Training course: 2019/2020 CRMEF Rabat

Distance lessons English Department

Module: Lesson Planning/Teaching skills
Summary of modules/ Review

Define the following terms or concepts :

1. Theory of language
A model of language competence and an account of the basic features of linguistic organisation and

language use.

2. Learning theory

Learning theory is concerned with the central processes of learning as well as the conditions believed
to promote successful language learning.

3. An approach
‘’An approach can be defined as a principled model of language teaching and learning based on theories of

language and language acquisition’’ Penny Ur.

According to Anthony it is ‘’ a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching’’

(H. Douglas Brown)

According to Anthony’s model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and

language teaching are specified.

According to Anthony 1963 , approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning

that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching.

4. A method
‘’A collection of teaching procedures that accord with and apply a particular approach’’ Penny Ur

Anthony defined the method ‘’ as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based on a

selected approach’’ Anthony 1963

Prabhu (1990) thought of method as both classroom activities and the theory that informs them.
 ‘’For most researchers and practicing teachers, a method is a set of theoretically unified classroom

Techniques thought to be generalizable across a wide variety of contexts and audiences’’ H. Douglas

Brown.

5. Technique
Anthony describes techniques as ‘’ specific classroom activities consistent with a method’’ Anthony

1963. According to Anthony’s model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about

language and language teaching are specified. The method is the level at which theory is put into

practice, and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be

taught, and the order in which the content will be presented. The technique is the level at which

classroom procedures are described. A technique is implementational- that which actually takes place

in a classroom. It is a particular trick, strategem, used to accomplish an immediate objective.

6. Design
Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider:

a. The objectives of a method

b. How language content is selected and organised within the method, that is the syllabus
model.
c. The types of learning tasks and activities
d. The roles of learners.
e. The roles of teachers

7. Procedure
The procedure encompasses the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviours
that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method.

At the level of design, the method advocates the use of certain types of teaching activities as a
consequence of its theoretical assumptions about language and learning.

At the level of procedure, the method tries to integrate these tasks and activities into lessons and use
them as the basis for teaching and learning.

There are three dimensions to a method at the level of procedure:

1. the use of teaching activities ( drills, dialogues, information gap activities etc. )
 2. the ways in which particular teaching activities are used for practising language.
3. the techniques used in giving feedback to learners.

Essentially, the procedure is concerned with the way a method handles the presentation, practice
and feedback phases of teaching. This is a description of the procedural aspects of a beginning Silent
Way course based on Stevick ( 1980: 44 – 45 ):
1. The teacher points at meaningless symbols on a wall chart. The symbols represent the
syllables of the spoken language. The students read the sounds aloud, first in chorus and then
individually.
2. After the students can pronounce the sounds, the teacher moves to a second set of charts
containing words frequently used in the language, including numbers. The teacher leads
students to pronounce long numbers.
3. The teacher uses colored rods together with charts and gestures to lead the students into
producing the words and basic grammatical structures needed.

Concerning error correction in the Silent Way Stevick says that when the students respond correctly
to the teacher initiative, s/he usually does not react with any overt confirmation that what they did
was right. But if the student’s response is wrong, the teacher should indicate where additional work
should be done.
(1980: 45)

Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) illustrate how the procedural phases of instruction are handled in
what they call a notional-functional approach:
1. Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini-dialogues.
2. Oral practice of each uttterance in the dialogue.
3. Questions and answers based on the topic and situation in the dialogue.
4. Questions and answers related to the student’s personal experience but centered on the
theme of the dialogue.

5. Study of the basic communicative expressions used in the dialogue or one of the structures

that exemplify the function.

6. Learner discovery of rules underlying the functional expression of structure.

7. Oral production activities, proceeding from guided to freer communication.

8. Learning and teaching activities

For an approach to lead to a method, it must imperatively develop a design for an instructional
system.

The objectives of a method are attained through the instructional process, through the organised and
directed interaction of teachers, learners, and materials in the classroom. Differences among
methods at the level of approach manifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of learning and
 teaching activities in the classroom. Teaching activities that focus on grammatical accuracy may be
quite different from those that focus on communicative skills.
The activity types that a method advocates often serve to distinguish methods:
 Audiolingualism, for example, uses dialogue and pattern practice extensively
 The Silent way employs problem solving activities that involve the use of special charts
and coloured rods
 .Communicative Language Teaching theoreticians advocated the use of tasks that
involve an ‘’information gap’’ and ‘’information transfer’’. Learners work on the same
task, but each learner has different information needed to complete the task.

The notion of ‘’task’’ as a central activity type in language teaching has been considerably elaborated
since its emergence in early versions of Communicative Language Teaching.

Different philosophies at the level of approach may be reflected in the use of different kinds of
activities and in different uses for particular activity types. For example, interactive games in
audiolingualism courses are used for motivation and to provide a change of pace from pattern-
practice drills. In communicative language teaching, the same games may be used to practise
particular types of interactive exchanges.

Differences in activity types in methods may involve different arrangements and groupings of
learners. A method that stresses oral chorus drilling will require different groupings of learners from
a method that uses problem-solving or information exchange activities involving pair work.

Activity types in methods thus include the primary categories of learning and teaching activities the
method advocates, such as dialogues, group problem solving, question and answer, drills,
improvisations, information gap activities…

9. Mapping
A long-range guide is usually called a map or course of study. In a large school district the map is

often prepared by a committee of experts. In small school districts the teachers working as group or

as individuals, may develop their own map, within limits defined by state guidelines. When planning a

map, the teacher must consider :

1. needs assessment data

2. goals of the school (or school district)

3. preassessment or placement evaluation data of the students, such as aptitude tests

4. instuctional objectives of the course according to district or state guidelines

 Mapping identifies and details the content, concepts, skills, and sometimes values to be taught for the

Entire course. It helps the teacher to view the course as a whole and to see existing relationships.

Mapping requires that the teacher know , before the term or school year begins, what the important

content areas, concepts, and skills of the course are. (AllanC. Ornstein 1995)

10. Strategic planning

Teachers make good use of collaborative or joint planning in preparing unit and lesson plans. The object

of strategic planning is to help teachers in planning together and sharing their teaching experiences. Its

goal is to enable teachers to check an clarify various components of lesson planning. (AllanC. Ornstein

1995)

11. Yearly, term and unit plans

Teachers engage in five levels of planning: yearly, term, unit, weekly, and daily. Planning at each level

involves a set of goals, sources of information, forms or outlines, and criteria for judging the

effectiveness of planning. Whereas yearly and term planning is usually framed around state and school

district recommendations or curriculum guides, unit, weekly, and daily lesson planning permits wider

latitude for teachers to develop their own plans. The researcher, Deborah S. Brown points out that at

the unit, weekly, and daily levels, teachers are mostly influenced by:

1. availability of materials

2. student interest

3. schedule interruptions

4. school calendar

5. district curriculum guides

6. textbook content

7. classroom activity flow

8. prior experience ( Ornstein 1995 )

When planning a sequence of lessons, there are a number of issues we need to bear in mind. (Jeremy
Harmer 2007).
 -- External reasons

The institutions the teachers work for can require such long term planning and want to know what the
learning outcomes will be for a week, a month or a semester.

-- Reacting to what happens

Unforseen problems are likely to happen during the course of a lesson. The same may be true, but on a
large scale when planning a sequence of lessons. The original series of plans should be re-visited continually
in order to be updated and amended depending on what has happened in the previous classes.

-- Short and long term goals

In order to remain motivated, students need goals and the potential for success in achieving them. If in ESL
teaching, the long-term objective may be ‘ to master the English language’, the short-term objective can be
the completion of some piece of work,(or a part of the programme) and rewards such as success on small
lesson tests.

-- the thematic content in each individual lesson.

It would be better for themes to carry over for more than one lesson, or at least to reappear, so that

students perceive some overt topic strands as the course progresses.

-- Language planning

Teachers decision on how to weave grammar and vocabulary through the lesson sequence will be heavily

Influenced by the need of a balance of activities.

-- Activity balance

The balance of activities over a sequence of lessons will determine the degree of students’involvement in
the course. Over a period of weeks or months, students are expected to have tried a lot of types of activities.
While, for example, some of the oral activities students are involved in can be discussions, others, by
contrast may involve them in making presentations or preparing a role play. These activities should be
carried out using different interaction patterns (pairwork, groupwork…). Sometimes we will encourage
students to work in pairs or groups for consensus-reaching activities. At other times, we will work with the
whole class for lecture-type teaching.

-- Skills

The balance of skills depends principally on the kind of course we are teaching. Some students want to
improve their speaking and listening skill. Others may prefer to concentrate on reading and writing. At
certain times we need to devote special tasks exclusively to speaking, and then integrate that speaking task
into other skill area.

