Lorentz transformation,

time dilation, length contraction and Doppler Effect - all at once

Bernhard Rothenstein1 and Stefan Popescu2

1) Politehnica University of Timisoara, Physics Department,
Timisoara, Romania [email protected]
2) Siemens AG, Erlangen, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. We present a simple derivation of the Lorentz transformations for the space-
time coordinates of the same event. It is based on the relative character of length and
time interval as measured by observes in relative motion. We begin by accepting that
the relative motion modifies in some particular way the result of these measurements.
However we do not postulate the character of this distortion i.e. whatever it is dilation
or contraction. The formulas accounting for length contraction, time dilation and
Doppler shift are a byproduct of this derivation.

1. Introduction
Time and time intervals, space coordinates and distances are fundamental
concepts in physics. They can be absolute or relative having the same magnitude or
different magnitudes for inertial observers in relative motion. Classical physics solves
the problem by stating that the time interval has an absolute character being the same
for all inertial observers in relative motion. Forced by experiments, special relativity
theory abandons the concept of absolute time by considering that the same time
interval has different magnitudes for different inertial observers in relative motion.
The length also has an absolute character in Newton’s mechanics. Similarly to time, in
order to account for well tested experiments, the length gets a relative character in
special relativity theory.
We involve in our derivation two inertial reference frames I(XOY) and
I’(X’O’Y’). Following an one space dimensions approach we consider only events
that take place on the overlapped OX(O’X’) axes. The corresponding axes of the two
frames are parallel to each other with the OX(O’X’) axes overlapped. At the origin of
time (t=t’=0) the origins O and O’ are located at the same point in space. Frame
I’(X’O’Y’) moves with constant speed V relative to I(XOY) in the positive direction
of the overlapped OX(O’X’) axes. At each point M(x) along the OX axis we find a
clock C(x). In order to be operational, all these clocks should display the same
running time, a condition that can be fulfilled by performing the clock
synchronization procedure proposed by Einstein. This proceeds as follows: the clock
we should synchronize in I(XOY) are C0(0) located at its origin O and the clocks
C(x). Clock C0(0) located at the origin O is ticking, whereas clock C(x) is stopped and
fixed to read t=x/c which is the time required for a light signal started at t=0 from
origin O to arrive at the C(x) location. At the moment when clock C0(0) reads t=0 a
source of light S(0) located at the origin O emits a light signal in the positive direction
of the OX axis. Once arrived at clock C(x) the light signal starts this clock and from
now on the two clocks will display the same running time.

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 A similar clock synchronization procedure takes place in I’. There a clock
C0′ (0) located at the origin O’ is ticking. A clock C’(x’) which should be
synchronized with clock C0′ (0) is stopped and fixed to read t’=x’/c, the time during
which a light signal started at t’=0 from origin O’ arrives at C’(x’) location. From now
the synchronization procedure continues as in I. The concept of event is defined as a
physical occurrence taking place at a given point in space M and at a give time t. This
event is characterized by the space coordinate x of the point M where it takes place
and by the reading t of the clock C(x) located at the point M when the event takes
place. The notation E(x,t) defines an event that takes place at the point M(x) when the
clock C(x) located at that point reads t. E’(x’,t’) defines an event detected from frame
I’ that takes place at a point M’(x’) when the clock C’(x’) located at that point reads
t’. Relativists consider that events E(x,t) and E’(x’,t’) represent the same event if they
take place at the same point in space when the clocks C(x) and C’(x’) located at that
point read t and respectively t’.
The fundamental problem in special relativity theory is to find a relationship
between the space-time coordinates of the same events. The formulas which perform
this task are the Lorentz-Einstein transformations (LET) for the space-time
coordinates of the same events.

Reviewing the different approaches to special relativity theory we identify two

different trends. Peres1 for example derives directly from the relativity postulates the
formulas which account for the fundamental relativistic effects like time dilation,
length contraction, Doppler Effect and addition law of parallel velocities. He doesn’t
make use at all of the Lorentz-Einstein transformation equations, considering that
using them will obscure the physics behinds. Others authors first derive the LET and
then use their equations as basis to derive the formulas which account for the
relativistic effects mentioned above2. In our complementary and simpler approach we
start by acknowledging the relative character of length and time interval
measurements. However we do not postulate the absolute character of the distortions
introduced by the relative motion of the observes (i.e. whatever it is dilation or
contraction). Our derivation is reduced to the addition and comparison of lengths
measured by observers of the same inertial reference frame. Levy3 and other authors
before him4 follow a similar approach but they first derive the formulas which account
for the time dilation and length contraction, using the latter to add lengths measured
by observers of the same inertial reference frame. The way in which the Lorentz
transformations are presented in textbooks is presented by Ziegler5.

