UNIT 1

AUTOMOTIVE SUBSYSTEMS

Introduction to Automotive Electronics - Engine management system, Transmission and

suspension systems, Entertainment systems, Safety & Warning systems

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

Automotive electronics are electronic systems used in vehicles, including engine

management, ignition, radio, carputers, telematics, in-car entertainment systems and others.
Ignition, engine, and transmission electronics are also found in trucks, motorcycles, off-road
vehicles, and other internal combustion-powered machinery such as forklifts, tractors,
and excavators. Related elements for control of relevant electrical systems are found
on hybrid vehicles and electric cars as well.
Electronic systems have become an increasingly large component of the cost of an
automobile, from only around 1% of its value in 1950 to around 30% in 2010.
The earliest electronics systems available as factory installations were vacuum tube car
radios, starting in the early 1930s. The development of semiconductors after WWII greatly
expanded the use of electronics in automobiles, with solid-state diodes making the
automotive alternator the standard after about 1960, and the first transistorized ignition
systems appearing about 1955.
The availability of microprocessors after about 1974 made another range of automotive
applications economically feasible. In 1978 the Cadillac Seville introduced a "trip computer"
based on a 6802 microprocessor. Electronically-controlled ignition and fuel injection systems
allowed automotive designers to achieve vehicles meeting requirements for fuel economy and
lower emissions, while still maintaining high levels of performance and convenience for
drivers. Today's automobiles contain a dozen or more processors, in functions such as engine
management, transmission control, climate control, antilock braking, passive safety systems,
navigation, and other functions.
Modern electric cars rely on power electronics for the main propulsion motor control, as well
as managing the battery system. Future autonomous cars will rely on powerful computer
systems, an array of sensors, networking, and satellite navigation, all of which will require
electronics.
1.2. ENGINE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)

Combined Ignition and Fuel Management

As the requirements for lower and lower emissions continue, together with the need for better
performance, other areas of engine control are constantly being investigated. This control is
becoming even more important as the possibility of carbon dioxide emissions being included
in future regulations increases. Some of the main issues are:
 Ignition timing.
 Fuel quantity.
An EMS can be represented by the standard three-stage model as shown in Figure 1. This
representation shows closed loop feedback, which is a common feature.
 Figure 1.Representation of complete engine control as the standard functional system

The block diagram shown as Figure 2 can further represent an engine management system.
This series of ‘inputs’ and ‘outputs’ is a good way of representing a complex system. This
section continues with a look at some of the less common ‘inputs and outputs’.

Figure 2.General block diagram of an ignition and fuel control system

 Engine Management System (EMS) is responsible for controlling the amount of fuel
being injected and for adjusting the ignition timing. Optimum functioning of the EMS
assures maximum engine power, with the lowest amount of exhaust emissions and the
lowest fuel consumption.
 The EMS is comprised of sensors for intake air and coolant temperature, intake
manifold absolute pressure (MAP) and throttle position (TPS), as well as sensors for
engine speed and signals for the required injection and ignition spark events, and a
sensor for information about the oxygen content in the exhaust.
 Furthermore, there is an idle speed motor for adjusting and stabilizing the idle speed,
or an electronic throttle body and finally a fuel pressure regulator and fuel injector(s).
The supplied high-energy ignition coils are controlled by the integrated ignition
module. For alternative fuel applications fuel rail pressure and temperature sensors are
also utilized.

Electronic Control System

 The Purpose of electronic control system is to detect air temperature, engine
temperature, throttle valve opening angle, amount of air entering air induction system,
etc.
 The system controls the correct amount of fuel to be injected and the proper time at
which the fuel will be injected at any speed and load condition.
 The Electronic Control system consists of various engine sensors, electronic control
unit (ECU), fuel injector assemblies and related wiring.
  The ECU determines precisely how much fuel needs to be delivered by the injector by
monitoring the engine sensors.
 The ECU turns the injectors on for a precise amount of time, referred to as injection
pulse width or injection duration to deliver the proper air/fuel ratio to the engine.

Air Induction System/Control

 The air induction system consists of the air cleaner, air flow meter, throttle valve, air
intake chamber, intake manifold runner, and intake valve.
 The purpose of the air induction control/system is to filter, meter and measure intake
air flow into the engine.
 When the throttle valve is opened, air flows through the air cleaner, through the air
flow meter, past the throttle valve and through a well tuned intake manifold runner to
the intake valve.

Fuel Delivery System/Control

 The purpose of fuel delivery system/control is to inject the correct and precise amount
of fuel in the intake manifold.
 The fuel delivery system consists of fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, fuel injector, fuel
pressure regulator and fuel return pipe.
 Fuel is delivered from the tank to the injector by means of electric fuel pump
 The pump is typically located in or near the fuel tank. Contaminants are filtered out
by high capacity in line fuel filter.
 Fuel is maintained at a constant pressure by means of a fuel pressure regulator. Any
fuel which is not delivered to the intake manifold by the injector is returned to the
tank through a fuel return pipe.

Figure 3.Air Induction System

 Figure 4.Fuel Delivery System

Figure 5.Engine Management System

Operation of Engine Management System

 Air enters the engine through the air induction system where it is measured by the air
flow meter. As the air flows into the cylinder, fuel is mixed into the air by the fuel
injector.
 Fuel injectors are arranged in the intake manifold behind each intake valve. The
injectors are electrical solenoids which are operated by the ECU. The ECU pulses the
injector by switching the injector ground circuit on and off.
 When the injector is turned on, it opens spraying atomized fuel at the back side of
intake valve.
 As fuel is sprayed into the intake airstream it mixes with the incoming air and
vaporizes due to low pressure in the intake manifold. The ECU signals the injector to
deliver just enough fuel to achieve an ideal air/fuel ration of 14.7:1 often referred to as
stoichiometry.
 Depending on engine operating conditions, injection quantity will vary. The ECU
monitors variables such as coolant temperature, engine speed, throttle angle and
exhaust oxygen content and makes injection corrections which determine final
injection quantity.
1.3. Transmission system

Function of transmission:
 It is used to transmit engine torque to the driving wheels to drive the vehicle on the
road.
 For disconnecting the engine from the driving wheels
 When engine is running, connect the driving wheels to engine smoothly without
shock.
 Leverage between engine and driving wheels to be varied.
 Enable the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds.
 Provide relative movement between engine and driving wheels

Figure 6.Transmission system

Requirement of clutch
 Transmit maximum torque of the engine.
 Engage gradually to avoid sudden jerks.
 Dissipate maximum amount of heat.
 Damp the vibrations and noise.
 Dynamically balanced.

