils to be loaded at a specified temperature
and carried at a temperature slightly lower than the loading temperature and then subsequently brought up
slowly to the discharging temperature. These will all be specified by the shipper.
Under no circumstances must the oil be allowed to fall below the temperature specified because of the danger
that arises with too rapid heating causing scorching (discoloration) o r segmentation. The heating is usually
affected by steam coils placed in strategic locations or by pumping the cargo through a heater in the engine
room.
Deep tank use
Many vessels are fitted with ‘deep tanks’ – employed as ballast tanks or for the carriage of specialized liquid
cargoes such as vegetable oils – i.e. coconut oil, bean oil, cotton seed oil, linseed oil, palm oil or mineral oils.
Other cargoes include ‘tallow’ or bulk commodities like grain, molasses or latex.
The specialization of such cargoes often require rigid temperature control of the cargo and to this end most
cargo deep tanks are fitted with ‘heating coils’ which may or may not be blanked off as the circumstances
dictate
Note: Some vessels with a shaft tunnel may be fitted with additional deep tanks aft, in a position either side
of the shaft tunnel, but these are not common.
Note: All precautions for the entry into an enclosed space must be taken prior to carrying out maintenance
inside ‘deep tanks’ under a permit to work scheme.

PREPARATION OF DEEP TANKS

The need for absolute cleanliness with deep tanks is paramount and Cargo Officers are advised that they are
virtually always subject to supervision and survey prior to loading example cargoes. Claims for contamination
of these cargoes are high and meticulous cleaning of the tank itself and the pipelines employed for loading and
discharging must be a matter of course.

REQUIREMENT FOR EFFICIENT HEATING COIL SYSTEM

1. The heating coils should have a good surface area, and sufficient for percentage of oil to be carried and
also for the size of the tank (2 sq fit/tone)
2. Heating coils should be placed in the correct position that is where it is coldest bilge area, on top of the
double bottom, and up the shipside.
3. It should be non corrosive material with good thermal conductivity e.g. aluminum
4. Stainless steel pipes of long interchangeable length of the hair pin bend type which gives fewer flanges
with less likelihood of leakage appearing.
5. Provision made for testing with steam or a head of water.
6. There should be provision made for the drainage of the line when not in use.
7. The material used must not contaminate the oil and vice versa.
8. The coil must not leak and therefore the less joint the better it is.
9. It should be easily removable.

SUMMARY
Why It Is Necessary To Keep Certain Cargoes Heated
1. It is necessary to keep certain cargoes heated because they solidify at normal atmospheric ambient
temperature
 2. Because it is also difficult in pumping at low temperature
3. Furthermore chemical changes take place due to cooling and heating. Note that it is usual for these oils
to be heated at a specified temperature, carried at a temperature slightly lower than the loading
temperature and then subsequently brought up to the discharging temperature as specified by the
shippers.
How the Cargo may be heated
The heating is usually affected by steam coils placed in strategic locations or by pumping the cargo through a
heater in the engine room.
The Method for Checking the Temperature of a Cargo
Thermometer tubes are fitted at top, center and bottom of the tank to check the temperature of the cargo.
Examples of Cargoes That Require Heating;
 Palm nut oil
 Coconut oil
 Cotton oil
 Soya bean oil
 Linseed oil
 Molasses
Deep tank cargoes
Vegetable oils – The main types of vegetable oil : are soya bean, coconut, cotton seed, kapok seed, linseed,
palm and palm nut.
Many of the oils solidify at normal ambient temp and therefore require heating to enable them to be pumped
out. With some oil, chemical change may take place when repeated after cooling. It is normal for these oils to
be loaded at a specified temperature, carried at a temperature, slightly lower than the loading temperature, and
then raised slowly to the discharge temperature. The information will be supplied by the shipper (e.g. palm oil
solidifies at 27°C and handled at 54°C,coconut oil solidifies at 24°C handled at 37°C.

