WEEK 4 

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY – INDUCTIVE STRENGTH 

I. DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY 
 A logically reliable deductive argument is one in which the conclusion really does
follow necessarily from the premises. 
 In logic, a logically reliable deductive argument is called a valid deductive
argument.  
 A valid argument is an argument in which these conditions apply:  
i. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.  
ii. The conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.  
iii. The premises provide logically conclusive grounds for the truth of the
conclusion.  
iv. It is logically inconsistent to assert all the premises as true and deny the
conclusion.  
 It is not necessary to know whether an argument’s premises or conclusion are true
to know whether the argument is valid.  
 Key question: If the argument’s premises were true, would the conclusion also
have to be true? 
o If the answer is yes, the argument is valid.  
o If the answer is no, the argument is invalid. 
 Deductive arguments that are both valid and have all true premises are called
sound deductive arguments. 
 Deductive arguments that either are invalid or have at least one false premise, or
both, are called unsound deductive arguments. 
 
II. INDUCTIVE STRENGTH 
 Inductive arguments can be well reasoned or poorly reasoned. A well-reasoned
inductive argument is called a strong inductive argument.  
 A strong inductive argument is an argument in which the following conditions
apply: 
i. If the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true.  
ii. The premises provide probable, but not logically conclusive grounds for
the truth of the conclusion.  
iii. The premises, if true, make the conclusion likely. 
 Like deductively valid arguments, inductively strong arguments can have various
combinations of truth or falsity in the premises and conclusion.  
 Whether an inductive argument is strong or weak generally does not depend on
the actual truth or falsity of the premises and the conclusion. Rather, it depends on
whether the conclusion would probably true if the premises were true.  
  If an argument both is inductively strong and has all true premises, it is said to be
a cogent argument. If an inductive argument either is weak or has at least one false
premise, it is an uncogent argument.  
 