Clutch unit
Flywheel also acts as a driving member. Pressure plate is connected to clutch cover
assembly. Clutch Cover assembly is bolted to the flywheel. Clutch springs placed between
Pressure plate & Cover plate, press the Pressure plate against the clutch plate. Thus Clutch
plate is squeezed between Flywheel & Pressure plate. Clutch is always is in engaged state. It
can be disengaged by pressing of Clutch pedal. Disengagement is effected by non - contact of
Clutch plate both with Flywheel face & Pressure plate face.

Function of clutch
 Clutch is used to disengage and engage the engine with rest of the transmission
systems.
 To disengage while starting the engine and while changing gear ratio.
 To engage after starting of the engine and gear shift operation.

Gear box
 Gear box varies the leverage (speed ratio & hence torque ratio) between the engine &
driving wheels.
 It is located between Clutch & Propeller shaft.
 It is provided with either 4 speed or 5 speed ratios or more depending on design.
  Gear ratio is varied by Gear shift lever.

Working of Manual transmission

 When a driver wants to change from one gear to another in a standard stick-shift car,
he first presses down the clutch pedal
 This operates a single clutch, which disconnects the engine from the gearbox and
interrupts power flow to the transmission
 Then the driver uses the stick shift to select a new gear, a process that involves
moving a toothed collar from one gear wheel to another gear wheel of a different size.
 Devices called synchronizers match the gears before they are engaged to prevent
grinding.
 Once the new gear is engaged, the driver releases the clutch pedal, which re-connects
the engine to the gearbox and transmits power to the wheels.

Synchronizers
 A device used to bring two adjacent members to the same speed before allowing the
sleeve to engage them.
 The two elements are friction clutch and toothed clutch.
 Lock the positive engagement until speeds are synchronized.
 Establish the positive engagement and power flow.
 Synchronizer is splined on the shaft Cone on the gear (blue) fits into cone-shaped area
in the collar.
 Friction between the cone and collar synchronize the collar & gear.
 The outer portion of the collar (sleeve) then slides so that the dogteeth engage the
gear.

Automatic transmission

The main aim of electronically controlled automatic transmission (ECAT) is to improve

conventional automatic transmission in the following ways.

 Gear changes should be smoother and quieter.

 Improved performance.
 Reduced fuel consumption.
 Increased reliability.

In an ECAT system, electrically controlled solenoid valves can influence this hydraulic
pressure.
 Figure 7.Block diagram of an ECAT system

Most ECAT systems now have a transmission ECU that is in communication with the
engine control ECU (by a CAN – controller area network – databus in many cases). The
system as a whole consists of a number of sensors providing data to the ECU, which in
turn is able to control a number of actuators or output devices.

Control of gear shift and torque converter

With an ECAT system, the actual point of gear shift is determined from pre-programmed
memory within the ECU. Data from the sensors are used to reference a look-up table mainly
as a function of engine speed and vehicle speed. Data from other sensors are also taken into
consideration. Actual gear shifts are initiated by changes in hydraulic pressure, which is
controlled by solenoid valves. The two main control functions of this system are hydraulic
pressure and engine torque. The temporary reduction in engine torque during gear shifting
(about 200 ms) allows smooth operation. This is because the peaks of gearbox output torque
are suppressed, which causes the characteristic surge as the gears change on conventional
automatics.

Basic pressure control

Pressure is set to an optimum value for speed of the gear shift. This can be adapted as the
system learns the ideal pressure by monitoring shift time and changing the pressure
accordingly.

Feedback control
The ECU detects the deviation of the rotational speed of the input shaft from a target value
and adjusts pressure to maintain fine control.
Completion control
Torque converter hydraulic pressure is reduced momentarily so that as the engine torque
output control is released, the potential surge is prevented. Because of these control functions,
smooth gear shifts are possible and, due to the learning ability of some ECUs, the
characteristics remain constant throughout the life of the system.

Torque converter lock-up

The ability to lock up the torque converter has been used for some time, even on vehicles
with more conventional automatic transmission. This gives better fuel economy, quietness
and improved driveability. Lock-up is carried out using a hydraulic valve, which can be
operated gradually to produce a smooth transition. The timing of lock-up is determined from
ECU memory in terms of the vehicle speed and acceleration.

Advantages of automatic transmission

 Reduced driver effort

 Lower production cost
 Higher efficiency

1.4. Electronic Suspension systems

An electronically controlled suspension system can help reduce body roll and other
reactions better than most conventional suspension systems.

Functions of suspension
 Absorb bumps.
 Manage nose dive when braking.
 Prevent roll when cornering.
 Control body movement.

Figure 8.Active suspension system

Active suspension
Input devices monitor conditions and provide information to the electronic control
module, which processes the information and operates the actuators to control the movement
of the suspension. These are controlled by an ECU, which receives signals from various
sensors. Oil pressure in excess of 150 bar is supplied to the hydraulic units from a pump. A
servo valve controls the oil, which is arguably the most critical component.

Benefits of active suspension

 Improvements in ride comfort, handling and safety.
 Predictable control of the vehicle under different conditions.
 No change in handling between laden and unladen.

Sensors, actuators and system operation

To control the hydraulic units to the best advantage, the ECU needs to ‘know’ certain
information. This is determined from sensor readings from various parts of the vehicle. A
number of sensors are used to provide information to the suspension ECU.

Load sensor
A load cell used to determine whether actual load is positioned on each hydraulic ram.

Displacement and vertical acceleration

This sensor can take a number of forms, as simple as a variable resistor or a more accurate
and sensitive linear sensor such as the LVDT

Lateral and longitudinal acceleration

Acceleration can be determined from a pendulum type sensor using strain gauges linked to a
mass, or devices similar to an engine knock sensor.

Yaw transducer
Yaw can be determined from lateral acceleration if the sensor is mounted at the front or rear
of the vehicle.

Steering position
As well as steering position, rate of change of position is determined from a rotary position
sensor. This device can be a light beam and detector type or similar. If the rate of change of
steering position is beyond a threshold the system will switch to a harder suspension setting.

Vehicle speed
The speed of the vehicle is taken from a standard type sensor as used for operating the
speedometer.

Throttle position
Similar to the existing throttle potentiometers. This gives data on the driver’s intention to
accelerate or decelerate allowing the suspension to switch to a harder setting when
appropriate.

Driver mode selection

A switch is provided allowing the driver to choose soft or hard settings. Even if the soft
setting is selected, the system will switch to hard, under certain operational conditions.
Operation
The layout of the suspension system also shows a simplified view of the hydraulic unit. This
is, in effect, a hydraulic ram and can have oil under very high pressure fed to the upper or
lower chamber. The actual operation of the whole system is as follows. As a wheel meets a
bump in the road there is increased upward acceleration and vertical load. This information is
fed to the ECU, which calculates the ideal wheel displacement. A control signal is now sent
to the servo valve(s), which control the position of the main hydraulic units. As this process
can occur hundreds of times per second, the wheel can follow the contour of the road surface.
This cushions the vehicle body from unwanted forces.