When speaking about time intervals, relativists make a net distinction between
the proper time interval and the distorted (improper) time interval. The proper time
interval between two events is measured as a difference between the readings of the
same clock when the involved events take place in front of it. The improper
(distorted) time interval is measured as a difference between the readings of two
distant and synchronized clocks of the same inertial reference frame when the
involved events take place in front of them respectively. When speaking about
lengths, relativists make a net distinction between the concept of the proper length of
a rod measured by an observer relative to whom it is in a state of rest and its distorted
length measured by an observer relative to whom it moves with constant speed. In
order to illustrate the difference between the two concepts of time consider that
observers from I measure the speed of clock C0′ (0) . They use a meter stick at rest in

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I(XOY) located along the OX axis with its left end at the origin O. At t=0 the clock
C0′ (0) is located in front of clock C0(0) and both clocks display a zero time. After a
given time of motion, clock C0′ (0) arrives at the right end of the meter stick where a
clock C(L0) reads t, while the moving clock reads t’. By definition the speed of the
moving clock is
L L
V= 0 = 0. (1)
t − 0 ∆t
The time interval ∆t=(t-0) is measured as a difference between two readings of two
different clocks (the reading t of clock C(L0) when the moving clock arrives at its
location and the reading t=0 of clock C0(0) when the moving clock starts its trip from
this location). Measured under such conditions ∆t=t-0 represents an improper time
interval. The time interval (∆t’)0=(t’-0) is measured as a difference between two
readings of the same clock C0′ (0) (the reading t’ of the moving clock when it arrives
at the right end of the meter stick t’ and its reading t’=0 when it started its trip from
the left end). Measured under such conditions (∆t’)0 represents a proper time interval.
Relativists consider that clock C0′ (0) commoving with observer R0′ (0) represents his
wrist watch.
Let consider that observer R0′ (0) uses his wrist watch C0′ (0) to measure the
speed of the meter stick which moves relative to him with speed V in the negative
direction of the overlapped axes. Under such conditions R0′ measures a distorted
length L of the moving rod. The wrist watch of the observer reads t’=0 when the left
end of the rod passes in front of him and t’ when the right end of the rod arrives at his
location. The observer measures the proper time interval (∆t’)0=(t’-0). By definition
the speed of the rod relative to I’(X’O’Y’) is
L L
V= = . (2)
t ′ − 0 (∆t ′)0
Combining (1) and (2) results in
L0 L
= (3)
(∆t ) (∆t ′)0
or
(∆t ) L = L0 (∆t ′)0 . (4)
Because proper physical quantities have the same magnitude for all inertial observers
in relative motion, their product is a relativistic invariant, as is the product between
the distorted length and the distorted time interval. This enables us to conclude that if
the length contracts then the time dilates and vice versa. At this point of our derivation
it is advisable to state the first postulate of SRT according to which “the laws of
physics are the same in all inertial reference frames in uniform relative motion” or
equivalently: “by performing experiments confined in an inertial reference frame it is
impossible to detect whether the reference frame is at rest or in a state of uniform
rectilinear motion”. The following postulates are of use:6
a. Each LT must be a single valued function of all its arguments. If the
arguments are the space-time coordinates of the same events, they should
interfere in the LT at the first power.
b. Reciprocal space-time measurements of similar meter sticks and clocks at rest
in two different inertial reference frames I and I’ by observers at rest in I’ and
respectively in I yield identical results.