Exercise 1: 
The following arguments are deductive. Determine whether the arguments are valid or invalid.
Explain your answer in each case. 
1. If Flipper is a dolphin, then Flipper is a mammal. Flipper is a dolphin. So, Flipper is a
mammal. 
2. If anything is a trout, then it’s a fish. A dolphin is not a fish. Therefore, a dolphin is not a
trout. 
3. If we’re at the North Pole, then we’re on Earth. We are on Earth. Therefore, we’re at the
North Pole. 
4. If Bigfoot is human, then Bigfoot has a heart. Bigfoot is not human. So, Bigfoot doesn’t
have a heart. 
5. Some people like ice cream. Some people like cake. So, some people who like ice cream
must also like cake. 
6. Simba is a lion. Necessarily, therefore, Simba must have four legs. 
7. Your mother can’t be a professional race car driver. Only men are professional race car
drivers, and your mother, obviously, is not a man. 
8. Science student: Science is often defined as the organized arrangement of known facts.
But that cannot be the correct definition because a phone book is an organized arrangement
of facts, and a phone book is not science. 
9. Bill: I guess some of the seniors were late to practice this morning. 
Diane: How do you know? 
Bill: Because the coach said that anyone late to practice this morning would have to do
wind sprints, and I just saw some of the seniors doing wind sprints. That’ll teach them. 
10. Frank: I’m going to bring my cell phone with me when I take the logic test tomorrow.
Whenever I don’t know the answer, I’ll just call my roommate, Ted. He aced Logic last
semester. 
Maria: Are you crazy? Professor Hardy will never allow you to cheat like that! 
Frank: Sure he will. I distinctly heard him say, “No notes or books are allowed during the
test,” and phone calls, my friend, qualify as neither. It’s simple logic: No notes or books
may be used during the test; phone calls aren’t notes or books; so, they are allowed. 
Maria: Clearly, you’re going to need all the help you can get. 
Exercise 2: 
The following arguments are deductive. Determine whether the arguments are sound or
unsound. Explain your answer in each case. 
1. All mosquitoes are insects. All insects are animals. So, all mosquitoes are animals. 
2. Either dogs are cats, or dogs are fish. Dogs are not fish. So, dogs are cats. 
3. If Rome is in Italy, then Rome is in Europe. Rome is in Italy. So, Rome is in Europe. 
 4. If Bill Gates is a billionaire, then he’s rich. Bill Gates is rich. So, he’s a billionaire. 
5. No cars a trucks. A Mazda Miata is a car. So, a Mazda Miata is not a truck. 
6. China has a larger population than Germany. Germany has a larger population than
Canada. So, China has a larger population than Canada. 
7. If Barack Obama plays for the New York Yankees, then he is a professional baseball
player. Barack Obama does not play for the New York Yankees. So, Barak Obama is not a
professional baseball player. 
8. Some apples are red. Some apples are delicious. So some apples are red and delicious. 
9. Los Angeles is west of Chicago. Hence, New York City is east of Chicago because New
York City is east of Los Angeles. 
10. Halloween (Oct.31) is always on a Friday. Therefore, the day after Halloween is always a
Saturday. 
Exercise 3: 
The following arguments are inductive. Determine whether the arguments are cogent
or uncogent: 
1. It tends to be cold in Alaska in January. So, probably it will be cold in Alaska next
January. 
2. Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer. Therefore, if you have been a heavy cigarette
smoker for many years, you will probably die of lung cancer. 
3. The vast majority of American presidents have been tweeters. Therefore, the next U.S.
president will probably be a tweeter. 
4. In poker it’s OK to lie and deceive. Business is like poker. Therefore, in business it’s OK
to lie and deceive. 
5. Billions of men around the world shave daily. Therefore, somewhere in the world,
someone must be shaving right now. 
6. Shakespeare was English, and he was a great poet. Milton was English, and he was a
great poet. Wordsworth was English, and he was a great poet. I guess most great poets were
English. 
7. Harvard University has been a leading American university for many years. Therefore,
probably Harvard University will be a leading American university ten years from now.  
8. Ninety percent of Americans jog daily. Tom Cruise is an American. So, Tom Cruise
probably jogs daily. 
9. Very few people in this country are named Obadiah. Therefore, the next person I meet is
unlikely to be named Obadiah. 
10. Spinach is a green plant, and it is edible. Broccoli is a green plant, and it is edible. I
suppose all green plants are edible. 
Exercise 4 
Determine whether the following arguments are deductive or inductive. If the argument is
deductive, determine whether it is valid or invalid. If the argument is inductive, determine
whether it is strong or weak. Explain your answer in each case. 
1. If Boston loses, Cleveland will make the playoffs. If Cleveland makes the playoffs, the
first playoff game will be played in Seattle. Therefore, it Boston loses, the first playoff game
will be played in Seattle. 
2. All birds can fly. Penguins are birds. So, penguins can fly. 
3. Most college students sleep late on Sunday mornings. Wes is a college student. So, Wes
probably sleeps late on Sunday mornings. 
4. Exercise is good for the vast majority of people. Therefore, it would be good for my
ninety-five-year-old grandfather to run in next year’s Boston Marathon. 
5. John’s home address is 47 Riverside Drive. It follows that he must live near a river. 
6. It is totally dark in here, but I know that the only things in the drawer are socks, ten black,
ten white. I had better take out eleven socks to be sure I get a matched pair. 
7. According to the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, philosopher William James was
born in New York City in 1842. So, William James was born in New York City in 1842. 
8. If it rained, then the streets are wet. The streets are wet. So, it rained. 
9. This bathwater is tepid. It follows that it is neither extremely hot nor extremely cold. 
10. States were justified in suing tobacco companies to recover the health-care costs
associated with smoking. Similarly, states would be justified in suing McDonald’s and
Burger King to recover the health-care costs associated with eating fatty foods. 
11. There are more than fifty students in this class. It must be the case, therefore, that at least
one of them is a Capricorn. 
12. In a recent Gallup poll, 72 percent of Americans said they favoured the death penalty.
Therefore, approximately 72 percent of Americans do favor the death penalty.  
13. On Monday I drank ten rum-and-Cokes, and the next morning I woke up with a
headache. On Wednesday I drank eight gin-and-Cokes, and the next morning I woke up with
a headache. On Friday I drank nine bourbon-and-Cokes, and the next morning I woke up
with a headache. Obviously, to prevent further headaches, I must give up Coke. 
14. Smedley ran 5 miles in 38 minutes. It follows that he must have run at least 1 mile in less
than 8 minutes. 
15. Some politicians are Democrats. Some Democrats are carpenters. So, some carpenters
must be politicians. 
16. Nearly all U.S. presidents were born before 1925. It stands to reason, therefore, that the
next U.S. president will have been born before 1925. 
17. The Empire State Building is taller than the Sears Tower. Therefore, because the Eiffel
Tower is shorter than the Empire State Building, it follows that the Sears Tower is taller than
the Eiffel Tower. 
18. Do most Americans like rap music? Apparently not. In a random survey of then thousand
nursing home patients around the country, fewer than 5 percent said they enjoyed listening to
rap. 
19. Richard Dawkins, the famous scientist, has said that the heavy elements like iron and zinc
that compose human bodies were created billions of years ago in the interiors of long-extinct
stars. Moreover, virtually all scientists agree with Dawkins on this point. Therefore, it is
 probably true that the heavy elements like iron and zinc that compose human bodies were
created billions of years ago in the interiors of long-extinct stars. 
20. Jerry was born on Easter Sunday. It necessarily follows, therefore, that his birthday
always falls on a Sunday.