When shipped in bulk, the tank must be thoroughly cleaned and all traces of previous cargoes must be
removed. Tank suctions will be blanked off, and the overall condition will be inspected by a Cargo Surveyor.
The tank itself would be tested for oil tightness prior to loading.
Heating coils will probably be in operation depending on the required shipping temperature. Some oils solidify
at 0°C, others like palm oil or palm nut oil, solidify at between 32°C and 39°C, cotton seed oil and kapok seed
oil solidify at about 10–13°C. Chief Officers could expect to be supplied with relevant Shipping criteria for the
oil. Care must be taken that the heating is not too fierce or applied too quickly as the cargo could scorch.
Such an occurrence would be noticeable by some discolouration of the oil, which could result in a cargo claim
being filed. Contamination is avoided by use of shoreside cargo pumps when discharging, while monitoring on
passage is conducted by taking ullages and temperatures at least twice per day for oils kept in the liquid state.
Following discharge of the cargo, the tank would probably be steam cleaned and washed with a caustic soda
type solution to ensure cleanliness
 Under no circumstances must the oil be allowed to fall below the specific temperature
because if heated too rapidly the oil can be damaged (scotching and discoloration) or
sedimentation occurs. Heating is a usually achieve by steam heating coils or by
circulating the cargo, through a heater in the engine room. In some ships there may not
be facilities to pump the cargo in which case it is loaded overall and pumped and
discharged by portable pumps CLEANING, TESTING AND

PREPARATION OF THE TANK

1. Arrive at docking port with the tank full of clean ballast so that tank lids and boundaries can be
inspected for leakage with tanks pressed up.
2. The shippers and classification society surveyor should be called to inspect the tank for oil tightness
and subsequently surveyed for fitness and they would be expected to give written certification of
the fitness.
3. After inspecting lids and boundaries, pump out the tank, press-up the DB tank so that the tank can
be inspected for leaks.
4. The cleaning will depend on the previous cargo.
5. Cleaning by scrubbing with emulsifying agent, followed by a freshwater wash may be sufficient.
6. If it is very dirty, it may be necessary to steam for 24 hrs.
7. Scrub down with caustic soda, followed by a fresh water wash. or rinse
8. Allow to dry, wipe or scrub with one or two applications of the oil to be loaded.
9. Tank suctions, ballast and bilge lines, fire fighting fixture should be blank off to prevent inadvertent
admission of water.
10. Blank off dry cargo vents. (explain how it is done)
11. Remove all heating coils
12. Coat the inside of the tank with paraffin wax applied with a brush.
13. Fix thermometer tubes so that temps. Can be taken @ the top, bottom and centre (explain how it is
done)
14. Fit rust traps on vents and air pipes
15. High heating coils and test for leaks
16. Call the surveyors for final inspection and obtain certificate.
17. After loading has commenced, apply gently heat to balance out the temp to the carrying
temperature.

OIL TANKER AND PUMPING ARRANGEMENT

Oil is carried in bulk in dedicated ships called tanker. Crude oil tanker carries raw crude from production platforms. Refined products
like diesel oil, gas oil, kerosene, gasoline and lubricating oils are carried in product tankers.
PUMP ROOMS
In most tankers the pump room is placed just forward of the engine room so that power may easily be supplied to the pump rooms
from the engine room. Ships designed to carry many grades of oil at once may be fitted with two pumps so as to divide the cargo
space into three sections.
SEGREGATED BALLAST TANKS
To facilitate tank cleaning and to ensure that the maximum amount of crude oil is discharged as on a VLCC, amounts of oil in excess
of 100 tonnes could be left on board. IMO now requires crude oil washing (COW) facilitates to be fitted to all new crude oil tankers
over 20,000 dwt. By this techniques, the tanks are washed down with hot crude as the vessel is discharging.
IMO has ruled that all new tankers over 30,000 dwt should have segregated ballast tanks (SBT’s). This would ensure that all sea
water taken on as ballast can be pumped out again without any risk of pollution.
 CLEAN BALLAST TANKS
 This means effluent with a recorded oil content of not more than 15ppm. The pumps and piping
systems used for clean ballast are to be flushed with water before clean ballast is loaded, discharge or
transferred. The water for flushing is pumped from the sea or dedicated clean ballast tank and after use
pumped into the slop tanks.
 After clean ballast operations, the valves in the pipelines must be closed and the pipeline drained. The
pipeline system of each dedicated clean ballast tank must have at least 2 valve insulation from cargo
lines.
 Simultaneous clean ballast and cargo operations can only be undertaken when there is an effective 2 v/v
separation or where the cargo tanks are served by individual pumps.
 Ballast water must not be allowed to free fall into a ballast tank which is not gas-freed. Ships operating
dedicated clean ballast tanks must be provided with an operational manual; giving details of the system
and specifying operational procedures.