By considering information from other sensors, such as the lateral acceleration sensor, which
gives data relating to cornering, and the longitudinal sensor, which gives data relating to
braking or acceleration forwards, the actuators can be moved to provide maximum stability
and ride comfort at all times.

1.5. Entertainment Systems

1) The first entertainment system in the car is Radio

2) The first information providing system in the car is Radio Data System i.e Traffic
Announcements from Radio stations
A) Audio:
 The audio stuff may be through radio, CD player or playing tracks with USB or Phone
connectivity and it Supports mp3 or wma format based on the OS.
 It should be noticed that Steering wheel will be provided with some control buttons
like mute, reduce volume etc for driver convenience.
 Radio: Receiving antenna gets activated on selection of Radio option over Audio.
Manual Tuning
Auto Tuning
 U.S.B/C.D:
Majorly Playing Tracks using CD is being replaced with USB connectivity.
 Bluetooth:
We can turn Bluetooth on and allow the system to recognize device like Phone the
audio from Phone is transmitted to the infotainment system and the sound is played
through car stereo system.
B) Video:
• Television: Now a days we can have Internet TV and there is also another option for
mobile TV achieved through satellite. Powered by inverter, bad signal reception
under motion and picture will not be clear.
We can also have a video played through
• DVD player: The other way in which we can play MP4 or AVI content is through
DVD
• USB/SD card:

Rear seat entertainment:

 Tablet installed at the rear part.
 Headphones are provided separately.
 They can access the required application or media of their choice
Speakers
Good In-car Entertainment (ICE) systems include at least six speakers, two larger speakers in
the rear parcel shelf to produce good low frequency reproduction, two front door speakers for
the mid-range and two front door tweeters for high frequency notes. Speakers are a very
important part of a sound system. No matter how good the receiver or CD player is, the sound
quality will be reduced if inferior speakers are used. Equally, if the speakers are of a lower
power output rating than the set, distortion will result at best, and damage to the speakers at
worst.

Speakers generally fall into the following categories.

 Tweeters – high frequency reproduction.
 Mid-range – middle range frequency reproduction (treble).
 Woofers – low frequency reproduction (bass).
 Sub-woofers – very low frequency reproduction.

ICE
Controls on most ICE sets will include volume, treble, bass, balance and fade. A
digital display, of course, will provide a visual output of the operating condition. Track
selection and programming for one or several compact discs is possible.

Radio data system (RDS)

RDS has six main features

1. Programme identification to allow the re-tune facility to follow the correct broadcasts.
2. Alternative frequencies, again to allow the receiver to try other signals for re-tuning as
required.
3. Programme service name for displaying the name of the station on the radio set.
4. Traffic information, which provides for two codes to work in conjunction with route
finding equipment.
5. Traffic programme, which allows the set to indicate that the station broadcasts traffic
information.
6. A traffic announcement is transmitted when an announcement is being broadcast. This
allows the receiver either to adjust the volume, switch over from the cassette during the
announcement, lift an audio mute or, of course, if the driver wishes it, to do nothing.

Radio reception

There are two main types of radio signal transmitted; these are amplitude modulation (AM)
and frequency modulation (FM). Amplitude modulation is a technique for varying the height,
or amplitude, of a wave in order to transmit information. A convenient and efficient means
of transmitting information is by the propagation of waves of electromagnetic radiation.
Sound waves in the audible range, such as speech and music, have a frequency that is too low
for efficient transmission through the air for significant distances. By the process of
modulation, however, this low frequency audio information can be impressed on a carrier
wave that has a much higher frequency and can propagate through space for great distances.
The transmitter at a radio station generates a carrier wave having constant characteristics,
such as amplitude and frequency. The signal containing the desired information is then used
to modulate the carrier. This new wave, called the modulated wave, will contain the
information of the signal. In AM, it is the amplitude of the carrier wave that is made to vary
so that it will contain the information of the signal. When the modulated wave reaches a radio
receiver tuned to the proper frequency, it is demodulated, which is essentially the opposite of
modulation. The set can then reproduce the desired sound via an amplifier and the
loudspeakers.
Frequency modulation is a method of modulation in which the frequency of a wave is varied
in response to a modulating wave. The wave in which frequency is varied is called the carrier,
and the modulating wave is called the signal. Frequency modulation requires a higher-
frequency carrier wave and a more complex method for transmitting information than does
AM; however, FM has an important advantage in that it has constant amplitude; it is therefore
much less susceptible to interference from both natural and artificial sources.

Figure 9.Difference between AM and FM signals

Auto PC
A revolution in the use of information technology in vehicles is taking place! Advanced
computing, communications and positioning developments are being introduced in even the
most basic vehicles. However, there were several barriers to the widespread use of such new
technology.
 Not robust enough.
 Too costly
 Difficult to install
 Lack of common standards
 Difficult to operate
Most of these problems either have been resolved or are about to be, and other developments
are also beneficial:
 Computers have become smaller.
 Prices have reduced.
Safety and warning systems
 ABS (Anti-lock braking system)
 Air bags and Seat Belt
 Obstacle Avoidance Radar

Antilock braking system

As the name signifies, the anti-lock braking system is a safety system in cars and other
automobiles that keeps their wheels from locking up and helps their drivers to maintain
steering control. Also referred to as anti-skid braking system sometimes, it enables the wheels
of a vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the ground so that they don’t go into an
uncontrolled skid.

With ABS, you have more control on your car during situations such as sudden braking.
Basically, it is designed to help the driver maintain some steering ability and avoid skidding
while braking.
ABS Working principle

The basic theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. It prevents the wheels from locking up,
thus avoiding uncontrolled skidding. ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and
decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces.

A skidding wheel (where the tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction
(grip of the tire on the road) than a non-skidding wheel. For example, if your car drives over a
road covered in ice, it is unable to move forward and the wheels will keep spinning, since no
traction is present. This is because the contact point of the wheel is sliding relative to the ice.
ABS modifies the brake fluid pressure, independent of the amount of pressure being applied
on the brakes, to bring the speed of the wheel back to the minimum slip level that is
mandatory for optimal braking performance.

ABS has four major components:

1) Speed Sensor
This sensor monitors the speed of each wheel and determines the necessary acceleration and
deceleration of the wheels. It consists of an exciter (a ring with V-shaped teeth) and a wire
coil/magnet assembly, which generates the pulses of electricity as the teeth of the exciter pass
in front of it.

