Chapter 6

Mathematics and Social Choices

1. Introduction to Apportionment and Voting Theory
2. Fair Division
3. Plurality vs Preferential Voting
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Make a fair decision using the different apportionment method and
apportionment principle.
2. Apply the different method of voting.
3. Determine the fairness criteria not satisfied by the voting system.
1. Introduction to
Apportionment
and Voting
Theory

https://www.amazon.com/Making-Democracy-Fair-mathematics-apportionment/dp/1300223561
Apportionment
• Apportionment is a method of dividing a whole into various parts, has its roots
in the U.S. Constitution.
• Apportionment is the act of dividing items between different groups according to
some plan especially to make proportionate distribution in a fair manner.
• Mathematically, apportionment is a function which takes as input the values
𝑞, 𝑛, 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑛 where 𝑞 and 𝑛 are positive integers, 𝑝𝑛 ’s are positive numbers,
and whose output is a sequence of non-negative integers 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑛 such that
𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛
• Apportionment problem is to find a method of rounding a standard quota into
whole numbers so that the sum of the numbers is the total number of allocated
items.
 Problem
The table below shows the enrollments for the four division of a college. There are 50
new overhead projectors that are to be apportioned among the division based on the
enrollments.
Division Enrollment
Health 1280
Business 3426
Engineering 1968
Science 2936
Total 9610

1. What is the best strategy to have a fair apportionment among the division? Justify
your answer using the concept you’ve read about apportionment.
2. If you are given an option to give another projector, to what division will you
added it? Support your answer using the apportionment principle.
Basic Elements Apportionment problem
• State is a term used to describe the parties having a stake in the apportionment,
denoted by 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛 .
• Seat is a set of 𝑘 identical, indivisible objects that are being divided among the 𝑛
states.
• Population is a set of 𝑛 positive numbers that are used as the basis for the
apportionment of seats to the states, denoted by, 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑛 as state’s respective
population and 𝑝 denotes the total population 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑛 .
• Quota Rule is an apportionment method that apportion to a state/group has a
fractional part, either the integer immediately above, or the integer part of, that
state’s/ group’s standard quota.
• Standard divisor (𝒅) is the ratio of population to seats and is found by dividing
the total population (𝑝) under consideration by the number of seats (𝑘) (people to
apportion)
Basic Elements Apportionment problem
• Standard quota of a state is the exact fractional number of seats that the state
would get if fractional seats were allowed. The notations 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑛 are used to
denote the standard quotas of the respective states.
– The lower quota is the standard quota round down to the nearest whole number while
the upper quota is the standard quota rounded up to the nearest whole number.

• Standard quota for a particular group (𝑞𝑛 ) is found by dividing that group’s of
population (𝑝𝑛 ) by the standard divisor (𝑑)
• Apportionment Plan or Method
– The Hamilton Plan
– The Jefferson Plan
The Hamilton Plan
• the first apportionment method, proposed by Alexander Hamilton, to be
approved in the US of America Congress but was vetoed by Pres. George
Washington, which tends to favor larger states.
• Steps
𝑝
1. Solve for the standard divisor. 𝑑 = 𝑘
2. Determine the standard quota for each group by dividing its population by the
standard divisor.
3. Round each group’s standard quota down to the nearest whole number (called lower
quota).
4. Sum the lower quota to find how many leftover seats exist.
5. Allocate the leftover eats (one at a time) to the group with the largest decimal
remainders (or largest fraction parts) in their standard quotas until no leftovers
remain.
 Note: Based on the
Let us try to determine the apportionment problem, p =9610
on the problem using Hamilton plan. and k=50
Step 5. Allocate the leftover
Step 2.Determine the
projectors (one at a time) to the
standard quota for each Step 3. Round each group’s
Step 1. Solve for the group with the largest decimal
standard divisor. group by dividing its standard quota down to the remainders in their standard
population by the standard nearest whole number quotas until no leftovers
𝑝 9610
𝑑= = = 192.2 divisor. (called lower quota). remain.
𝑘 50