(AllanC. Ornstein 1995)

12 . Unit planning
It is a blueprint to clarify what content will be taught by what learning experiences during a specific period
of time. One reason for developing unit plans is related to the theory that learning by wholes is more
effective than piece by-piece learning. (Allan C. Ornstein 1995). An important reason is the need for
teachers to plan experiences in advance to meet the different kinds of Objectives. Advance planning at the
unit plan level requires teachers to survey the entire subject and enables them to be more effective in
designing and structuring the instructional process. The overall view it provides helps teachers anticipate
problems that may arise in terms of content, concepts, and skills. The number of units and the time allotted
to each are matters of judgements, although school practitioners tend to recommend about 15 to 30 units
for a year’s course and about 5 to 10 lessons per unit. Allan C. Ornstein 1995

Guidelines for developing Unit Plan

Consideration is given to:

 the organisation of the textbook

 the emphasis suggested by state and school district curriculum guides
 the special abilities, needs, and interests of the students
 testing schedules, as teachers tend to plan units around national and school district testing
programs

Unit planning and lesson planning will vary according to the school district and the school in which you
teach. Some school settings or supervisors will be quite prescriptive and expect you to follow a prescribed
method. Your plans may be collected and checked on a regular basis. In other schools and with other
supervisors, there will be no prescribed method and very little feedback or concern about your unit or lesson
plans. Hence, you will be largely on your own when it comes to instructional planning. Allan C. Ornstein 1995

13. Lesson plan

A lesson plan is a teacher’s detailed description of the course of instruction, or 'learning trajectory' for a
lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on
the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be
requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan.
A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the
students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of
measuring how well the goal was reached ( test, worksheet,homework etc.)
While developing a lesson plan, there are many formats for a lesson plan, most lesson plans contain some or
all of these elements, typically in this order:

 Title of the lesson

 Time required to complete the lesson
 List of required materials
  List of objectives, which may be behavioral objectives (what
the student can do at lesson completion) or knowledge objectives (what the
student knows at lesson completion)
 The set (or lead-in, or bridge-in) that focuses students on the
lesson's skills or concepts—these include showing pictures or models, asking
leading questions, or reviewing previous lessons
 An instructional component that describes the sequence of events that make
up the lesson, including the teacher's instructional input and, where
appropriate, guided practice by students to consolidate new skills and ideas
 Independent practice that allows students to extend skills or knowledge on
their own
 A summary, where the teacher wraps up the discussion and answers
questions
 An evaluation component, a test for mastery of the instructed skills or
concepts—such as a set of questions to answer or a set of instructions to
follow
 A risk assessment where the lesson's risks and the steps taken to minimize
them are documented.
 Analysis component the teacher uses to reflect on the lesson itself —such as
what worked, what needs improving
 A continuity component reviews and reflects on content from the previous
lesson.
( Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia )

14. Objectives of a lesson

They are the outcomes which teachers try to achieve ; they describe what students will be able to do by
the end of a lesson, unit or term.

15. Class profile

The class description which tells who the students are and how they behave as individuals and as group.

16. Assumptions
This means what students know and can do.

17. Timetable fit 

Where the lesson fits within a sequence of lessons, that is the role of lessons within a longer programme.

18. Subject matter knowledge 

This concerns organisation and presentation of content, knowledge of student understanding of content,
and knowledge of how to teach the content.

19. Action knowledge system

 It concerns teaching activities such as diagnosing, grouping, managing, evaluating students and
implementing instructional activities.

20. Pace
The speed at which a lesson progresses.

21. Opening of the lesson

The first part of the lesson which consists of :

 an activity to stimulate students.

 a review
 a preview of the current lesson

22. Closure
It is a phase in which the teacher :

 checks what the students have learned by asking them questions such as « how
did you feel about these activities ?»

 the teacher then gives a preview about the possibilities for future lessons.

23. Follow up
This is a phase of the lesson whereby the teacher:

 uses other activities to reinforce some concepts.

 gives the students opportunities to do independent work or sets certain activities or
tasks as homework.

B- Answer the following questions

1. Cite three different theoretical views of language that have informed current
approaches and methods in language teaching.

 The structural view

It is the most traditional of the three views. It claims that language is a system of structurally related
elements for the coding of meaning. The target of language learning is believed to be the mastery of
elements of this system. The elements of this system are generally defined in terms of:

-- phonological units e.g., phonemes

-- grammatical units e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences
 -- grammatical operations e.g., adding, joining, transforming
-- lexical items e.g., function words and structure words.

The Audiolingual Method embodies this view of language, so do other methods such as Total Physical
Response and the Silent Way.

 The functional view

This view of language sees language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. This theory of
language emphasises the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical
characteristics of language. The communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view of
language. Similarly, Wilkins’s Notional Syllabuses (1976) is an attempt to spell out the implications of this
view of language for syllabus design. A notional syllabus would include not only elements of grammar and
lexis but also specify the topics, notions, and concepts the learner needs to communicate about. the English
for Specific Purposes (ESP) uses the functional view to account for the learner’s language needs. This view
sees language as a vehicle for the realisation of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social
transactions between individuals.

 The interactional view

Language is considered as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. Interactional theories
focus on the patterns of acts, negociation, and interaction found in conversational exchanges. ‘’Interaction’’
has been central to theories of second language learning and pedagogy since the 1980s.

Rivers (1987) defined the interactive perspective in language education as follows: ‘’ Students achieve
facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages
( that is messages that contain information of interest to both speaker and listener in a situation of
importance to both). This is interaction’’ (Rivers 1987: 4).

The notion of interaction has also been linked to the teaching of reading and writing as well as listening and
speaking skills. The notion is also used to refer to the relationship between reader and writer who are
engaged in a text-based conversation (Grabe in Carrell, Devine, and Esky 1988).

Structural, functional, or interactional modals of language provide the theoretical framework that may
motivate a particular teaching method. But in themselves they are incomplete and need to be
complemented by theories of language learning.

Structural, functional, or interactional modals of language provide the theoretical framework that may
motivate a particular teaching method. But in themselves they are incomplete and need to be
complemented by theories of language learning.

Even if specific theories of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method,
other methods derive primarily from a theory of language learningStructural, functional, or interactional
modals of language provide the theoretical framework that may motivate a particular teaching method. But
in themselves they are incomplete and need to be complemented by theories of language learning. Jack
C.Richards/ Theodore S. Rodgers 2003

2. What is a theory of language learning

A learning theory underlying an approach or method responds to two questions:

1. What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning?
2. What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these processes to be activated?

Learning theories associated with a method at the level of approach may emphasize either one or both of
these dimensions:

-- Process-oriented theories build on learning processes, such as habit formation,

induction,Inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalization.

-- Condition-oriented theories, on the other hand, emphasise the nature of the human and
Physical context in which language learning takes place.
3. What is Stephen D. Krashen’s theory of language learning ?
Stephen D. Krashen’s Monitor Model of second language development (1981) is an example of a language
theory on which (the Natural Approach) has been built.

Monitor theory addresses both the process and the condition dimensions of learning. At the level of
process, Krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. Acquisition refers to the natural
assimilation of language rules through using language for communication. Learning refers to the formal
study of language rules and is a conscious process.

According to Krashen, howewer, learning is available only as a “monitor’’. The monitor is the repository of
conscious grammatical knowledge about a language. This grammatical knowledge is learned through
instruction and called upon in the editing of utterances produced through the acquired system.

Krashen’s theory also addresses the conditions necessary for the process of ‘’acquisition’’ to take place.

Krashen describes these in terms of the type of input the learner receives. Input, according to Krashen, must
be:

 comprehensible
 slightly above the learner’s present level of competence
 not grammatically sequenced
 in sufficient quantity
 experienced in low-anxiety contexts
Tracy D. Terrell’s Natural approah (1977) is an example of a method derived primarily from a learning theory
rather than from a particular view of language.

Although the Natural Approach is based on a learning theory that specifies both processes and conditions,
the learning theory underlying such methods as Counseling-learning and the Silent Way addresses primarily
the conditions necessary for learning to take place without specifying the learning processes.

Charles A. Curran in his writings on Counseling-learning (1972), for example focuses primarily on the
conditions necessary for successful learning. He believes the atmosphere of the classroom is a crucial factor,
and his method seeks to improve the feelings of intimidation and insecurity that many learners go through.

James Asher’s Total Physical Response (Asher 1977) is similarly a method that derives primarily from learning
theory rather than from a theory of the nature of language.

Asher’s learning theory addresses both the process and the condition aspects of learning. He believes that
child language learning is based on coordinating language with action, and that should form the basis of
adult foreign language teaching.

Language production and comprehension conjugated with body movement and physical actions provide
the conditions for success in language learning.

Galeb Gattegno’s Silent Way (1972, 1976) is, similarly, based on a theory of the conditions necessary for
successful learning.

Gattegno’s writings address learners’ needs to feel secure about learning and to develop conscious control
of their learning. Most of the techniques used in this method are designed to train the learners to use their
intelligence to promote learning potential. (J. Richards 2003 )

4. Explain the relationship between a language theory, a language learning theory and an
approach.
At the level of approach, we are concerned with theoretical principles.

With respect to language theory, we are concerned with a model of language competence and an account
of the basic features of linguistic organisation and language use.

for learning theory, we are concerned with the central processes of learning as well as the conditions
believed to promote successful language learning. (J. Richards 2003 )

An approach does not specify procedure. Theory does not dictate a particular set of teaching techniques and
activities, either. What links theory with practice (or approach with procedure) is what has been called
design. (J. Richards 2003 )

5. What are the pre planning ideas based on ? What are they informed by ?
 Students’ level, learning differences and styles
  Students’ needs
 The syllabus
 The class characteristics ( homogeneous or heterogeneous)
 The goals to be achieved

6. Cite some ways of conducting a needs analysis.

 Give students lists of possible activities or topics to rate

 Ask students to modify statements about the course individually or in pairs
 Ask students to fill a questionnaire.