2) Valves
The valves regulate the air pressure to the brakes during the ABS action. There is a valve in
the brake line of each brake that is controlled by the ABS.  In the first position, the brake
valve is open and it allows the pressure from the master cylinder to be transferred to the
brakes. In the second position, the brake valve remains closed and pressure from the master
cylinder to the brakes is constrained.  In the third position, the valve releases some of the
pressure on the brakes.

3) Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

The ECU is an electronic control unit that receives, amplifies and filters the sensor signals for
calculating the wheel rotational speed and acceleration. The ECU receives a signal from the
sensors in the circuit and controls the brake pressure, according to the data that is analysed by
the unit.

4) Hydraulic Control Unit

The Hydraulic Control Unit receives signals from the ECU to apply or release the brakes
under the anti-lock conditions. The Hydraulic Control Unit controls the brakes by increasing
the hydraulic pressure or bypassing the pedal force to reduce the braking power.
While braking, if a wheel-locking situation is detected or anticipated, the ECU alerts the
HCU by sending a current and commands it to release the brake pressure, allowing the wheel
velocity to increase and the wheel slip to decrease. When the wheel velocity increases, the
ECU reapplies the brake pressure and restricts the wheel slip to a certain degree
The Hydraulic Control Unit controls the brake pressure in each wheel cylinder based on the
inputs from the system sensor. As a result, this controls the wheel speed. This process is
repeated for the next braking operation.
 Figure 10.With and without ABS

Figure 11.ABS system

Air bags and Seat Belt

Air bags:

 They are the bags ,which open in a fraction of seconds when collision occurs.
 Airbags help cushion the impact, reducing your momentum more slowly so that the
force is less.
 Airbags are intended to be used as a supplementary device to the seatbelt.

Seat Belt:

This is a basic safety tool used in cars to protect passenger from getting injured when
sudden braking is applied.

Introduction
A seat-belt, seat-belt tensioner and an airbag are, at present, the most effective
restraint system in the event of a serious accident. At speeds in excess of 40 km/h the seat-
belt alone is no longer adequate. Research after a number of accidents has determined that in
68% of cases an airbag provides a significant improvement. It is suggested that if all cars in
the world were fitted with an airbag then the number of fatalities annually would be reduced
by well over 50 000.
Components and circuit
The main components of a basic airbag system are as follows.
 Driver and passenger airbags.
 Pyrotechnic inflater.
 Igniter.
 Crash sensor (s).
 Electronic control unit.

Airbag
The airbag is made of a nylon fabric with a coating on the inside. Prior to inflation the airbag
is folded up under suitable padding that has specially designed break lines built-in. Holes are
provided in the side of the airbag to allow rapid deflation after deployment. The driver’s air
has a volume of about 60 litres and the passenger airbag about 160 litres.
A warning light is used as part of the system monitoring circuit. This gives an indication of a
potential malfunction and is an important part of the circuit.
Consideration is being given to the use of a seat switch on the passenger side to prevent
deployment when not occupied. The pyrotechnic inflater and the igniter can be considered
together. The inflater in the case of the driver is located in the centre of the steering wheel. It
contains a number of fuel tablets in a combustion chamber. The igniter consists of charged
capacitors, which produce the ignition spark. The fuel tablets burn very rapidly and produce a
given quantity of nitrogen gas at a given pressure. This gas is forced into the airbag through a
filter and the bag inflates breaking through the padding in the wheel centre. After
deployment, a small amount of sodium hydroxide will be present in the airbag and vehicle
interior.

Operation of the system

The sequence of events in the case of a frontal impact at about 35 km/h.

1. The driver is in the normal seating position prior to impact. About 15 ms after the impact
the vehicle is strongly decelerated. A severe change in speed of the vehicle will cause an
output from these sensors as the seismic mass moves or the springs bend. Suitable
electronic circuits can monitor this and be pre-programmed to react further when a signal
beyond a set threshold is reached. After threshold for triggering the airbag is reached, the
igniter ignites the fuel tablets in the inflater.
2. After about 30 ms the airbag unfolds and the driver will have moved forwards as the
vehicle’s crumple zones collapse. The seat-belt will have locked or been tensioned depending
on the system.
3. At 40 ms after impact the airbag will be fully inflated and the driver’s momentum will be
absorbed by the airbag.
4. About 120 ms after impact the driver will be moved back into the seat and the airbag will
have almost deflated through the side vents, allowing driver visibility.
 Figure 12.Airbag safety system

Obstacle avoidance radar

This system, sometimes called collision avoidance radar, can be looked at in two ways. First,
as an aid to reversing, which gives the driver some indication as to how much space is behind
the car. Second, collision avoidance radar can be used as a vision enhancement system. This
technique is, in effect, a range-finding system. The output can be audio or visual, the latter
being perhaps most appropriate, as the driver is likely to be looking backwards. The audible
signal sound, the repetition frequency of which increases as the car comes nearer to the
obstruction, and becomes almost continuous as impact is imminent.

Operation of radar system

The operation of a basic radar system is as follows: a radio transmitter generates radio waves,
which are then radiated from an antenna, ‘lighting up’ the airspace with radio waves. A
target, such as another vehicle that is in this space, scatters a small portion of the radio energy
back to a receiving antenna. This weak signal is amplified by an electronic amplifier and
displayed, often on a cathode ray tube. To determine its position, the distance (range) and
bearing must be measured. Because radio waves travel at a known constant velocity, the
speed of light, which is 108 m/s, the range may be found by measuring the time taken for a
radio wave to travel from transmitter to obstacle and back to the receiver.

Figure 13.Obstacle avoidance radar

Figure 14.Block diagram of obstacle avoidance radar when used as a vision enhancement
system
 UNIT-2
AUTOMOTIVE SENSORS & ACTUATORS

Electronic engine control-Electronic fuel control system, Electronic ignition system.

Overview of automotive sensors: Air flow rate sensor, Engine crankshaft angular position
sensor, Hall-Effect position sensor, Optical crankshaft position sensor, Temperature sensor,
Exhaust gas oxygen sensor and Knock sensor.
Actuators: Fuel injection actuator, Ignition actuator, Hydraulic actuators and Electrical
actuators-MEMS based sensors and actuators.
2.1. Electronic Engine Control

 In the Automobile industry an electronic control unit (ECU) is an embedded

electronic device, basically a digital computer, that reads signals coming from sensors
placed at various parts and in different components of the car and depending on this
information controls various important units. e.g. Engine, ECM - Engine Control
Module
 The ECM uses closed-loop control, a control scheme that monitors outputs of a
system to control the inputs to a system, managing the emissions and fuel economy of
the engine (as well as a host of other parameters).
 Gathering data from dozens of different sensors, the ECM performs millions of
calculations each second, including looking up values in tables, calculating the results
of long equations to decide on the best spark timing or determining how long the fuel
injector is open.