Division Enrollment Standard quota Lower quota Number of

projectors
Health 1280 1280 6 6+1=7
= 6.66
192.2
Business 3426 3426 17 17 + 1 = 18
= 17.83
192.2
Engineering 1968 1968 10 10
= 10.24
192.2
Science 2936 2936 15 15
= 15.28
192.2
Total p = 9610 Step 4. Sum the lower quota to find 48 50
how many leftover seats exist.
The Jefferson Plan
• proposed by Thomas Jefferson in 1792 and was the first used in US Congress until
1840.
• differs from Hamilton’ method in terms of resolving situation when the lower quota
or initial quota is less than the actual seats available (called modified lower quota),
which tends to favor larger states.
• Steps
𝑝
1. Solve for the standard divisor. Use the formula 𝑑 =
𝑘
2. Determine the standard quota for each group by dividing its population by the standard
divisor.
3. Round each group’s standard quota down to the nearest whole number (called modified
lower quota).
4. Choose a number 𝑚 (usually less than the standard divisor), which represents a desired
approximate size for congressional districts.
5. Compute the modified quotas for each group, and round these numbers down to obtain 𝑞𝑛 .
If 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛 = 𝑞 (same with k), then we have the apportionment, otherwise, change
𝑚 and try it again. The divisor is called modified (adjusted) divisor.
 Let us try to determine the apportionment on the problem using Jefferson plan.
Step 2.Determine the Step 3. Round each group’s Step 5. Compute the modified quotas for
Step 1. Solve for the
standard divisor. standard quota for each standard quota down to the each group, and round these numbers
nearest whole number down to obtain 𝑞𝑛 . If 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛 =
𝑝 9610
group by dividing its 𝑞 (same with k), then we have the
𝑑=𝑘= = 192.2 population by the standard (called modified lower apportionment, otherwise, change 𝑚 and
50
divisor. quota). try it again. The divisor is called modified
(adjusted) divisor.
Div Enrolmen Standard q at Standard q at Standard q at Number
t quota at m m=192.2 quota at m m=185 quota at m m=183 of
=192.2 =185 =183 projectors
H 1280 1280 6 1280 6 1280 6 6
= 6.66 = 6.91 = 6.99
192.2 185 183
B 3426 3426 17 3426 18 3426 18 18
= 17.83 = 18.51 = 18.72
192.2 185 183
E 1968 1968 10 1968 10 1968 10 10
= 10.24 = 10.63 = 10.75
192.2 185 183
S 2936 2936 15 2936 15 2936 16 16
= 15.28 = 15.87 = 16.04
192.2 185 183
Total p = 9610 48 49 50 50
Step 4. Choose a number m (usually less than the standard divisor), which
represents a desired approximate size for congressional districts.
Paradoxes in Apportionment
• An apportionment exists when the rules for apportionment produce results
which violates quota rules
• The Alabama paradox occurs when an increase in the number of representatives
to be apportioned results in a loss of a representative for a state.
• The Population paradox occurs when a state losses a representative to another
state, even though its population is increasing at a faster rate than of the other
state.
• The New-States paradox occurs when the addition of a new state results in a
reduction in the number of representatives of another state.
Fairness in Apportionment
• Quota Rule
– The number of representatives apportioned to a state is the standard quota or one more
than the standard quota.

• Average Constituency
– This is a population of a state divided by the number of representatives from the state,
rounded to the nearest whole number.
Apportionment Principle