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There are several types of transformation equations relating time intervals. We
distinguish between the following possible cases:
− Relating a proper time interval in one reference frame to an improper time
interval in other reference frame.
− Relating two improper time intervals measured in two inertial reference
frames.
− Relating two proper time intervals measured in two inertial reference frames.
In what concerns the lengths, the transformation equation can relate a proper
length measured in one of the reference frame to a distorted length measured in the
other inertial reference frame or a proper length measured in one reference frame to a
proper length measured in the other one.
Concentrating our analysis in the case when observers from I’ measure a
proper time interval (∆t)0 and observers from I measure an distorted time interval ∆t,
in accordance with (a) these results should be related by
∆t = at (∆t )0 (5)
where at represents a transformation factor which depends on the relative velocity V,
but not on (∆t)0. In accordance with (b), if observers from I measure a proper time
interval in I and observers from I’ measure an improper time interval then the two
time intervals should be related by the same factor at. In the case when observers from
I’ measure a proper length L0 and observers from I measure a distorted length L the
two lengths are related by
L = aL L0 (6)
where the transformation factor aL depends on the relative speed, but not on L0.
Combining (5) and (6) results in
aL at = 1 . (7)
An important consequence of the fact that the clocks are synchronized à la
Einstein in I and in I’ is that the space-time coordinates of an event generated by the
synchronizing light signal are related by
( x − 0) = c(t − 0) (8)
and by
x′ − 0 = c(t ′ − 0) . (9)

2. Lorentz-Einstein transformations for the space-time coordinates of the

same event, length contraction, time dilation, Doppler Effect and addition law of
parallel speeds
Consider the relative position of the reference frames I and I’ as shown in
Figure 1 as detected from I when the clocks of this frame read t.

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 Y Y

C, C'
O Co O ' Co
' M, M' X, X'

V (t-o ) a (x '-o )= a c (t'-o )

L L
(x -o )= c (t-o )

Figure 1. The relative position of the reference frames I and I’ as detected from I
when the clocks of that frame read t. Only lengths measured by observers from I are
marked.

As a result of the relative character of length we can mark on it only distances

measured by observers from I. The distance between the origins O and O’ is V(t-0). A
point M(x) is located at a proper distance from O equal to ∆x=x-0=c(t-0). The point
M’(x’) located at the same point in space as point M(x) is located at a proper distance
∆x’=x’-0=c(t’-0) from O’. Measured by observers from I this becomes the distorted
length aL(x’-0)=c(t’-0). At the points M(x) and M’(x’) located at the same point in
space we find the clocks C(x) of I and C’(x’) of I’ reading t and respectively t’.
Adding only lengths measured from frame I as depicted by Figure 1 we have:
x − 0 = V (t − 0) + aL ( x′ − 0) (10)
or
V
aL c(t ′ − 0) = ct (1 − ) . (11)
c
Figure 2 illustrates the relative position of the reference frames I and I’ as
detected from I’ when the clocks of that frame read t’.

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 Y Y'

C, C'
O Co O ' Co
' M, M' X, X'

V (t'-o) (x'-o)=c(t'-o)
a (x-o)= a c(t-o)
L L

Figure 2. The relative position of the reference frames I and I’ as detected from I’
when the clocks of that frame read t’. Only lengths measured by observers from I’ are
marked.

The distance between the origins O and O’ is Vt’ and the point M’(x’) is located at a
proper distance (x’-0)=c(t’-0) from O’. The proper distance (x-0)=c(t-0) measured in I
becomes the distorted length aL(x-0)=aLc(t-0). Adding only lengths measured in I’
yields
aL ( x − 0) = V (t '− 0) + ( x '− 0) (12)
or
V
aL c(t − 0) = ct ′(1 + ) . (13)
c
Multiplying (11) and (13) side by side we obtain
V2
aL = 1 − 2 (14)
c
with (10) leading to
( x − 0) − V (t − 0)
x′ − 0 = (15)
V2
1− 2
c
whereas (12) leads to
V (t ′ − 0) + ( x′ − 0)
x= . (16)
V2
1− 2
c
Equations (15) and (16) can be presented also as

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 x − Vt
x′ = (17)
V2
1− 2
c
and as
x′ + Vt ′
x= . (18)
V2
1− 2
c
Solving (17) and (18) for t and t’ we obtain
V
t − 2 x′
t′ = c (19)
V2
1− 2
c
and
V
t ′ + 2 x′
t= c . (20)
V2
1− 2
c
Equations (17), (18), (19) and (20) represent the Lorentz-Einstein transformations.