7. Cite some syllabus types.

All methods use overt or covert decisions concerning the selection of language items which will be used in a
course or method:

 words
 sentence patterns
 tenses
 constructions
 functions
 topics, etc.

Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter (what to talk about) and
linguistic matter (how to talk about it). ESP courses are, for example, subject matter focused. Structurally
based methods, such as Situational Language Teaching and the Audiolingual method, are necessarily
linguistically focused. Methods differ in what they see as the relevant language and subject matter around
which language teaching should be organised and the principles used in sequencing content within a course .

Traditionally, the term syllabus has been used to refer to the form in which linguistic content is specified in a
course or method. Syllabuses for Audiolingual, Structural-Situational, and notional-functional methods, as
well as in ESP approaches can be readily identified.

The syllabus underlying the situational and Audiolingual methods consists of a list of grammatical items and
constructions, often accompanied with a list of vocabulary items (Fries and Fries 1961; Alexander, Allen,
Close, and O’Neill 1975). Notional-functional syllabuses specify the communicative content of a course in
terms of functions, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary.

A number of taxonomies of syllabus types in language teaching have been proposed, for example, by Yalden
(1987), Long and Crookes (1992), and Brown (1995). Brown (1995: 7) lists seven basic syllabus types:

 structural
 situational syllabus
  topical
 functional
 notional
 skills-based
 task-based

These syllabuses are usually linked to specific approaches or methods:

 Oral/situational Situational
 Audiolingual Structural
 C.lge teaching Notional/Functional
 Task based Teaching Task based

8. What does the acronym SMART describe and what does it stand for ?
It describes the objectives of the lesson.

It stands for : specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timed.

9. Why should teachers predict potential pitfalls ?

In order to suggest ways of dealing with them. That involves alternative activities when it becomes necessary
to divert from the lesson sequence the teacher hopes to follow. He may modify the lesson dramatically or
choose to abandon it altogether and use different activities, namely plan B.

If the lesson proceeds faster than anticipated, he may need additional material. If, on the other hand, he
runs out of time, the teacher should know in advance which activities to delete.

10. Why should teachers plan their lessons ?

 To feel self confident, secure and more in control before the lesson begins.
 To be better prepared for unpredictable events.
 To learn the subject matter better.
 To anticipate problems before they happen.
 To know the exact procedure of the lesson.
 To prepare adequate tasks and approriate questions.
 To think about content, materials, sequencing, timing and tasks.

11. What does Tyler’s rational-linear framework (1949) consist of ?

 Specify objectives
 Select learning activities
 Organise learning activities
 Specify methods of evaluation
12. Cite some roles and functions which a method can attribute to learners .
New methodologies, show more concern for learner roles and for differences among learners. Johnson and
Paulson (1976) spell out learner roles in an individualised approach to language learning in the following
terms:

1. Learners plan their learning programme and thus ultimately assume responsibility for what
they do in the classroom.
2. Learnres monitor and evaluate their own progress.
3. Because learners are members of a group they learn by interacting with the other members
of that group.
4. Learners tutor other learners.
5. Learners learn from the teacher, from other students, and from other sources.

This is reflected in:

-- the types of activities learners carry out.

-- the degree of control learners have over:
 the content of learning
 the patterns of learner groupings
 the degree to which learners influence the learning of others
-- the view of learners as processors, performers, initiators and problem-solvers.
(J. Richards 2003 )
13. Cite some roles and functions which a method can attribute to teachers.
Teacher roles in methods are related to the following issues:

1. the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that of director, counselor,
model.
2. the degree of control the teacher has over students’ learning

3. the interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners. (J. Richards 2003 )

14. Cite some roles and functions which a method can attribute to instructional
materials within the instructional process.
Different methods use different instructional materials. Some are designed to replace the teacher altogether
so that learning can take place independently. Other materials dictate various interactional patterns in the
classroom; others, on the other hand, inhibit classroom interaction. The role of instructional materials within
a method will reflect decisions concerning the primary goal of materials, for example:

 to present content
 to practise content
 to facilitate communication between learners
  to enable learners to practise content without the teacher’s help.

The role of the instructional materials reflects:

 the form of those materials for example, textbook, audiovisuals, computer software, etc
 the relation of materials to other sources of input, that is to say, whether they serve as the
major source of input or just a minor component of it.
 the abilities of teachers, for example, their competence in the language and degree of
experience and training.

A particular design for an instructional system may reflect a particular set of roles for materials in support of
the syllabus.

Materials in a functional/communicative methodology will try to:

 focus on the communicative abilities of the learners

 focus on understandable, relevant and interesting exchanges of information, rather than on
the grammatical form.
 involve different kinds of texts and different media which the learners can use to develop
their communicative competence through various tasks and activities.

The role of instructional materials in an individualised instructional system will involve different
specifications:

 Materials will allow learners to progress at their own rate of learning.

 Materials will allow for different styles of learning.
 Materials will provide opportunities for independent study and use.
 Materials will provide opportunities for self-evaluation and progress in learning.

The content of a method such as Counseling learning is thought to be the product of the interests of the
learners themselves as learners generate their own subject matter. Therefore, no linguistic content or
materials are specified within the method. That is why Counselling-Learning has proposed the use of
teaching machines and other programmed materials to support the learning of some aspects of the language
and, thus, free the teacher to function as a learning counseller only. (J. Richards 2003 )

15. How can teachers ensure variety in the classroom ?

To vary a lesson, teachers should frequently:

 change the tempo of activities from fast- moving to slow.

 change the class organisation by giving individual tasks, pair work, groupwork, or
full class interaction .

Activities should also :

 vary in level of difficulty, some easy and others more demanding.

  be of interest to the students, not just to the teacher.
 the harder activities and tasks had better be placed earlier in the lesson and the quieter
activities before lively ones. (Ur 1996)

16. What determines the pace in a lesson ?

The speed at which a lesson progresses as well as lesson timing. To develop a sense of pace, Brown(1994)
suggests the following guidelines:

1. Activities should not be too long or too short.

2. There should be clear transitions between each activity.

18. What does the main body of a plan list:

1. The activities and procedures in that lesson.
2. The time we expect each of them takes.
3. The aids we are going to use.
4. The different interactions which will take place in the class.

19. How can you detail classroom interaction ?

T= teacher

S= an individual student

T___C= the teacher working with the whole class.

S,S,S = students working on their own.

S___S = Students working in pairs.

SS____SS = pairs of students in discussion with other pairs

GG = students working in groups, and so on.

2O. What does the evaluation of the lesson consist of ?

It is the final part of daily lesson planning when the teacher must evaluate the success (or failure) of the
lesson. Without an evaluative component in the lesson, the teacher has no way of assessing the success of
the students or what adjustements to make for the next lesson . Brown (1994) defines evaluation in lesson
planning as an assessment that is « formal or informal», that you make after students have sufficient
opportunities for « learning.

Ur (1996) offers the following criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness and orders them as follows:

1. The class seemed to be learning the material well.

 2. The learners were engaged with the foreign language throughout the lesson.
3. The learners were attentive all the time.
4. The learners enjoyed the lesson and were motivated.
5. The learners were active all the time.
6. The lesson went according to plan.
7. The language was used communicatively throughout.

The following questions may also be useful for teachers to reflect on after conducting a lesson (answers can
be used as a basis for future lesson planning) :

1. What do you think the students actually learned ?

2. What tasks were most successful ? Least successful ? Why ?
3. Did you finish the lesson on time ?
4. What changes (if any) will you make in your teaching and why (or why not)?

Allan C. Ornstein 1995 suggests the following questions which can be used to avoid common mistakes and

serve as practical guides when teachers plan their on lessons and units:

1. Unit planning

1. Did you consider state (or school district) requirements, as well as the course of study?
2. Did you read the insructor’s manual for suggestions? Are there samples that can be
modified to your students’ abilities and needs?
3. Are you clear about your instructional objectives? Are they appropriate?
4. Does the content tie together with the objectives? Is the content interesting and relevant?
5. Do the skills allow for differences in student abilities and needs?
6. Did you include interesting and relevant learning activities? Do some of the activities
extend beyond the Classroom ?

7. Did you include varied resources and materials? Did you supplement the text with other

resources and materials ?

8. Are your evaluation procedures appropriate? Do they help assess your objectives?
9. I s your plan flexible enough to accommodate various students- in terms of abilities,
interests, and learning styles?
10. Is your plan detailed enough so that another person would understand it and know what
you want to do?

2. Lesson planning

1. Are your objectives clear in terms of the knowledge, skills and values you wish to teach?
 Do they stem from the unit plan?

2. Is the content arranged in a logical order and in the way you wish to teach?

3. Are your instructional methods (1. practice and drills 2. questioning 3. lecturing and

Explaining, problem solving ) clear? Do you vary the methods to prevent student boredom?

4. Are your materials and equipment ready to use? Did you order them far enough in

advance?