SLOP TANK
Is a tank that is used to store oily water residue
DEEP TANKS
These are holds with facilities such as wash plates, pipelines and oil-tight hatches so that they can be used for all sorts of dry or wet
cargoes and if necessary for water ballast.
The entrance to these tanks is through large openings in the tops. These openings have steel lids which can be made liquid tight when
carrying liquid cargoes.
PEAK TANKS
They normally referred to as fore-peak and after peak tanks and are located at the ends of the ship. They are usually used for ballast
or fresh water to trim the ship.
SEPARATION OF CARGO
Separation by identification is often necessary to separate different parcels of the same cargo or different cargoes but compatible in
stowage. The method of separation depends on the type of cargo. For instance bagged cargoes are frequently separated by separation
cloth made of burlap. Steel rails can be separated by chalk marks, water paint or strands of wire.
Bulk cargo is often separated by tarpaulins and separation cloths and Bales can be separated by rope yarns. Cargoes for different
ports can be separated by polythene sheeting made of different colours.
It is useful when large consignments of the same cargo are to be discharged at different ports. To avoid different cargoes for mixing
up adequate vertical or horizontal separation may be given to the loading.

CARGO PIPELINE SYSTEMS

There are three basic types of pipeline systems

 Direct system
 Ring main system
 Free flow system
Each system has their uses and is designed to fulfill a need in a particular type of vessel

1. THE DIRECT PIPELINE SYSTEM

This is the simplest type of pipeline system which uses fewer valves than the other. It takes oil directly from the tank to the pump and
so reduces friction. This has an effect of increasing the rate of discharge, at the same the same time improving the tank suction.

This system is used mainly on crude and black oil tankers where separation of oil grades is not so important.
ADVANTAGES DIRECT PIPELINE SYSTEM
1. It is easy to operate and less training of personnel is required.
2. It is cheaper to install.
3. Cheaper to maintain because of less pipelines and fewer valves as there are fewer valves it takes less time to set up the valve
system before commencing a cargo operation.
4. Contamination is unlikely, as it is easy to isolate each section.
DISADVANTAGES DIRECT PIPELINE SYSTEM
1. It is a very inflexible system which makes it difficult to plan for a multipurpose discharge.

THE RING MAIN SYSTEM

The tank range is split into two or more sectors by pump rooms. A single pipeline runs right round the ship through the wing tanks
and is joined at each tank by crossover line with a valve at each end. From this crossover the tank suctions lead to the corner of each
tank.
ADVANTAGE THE RING MAIN SYSTEM
1. A greater number of different parcels of cargo can be carried.
2. Cargoes can be more easily split into smaller units and placed in various parts of the ship.
3. Trim and stress can be more easily controlled.
4. Versatile – Any pump can be configured to discharge any tank
DISADVANTAGE THE RING MAIN SYSTEM
1. Contaminations are more likely if valves are not properly set.
2. Because of more complicated pipelines and valve layout, better training in cargo operations is required.
3. Fairly low pumping rates are achieved

FREE FLOW SYSTEM

These type of piping system deals mostly with fewer tanks usually about five tanks. There is ring main built into the tank range that
is used to top up the tanks and also to drain them. Each tank has a sluice valve set into the base of the inter-tank bulkhead. The center
tanks have an increasing number of sluices the further aft you go.
ADVANTAGE
The main advantage is a very high discharge rate as there are few pipeline losses from friction.
DISADVANTAGE
 The main disadvantage is that overflows are possible if the cargo levels in all tanks are not carefully monitored.
 Carriage of more than one grade is virtually impossible.

Large crude carrier with free flow system

1. The free flow system is mostly employed by large crude carriers; ULCC provided the vessel has a stern trim oil with flow aft.
2. Gate valves in the bulkhead allow oil to flow from wings to center and centers to after center tanks where it is pumped out.
3. When loading direct, loading lines are fitted to sump tanks and vessel will fill up from aft.
ADVANTAGES
 High capacity centrifugal pumps have a good height to pump oil until the last tank.
 High discharge rate
 Oil is not restricted in flow by having to pass through pipelines system
 Less pipelines
 Less initial cost, less maintenance, less weight
 Low sedimentation
 Simple operation
 Ballast and discharge at the same time (fitted with separate ballast and pump tank system)
DISADVANTAGE
 It can only carry one grade of oil

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
There are two basic types of cargo pumps on oil tankers. That is positive displacement pump and centrifugal pump, both of which are
usually driven by steam. An impeller which is inside a casing, physically moves the oil by a means of throwing movement.
The oil is sucked into the casing via a discharged valve. The pump provides a continuous flow of oil and it is powered by a steam
turbine drive unit which is installed in the engine room. Centrifugal pumps moves relatively large volume of oil at relatively low
pressure and consequently the general use as the ship main cargo pump.
MASTER VALVES
At each place where fore and aft lines passes through a bulkhead, a valve is fitted in the line and is called a master valve. It separates
tanks served by the same fore and aft line
CROSSOVER VALVE
Atwartship tank lines joining the main line are known as crossover lines and crossover valve separates the main line from as well as
separating individual tanks.
TANK VALVE
Close to each bellmouth is located a valve which controls the flow of the oil into the tank and off the tank.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN PRIOR TO AND DURING THE LOADING OF SEVERAL GRADES OF