In order to be able to properly use the transformation equations derived above,

it is important to have a correct representation of the physical quantities they relate.
Consider that at the points M(x) and M’(x’) located at the same point in space as
detected from I(XOY) and respectively I’(X’O’Y’) we find the clocks C(x) and C’(x’)
reading t and respectively t’. The event E(x,t) is associated with the fact that the clock
C(x) reading t is located at the point M(x). The event E’(x’,t’) is associated with the
fact that the clock C’(x’) reading t’ is located at the point M’(x’). By definition the
two events represent the same event with the transformation equations derived above
relating their space-time coordinates. The distances (x-0) and (x’-0) represent proper
lengths, whereas the time intervals (t-0) and (t’-0) represent improper time intervals.
The derivations performed above have as a byproduct the formulas that
account for the time dilation and the length contraction effects. If we consider that in
one of the involved reference frames, say I’, observers measure the proper length L0
while observers from I relative to whom it moves measure its distorted length related
in accordance with (6) as
V2
L = 1− L0 . (21)
c2
Because L<L0 relativists say that a length contraction effect takes place. Consider that
observers from say I’ measure a proper time interval ∆t while observers from I
measure an improper time interval (∆t)0. In accordance with (5) and (7) the two time
intervals are related by
(∆t )0
∆t = . (22)
V2
1− 2
c

The problem is now to find an equation that relates two proper time intervals
measured in I and respectively in I’. Consider that an observer R0(0) of I located at O

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and an observer R0′ (0) of I’ located at O’ are both equipped with light sources
provided with shutters. Observer R0 opens the shutter for a proper time interval ∆t=(t-
0) in order to generate a “light rod” of length ∆x=c(t-0). Opening the shutter of his
light source for a proper time interval (∆t ′)0 = c(t '− 0) , observer R0′ (0) generates a
“light rod” of length (∆x’)=c(t’-0)=(∆t’)0. Adding only lengths measured by observers
from I we obtain

V
c(∆t )0 = aL c(∆t ′)0 (1 + ) (23)
c

with the result that the proper time intervals (∆t)0 and (∆t’)0 are related by

V
1+
(∆t )0 = (∆t ′)0 c . (24)
V
1−
c

Adding only lengths measured in I’ we obtain

aL c(∆t ′)0 = c(∆t ) − Vt (25)

or

V
1−
(∆t ′)0 = c ( ∆t ) . (26)
0
V
1+
c

The proper time intervals involved in the transformation equations derived above
could have the following physical meanings:

− (∆t)0 and (∆t’)0 represent the proper time intervals for which the observers R0
and R0′ (0) should maintain the shutters open in order to generate the events
E(x=ct, t=x/c) in I and E’(x’=ct, t’=x’/c) in I’. (Radar detection).

− (∆t)0 represents the proper period at which the stationary observer R0(0) emits
successive light signals in the positive direction of the OX axis while (∆t’)0
represents the proper period at which the receding observer R0′ (0) receives them.
In this case equations (25) and (26) could be converted into emission and
1 1
reception frequencies ν e = and ν r = accounting for the Doppler
(∆t )0 (∆t ′)0
Effect in the optical domain with stationary source of light and receding observer.

Conclusions

The Lorentz transformations for the space-time coordinates presented above

present the advantage that it has as a byproduct the formulas which account for the
basic relativistic effects, used by many Authors as a starting point in their approach to

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the same problem. During the derivations we explain the meaning of the physical
quantities involved in the transformation process making them transparent.

References
1
Asher Peres, “Relativistic telemetry”, Am.J.Phys, 55, 516-519 (1987)
2
Robert Resnick, Introduction to Special Relativity, (John Wiley and Sons. Inc. New
York, Sydney, 1968) pp.56-62
3
J.-M. Levy, “A simple derivation of the Lorentz transformation and of the
accompanying velocity and acceleration changes”, Am.J.Phys. 75, 615-618 (2007)
4
A.V. Astahov, Mechanics. Kinetic Theory of Matter (Glav.Red. Fiz-Mat Lit. Moscow
1977) pp. 49-53 (In Russian)
5
Alfred Ziegler, “The role of the two postulates of special relativity”,
arXiv:0708.0988v17, Aug 2007
6
J.H. Field, “A new kinematical derivation of the Lorentz transformation and the
particle description of light”, Helv.Phys.Acta, 70, 542-564 (1997)