5. Have you checked the previous work? Did you ask review questions? Did you administer a

short quiz on the previous lesson? Did you reteach or provide additional practice where

needed?

6. Have you checked the current work? Did you provide adequate summaries? Did you call on

new volunteers? Did you reteach when necessary?

7 . Are crucial or pivotal questions included?

8. Did you include an appropriate homework assignment? Were your directions clear? How

Did you check to see if students understood yesterday’s homework?

9. Have you budgeted sufficient time to complete the lesson? Did you finish too soon? Did you

run out of time before finishing?

10. How do you intend to evaluate the lesson? Would you enjoy the lesson if you were a

student? Would you learn from the lesson if you were a student?

Teaching skills and aspects of the language

Teaching reading

A..

Answer the following questions.

1. To ensure the learners’ authentic interest in the text, what criteria should the latter

meet ?
 Information load

Information is partly built on known information. Processing becomes difficult if information is context-
reduced, as the reader cannot find relevant content schemata to help him fulfill the task.

Readabilty

A text should generally be both readable and challenging. On the other hand, it should not largely exceed
the students’ reading abilities. While selecting a text, the reader’s cognitive and linguistic abilities have to be
kept in mind.

Exploitability

It is the most important criterion for selecting a text for reading. Any text that does not lend itself to
intensive study, and therefore cannot provide enough comprehension tasks to tap on the reader’s reading
sub-skills must be avoided. A text that is rich of events, arguments and facts can be easily exploited for
reading and testing purposes.

Variety

Effective reading requires that readers be exposed to a variety of text types. Learners need to be trained in
various reading skills, so it is necessary to vary the type of texts in accordance with the targeted sub-skills. In
other words, different types of texts call for different sub skills to be processed.

2. What are the characteristics of fluent reading

1. Language level 

The text is easy enough to be comprehensible to the learners.

2. Content

The topic is familiar to students. They know enough about it, which makes it possible to apply their
background knowledge

3. Speed

Students read fairly fast, that is to say, meaningful unit by meaningful unit, rather than word by word

4. Selective attention

Learners concentrate on the bits and skim the rest. They skip whole parts because they believe they are not
very significant.

5. Unknown vocabulary

learners either ignore them completely or guess their meanings from the surrounding context.

6. Prediction
Students think ahead, make their hypotheses and predict

7. Purpose

Learners ought to be made aware of the purpose for reading the text.

8. Different strategies

Students need to be equipped with some useful strategies – top down and bottom up, for example – to
facilitate understanding.

2. What is the goal of pre reading ( lead-in) questions ?

Their goal is to:

 introduce the topic.

 Tap on the learner’s background knowledge, that is activate his schemata and elicit his prior
knowledge.

 make predictions about the context of the text.

 build background knowledge.

 focus attention
 get students better engaged in the reading activity
 increase their desire to read.
 and ultimately give them a good reason to read.

Ringler and Weber (1984, p. 70) call pre-reading activities enabling activities ‘’because they provide a reader
with the necessary background to organize actively and to comprehend the material… These experiences
involve understanding the purpose(s) for reading and building a knowledge base necessary for dealing with
the content and the structure of the material’’.

3. What is the difference between pre- questions and pre- reading activities ?
Pre reading questions are answered before reading starts, whereas pre-questions are designed to be
answered while or after the first reading (encounter ) of the text.

4. What is the goal of while reading ?

Based on the predictions they have made and the expectations they have created at the lead in, students
proceed through reading either confirming or rejecting their hypothesis. Sanapore (1985) offers a
constructive technique for students to practise while reading:

1. Teach students to generate questions as they read

2. Teach students to create story-specific questions such as ‘’is the story about…or…’
 3. Guide students to use strategies such as SQ3R which consists of survey, question, read, recite,
and review

4. Ask students to make a story map as they read. This technique allows them to show important

relationships in the reading by putting main ideas, events, and characters in adjoining circles.

5. What is the goal of the comprehension task ?

The comprehension task determines the sub-skills the reader has to work on. A variety of tasks should be
assigned at different times because a lot of sub-skills of reading have to be practised.

6. Cite some reading sub skills.

Skimming

quickly running one’s eyes over a text to get the gist of it.

Scanning

quickly running through a text to locate specific information

reading between the lines

o inferring meaning or information from the clues of a text.

o inferring the author’s attitude or purpose.

o inferring word meaning.

predicting what comes next

recognising rhetorical structure

interpreting discourse markers (sentence adverbs and connectors)

Interpreting lay out

interpreting cohesive devises Determining passage structure (outline)

Critical reading:

- distinguishing facts from opinion.

- determining the author’s purpose, mood, bias.

- evaluating truthfulness of information

- Undestanding figurative language.

 Speed reading

Text study skills

Any change in the task can inevitably change the learner’s approach to the text. Reading for gist, for
example, follows from questions such as:

o suggest a title

o what is the text about?

o what type of text is it?

The sequence of tasks is important. Skimming and scanning are practised as an initial task.

7. Cite some reading tasks.

No matter what the sub-skills are, comprehension items can take various forms:

o true/false statements

o information transfer items

o open-ended questions

o Paraphrasing

o Inferencing

o Determining the main idea

o Locating supporting details

o Synthesising information

o Sequencing

o Predicting

o Cohesion comprehension (reference, lexical cohesion…)

o Determining cause and effect

o Wh-questions (factual, inference, life experience)

o Completion exercise

o Gap filling Multiple choice questions

o Cloze procedure
 o Unscrambling jumbled texts

o Matching exercises

o Summary writing

o Retelling the story

o Composing the end of the story

8. How can teachers develop their students reading skills ?

language teachers should :

o Be sure to find out students’ prior knowledge of a topic or text genre before beginning to read.
o Give students more opportunities to:

- evaluate their work

- consider others’views

- recognise how their past experiences and reasons for reading influence what they

understand

o spend more time helping students develop strategies for reading ( top down and bottom up ) to
understand and to accomplish various tasks and assignments.
o Help students develop story maps ( a time line, or chart of key events ) for stories before they
read..
o Encourage students to guess, tolerate ambiguity, paraphrase, and summarise, and stop focus on
isolated words often not vital for comprehension
o Help students by discussing the title, theme and cultural background before reading
o Prior to the first assignment, teach students how to skim, find the main idea, modify their
hypothesis, and correct and learn from errors.
o Give them practice using the dictionary, taking notes, underlining…
o Before any reading activity, make sure that the reading task is clear to students. Loew (1984)
o show them how:
- to use contextual clues to guess the general meaning
- to focus on cognates, roots, prefixes, and suffixes
- to infer meaning through word formation and context
- to become aware of the use of referents and connectors to establish relationships in and
among sentences and paragraphs.
- to practise timed reading to improve reading speed
- to Learn to use skimming and scanning to preview reading material, predict what the
selection is about, and develop expectations about the content of the text.
 (Grellet 1981 /Aspatore 1984 / Loew 1984)

Krashen and Terrel (1983) outline the following communicative strategy:

o Read for meaning

o Don’t look up every word
o Predict meaning
o Use context

8. Cite some post- reading tasks.

The first task in post reading is to clarify problem passages with total focus on meaning without calling
students’ attention to grammar or vocabulary except as a last resort. Stauffer (1980) advocates three types of
teacher’s questions:

1. What do you think?

2. Why do you think so?

3. Prove it! (to urge students to present evidence for their conclusions)

4. Stauffer calls this questioning technique the ‘’WWP’’ approach, which he says frees the teacher
from ‘’the tyranny of right answers. ‘’

Ringler and Weber (1984) divide post reading activities into two basic categories:

1. activities allowing students to recall information from or react to the text.

2. activities designed to foster and develop communicative fluency in the four language skills. These

activities may include dramatizations, role plays, simulations, reports, and debates .

Beatie et al. (1984) recommend that teachers avoid fact questions that can be answered directly from the
text. They prefer that students prepare a summary or a paraphrase of the content. They believe that these
activities require a global recall of relevant information.

Further activities can foster students’ ability to:

o consider implications.
o draw conclusions.
o give opinions.

Beatie et Al’s criterion for effective post reading is that it requires students to reprocess the material from
the reading passage.

Beatie et Al suggest the following post reading activities:

o Cloze tests
 o Identifying key ideas
o Pointing out organizational details and rhetorical devices
o Describing the author’s biases
o Comparing cultural differences
o Debating both sides of an issue presented in the reading
o Developing skits or plays based on the reading
o Preparing descriptions
o Write stories
o Complete the story of the text (start where the story of the passage has stopped)

The teacher had better not move on to other readings until the students have:

o explored the passage under study from several perspectives.

o used the language and ideas in different communicative contexts.
o expressed their personal reaction to the content.

9. Describe a characteristic reading sequence.

o The teacher first sets the first reading task.
o First silent reading: students write answers.
o Correction of first task.
o Teacher sets the second reading task.

10. Cite some roles of the teacher

o Organiser : tell the learners the exact purpose of each reading
o Observer : after he gets students to read, the teacher has to observe – without
interrupting - how the reading is progressing.
o Feedback organiser : teachers provoque a detailed study of the text by asking students to
justify their answers and to show where they have found the
relevant information
o Prompter : As a prompter the teacher can incite students to find out and comment
on language features of the passage

B.