LUBRICATING OIL IN A PRODUCT CARRYING TANKER
PRIOR TO LOADING
The following critical factor for compatibility to look for are:
Flash point, Viscosity, Relative Density, Lead Content, Colour.
They should be considered to establish that they fall within acceptable carrying limit. The most critical factor among those mentioned
is Flash point and therefore if volatile and non volatile cargoes are carried, care must be taken to prevent mixture between the various
parcels
DURING LOADING
In coated tanks, different grades must be separated by two closed valves, one of which is a master or crossover. If different products
are loaded one must ensure that the high quality ones goes first bearing in mind loading and discharging recommended procedures.
The lines should be well drained between grades and if necessary lines washed between grades.
Contamination should be avoided by the vent lines. Different groups of cargo should not be stowed in the same section especially
when it is a two pump room ship and possibly different pumps used for different group of parcels. Pumping a product through a tank
containing different product must be avoided. Two valve separation between oil and ballast should be considered to prevent
pollution. Contamination must be prevented and therefore tanks and lines must be cleaned before usage.

PRESSURE VACUUM RELIEF VALVE (PV VALVE)

These are special devices that function as part of the system arrangements to protect against pressure and vacuum. The vent may be
designed to be connected to a vent header to process vapour and maintain tanks specified atmosphere.
The equipment is a combined pressure and vacuum relieve. Valves are used as inbreathing and outbreathing valves for venting the
tanks when an unallowable vacuum or pressure is exceeded. They operate within pressure set ranges and it automatically opens at a
certain pressure range.
If the system malfunctions and pressure builds up, the valve becomes the path of least resistance and the gas ion the system is
expelled through the valve. The vacuum valve is exposed to open air and vacuum filled with atmospheric pressure.
The vacuum relief valve does not protect a system from a state to too much pressure, but from not enough pressure. If a system with
a vacuum relief valve has too low pressure, the valve will be opened automatically, admitting air or an inert gas into the system to
raise that pressure.
GAS FREEING
Is the replacement of hydrocarbon vapour by introducing inert gas. This precaution is necessary to prevent hydrocarbon vapour and
air forming an explosive mixture.
Mechanical fixed system is used on portable fans.
PRECAUTIONS :
 When gas freeing, periodic checks must be made of the tank atmosphere at several levels with combustible gas indicators.

 The supply of inert gas must be shut off when taking readings.

 Oxygen content must be consistent, 21% by volume before entering and

 tank must be continuously ventilated and checked while men are inside.

INERT GAS
Inert gas is low in oxygen content, generally 5% or less. It does not only reduce fire hazards but also forms an asphyxiating risk. The
human body is used to air containing 21% oxygen and the average exhaled air contain 17% oxygen. Below 17% oxygen, the air is no
more adequate for active life and as the percentage falls, the danger of death by asphyxiation rises.
Hydrocarbons and vapours are in varying degree of toxic (poisonous). The hydrocarbons are heavier than air and will displace air in a
compartment from the bottom upwards, so that anyone entering the compartment will be at risk from asphyxiation through reduced
oxygen levels and also poisoning from hydrocarbons toxicity.

PRECAUTIONS BEFORE ENTERING ENCLOSED OR CONTAMINATED SPACES

ENTRY INTO ENCLOSED SPACE
DEFINITIONS: An enclosed space is any space that has been closed or unventilated for some time. Any space that may because of
the cargo carried, contain harmful gases. Any space which may be contaminated by cargo or gases leaking through a bulkhead or
pipeline. Any store room containing harmful materials or any space which may be deficient in oxygen.
Enclosed space should not be entered without correct authorization from ship’s master or officer in charge.
When the atmosphere is known to be unsafe, entry should not be made into space.
Before initial entry is allowed into any enclosed space, which is not in daily use, the atmosphere should be tested with an oxygen
analyzer to check that the normal oxygen level in air of 21% by volume is present. This is of particular importance when considering
entry into any space, tank or compartment that has previously been inerted.