Components in ECM
1. Power Supply – digital and analog (power for analog sensors)
2. MPU – microprocessor and memory (usually Flash and RAM)
3. Communications Link – (e.g. CAN bus)
4. Discrete Inputs – On/Off Switch type inputs
5. Frequency Inputs – encoder type signals (e.g. crank or vehicle speed)
6. Analog Inputs – feedback signals from sensors
7. Switch Outputs – On/Off Switch type outputs
8. PWM Outputs – variable frequency and duty cycle (e.g. injector or ignition)
9. Frequency Outputs – constant duty cycle (e.g. stepper motor – idle

2.2. Electronic fuel control system and its operation

Initially, after a gas droplet enters your gas tank, it gets sucked up by an electric fuel
pump. The electric fuel pump usually comes in an in-tank module that consists of a pump, a
filter, and a sending unit. The sending unit uses a voltage divider to tell your gas gauge how
much fuel you have left in your tank. The pump sends the gasoline through a fuel filter,
through hard fuel lines, and into a fuel rail. A vacuum-powered fuel pressure regulator at the
end of the fuel rail ensures that the fuel pressure in the rail remains constant relative to the
intake pressure. For a gasoline engine, fuel pressure is usually on the order of 35-50 psi.
Fuel injectors connect to the rail, but their valves remain closed until the ECU decides
to send fuel into the cylinders. Usually, the injectors have two pins. One pin is connected to
the battery through the ignition relay and the other pin goes to the ECU. The ECU sends a
pulsing ground to the injector, which closes the circuit, providing the injector's solenoid with
current. The magnet on top of the plunger is attracted to the solenoid's magnetic field,
opening the valve. Since there is high pressure in the rail, opening the valve sends fuel at a
high velocity through the injector's spray tip. The duration that the valve is open- and
consequently the amount of fuel sent into the cylinder- depends on the pulse width (i.e. how
long the ECU sends the ground signal to the injector. When the plunger rises, it opens a valve
and the injector sends fuel through the spray tip and into either the intake manifold, just
upstream of the intake valve, or directly into the cylinder. The former system is called
multiport fuel injection and the latter is direct injection.
We showed you that, when a driver pushes his or her gas pedal, an accelerator pedal
position sensor (APP) sends a signal to the ECU, which then commands the throttle to open.
The ECU takes information from the throttle position sensor and APP until the throttle has
reached the desired position set by the driver. Either a mass air flow sensor (MAF) or a
Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP) determines how much air is entering the throttle
body and sends the information to the ECU. The ECU uses the information to decide how
much fuel to inject into the cylinders to keep the mixture stoichiometric. The computer
continually uses the TPS to check the throttle’s position and the MAF or MAP sensor to
check how much air is flowing through the intake in order to adjust the pulse sent to the
injectors, ensuring that the appropriate amount of fuel gets injected into the incoming air. In
addition, the ECU uses the O2 sensors to figure out how much oxygen is in the exhaust. The
oxygen content in the exhaust provides an indication of how well the fuel is burning.
Between the MAF sensors and the O2 sensor, the computer fine-tunes the pulse that it sends
to the injectors.
The ECU monitors the rotational speed of the engine via a crankshaft position sensor,
which is commonly a Hall Effect sensor or optical sensor that reads the rotational speed of
the crank pulley, engine flywheel, or the crankshaft itself. The ECU sends fuel to the engine
based upon how fast the crankshaft rotates, which is directly related to the load on the engine.
Let's say you turn on your air conditioning or shift your vehicle into drive. The speed of your
crankshaft will decrease below the threshold speed set by the ECU due to the added load. The
crankshaft position sensor will communicate this decreased engine speed to the ECU, which
will then open the throttle more and send longer pulses to the injectors, adding more fuel to
compensate for the increased engine load. This is feedback control. The injectors can survive
the excessive temperature and pressure of combustion by using the fuel that passes through it
as a coolant.

Figure 18.Fuel injector

 Figure 19.Electronic fuel control system

2.3. Electronic ignition system

Electronic ignition system is the type of ignition system that uses electronic circuit,
usually by transistors controlled by sensors to generate electric pulses which in turn generate
better spark that can even burn the lean mixture and provide better economy and lower
emission.

Need of ignition system

 Ignition system is part of electric system which carries the electric current to the spark
plug where the spark is necessary to ignite the air-fuel mixture.
 Ignition system provides high voltage spark in the combustion chamber at the correct
time.
 These high voltage produce by ignition coil, which is supplied with lower voltage
battery.
 Distributed high voltage spark to each spark plug in correct sequence.

Spark ignition system

 The combination of all the devices required to produce an electric spark of desired
intensity and at proper moment is called spark ignition system
 The spark must occurs towards the end of compression stroke.
 Automotive engines are usually cranked by a small electric motor, which is better
known as a starter motor, or simply a starter.
 The starter motor for SI and CI engines operates on the same principle as a direct
current electric motor.

Parts of Electronic Ignition System

BATTERY
It provides power for the ignition system.

IGNITION SWITCH
It allows driver to turn ignition on and off.

IGNITION CONTROL MODULE

It is the brain or programmed instruction given to the ignition system which monitors and
control the timing and intensity of the spark automatically. It is the device that receives
voltage signals from the armature and set the primary coil to ON and OFF, it can be placed
separately outside the distributor or can be place in electronic control unit box of the vehicle.

IGNITION COIL
It changes battery voltage to 30,000V during normal operation and has a potential to produce
up to 60,000V.

ARMATURE
Contact breaker points of battery ignition system is replaced by an armature which consists of
a reluctor with teeth (the rotating part), vacuum advance and a pickup coil (to catch the
voltage signals), Electronic module receives the voltage signals from the armature in order to
make and break the circuit, which in turn sets the timing of the distributor to accurately
distribute current to the spark plugs.

IGNITION SYSTEM WIRES

It connects components.

IGNITION DISTRIBUTOR
As the name indicates it is the device use to distribute the current to the spark plugs of the
multi cylinder engine.

SPARK PLUG
Spark plug is used to generate spark inside the cylinder.