• The absolute unfairness of an apportionment is the absolute value of the

difference between the average constituency of state A and the average
constituency of state B.
• The relative unfairness of an apportionment is the quotient of the absolute
unfairness of the apportionment and the average constituency of the state
receiving the new representative.
• Apportionment Principle: When adding a new representative to a state, the
representative is assigned to the state in such a way as to give the smallest
relative unfairness of apportionment.
Example
State Population Representatives Average New Average Absolute Relative
Constituency Constituency unfairness of unfairness of an
apportionment apportionment
A 17,500 10 17500 17500 |1590- 560
= 0.352
10 11 2050|=560 1590
= 1750 = 1590
B 10,250 5 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟎 |1750-1708|=42 𝟒𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓
𝟓 𝟔 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟖
= 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟖
Huntington-Hill Apportionment Principle
• When there is a choice of adding one representative to one of several state, the
representatives should be added to the state with the greatest Huntington-Hill
number.
• Method of equal proportions
• The Huntington-Hill number for a state (A) is the value of

𝑃𝐴 2
𝑎(𝑎+1)
where 𝑃𝐴 is the population of A and 𝑎 is the current number of representatives from
state A.
Voting Theory
• Voting is a method for a group, such as a meeting or an electorate, to make a
collective decision or express an opinion, usually following discussions, debates
or election campaigns.
– Plurality Method of Voting
– Borda Count Method of Voting
– Plurality with Elimination
– Pairwise Comparison Voting Method

• A preference schedule is a list of the number

of people who gave a particular ranking.
The Plurality Method of Voting
• Each vote for one candidate, and the candidate with the most votes wins. The
winning candidate does not have to have majority of the votes.

Sixty people were asked to select their preferences among plain iced tea, lemon-flavored
iced tea, and raspberry-flavored iced tea. The preference schedule is shown in the table
below.

Using the plurality voting system,

which is the most preferred flavor?
The Borda Count Method of Voting
• If there are 𝑛 candidates or issues in an election, each voter ranks the candidates
or issues by giving 𝑛 points to the voter’s first choice, 𝑛 − 1 points to the voter’s
second choice, and so on, with the voter’s least favorite choice receiving 1 point.
• The candidate or issue that receives the most total points is the winner.
Plurality with Elimination
• variation of the plurality method of voting
• Considers alternate choices as Borda count method
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
• Head-to-head method
• Each candidate is compared one-on-one with each of the other candidates.
• A candidate receives 1 point for a win, 0.5 points for a tie, 0 points for a loss.
• The candidate with the greatest number of points wins the election.
Fairness Criteria
• Majority criterion is when the candidate who receives a majority of the first-
place votes is the winner.
• Monotonicity criterion is when candidate A wins an election, then candidate A
will also win the election if the only change in the voters’ preferences is that
supporters of a different candidate change their votes to support candidate A.
• Condorcet criterion is when a candidate who wins all possible head-to-head
matchups should win an election when all candidates appear on the ballot.
• Independence of irrelevant alternatives is when a candidate wins an election,
the winner should remain the winner in any recount in which losing candidates
withdraw from the race.
 References:
• Aufmann, R. N., Lockwood, J. S., Nation, R. D., & Clegg, D. K.
(2013). In Mathematical excursions. 3rd ed. Belmont, CA, USA:
Brooks/Cole.
• Allan G. Sirug, W.(2018). Mathematics in the Modern
World.Philippines:Mindshapers, Co., Inc.
• Johnson, David et.al. (2011).Mathematics: A Practical Odyssey. 7th
ed. Brooks Cole
 Graded Activity
Direction: Use short bond paper as your answer sheet with 0.5 margins on
all sides. Write your name and section before writing your answer.
I. The table below shows the enrollments for the four division of a college. There are 50
new overhead projectors that are to be apportioned among the division based on the
enrollments.
Division Enrollment
Health 1280 Note: The apportionment
Business 3426 using Hamilton and Jefferson plan are given as
part of the example above, no need to show
Engineering 1968 computation for no. 1, just write your justification.
Science 2936
Total 9610
1. What is the best strategy to have a complete apportionment among the division?
Justify your answer using the concept you learn about apportionment.
2. If you are given an option to give another projector, to what division will you give it?
Support your answer using the apportionment principle.
 Graded Activity
II. Determine the winner using plurality, Borda count, plurality with elimination
and pairwise comparison methods of voting. Identify what fairness criterion, if
any, is violated for each method.