Generally nearly all substances have been assigned Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) and /or Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). The
term Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is often expressed as a time weighted Average (TWA). The use of the term Permissible Exposure
Limit refers to the maximum exposure to a toxic substance that is allowed by an appropriate regulatory body. The PEL is usually
expressed as a Time Weighted Average, normally averaged over an eight-hour period.

A Master is expected to have on board a ‘permit to work’ system in operation and that such a system should cover shipboard
operations such as;
 Hot work permit (for flame cutting, burning, welding etc)
 Any electrical work
 Overhead / Overside working (eg. Mast or Crane working)
 Entry into enclosed space ( eg. Tank Entry)

POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS SPACES, INCLUDING

 Cargo spaces
 fuel and ballast tanks
 Pump rooms
 Cofferdams

PERMIT TO WORK
The purpose of having the permit to work system in place is to ensure the personnel safety of those on board
engaged in shipboard operations.
It also ensures that the overall safety of the vessel is not put at risk.
The system further ensures that a safe working practice operates on particularly hazardous operations. Requires
cooperation of all parties, it will generate communications either directly or indirectly with all persons
involved in the proposed operations.
PERMIT TO WORK IS ISSUED IN QUADRUPLICATE (4)
 The original copy is held by the senior supervisor at a central control room
  The first copy is displayed at the working site of operation
 The second copy usually goes to the Bridge / Master
 The third copy is placed in the ships record file
NB : The entry permit should be rendered invalid if ventilation of the space stops or if any of the
conditions noted in the checklist change.

BEFORE ISSUING AN ENTRY PERMIT, THE RESPONSIBLE OFFICER SHOULD ENSURE THAT:

 The appropriate atmosphere checks have been carried out, namely oxygen content is 21% by volume,
hydrocarbon vapour concentration is not more than 1% LFL and no toxic or other contaminants are
present.

 Effective ventilation will be maintained continuously while the enclosed space is occupied. Lifelines
and harnesses are ready for immediate use at the entrance to the space.

 Approved positive pressure breathing apparatus and resuscitation equipment are ready for use at the
entrance to the space. Where possible, a separate means of access is available for use as an alternative
means of escape in an emergency.

 A responsible member of the crew is in constant attendance outside the enclosed space in the
immediate vicinity of the entrance and in direct contact with a responsible officer. The lines of
communications for dealing with emergencies should be clearly established and understood by all
concerned.

 In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances should the attending crew member enter the tank
before help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to ensure the safety of those entering the
tank to undertake rescue operations.

 Regular atmosphere checks should be carried out all the time personnel are within the space and a full
range of tests should be undertaken prior to re-entry into the tank after any break.

 The use of personal detectors and carriage of emergency escape breathing apparatus are recommended.

OFFICER OF THE WATCH (OOW) RESPONSIBILITY

The Master or the Officer of the watch responsible must ensure that a space is safe for entry by;
 Ensuring that the space has been thoroughly ventilated.
 Testing at several levels for oxygen content and the presence of harmful vapours
 Requiring breathing apparatus to be worn when there is any doubt about the adequacy of ventilation or testing.
 States that the oxygen content should be 21% by volume before entry is permitted.

AREAS IN A VESSEL WHERE INTERNAL CORROSION MAY OCCUR.

HOW IT IS CAUSED AND WHAT STEPS ARE TAKEN TO COUNTER IT
 1. DOUBLE BOTTOM TANKS
2. OIL TANKS
3. FRESH WATER TANKS
4. BILGES AND ANY INACCESSIBLE AREAS
5. DECK HOUSES AND EQUIPMENTS

CARGO TANKS
(e.g. Oil tanks) severe corrosion may occur in ship’s cargo tanks especially oil tanks. Tanker carrying white oil cargoes like paraffin
lubricating oil etc with the presence of oxygen and other gases suffer more general corrosion than those carrying crude oils. The
crude oil tend to deposit a film of residue on the tanks surfaces providing some protection against corrosion.
DOUBLE BOTTOM TANKS
(e.g. Ballast Tanks) - The sea water ballast with the presence of salt deposit and oxygen causes the breakdown of the metal. Bilges
and any accessible area (e.g. Oily Water) – Oily water content deposits oil residue on the walls of the bilges causing corrosion in the
bilges.
FRESH WATER TANKS (e.g. Fresh Water) – Fresh water impurities and deposit in the presence of the tank walls.