Figure 20.Electronic Ignition system

Working of Electronic Ignition System

 When the driver switch ON the ignition switch in order to start a vehicle, the current
starts flowing from the battery through the ignition switch to the coil primary
winding, which in turn starts the armature pickup coil to receives and send the voltage
signals from the armature to the ignition module.
  When the tooth of the rotating reluctor comes in front of the pickup coil as shown in
the fig the voltage signal from pickup coil is sent to the electronic module which in
turn senses the signal and stops the current to flow from primary coil.
 When the tooth of the rotating reluctor goes away from the pickup coil, the change in
voltage signal is sent by pickup coil to the ignition module and a timing circuit inside
ignition module turns ON the current flow.
 A magnetic field is generated in the ignition coil due to this continuous make and
break of the circuit which induced an EMF in secondary winding which increases the
voltage upto 50000 Volts.
 This high voltage is then sent to distributor, which has the rotating rotor and
distributor points which is set according to the ignition timing.
 When the rotor comes in front of any of those distributor points the jumping of
voltage through the air gap from the rotor to the distributor point takes place which is
then sent to the adjacent spark plug terminal through the high tension cable and a
voltage difference is generated between the central electrode and ground electrode
which is responsible for generating a spark at the tip of the spark plug and finally the
combustion takes place.

Application
Electronic ignition system is used in modern and hyper cars like Audi A4, Mahindra XUV-
500, etc. and bikes like ktm duke 390cc, Ducati super sports etc. to meet the high reliability
and performance need. It is also used in aircrafts engine due to its better reliability and less
maintenance

2.4. Overview of automotive sensors

Sensors
• Monitors engine operating condition and reports this information to ECM (computer).
• Sensors are electrical devices that change resistance or voltage with change in
condition such as temperature, pressure and position
Types of sensors

Figure 21.Type of sensors

Mass Air Flow sensor
 It is located on air cleaner box.
 Measures the amount of outside air entering the engine.
 Contains an air flap or door that operates a variable resistor.
 Helps computer to determine how much fuel is needed.

Figure 22.Mass Air Flow sensor

Crank Shaft Sensor

 It works to locate the exact position of crankshaft and to show rpm of engine
 Change injector timing and position
 Higher engine speed = more fuel

Hall Effect sensors

 Used to provide a noncontact means to detect and measure a magnetic field
 Named based on their use of the Hall Effect, discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879
 Presence of magnetic field deflects electrons flowing through a conductive material
 As electrons move to one end of a conductive material, a potential is developed in the
direction perpendicular to gross current flow.
 This potential indicates the strength of the magnetic field.

Figure 23.Hall effect sensor

Principle of Hall effect transducers

 If a certain type of crystal is carrying a current in a transverse magnetic field, then
a voltage will be produced at right angles to the supply current.
 The magnitude of the voltage is proportional to the supply current and to the
magnetic field strength.
 With proper design, the output of this device is a square wave.
  The principle is used in distributors and also to detect the current flowing on a
cable.
Applications
 IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems
Used to determine position of cam shaft
 Brushless DC Motor Control
Sensors determine position of permanent magnet rotor
 Assembly Lines
Shaft position and velocity sensors
Contactless limit switches
 Current Sensing ICs
Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors

Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor

 It is usually located at the bottom of radiator or top radiator hose towards engine
block.
 Monitors the temperature of engine by exposed to the engine coolant.
 Engine cold = low resistance = rich mixture
 Engine hot = high resistance = lean mixture
 Its function is to instruct radiator fan to turn on and cooling down the liquid after
getting temperature above 75 degree.
Application - Engine management
– Sensing principle NTC technology
– Temperature range: -40°C...+150°C
– Accuracy: ± 0.8 K at 100°C ±1.5 K at 20°C

Air Temperature Sensor

 It is usually located in air filter box or pipe that is attached to the air filter box.
 Measure the temperature of air entering the engine.
 Cold air = more Fuel for proper A/F ratio

Lambda/Oxygen sensor
 The oxygen sensor provides a closed loop feedback for the engine management
system to control the air fuel ratio.
 Mounted on the exhaust system before the catalytic converter.
 Oxygen Sensor measures the oxygen content in engine exhaust.
Working

Figure 24.Oxygen (lamda) sensor system

 The lambda sensor produces a voltage that is proportional to the oxygen content of the
exhaust, which is in turn proportional to the air–fuel ratio. At the ideal setting, this
voltage is about 450 mV.
 If the voltage received by the ECU is below this value (weak mixture) the quantity of
fuel injected is increased slightly.
 If the signal voltage is above the threshold (rich mixture) the fuel quantity is reduced.

This alteration in the air–fuel ratio must not be too sudden as it could cause the engine to
buck. To prevent this, the ECU contains an integrator, which changes the mixture over a
period of time. A delay also exists between the mixture formation in the manifold and the
measurement of the exhaust gas oxygen. This is due to the engine’s working cycle and the
speed of the inlet mixture, the time for the exhaust to reach the sensor and the sensor’s
response time. This is sometimes known as ‘dead time’ and can be as much as one second at
idle speed but only a few hundred milliseconds at higher engine speeds.

Knock sensor

 Piezoelectric accelerometers are generally used as knock sensors.

 A piezoelectric accelerometer is a seismic mass accelerometer using a piezoelectric
crystal to convert the force on the mass due to acceleration into an electrical output
signal.
 The piezoelectric crystal acts not only as a transducer but also as the suspension
spring for the mass.
 When used for knock detection, they also pick up other vibrations, these are kept at
minimum by looking for a knock’ a few degrees before and after the TDC.
 Figure 25.Knock sensor system

Manifold absolute pressure sensor

 This sensor measures air pressure which tells ECM the current altitude of a vehicle. It
is bolted on the intake manifold or linked with a vacuum pipe from intake manifold.
 Low-pressure sensors for gaseous media
 Registration of intake-manifold pressure or atmospheric pressure
 Installation - Air-intake tract
 Sensing principle - Micromechanics with piezoresistive sensor element (MEMS
based)
– Supply voltage: 5 V
– Power consumption: 9 mA (typical)
– Measuring range: < 400 kPa (absolute)
– Response time: < 1 ms
– Temperature range: -40°... +130°C

Camshaft sensor
 It is an electromagnetic sensor which produces voltage when a metal object moves
past it. The sensor contacts with ECM for position of camshaft, it is fixed at the end of
camshaft.

Throttle position sensor

 This sensor is linked with accelerator pedal and the throttle body, sends information
about injector pulse width & spark timing.
 Variable resister connected to the throttle plate.
 Change in throttle angle = change in resistance.
 Based on the resistance, ECM richens or leans the mixture.