Define the following terms or concepts.

1. Intensive reading
Intensive reading, which is often chosen by the teacher or dictated by the course materials is teacher
directed and aims basically at developing the learners’ receptive skills such as :

 Reading for gist (or general understanding- often called skimming) :

  Reading for specific information (often called scanning)
 Reading for detailed information.
 Reading for inference (implicit meaning) or attitude….

2. Extensive reading
« Extensive reading is the silent reading by individual students of long, interesting texts (such as stories or
books ). It is sometimes known as ‘reading for pleasure’ or sustained silent reading’ (SSR). Extensive
reading shares a lot of principles with intensive reading:

o Both of them increase reading fluency and confidence.

o The texts are relatively easy.
o Reading should be fast.
o Passages that are not necessary to understanding can be skipped.

To promote extensive reading and ensure its success, the following requirements should be fulfilled:

o a systematic programme needs to be set up, and a library of suitable books should be
available for students.
o explain to students how they can make their choice of what to read.
o suggest books in a genre- be it crime, fiction, romantic novels or science fiction…- that
students enjoy.

o act as part organiser, part tutor.

o set a time aside at various points of a course- every fortnight for example- for students to tell
their classmates about the books they have found enjoyable.
o Incite students to have a weekly reading diary.
o get them to write a short book review for the class noticeboard.
o have students fill in reading record charts, where they record title, publisher, start and end
dates, and comments about level and a good/ fair/poor overall rating
o ask students to have a reading notebook, where they write facts and opinions about the
books they have read. ( Harmer 2OO7 )

3. Information transfer
Information transfer means translating or transcending information from one form to another. As a
comprehension task, it means using the information in a listening or reading text in one of the following
ways:

o complete a chart tabulating information from a text.

o label or complete a diagram, plan or map.

 o mark events on a timeline.

o tick items on a checklist

o draw arrows or other match items from two different lists

These tasks enable the reader to process (i.e evaluate and re-organise) the information given in textual form
in order to re-express it in non-contextual form.

Information transfer can also go in the other direction: from the non-textual form to speech or writing. This
may be writing a paragraph based on a completed chart, a timeline or a diagram.

4. True / false and multiple choice items

True / false and multiple choice questions are useful teaching devices. They both motivate the learners and
encourage discussion during the correction of their written answers.

5. Open-ended questions: literal and inferential

Open-ended questions begin with question words ( or WH-words ). They are, in fact, opposed to ‘’closed
questions ‘’, like yes/no questions, true/false statements, multiple choice or either/or items. Open-ended
questions can either seek specific factual information or be inferential in type when the following aspects are
not explicit in the text:

o place, setting, surroundings.

o time (of day, of year, historical period)

o people’s character, background, age, social status, relationships

o motives, thoughts, feelings

o past and future lives and actions

These inference questions can, actually, be more or less inferential: the answers to some are implicit in the
text, whereas other answers are more a matter of opinion, hence disagreement is acceptable.

6. Oral questions and answers

Oral Q/A work is believed to be useful afer the correction of the first written comprehension tasks as a
means of leading and checking students’ understanding of the text, mainly in preparation for a further
activity. Closed questions like yes/no and either/or have proved to be more effective in oral questioning
than in written work. Thanks to them the teacher succeeds in leading the learners smoothly through the
text.

7. Text study questions

Text study questions actually follow comprehension work of other types. The following are the main types
of text-study questions:

1. Questions about the rhetorical structure:

o the main idea in each paragragh

o the sequence of ideas in the text (e.g in a letter)

2. Questions about discourse markers:

o find words which show:

- the order of events

- causes and reasons

3. Questions about layout:

o the addresses in a formal letter

o the format of an advertisement

4. Questions about cohesive devises:

o pronoun reference

o different words referring to different things

5. Questions on inferences about word meanings (relying on word form, grammatical context, and
context of meaning)

6. Finding in the text synonyms or opposites of given words.

7. Finding particular structures or words of a particular type in the text.

8. Schema
Schema ( the plural of which is schemata ) is a term which was best described by guy Cook as our ‘ pre-

Existent knowledge of the world (cook 1989)

9. Top-down strategy

In top-down processing the reader/listener gets a general view of the reading/listening passage by
absorbing the general picture.

10. Bottom- up strategy

In bottom-up processing the reader/listener focuses on things like individual words, phrases, and achieves
understanding by stringing these detailed elements together to build up a whole.

Teaching listening
A. Answer the following questions

1. Cite three factors that can enhance the learners’ speaking and listening abilities.
o learners’ confidence which allows the learners to try to extract meaning from a partially understood
text (Field, 2007, p.34).
o Their listening abilities for different contexts
 Their understanding of spoken grammar and features of spoken language

2. Cite some advantages of using audio material in listening sequences.

 Recorded material allows students to hear a variety of different voices apart from their own

teacher’s.

 They meet a range of different characters, especially where ‘real’ people are talking.
 They offer a wide variety of voices and situations.

3. Cite some disadvantages of using audio material in listening sequences.

 The audibility of recorded material can cause a problem

 With the recorded material, all students have to listen at the same speed, a speed dictated by the

recording, not the listeners.

4. Cite some forms of live listening.

 Reading aloud
 Story telling
 A conversation with a collegue

5. Cite some material for extensive listening.

 Simplified readers with an audio version on cassette or CD.

 Copies of coursebook CDs.
 Recordings which accompany other books written at their level.
 Radio broadcasts.

6. Cite some roles of the teacher.

  Organiser: tell students what their listening purpose is  / give them clear instructions on how to

achieve them / Build their confidence by proposing achievable tasks and comprehensible texts

 Machine operator : be very efficient in the way he uses the audio material.

 Feedback organiser: lead a feedback session to check that students have completed the task
Successfully.

7. Cite some benefits of video viewing

 Students see ‘language in use’ that is they can see a lot of paralinguistic behaviour (how intonation
matches facial expression and what gestures accompany certain phrases).
 They can pick up a range of cross cultural clues by getting in touch with other communication worlds.
 Unspoken rules of behaviour are better seen on film than described in a book or heard on an audio
track.

8. What is the main objective of listening comprehension practice in the classroom ?

 succeed in real-life listening situations.

 Manage to establish meaning at all cost

9. Cite some characteristics of real life situations

 Informal Spoken Discourse (Brevity of chunks /Pronounciation/ Vocabulary/Grammar/ Noise  /

Redundancy / the use of « fillers » such as I mean, well, er/Non- Repetition
 The use of time-creating devices (to ease the production of speech and gain time for the speaker
so that he can formulate what to say next
 The use of compensation devices (The three typical ways to build in redundancy are: repetition,
reformulation, and rephrasing. Redundancy allows the listener some processing time.
 The use of facilitation devices ( the use of ellipses / fixed and conventional phrases like memorised
sequences « You know », « I mean », « well », which give the impression of fluency.
 The register of the speech
 Discourse markers are used to: buy time / start a turn / mark the beginning or end of a segment
through the use of grammar and vocabulary / manage turn taking That reminds me… By the way…)
 Grammatical Differences: Ellipses and Others: (Performance effects like the use of hesitations (em,
uh), false starts and incomplete utterances / Vague words like It’s sort of … I kind of…/the use of
question tags. (Thornbury, 2008, p.20 and Luoma, 2004, p.17).
 Speech acts (suggesting, requesting and offering… that are part of a speaker’s pragmatic knowledge
 Pronunciation, or the sound of speech, can refer to many features of speech such as Pitch, volume
speed, pausing, stress and intonation (Luoma, 2004, p. 11).
 Adjacency pairs (a question and a paired response)
  Listener Expectation and Purpose

10. Cite some listening tasks and activities

• Answering pre-questions (Global listening)

• Obeying instructions

• Detecting mistakes

• Aural cloze procedure (the listening text has brief gaps)

• Guessing what teacher is describing/ defining

• Noting specific information

• Identifying, sequencing, or marking pictures

• Making predictions

• drawing

• Multiple choice questions

• Continuing dialogue

• Sequencing of events

• Reformulating what the speaker has said

• Open-ended questions

• Finding an end to a story

• Transferring ( changing a text from dialogue to narrative or vice versa )

• True/false statements

• Recognising attitude and mood of speakers

• Extending (going beyond what is provided)

• Role play / simulation

• Expressing disagreement

• Inference questions /Life-experience questions

• Telling / writing a story similar to the one heard

• Use of graphs and charts

 • Filling maps ( with signs )

Teaching speaking
A.

Answer the following questions

1. What is the goal of teaching speaking skills

The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves
understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message
due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply
in each communication situation.

2. What areas of knowledge does speaking involve?

Language learners need to recognize that speaking involves three areas of knowledge:

 Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary): Using the right words in the right order with
the correct pronunciation
 Functions (transaction and interaction): Knowing when clarity of message is essential
(transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not required
(interaction/relationship building)
 Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses between
speakers, relative roles of participants): Understanding how to take into account who is speaking to
whom, in what circumstances, about what, and for what reason.

3. Cite some strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

Effective instructors teach students speaking strategies -- using minimal responses, recognizing scripts, and
using language to talk about language.