PREVENTION
Corrosion can be prevented by the application of special paint composition, which shields the metal from the
causes. The use of Bitumen Paint in double tanks reduces the corrosion process tremendously. Fresh water
tanks are cement washed acting as a film on the metal surface and preventing corrosion on the tank.
Inert gases used in the cargo tankers slow down the corrosion process. Galvanic corrosion can be reduced by
sacrificial anodes in the tanks or inaccessible areas. Also good ventilation is essential because it keeps the
though work dry. Antifouling paint is applied over quick drying coat of antifouling undercoat. If there is an old
product, it seals and binds the surface of the old paint and make it compatible with the antifouling composition.
In some places metallic primer which is anti corrosion is applied before the antifouling paint. Antifouling paint
if applied, because of its composition of toxic substances keep the ship surface in antiseptics condition so that
no marine growth can attach itself on it.

SHIP PROFILE

CORROSION
At may be of some use to consider the process ‘‘Corrosion Triangle’’ similar to the fire triangle.
i. Corrosion will not occur unless both water and oxygen are present. Thus if we can exclude one, we can prevent the formation of
corrosion cells.
ii. There are many definitions of corrosion but the most common consideration is expressed as the deterioration of a metal due to
an electrochemical reaction with its environment and produced compounds e.g. iron oxide or rust.
* Electrochemical reaction is the process of movement of electrons.
All corrosion is basically ‘‘galvanic’’ when discussing the problem of dissimilar metals being located close to one another, when both
are placed in an electrolyte, *****************************************

GALVANIC CELL
The two metals, anode and cathode are electrodes. The one which loses electrons is known as the anode and the one which
receives them cathode. The liquid in which the electrodes are immersed is known as electrolyte.
The combination of metals, electro and electron flow is known as a Galvanic Cell. Thus the anode corrodes while the cathode
remains unchanged
FORMATION OF CORROSION CELLS MUST BE PREVENTED
The following are some of the applicable methods for corrosion prevention;
a) Paints – Is a thin film of rubberlike element which is use to prevent salt deposited water and the atmosphere from rust.
b) Cathodic protection
c) Sacrificial anodes
d) Impressed current system

CATHODIC PROTECTION
The corrosion rates of metals and alloys which are submerged in sea water vary considering metals which corrode rapidly are
known as ****************************** metals and those which resist corrosion are termed Cathodic or Noble.
Diagram

Corrosion on board ship means the loss of electrons from metallic structure to the environment ie, water and air with the result
that oxides (usually rust) form on the metal surface.
The break in a paint film exposes a small portion of the ships plate to the atmosphere thus an electron flow occurs. The unbroken
surface acts as the cathode and the electron flow away from the break in the paint film towards the cathodic area. Thus corrosion
occurs at the exposed metal, the metal being the anodic portion of the cell. This process is known as pitting.

Diagram

METALS AND ALLOYS COMMONLY USED IN SHIPBUILDING

IGNOBLE OR ANODIC END - Magnesium
(CORRODING) Zinc
Aluminium
Iron Steel
Lead, Tin
Nickel
Mill Scale
Copper
High Duty Bronze
Stainless Steel
Titanum
NOBLE OR CATHODIC END - Platinum
 (PROTECTED)

SACRIFICIAL ANODES
Are alloys of an ignoble potential when attached to the ship’s hull. The anodes are consumed while the metal (ship hull) is
protected. That is the flow of electrons being from the anode to the ship structure.
This method can be used in;
 Ship’s tanks especially the cargo and ballast spaces of tankers
 On the hull
Anodes in cargo and ballast tanks are inspected at regular intervals and record of the wear down kept.
Securing arrangements of tank anodes should be checked as vibrations sometimes loosens them.
Hull anodes should be checked as vibrations during wear down, contact damages, painted ******* turbulence around the stern
could cause uneven wear down.
****** Sacrificial anodes are made of alloys of zinc, aluminium or magnesium (magnesium) not for cargo tank because of spark
************
The effectiveness of galvanic protection depends on the current flow and with anode, the current available depends on the anode
area.
The total number of and weight to protect the hull area of large ships could be excessive. The anode would be too costly and
cumbersome to fit.

IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS

This system is used to protect the immersed external hull. Anodes are fitted to the hull which is protected from corrosion by
maintaining a voltage difference between the anode and the hull.
An AC Current from the ship electrical system is fed into a rectifier and DC power is supplied to the anodes.
A silver/silver chloride reference cell on the hull measure the current density in the sea water. i.e, the voltage difference between
itself and the hull. The reference cell in direct regulates the power to the anode by means of a controller which amplifiers the
micro-ran reference cell current and compare it with a predetermined fixed potential difference.
The difference between the two readings is fed back to the rectifier which then alters the current being supplied to the anode until
the predetermined and reference cell potential are equal.