Actuators
 Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a change in a
physical parameter
 The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity)
 An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity into
some alternative form
 An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an amplifier may
be required to provide sufficient power to drive the actuator
2.5. Solenoid actuator/Fuel injection actuator
 A fuel injection actuator or solenoid actuator is defined as a coil of wire commonly in
the form of a long cylinder that when carrying a current resembles a bar magnet so
that a moveable core (armature) is drawn into (pulled-in) the coil when a current
flows.
Operation:
 A fuel injection actuator or solenoid actuator is defined as a coil of wire commonly in
the form of a long cylinder that when carrying a current resembles a bar magnet so
that a moveable core (armature) is drawn into (pulled-in) the coil when a current
flows.
 Fuel injectors connect to the rail, but their valves remain closed until the ECU decides
to send fuel into the cylinders.
 Usually, the injectors have two pins. One pin is connected to the battery through the
ignition relay and the other pin goes to the ECU. The ECU sends a pulsing ground to
the injector, which closes the circuit, providing the injector's solenoid with current.
 The magnet on top of the plunger is attracted to the solenoid's magnetic field, opening
the valve.
 Since there is high pressure in the rail, opening the valve sends fuel at a high velocity
through the injector's spray tip.
 The duration that the valve is open- and consequently the amount of fuel sent into the
cylinder- depends on the pulse width (i.e. how long the ECU sends the ground signal
to the injector).
 When the plunger rises, it opens a valve and the injector sends fuel through the spray
tip and into either the intake manifold, just upstream of the intake valve, or directly
into the cylinder.

Application: Fuel injector.

 A typical fuel injector solenoid has the following:
– Stroke: 0.1 mm
– Open period range: 1.5 to 10.0 ms.
– Coil resistance : 16 Ω
 Time taken by an injector to open and close is critical in fuel injection. The induction
of the coil plays an important role in the reaction time for the Solenoid.
 Another application of solenoid actuator is for door locks.
2.6. Ignition actuator

Figure 26.Ignition actuator

Working of Electronic Ignition System

 When the driver switch ON the ignition switch in order to start a vehicle, the current
starts flowing from the battery through the ignition switch to the coil primary
winding, which in turn starts the armature pickup coil to receives and send the voltage
signals from the armature to the ignition module.
 When the tooth of the rotating reluctor comes in front of the pickup coil as shown in
the fig the voltage signal from pickup coil is sent to the electronic module which in
turn senses the signal and stops the current to flow from primary coil.
 When the tooth of the rotating reluctor goes away from the pickup coil, the change in
voltage signal is sent by pickup coil to the ignition module and a timing circuit inside
ignition module turns ON the current flow.
 A magnetic field is generated in the ignition coil due to this continuous make and
break of the circuit which induced an EMF in secondary winding which increases the
voltage upto 50000 Volts.
 This high voltage is then sent to distributor, which has the rotating rotor and
distributor points which is set according to the ignition timing.
 When the rotor comes in front of any of those distributor points the jumping of
voltage through the air gap from the rotor to the distributor point takes place which is
then sent to the adjacent spark plug terminal through the high tension cable and a
voltage difference is generated between the central electrode and ground electrode
which is responsible for generating a spark at the tip of the spark plug and finally the
combustion takes place.

2.7. Hydraulic actuators

 Hydraulic systems are used to control and transmit power.
 A pump driven by prime mover such as electric motor creates a flow of fluid in which
the pressure, direction and flow rate are controlled by valves.
 An actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into mechanical power.
 The amount of output power developed depends upon the flow rate, pressure drop
across the actuator and its overall efficiency.
  Thus they devices which used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into mechanical
energy.

Hydraulic linear actuator

 As their name implies, it provides motion in a straight line.
 The total movement is a finite amount determined by the construction of the unit
 They are referred to as cylinders, rams and jacks
 The function of a hydraulic cylinder is to convert the hydraulic power into linear
mechanical force or motion
 Hydraulic cylinder extends and retracts a piston rod to provide a pull or push force to
drive the external load along a straight path.

Types of hydraulic actuators

Hydraulic cylinder is of following types:
 Single-acting cylinders
 Double-acting cylinders
 Telescopic cylinders

Single acting cylinder

Figure 27.Single acting cylinder

 It consist of piston inside a cylindrical housing called as barrel

 On one end is attached a rod, which can reciprocate
 At the opposite end, there is a port for the entrance and exit of the oil
 They produce force only in one direction by hydraulic pressure acting on the piston
 The return of the spring is not done hydraulically; it is either done by gravity or
spring.

Double acting cylinder

There are two types of double acting cylinder:
• Double acting cylinders with piston rod on one side
• Double acting cylinders with piston rod on both side
 Figure 28.Double acting cylinder (piston on one side)

 To extend the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the blank end port
 The fluid from the rod end port returns to the reservoir
 Now to retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod end port and the fluid
from the blank end port returns to the tank.

Figure 29.Double acting cylinder (piston on both sides)

 A double acting cylinder with piston on both sides is a cylinder with a rod extending
from both the ends.
 The application involves in a process where work can be done by both the ends of the
cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more productive.
 Double rod cylinder can withstand higher side loads because they have an extra
bearing on each rod to withstand the loading.

Telescopic cylinder
 A telescopic cylinder is needed when a long stroke length and a short retracted length
are needed.
 The telescopic cylinder extends in stages, each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits
inside the previous stage
 One application for this type of cylinder is raising a dumping truck bed.
 Telescopic cylinders are available both in single acting and double acting models.
 Figure 30.Telescopic cylinder
 They generally consist a nest of tubes.
 The tubes are supported by bearing rings, the innermost set of which have grooves or
channels to allow the fluid flow
 Stop rings limit the movement of each section, thus preventing the separation. For a
given input flow rate, the speed of operation increases in steps as each successive
section reaches the end of its stroke. Similarly, for a specific pressure, the load
shifting capacity decreases for each of the successive section

2.8. Electrical actuators

 Permanent magnet electric motors are used in many applications and are very
versatile.
 The output of a motor is, of course, rotation, but this can be used in many ways.
 If the motor drives a rotating ‘nut’ through which a plunger is fitted, and on which
there is a screw thread, the rotary action can easily be converted to linear movement.
 In most vehicle applications, the output of the motor has to be geared down, this is to
reduce speed and increase torque.

Seat adjustment motor

 Disadvantage of simple motor actuators - no direct feedback of position is possible.

 In seat adjustment when a ‘memory’ of the position may be needed, a variable resistor
type sensor can be fitted to provide feedback.

Rotary idle actuator

Figure 31.Rotary idle actuator

  These are single winding types, which have two terminals, and double winding types,
which have three terminals.
 Under ECU control, the motor is caused to open and close a shutter, thus controlling
air bypass. These actuators only rotate about 90 ° to open and close the valve.
 As these are permanent magnet motors, the term ‘single or double windings’ refers to
the armature.
 The single winding type is fed with a square wave signal causing it to open against a
spring and then close again, under spring tension.
 The on/off ratio or duty cycle of the square wave will determine the average valve
open time and hence idle speed.
 With the double winding type the same square wave signal is sent to one winding but
the inverse signal is sent to the other.
 As the windings are wound in opposition to each other if the duty cycle is 50% then
no movement will take place. Altering the ratio will now cause the shutter to move in
one direction or the other.