1. Using minimal responses

Language learners who lack confidence in their ability to participate successfully in oral interaction often
listen in silence while others do the talking. One way to encourage such learners to begin to participate is to
help them build up a stock of minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges. Such
responses can be especially useful for beginners. Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases
that conversation participants use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to
what another speaker is saying.

2. Recognizing scripts

Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges -- a script.
Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural
norms often follow patterns or scripts. So do the transactional exchanges involved in activities such as
obtaining information and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and
the one that follows it can often be anticipated.Instructors can help students develop speaking ability by
making them aware of the scripts for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and
what they will need to say in response. Through interactive activities, instructors can give students practice
in managing and varying the language that different scripts contain.

3. Using language to talk about language

Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they do not understand another
speaker or when they realize that a conversation partner has not understood them. Instructors can help
students overcome this reticence by assuring them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification can
occur in any type of interaction, whatever the participants' language skill levels. Instructors can also give
students strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension check.

By encouraging students to use clarification phrases in class when misunderstanding occurs, and by
responding positively when they do, instructors can create an authentic practice environment within the
classroom itself. As they develop control of various clarification strategies, students will gain confidence in
their ability to manage the various communication situations that they may encounter outside the
classroom. https://idoc.pub/documents/goals-and-techniques-for-teaching-reading-qvnd0j83or4x

1. Cite some distinctive features of speaking

Speakers of English will have to be able to use a range of:

 conversational strategies

Conversational rules and structure e.g Conversational openings ( how are you? ) / Topic shift (Oh, by
the way, that reminds me…) / Conversationl closings (It’s been nice talking to you…Well, I don’t want to
keep you from your work

 Survival and repair strategies

(If face to face conversation is to be successful, students need to be able to use :

- an all-purpose phrase to get round the problem of not knowing a word ( You know, it’s a
what-’d

you call it…)

- paraphrase using expressions like: (It’s kind of…)

- ask for repetition by using formulaic expressions like: I didn’t get your point! Could you repeat

please?...

To involve students in spontaneous face-to-face conversation outside the classroom with competent
language speakers, teachers should expose them to the following strategies :
 - Questioning reformulation i.e repeating what someone had just said

- Multifunctional question forms e.g: Did you consider the possibility of hiring more competent
engineers? Which functions as both a suggestion and criticism.

- The piling up of questions one after the other.

2. What is the purpose of real communication

The purpose of real communication is to accomplish a task, such as conveying a telephone message,
obtaining information, or expressing an opinion. In real communication, participants must manage
uncertainty about what the other person will say. Authentic communication involves an information gap;
each participant has information that the other does not have. In addition, to achieve their purpose,
participants may have to clarify their meaning or ask for confirmation of their own understanding.

3. What is the difference between transactional and interpersonal communication ?

 Transactional function conveys information and facilitates the exchange of goods and service.

 Interpersonal function is all about maintaining and sustaining good relations between people.

3. Give examples of planned and unplanned speech.

 speaking that is planned (a lecture)

 speaking that is unplanned ( a conversation taking place spontaneously between two people.)

4. As a lot of speaking is made up of fixed phrases or lexical chunks and adjacency pairs,
give

an example of each.

 fixed phrase or lexical chunk : Back in a second

 adjacency pair : D’you fancy a coffee?--------Yes, please
No, thank you

5. How can teachers make students aware of fixed phrases, functional sequences and

adjacency pairs ?

 teaching them functional exchanges.

 having them look at transcripts of typical exchanges.
 letting them watch film clips of this kind of language.

6. Give examples of some classroom speaking activities.

  Acting from a script: Students can act out dialogues they have written themselves
 Communication games : Among the most important games, two are worth mentioning:
1. Information-gap games: one student has to talk to a partner in order to
solve a puzzle, draw a picture ( describe and draw ), put things in the
right
order ( describe and arrange )
2. Television and radio games : yes/no game, quizzes…
 Discussions: ( ranging from highly formal to informal small-group interactions ) :
1. Buzz groups : These can be used for different kinds of discussions.

2. Formal debates : ( students prepare arguments for or against a certain

topic.)

3. Unplanned discussions : they happen spontaneously in the middle of a

lesson and can provide very productive and enjoyable speaking in

language classes.

4. Reaching a consensus : students will have to reach a decision or a

consensus about a certain issue.

 Prepared talks: a popular oral activity where students make a presentation on a topic of their
choice.

 Questionnaires : By designing questionnaires, students form the basis for discussions,

prepared talks or written work.
 Simulation and role play : students can act out the simulation as themselves or take on the role of a
completely different character expressing thoughts and feelings they do
not necessarily share. When we give students these roles, we call the

simulation a role play

 Making recordings : The camera can become a central learning aid helping students to use a
wide range of language throughout the process of making a video or
recording. For example, students can be filmed while presenting a weather
forecast or giving news. Before that, they should watch real news on
television, analyse the language pattern that is appropriate to this genre.

Define the following terms or concepts

 1. Speaking
According to Bygate (1987), Speaking is a complex process which involves the ability

to:

a. Carry out realistic tasks, not merely to connect sentences in the abstract

b. Tailor speech to the circumstances

c. Make and fluently implement decisions under time constaints

d. Successfully solve unexpected problems

2. Communicative competence
The goal of Language learning and teaching is communicative competence, that is the ability to use the
language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals.

The aim of the language learning process should be that the learner become s able to communicate
competently and, as a matter of fact, he is not required to use the language exactly as the native speaker
does.

Communicative competence is made up of four communicative areas :

1. Linguistic competence : It is the ability to use the grammar, syntax and vocabulary of a language.

2. Sociolinguistic competence : It is the ability to use and respond to language appropriately,

according to the setting, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating.

3. Discourse competence : It is the skill of constructing long stretches of language . That is putting
words, phrases and sentences together to create conversations, speeches, presentations, articles, messages,
emails…

4. Strategic competence : It is the ability to:

- recognise and repair communication breakdowns .

- to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language.

- to learn more about the language in context.

3. Structured Output Activities

Two common kinds of structured output activities are information gap and jigsaw activities. In both these
types of activities, students complete a task by obtaining missing information, a feature the activities have in
common with real communication. However, information gap and jigsaw activities also set up practice on
specific items of language. In this respect they are more like drills than like communication.
 4. Information Gap Activities

Filling the gaps in a schedule or timetable: Partner A holds an airline timetable with some of the arrival and
departure times missing. Partner B has the same timetable but with different blank spaces. The two partners
are not permitted to see each other's timetables and must fill in the blanks by asking each other appropriate
questions. The features of language that are practiced would include questions beginning with "when" or "at
what time." Answers would be limited mostly to time expressions like "at 8:15" or "at ten in the evening."

Completing the picture: The two partners have similar pictures, each with different missing details, and they
cooperate to find all the missing details. In another variation, no items are missing, but similar items differ in
appearance. For example, in one picture, a man walking along the street may be wearing an overcoat, while
in the other the man is wearing a jacket. The features of grammar and vocabulary that are practiced are
determined by the content of the pictures and the items that are missing or different. Differences in the
activities depicted lead to practice of different verbs. Differences in number, size, and shape lead to adjective
practice. Differing locations would probably be described with prepositional phrases.

3. Jigsaw Activities

Jigsaw activities are more elaborate information gap activities that can be done with several partners. In a
jigsaw activity, each partner has one or a few pieces of the "puzzle," and the partners must cooperate to fit
all the pieces into a whole picture. The puzzle piece may take one of several forms. It may be one panel from
a comic strip or one photo from a set that tells a story. It may be one sentence from a written narrative. It
may be a tape recording of a conversation, in which case no two partners hear exactly the same
conversation.

In one fairly simple jigsaw activity, students work in groups of four. Each student in the group receives one
panel from a comic strip. Partners may not show each other their panels. Together the four panels present
this narrative: a man takes a container of ice cream from the freezer; he serves himself several scoops of ice
cream; he sits in front of the TV eating his ice cream; he returns with the empty bowl to the kitchen and
finds that he left the container of ice cream, now melting, on the kitchen counter. These pictures have a
clear narrative line and the partners are not likely to disagree about the appropriate sequencing. You can
make the task more demanding, however, by using pictures that lend themselves to alternative sequences,
so that the partners have to negotiate among themselves to agree on a satisfactory sequence.

More elaborate jigsaws may proceed in two stages. Students first work in input groups (groups A, B, C, and
D) to receive information. Each group receives a different part of the total information for the task. Students
then reorganize into groups of four with one student each from A, B, C, and D, and use the information they
received to complete the task. Such an organization could be used, for example, when the input is given in
the form of a tape recording. Groups A, B, C, and D each hear a different recording of a short news bulletin.
The four recordings all contain the same general information, but each has one or more details that the
others do not. In the second stage, students reconstruct the complete story by comparing the four versions.

4. Communicative Output Activities

Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language they know in situations
that resemble real settings. In these activities, students must work together to develop a plan, resolve a
problem, or complete a task. The most common types of communicative output activity are role
plays and discussions .

In role plays, students are assigned roles and put into situations that they may eventually encounter outside
the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the range of language functions that may be used expands
considerably. Also, the role relationships among the students as they play their parts call for them to practice
and develop their sociolinguistic competence. They have to use language that is appropriate to the situation
and to the characters.

Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self-confidence or have lower proficiency
levels may find them intimidating at first. To succeed with role plays:

 Prepare carefully: Introduce the activity by describing the situation and making sure that all of the
students understand it
 Set a goal or outcome: Be sure the students understand what the product of the role play should be,
whether a plan, a schedule, a group opinion, or some other product
 Use role cards: Give each student a card that describes the person or role to be played. For lower-
level students, the cards can include words or expressions that that person might use.
 Brainstorm: Before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a class to predict what
vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they might use.
 Keep groups small: Less-confident students will feel more able to participate if they do not have to
compete with many voices.
 Give students time to prepare: Let them work individually to outline their ideas and the language
they will need to express them.
 Be present as a resource, not a monitor: Stay in communicative mode to answer students' questions.
Do not correct their pronunciation or grammar unless they specifically ask you about it.
 Allow students to work at their own levels: Each student has individual language skills, an individual
approach to working in groups, and a specific role to play in the activity. Do not expect all students to
contribute equally to the discussion, or to use every grammar point you have taught.
 Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the outcome of their role plays.
 Do linguistic follow-up: After the role play is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation
problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review
pronunciation or grammar anyway.

Discussions, like role plays, succeed when the instructor prepares students first, and then gets out of the
way. To succeed with discussions:

 Prepare the students: Give them input (both topical information and language forms) so that they
will have something to say and the language with which to say it.
 Offer choices: Let students suggest the topic for discussion or choose from several options.
Discussion does not always have to be about serious issues. Students are likely to be more motivated
to participate if the topic is television programs, plans for a vacation, or news about mutual friends.
Weighty topics like how to combat pollution are not as engaging and place heavy demands on
students' linguistic competence.
 Set a goal or outcome: This can be a group product, such as a letter to the editor, or individual
reports on the views of others in the group.
 Use small groups instead of whole-class discussion: Large groups can make participation difficult.
  Keep it short: Give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10 minutes, for discussion.
Allow them to stop sooner if they run out of things to say.
 Allow students to participate in their own way: Not every student will feel comfortable talking about
every topic. Do not expect all of them to contribute equally to the conversation.
 Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the results of their discussion.
 Do linguistic follow-up: After the discussion is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation
problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review
pronunciation or grammar anyway. https://idoc.pub/documents/goals-and-techniques-for-teaching-
reading-qvnd0j83or4x

Teaching writing skills

A.

Answer the following questions

1. What is the main goal of teaching writing skills in ESL classes ?

Teaching writing is mainly about helping students to communicate real messages for real audiences in an
appropriate manner, become better writers and learn how to write in various genres using different
registers.

2. Cite the main stages of process writing.

1- Pre-writing : is any activity in the classroom that encourages students to write. It stimulates
thoughts for getting started and helps students to generate ideas and gather information for writing. The
following activities make part of the pre-writing stage:

 Planning : it can take the following forms :

_Group brainstorming for the production of as many ideas as possible.

-- Clustering ( Students form words related to a stimulus supplied by the teacher.The

words are circled and then linked by lines to show discernible clusters )

_ Rapid free writing (within a limited time of 1 or 2 minutes, individual students freely
and quickly write down single words and phrases about a topic.

- Wh-questions ( Students ask who, why, what, where, when and how questions about a topic.

more such questions can be asked of answers to the first string of wh-questions, and so on.)

 Drafting ( a draft is the first version of a piece of writing. A lot of drafts may be produced on the way
to the final version.
 Responding ( Responding to students’ writing by the teacher or by peers intervenes between
drafting and revising.)
  Editing (reflecting and revising). Once writers have written (produced) the first draft, they read
through to see what worked and what didn’t. That is, they checked the following parts to see where
it worked and where it didn’t.
The order of information.
Ambiguity of some ideas.
Overall structure.
Detailed features such as: individual words and grammatical accuracy.

A simple checklist might be given to students to alert them to some common surface errors found in
students’ writing. For instance:

- Have you used verbs in the correct tense?

- Are the verb forms correct?

- Have you checked for subject-verb agreement?

- Have you used the correct prepositions?

- Have you left out the articles where they are required?
- Is your choice of adjectives and adverbs appropriate?
- Have you written in complete sentences?
 Final Version
Once writers have edited their draft, making the changes they consider necessary, they produce their
final version (Harmer 2007)
 Evaluation
In evaluating student writing the scoring may be:
- analytical i.e based on specific aspects of writing ability.
- holistic i.e based on a global interpretation of the effectiveness of the piece of writing.

In order to be effective, the criteria for evaluation should be made known to students in advance. They should
include:

- the sense of audience

- relevance
- development and organisation of ideas
- format or layout
- grammar and structure
- Spelling and pronunciation
- Range and appropriateness of vocabulary

2. Define the following terms or concepts

 Genres
writing constructions such as advertisements, letters, film reviews…formal “letters of notification”, literary
fiction, “science fiction”. A specific genre may influence the writer’s choice of register. Newspaper Letters
are a recognizable genre different from a notification letter and different again from holiday postcards or
application letters. Knowledge of genres (understanding how different purposes are commonly expressed
within a discourse community) is only one of the many competences that a reader brings to the task of
reading. These “knowledges” (which we can group under the heading of schematic knowledge comprise:
(Harmer 2007)

- Knowledge of genres.

- General world knowledge.

- Socio cultural knowledge (that is the social and cultural knowledge which members of a

Particular social group can reasonably be expected to know).

- Topic knowledge (that is knowing something about the subject being discussed).

 Register
Register is a word used to denote the actual language that we use in a particular situation. Once a genre has
been chosen, it is the register the writer chooses that determines the choice of words. Register, then,
involves topic vocabulary to suit the subject matter, and also the tone of a piece- how formal or informal it
is.

 Cohesion
It is the use a number of linguistic techniques to make sure that the text sticks together:

a. lexical cohesion: it can be achieved through the use of two main devices:

- Repetition of words: A number of content words repeated throughout the text.

- Lexical set chains: lexical sets (that is words in the same topic area) which interrelate with

each other as the text progresses

b. Grammatical cohesion: It is achieved in a number of different ways too.

- Pronoun and possessive reference: At various points in the text, a pronoun or more

frequently a possessive is used instead of a noun.

- Article reference: The definition article “the” is often used for anaphoric references. For

Example, Retired local authority staff is referred to by: “the local authority staff” and the

reader understands who the writer refers to.

 - Tense agreement: Writers use tense agreement to make texts cohesive. If the writer keeps

changing the tense, the text will not hold together.

- Linkers: Texts also achieve coherence through the use of linkers – words describing text

relationships of contrast, result, time….

- Substitution and ellipsis: Writers often substitute a short phrase for a longer one that has
preceded it. For example, He shouldn’t have ... but he did so.

 Coherence
The coherence devices help to bind elements of a text together so that we know what is being
referred to and how the phrases and sentences relate to each other. For a text to be coherent, it
needs to have some internal logic which the reader can follow with or without cohesive devices.
When a text is coherent, the reader can understand at least two things:

- the writer’s Purpose : The reader should be able to understand what the writer’s purpose is

- the writer’s Line of Thought : The reader should be able to follow the writer’s line of reasoning.

If it is a narrative, the reader should be able to follow the story and not get confused by
time jumps, for instance. (Harmer 2007)

 Reinforcement Writing
It’s when writing is used as a means of reinforcing language that has been used. Students may be asked to
write sentences, paragraphs or larger texts to practise certain recently focused on aspects of language.

 Preparation Writing
Writing can be useful as preparation for other activities, in particular when students write sentences as a
preamble to discussion activities.

 Activity Writing
Writing is used as an integral part of a larger activity where the focus is on something else such as Language
practice, acting out or speaking. Teachers often ask students to write dialogues which they will perform
later.

 Instant writing
It is not part of a long writing process. It can be used whenever the teacher feels it is appropriate. The task
may take ten minutes or even shorter. The principal aim of these tasks is to have students write fluently and
enthusiastically often with more spontaneity and less actual preparation than in process writing, for example
dictating sentences for completion or writing two or three don’t sentences about a certain issue. The teacher
can also give students postcard scenes and ask them to write the postcard which they would send to
someone from that location.

 Collaborative learning
Collaborative writing has the power to foster the writing habit in a unique way and allows students to learn
from each other. The following activities show how collaborative writing can create a feeling of shared
achievement:

- Sentence by sentence ( Students build up a story or a letter sentence by sentence on the board).

- Dictogloss (Students recreate a story the teacher said or read (in pairs) and compare their version to the

original version of the teacher)

- Rewriting and expanding sentences (the teacher asks the students to expand a sentence putting more
detail

in it, for example, the man left his office.)

- First lines, last lines (the first and last lines of a story can provoque story writing. Students are given the

first or last lines of a story and are asked to complete the story.)

 Creative writing
The term creative writing suggests imaginative tasks, such as writing poetry, stories and plays. Creative
tasks can involve writing a simple poem about someone they care about or trying to construct a narrative or
tell stories of their childhood…

 Responding
Responding implies an affective dialogue with students. That is discussing their writing rather than judging it.
The aim is not to indicate what is right or wrong but it is rather to ask questions, make suggestions and say
where improvements are to be made in terms of the content and the form of the written product

 Correcting
It is the stage where teachers indicate when something is wrong. They correct mistakes on issues such as:
syntax ( word order ), concord ( grammatical agreement between subjects and verbs ), tense agreement
collocation, or word choice (Harmer 2007)

Teaching functions
A.
Answer the following questions.