SACRIFICIAL ANODE
Diagram

SHIP PAINTS
INTRODUCTION
Vessels operate in various waters especially seawater which make some structures and surfaces of the vessels
exposed to sea water constantly, where as some surfaces are not. But even those surfaces which are not
exposed to sea water are still surrounded by the atmosphere. Therefore marine paints must resist salt and water
as well as the atmospheric corrosion.
SHIP AREAS: Requiring anti corrosion paints-
 Superstructure
 Top side
 Ship side(Boottopping)
  Bottom (Below)
 Funnel

TYPE OF PAINTS AND SHIP AREAS OF USAGE

1. PRIMER-Red oxide-Zinc Chrome paints suitable for all metal prepared surfaces
2. POLYURETHANE or polymeric compounds (gloss) and is used on superstructure.
 It takes a long time to dry
 It does not adhere to steel and therefore must be applied to a primer.
 Has anti corrosive properties
 Has gloss retention properties
2a. ENAMEL OR ALKYD RESIN BASED PAINT-Used for the ship cabins
 High water resistant qualities
3. ZINC CHROME (Zinc rich paint)-Used mainly at the Maximum Load Line to the bulwark (top side of
ship)
 Contains metallic zinc as a pigment in sufficient qualities
 Capable of protecting the steel Cathodically
 The vessels being epoxy resin ie chlorinated rubber
 It is high grade of coaltar pitch blended with a resin

4. BITUMEN BASED PAINT-Used to cover the area between the waterline and the Boottopping region of
the ship side
It can also be used in ballast tank and Double Bottom Tank
 High chemical resistance
 Water dispersal and can apply to wet surfaces
 Resistance to abrasion
 The paint is water impermeable
 Resistant to Mechanical Damage
 Used in connection with catholic protection
5. ANTI-FOULING PAINT (Bitumen based paint and special treatment)-Used below the water line.
 A toxin paint with stores of poisons
 Chemical resistant
 NOTE:
As the ship travels ,marine organism settle and grow onto the bottom and hull of the vessel. These
organism are harmful, because they disturb the anti corrosive paint and exposes the steel to the sea water.
The exposed steel of the bottom begins corroding. The marine foul organism must be repelled or killed,
through leaching action. The paint used for this purpose is anti fouling paint
6. ZINC SILICATE BASED PAINT – is used on funnels
 Has heat resistant properties
 Has chemical resistant properties
 Quick Drying
 Double and Long lasting
 Anti corrosive properties
 Can be applied to any surface
 Gives good gloss appearance

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SHIP PAINTS

i. Zinc chromate primer
ii. Coal tar epoxy
iii. Polyurethane resin paint
iv. Antifouling (Mg, oxide) MgO2
v. Funnel paint

a) Zinc Chromate Primer

i. Protects cathodically

ii. It is less noble than steel

iii. It ensures electrical conductivity through the dry paint steel

iv. Used at the underwater hull of the ship

b) Epoxy (Coal tar) Bitumen Paint

 i. Chemical resistant

ii. Water dispersal apply to wet surface

iii. Resistant to abrasion

iv. Resistant to mechanical damage

v. Used in connection with catholic protection

vi. Water impermeable

vii. Used in ballast tank/double bottom tanks

c) Polyurethane (Gloss)

i. It is a two (2) pack product

ii. It takes long time to dry

iii. It does not adhere to steel and therefore must be used over a primer (pre-treatment primer)

v. It is Anticorrosive

vi. Hard clastic surface

vii. Gloss retention

viii. Used on superstructure and lifeboat

d) Antifouling Paint

i. It is a toxic paint with a store of poison

ii. It has a leaching effect (kills off animals and vegetable fouling)

iii. It promote Galvanic action (Its bemire is not set between it and the steel)

iv. It is applied light to bottom waterline

e) Funnel Paint (Gloss Zinc Silicate)

i. Heat resistant

ii. Chemical resistant

iii. Anticorrosive

iv. Quick drying

v. Durable and long lasting

vi. Applies to any surface

vii. Good gloss appearance

 viii. Thixotropic (non-chip) e.g. Zinc Silicate

Bottom Paint

i. Chemical resistant

ii. Highly resistant to abrasion e.g. Used between light and load waterline

iii. Painted with enamel paint or preferably with antifouling paint and in the case, a different

colour.