Stepper motors

Stepper motors are becoming increasingly popular as actuators in motor vehicles and in many
other applications. This is mainly because of the ease with which they can be controlled by
electronic systems. Stepper motors fall into three distinct groups:
1. Variable reluctance motors
2. Permanent magnet motors
3. Hybrid motors.

Figure 32.a) Variable reluctance b) Permanent magnet and c) hybrid motor

Variable reluctance motor

 Variable reluctance motors rely on the physical principle of maximum flux.
 A number of windings are set in a circle on a toothed stator.
 The rotor also has teeth and is made of a permeable material. Note in this example
that the rotor has two teeth less than the stator.
  When current is supplied to a pair of windings of one phase, the rotor will line up with
its teeth positioned such as to achieve maximum flux.
 It is now simply a matter of energizing the windings in a suitable order to move the
rotor.
 For example, if phase four is energized, the motor will ‘step’ once in a clockwise
direction. If phase two is energized the step would be anti-clockwise.
 These motors do not have a very high operating torque and have no torque in the
non-excited state
 They can, however, operate at relatively high frequencies. The step angles are usually
15 °, 7.5 °, 1.8 ° or 0.45 °.

Permanent magnet motors

 Permanent magnet stepper motors have a much higher starting torque and also have a
holding torque when not energized.
 The rotor is now, in effect, a permanent magnet. In a variable reluctance motor the
direction of current in the windings does not change; however, it is the change in
direction of current that causes the permanent magnet motor to step.
 Permanent magnet stepper motors have step angles of 45 °, 18 °, 15 ° or 7.5 °.
Because of their better torque and holding properties, permanent magnet motors are
becoming increasingly popular.
 The most basic design for this type of motor comprises two double stators displaced
by one pole pitch.
 The rotor is often made of barium-ferrite in the form of a sintered annular magnet. As
the windings are energized first in one direction then the other, the motor will rotate in
90 ° steps.
 The step angle is simply 360 ° divided by the number of stator poles. Half steps can
be achieved by switching off a winding before it is reversed. This will cause the rotor
to line up with the remaining stator poles and implement a half step of 45 °. The
direction of rotation is determined by the order in which the windings are switched
on, off or reversed.

Hybrid stepper motor

 The hybrid stepper motor, a combination of the previous two motors.

 These motors were developed to try and combine the high speed operation and good
resolution of the variable reluctance type with the better torque properties of the
permanent magnet motor.
 A pair of toothed wheels is positioned on either side of the magnet. The teeth on the
‘North’ and ‘South’wheels are offset such as to take advantage of the variable
reluctance principle but without losing all the torque benefits.
 Step angles of these motors are very small: 1.8 °, 0.75 ° or 0.36 °.

2.9. MEMS based sensors and actuators

Micro (small), Electro (electric components/functionality), mechanical (mechanical
components/functionality), systems (integrated, system-like functionality).

Why MEMS
Small
– Typically 1-100 um feature size
 – Low cost, High yield
– Use existing IC fabrication technology
– Made primarily on Silicon Wafers

Automotive MEMS
MEMS Sensors and Actuators used to control various elements of the automobile
– Powertrain and Chassis control
• Ex: Manifold Air Temperature
– Comfort and Convenience
• Ex: Air-Temperature Control
– Communications
• Ex: Wireless
Where it began
 1979 - First recorded use of MEMs in automobiles
 Federal emission standards required monitoring the air-to-fuel ratio of the engine
Density of air value was needed
 Many different sensor technologies were introduced to solve this problem
 MAP (manifold absolute pressure) and MAT (manifold air temperature) sensors were
developed using MEMS
 Silicon based MEMS sensors became the device of choice due to low cost and high
yield

Actuators

 Traditionally only sensors were developed for automobiles

 Actuators started to become popular as MEMs development costs decreased
 Popular actuators include
– Microphones
– Fuel injection nozzles

Fabrication
 Use basic IC fabrication
Masks/layers/CVD/oxidation/etc
 MEMS specific fabrication
DRIE (Deep reactive ion etch)
SOI (silicon on insulator)

MEMS packaging
 The most important and expensive part of a MEMS sensor/actuator
 ~45% of the cost of designing a MEMS device is spent on packaging
 Often times packaging constraints will prevent a design from being produced
 May require too complex of a package design for realistic implementation
 Package can greatly change the response of a device
 Sensitivity/Dynamic Range/etc all effected by package
 UNIT 1 AND 2

Multiple choice questions

1.The ratio, by mass, of air to fuel that ensures complete and clean combustion is:
1. 14.7 : 1
2. 10 : 1
3. 1 : 10
4. 1 : 14.7

2. Exhaust gas products that are NOT harmful to the environment are:
1. carbon dioxide and water
2. water and carbon monoxide
3. carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
4. hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen

3. On an engine fitted with Electronic Fuel Injection, engine load may be determined by a:
1. MAP sensor
2. throttle position sensor
3. lambda sensor
4. vacuum capsule

4. The type of petrol injection system which makes use of a single injector that sprays fuel
towards a throttle is termed a:
1. single point system
2. rotary system
3. multi-point system
4. in-line system

5. An injector pulse width, in milliseconds, is commonly:

1. 1.5–2.0
2. 1.0–3.0
3. 1.5–4.0
4. 2.5–3.5

6. A valve fitted to the fuel rail in a petrol/gasoline injection system is used to:
1. bleed air
2. depressurize the system or test pressure
3. replace fuel after changing the filter
4. connect a compression tester

7. Increased nitrogen oxides are formed when combustion:

1. temperatures are high
2. temperatures are low
3. speed is slow
4. speed is fast

8. The function of a lambda sensor fitted in an exhaust system is to monitor:

1. carbon monoxide
2. oxides of nitrogen
3. carbon dioxide
4. oxygen

9. Gasoline direct injection systems allow mixture in the cylinder to be:

1. homogenous
2. stratified
3. incremental
4. strong

10. The main ECU ‘input’ parameters for calculating ignition timing and injector duration
are:
1. speed and temperature
2. speed and load
3. pressure and temperature
4. pressure and load

11. A throttle potentiometer provides information relating to:

1. throttle position and engine load
2. throttle position and driver intention
3. idle position and engine load
4. idle position and driver intention

12. One design feature of an inlet manifold that ensures all cylinders are supplied with the
same volume and air flow characteristics is the:
1. length and diameter
2. fitting of an air flow meter
3. fitting of a MAP sensor
4. material it is made from

13. An oscilloscope connected to a wheel speed sensor should show a:

1. sine wave pattern
2. cosine wave pattern
3. square wave pattern
4. low resistance

14. Following a frontal impact in a car, the time taken to fully inflate an airbag will be
approximately
1. 10 ms
2. 20 ms
3. 30 ms
4. 40 ms