1. Why is teaching functions so important ?

It allows for the teaching of everyday, real-world language use in a variety of sociocultural situations, and
serves the learner’s immediate communicative purpose. The tasks it sets are genuine and realistic and gets
the whole class implicated in real-life, meaningful work. Besides, The learner becomes able to develop skills
and strategies enabling him to communicate meaning as effectively as possible in concrete situations.

2. Cite the main components of speech events.

1. The addresser: Person who transmits the message.

2. The addressee: Person to whom the message is transmitted.

3. The message form: Particular grammatical and lexical choices of the message.

The topic: The content of the message.

5. The code: The language or dialect in which the message is delivered.

6. The setting: The social and physical context where the message is delivered.

7. The purpose: The speaker’s aim for conveying the message. (Cook 1989: 29)

3. What is the difference between functions , notions and exponents ?

Functions are types of messages or speech acts that people accomplish through speech or writing.
Functions are generally interpersonal expressing some form of interaction between speaker and listener.

Notions are concepts or logical categories of experience ( time, space, quantity… ).They are often more
impersonal than functions.

Exponents are the linguistic items through which functions and notions are expressed

(Wilkins 1981)

Teaching vocabulary

A.
Define the following terms or concepts

1. Semantic fields

In a semantic field, lexical items are linked together through either topic or associations. For example, the
semantic field of ‘careers’ includes:
  the names of jobs

 some general terms such as company, boss,

 working hours, salary, employer….

 verbs like to apply for, to resign, to work…

2. Word formation
Words can be made of morphemes: for example, unbelievable, is composed of the prefix un-, the root word
believe and the suffix –able. Lexical morphology or word-building includes: inflection, affixation, compound
formation. Inflection consists of: Participial adjectives in –ed: excited, embarrassed, tired…/ Participial
adjectives in –ing: frustrating, tiring…/ Agent suffixes in –er, -or, -ress: teacher, actor, actress. Affixation
consists of: Adjectival suffixes: -full, -less, -able, -ic/al etc / Noun suffixes: -tion, -ty, -age etc./ Verb
suffixes: -ise, -ate, -fy, -en/ Prefixes: anti-, de-, inter-, post-, pre-, un-, dis-,… Compound
formation/Compound words consist of a lot of families: living-room, fishing-boat, etc./Taxi-driver, pencil-sharpener,
etc. / Arabic-speaking, hard-working, etc./ hold-up, sit-in, pick-up, etc. / red-haired, left-handed, etc./ two-week
holiday, a four-storey house, etc.

3. Idioms
An idiom is a sequence of words which operates as a single semantic unit. Idioms are considered as
semantically opaque, that is, the meaning of the whole is not deduced from the meaning of the parts e.g
never mind, hang on

4. Multi-word verbs
A big number of English words consist of two or three parts: A ‘base verb’ + preposition e.g look into/ A base
verb + adverbial particle e.g break down (phrasal verb)/ A base verb+ adverbial particle + preposition e.g put
up with. What phrasal verbs share with multi-word verbs is that the meaning of both is not deduced from its
constituent parts : call off (cancel) / pass away (die). Given their difficulty, it seems irrational that materials
designers overload the course with massive doses of multi-word verbs.

5. Receptive vocabulary
Receptive vocabulary refers to items students can understand at reading and listening, but have not started
yet to use them as part of their productive (or active) vocabulary when they speak or write.

6. Productive (or active) vocabulary)

It refers to the vocabulary items which students are supposed to use in their output, as opposed to what
they can recognise or understand. In the process of language acquisition, vocabulary items are first learnt
informally (naturally), added first to the receptive and later to the productive stock of the learner.

7. False cognates
words or expressions having similar forms as French but different meanings e.g eventually = in the end (not
possibly), actually = in fact (not nowadays)

8. True cognates
words or expressions having similar meaning as French but different spelling e.g address, literature

9. Incidental vocabulary teaching

Acquiring a large vocabulary incidentally, through reading, listening and conversation.

10. Deliberate vocabulary teaching

Acquiring vocabulary by the means of explicit instruction. Most researchers agree that deliberate and
focused vocabulary teaching should supplement incidental learning via either reading or listening. (Penny Ur)

Teaching grammar
A. Define the following terms or concepts

1. Inductive aproach to teaching grammar

The teacher proceeds from examples, contextualised and rich in content, to help the learner induce himself
the rules of the structure. By experiencing authentic language discourse, learners will discover the grammar
they need to understand and communicate. It is a context-based and problem-driven approach, well-suited
to competency –based approach.

2. Deductive approach to teaching grammar

Direct instruction that gives students a descriptive understanding (declarative knowledge) of each point of
grammar. Students are given explanations or rules, and then, based on these explanations or rules, they
make sentences and phrases using the new language.

3. The PPP procedure

A variation on audiolingualism is the procedure very often referred to ( since the advent of Communicative
Language teaching ) as PPP, which stands for presentation, practice and production. This grew out of
structural-situational teaching whose main aim was to place the language in clear situational context. In this
procedure the teacher introduces a situation, which contextualises the language to be taught. The language,
too, is then presented. After that, The students practise the language using accurate reproduction
techniques such as choral and individual repetition, and cue- response drills whereby the teacher gives a cue
such as cinema, nominates a student who gives the desired response, e.g. would you like to go to the
cinema. (Harmer 2007)
Cue – response drills are similar to the classic kind of audiolingual drill, but because they are contextualised,
they are more meaningful than a simple substitution drill. Finally, having practised the language, the
students make their own sentences, and this is referred to as production

4. Controlled drills
Students produce examples of the structure. These examples are predetermined by the teacher or materials
and must conform to very clear, closed-ended cues.

5. Meaningful drills
The responses are very controlled, but the student can make a limited choice and needs to understand to be
able to answer.

6. Guided meaningful practice

The students make their own sentences according to a set pattern, but choose their own vocabulary.

B. Answer the following questions

1. Cite some types of grammar

Woods ( as cited in Rohani, 2007 ) identified five types of grammar:

1. Traditional grammar

This view of grammar is concerned with the description of the relationship between the bits and pieces of
language i.e the parts of speech ( Rohani, 2007 ). This type of grammar focuses on the norms of correct
usage and ignores partially or totally the actual usage of the language ( Bourke, 2005 )

2. Prescriptive and descriptive grammar

Prescriptive grammar is defined as ‘a set of regulations that are based on what is evaluated as correct or
incorrect in the standard varieties’ ( Quirk et Al. , 1985 p.14 ). This view of grammar assumes that students
develop their language performance through a complete devotion to the study of language forms. On the
other hand, descriptive grammar assumes that language is constantly changing and that the study of
grammar should be done within its relevant variety.

3. Phrase-structure grammar

The American structuralist approach introduced by Bloomfield (1933) ‘ aims to collect samples of language
and then to describe their properties ( Cook and Newson, 1988, p. 2 ). This description of the properties
focuses more on ‘ the relationship of words and phrases in a sentence’ ( Cook as cited in Rohani, 2007,
p.20 ). To overcome the shortcoming of the traditional approaches, Larsen-freeman (1991) states that ‘ in
dealing with the complexity of grammar there are three dimensions of language that must be dealt with: the
forms or structures themselves, their semantics or meaning, and the pragmatic conditions governing their
use.

4. Transformational-generative grammar

This type of grammar, which is also known as Chomskyan generative grammar, was first introduced by
Chomsky in 1957. While traditional structuralists considered language as habit formation, Chomsky views it
as ‘ a generative process existing innately in the human brain and based on syntax, which consisted of a
surface structure, or the apparent form of an utterance, and a deep structure, the mental concept
underlying a particular semantic interpretation’(Hinkel and Fotos, 2002). This view has allowed a distinction
between competence, that is, what the learner knows about the language, and performance, that is, how a
learner uses the language.

5. Functional-systemic grammar

This approach to grammar was first advanced by Halliday in the 1960s. The term ‘functional’ refers to ‘
knowing how to use language appropriately in order to achieve certain communicative goals or intentions’
(Bourke, 2005, p. 92). Halliday’s view highlighted language use over language, that is, an overturn from the
formal to the pragmatic study of language. The term ‘systemic’ reflects a tendency to consider language as ‘
a network of systems or interrelated sets of options for making meaning’. Whereas Chomsky focuses more
on the system that generates language, Halliday’s concern is more on how languages use ‘ determines the
form of the language that is used for that particular purpose’ (Bourke, 2005).Unlike generative grammar,
systemic-functional grammar is more concerned with language performance than language competence

2. Cite some practice activities

 mechanical practice : It consists of various types of rigidly controlled activities, such a substitution
exercises.
 contextualised practice : It is, in fact, controlled, but encourages learners to relate form to meaning by
showing how stuctures are used in real life situations.
 communicative practice : This type of practice entails a lot of types of gap activities which require the
learners to engage in authentic communication. (Ur, 1988)

NB Be ready for task no3 on April, 17th. Thank you for your cooperation.