ROPES
Ropes are commonly derived from processing natural fibre or manmade fibre.
NATURAL FIBRE
These are manila, hemp and sisal. They are mainly used for gantlines, pilot ladder.
Do not melt.
ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL FIBRE

1. Give audible warning if breaking point is approaching.

2. Do not recoil as much as synthetic when broken.
3. Not susceptible to moderate heat and sunlight damage.
4. Can be surged and rendered in drum ends.
5. Can be opened up for internal inspection without damaging the rope.
6. It is easily spliced.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Susceptible to rot and mildew.
2. Not as strong as synthetic ropes of the same size.
3. Has small stretching ability.
4. Not easily handled. Has the ability to swell and stiffen with age and damp which makes large mooring ropes difficult to
work with. If wet, can freeze in cold conditions.

SYNTHETIC ROPES
These are manmade ropes consisting of nylon, polyester and polypropylene for mooring ropes. They have the ability to float.

ADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC ROPES

1. Good durability as it is less prone to gradual loss of strength
2. Resistant to rot and mildew
3. Stretches more than natural fibres
4. Does not kink easily and if constructed in plaited lay, does not readily open up
5. High tensile strength
6. Smaller than natural fibre ropes for same strength
7. Easy to handle
8. Does not become less pliable with age unless overworked.

DISADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC ROPES

 1. Due to the ability to stretch, there is a considerable whiplash effect if the rope breaks.
2. No audible warning prior to breaking.
3. Low melting point, that is has a tendency to melt or fuse on the drum end.
4. Susceptible to heat and sunlight
5. Can be contaminated by chemicals etc and thus weakened considerably with little visible evidence of such.
6. Plaited ropes require special splicing instructions.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND HANDLING PROPERTIES OF SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPES.

 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Synthetic fibre and durability ropes have high strength

 It has low melting point and tends to become sticky.
 Frictional heat generated on a warping drum tends to fuse the rope resulting in sticking and slipping of the turns on the
drums.
 It gives little or no audible warning when approaching breaking point.
 It stretches out about twice its length and recoils when it breaks.
 Good durability as it is less prone to gradual loss of strength.
 It does not kink easily and if constructed in plaited lay, does not readily open up.
 Stretches more than natural fibres.

 HANDLING PROPERTIES

 Always take new rope of coil in an anticlockwise direction to avoid disturbing the lay of the rope.
 Always try to avoid sharp angles in the rope and ensure that all splices are intact.
 Keep wires and ropes in different fair leads and never allow a wire to cross a fibre rope on a bollard.
 Use synthetic fibre stoppers on synthetic fibre mooring lines
 Synthetic fibre ropes should not be exposed to sunlight, cover with tarpaulin and stow away at sea
 Keep them clear of any contamination by chemicals and stow away from the proximity of heat.
 It is important to inspect synthetic fibre ropes for wear externally and internally (in case of excessive wear , a high degree of
powdering will be visible)
 Avoid over loading the rope around sharp angles.
 Never put strain on a kink as it can cause permanent damage.
 Always stop off with the same type of rope using a West Country or Norwegian stopper.
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF A CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY
Classification Society is to ensure that a vessel is structurally fit to undertake a proposed voyage so that the cargo shipper and
underwriter can distinguish a good risk from a bad.
Ships may be built in any country to a particular classification society’s rules. Classification is not compulsory but the shipowner
with an unclassed ship will be required to satisfy governmental regulating bodies that it has sufficient structural strength for
assignment to a loadline and issue of a safety construction certificate.
 CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES
1. Establish and lay down rules for the construction of ships (large red volume). These rules cover such things as the testing of
materials before usage, the testing of the completed structure and the details (scantlings etc of the structure) , e.g. frame
sizes and spacing, construction of W/T bulkheads, provision against pounding and panting etc. Included in the rules are
special provisions pertaining to particular types of vessels.
2. Embodied in the rules are a series of surveys of increasing severity which a vessel must have to retain class. Vessels can
also be built under survey or may be surveyed after building.
3. Carry out surveys following repairs to a vessel.
4. In addition to the D.O.T, certain classification societies are assigning authorities, under the load line rules 1968; i.e. the
societies carry out the structural parts of the load line and Annual load line surveys with regard to conditions of assignment
etc. But the stability data still has to be forwarded to the D.O.T for examination.
5. Research the developed rules and designs.
6. Research for other industries – stress, corrosion, design.
7. Maintain Llyods Register or similar.

The societies influence design by:-

1. Laying down the above rules or where they allow some latitude by ;
 Examining a new design

APPENDIX A
TIMBER ON DECK

ROPESS