Field Water Test

CET 3414 Irrigation And Drainage
CET 3414 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Part B: ADVANCED DRAINAGE MANAGEMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of drainage
1.2 Needs for drainage

1.2.1 Related definitions to drainage
1.2.2 Drainage to control water ponding
1.2.3 Drainage to control water logging
1.2.4 Drainage to control water salinisations
1.2.5 Needs to control field water table
1.3 Salinity and water logging

1.3.1 Definition of water logging
1.3.2 Causes of water logging
1.3.3 Effects of water logging
1.3.4 Remedial measures for water logging
1.3.5 Salinity process
1.3.6 Effects of soil salinity
1.3.7 Causes of soil salinity
1.3.8 Leaching process
1.3.9 Reclamation of salt-affected lands
1.4 Benefit of drainage

1.4.1 Drainage requirement
1.4.2 Main benefits of drainage
1.4.3 Other benefits of a well-drained soil
1.4.4 Benefits of controlling water table
1.4.5 Benefits of leaching
1.5 Principales méthodes de drainage

1.5.1 Drainage par fossés
1.5.2 Drainage par tuyaux enterers
1.5.3 Drainage par tranchées drainantes
1.5.4 Non-conventional drainage methods
1.6 Classification of drains

1.6.1 Natural drains vs Artificial drains
1.6.2 Open drain vs a drainage system
1.6.3 Components of a drainage system
1.6.4 Field drainage system
1.6.5 Flow diagram of drains classification
Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 1

1.7 Tile drainage system

1.7.1 Natural system
1.7.2 Parallel system
1.7.3 Herringbone system
1.7.4 Grid iron system
1.7.5 Double drainage system
1.7.6 Grouping system
1.7.7 Random system
1.7.8 Intercepting system
1.7.9 Composite system
1.7.10 Sink hole drainage system
1.7.11 Zigzag system
II. SURFACE DRAINAGE
2.1 Gross command area

2.2 Sources of excess water on the land fields
2.3 Drainage control surface water
2.4 Drainage par fossés
2.4.1 Shallow and deep drains
2.4.2 Types of drains
2.4.3 Elimination de l’excès d’eau par le model de surface
2.4.4 Bases de calcul d’un réseau d’assainissement
2.4.5 Tracé d’un réseau de drainage
2.4.6 Entretien d’un réseau de drainage
2.5 Drainage channel design
2.5.1 Rational formula
2.5.2 Open channel flow
2.5.3 Flow resistance formula
2.5.4 Design of rigid-boundary channels
2.5.5 Design of loose-boundary channels
2.5.6 Kennedy’s silt theory
2.5.7 Lacey’s silt theory
2.5.8 Comparison between Kennedy’s and Lacey’s theories
2.5.9 Maintenance of irrigation and drainage channels
2.6 System of surface drainage
2.6.1 Definition of surface drainage
2.6.2 Surface drainage to control soil erosion
2.6.3 Land farming, grading and smoothing
2.6.4 Four systems of drainage for flat areas
2.6.5 Three types of land drainage systems in sloping areas
2.7 Cross drainage works
2.8 Culverts and small road bridges across open drains
2.8.1 Culverts
2.8.2 Small bridges across open drains
2.8.3 Drainage behind linings

III. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
3.1 Definition du drainage par tuyaux enterrés

3.2 Données de base du drainage par tuyaux enterrés
3.3 Les matériaux de drainage
3.4 Les matériels pour les operations de drainage
3.5 Les ouvrage d’un réseau de drainage
3.6 Le tracé du réseau de drainage
3.7 Design of field drains
3.7.1 Definition of drains
3.7.2 Design requirement of field drains
3.7.3 Placement depth of field drains
3.7.4 Spacing of field drains
3.7.5 Spacing based on steady state flow
3.7.6 Hoogoudt tables for drains spacing
3.7.7 Drainage coefficient (D.C)
3.7.8 Size of tile drains
3.7.9 Non-steady drainage
3.7.10 Maintenance of subsurface drains
IV. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF DRAINAGE TECHNIQUES
4.1 Definition of impact

4.2 Environmental issues of drainage techniques
4.3 Drainage water management
4.3.1 Drainage water quality characteristics
4.3.2 Drainage water treatment
4.3.3 Drainage water reuse
4.3.4 Reclamation of water logged areas
4.3.5 Disposal and management of drainage water
V. ADVANCES IN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT
5.1 Various drainage investigations

5.1.1 People’s participation
5.1.2 Drainage survey procedures
5.1.3 Measurement and analysis of rainfall
5.1.4 GW table investigations
5.2 Assainissement du sol par drainage
5.2.1 Inconvénients des sols humides
5.2.2 But de l’assainissement agricole
5.2.3 Classification des différentes techniques d’assainissement
5.3 Drainage par tranchées drainantes
5.3.1 Drainage par captage de résurgence “les mouillères”
5.3.2 Drainage methods to control GW table
5.4 Non-convetional drainage methods

5.4.1 Mole drainage

5.4.2 Well drainage
5.4.3 Bio-drainage
5.4.4 Pump drainage
5.4.5 Raised bed-pond system
5.5 Project planning for drainage works
5.5.1 Preliminary investigations for drainage works
5.5.2 Feasibility studies of drainage projects
5.6 Drainage for sustainable agriculture

I INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITION OF DRAINAGE
Drainage = is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from the surface and subsurface of
the land in order to enhance crop growth.
1.2 NEEDS FOR DRAINAGE
1.2.1 Related definitions to drainage
(i) Ponding: the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface.

(ii) Water logging: the accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the soil.
(iii) Salinization: the accumulation of soluble salts at the soil surface or at some points
below the soil surface that they have negative effects on plant growth and on
soils.
1.2.2 Drainage to control ponding
(1) To remove ponding water from the surface of land, surface drainage is used.
Normally, this consists on digging shallow open drains.
To make easy the flow in these drains, the field is given an artificial slope.
This is known as land shaping or land grading.
(2) Surface drainage is the removal of ecxess water from the surface of the land by
diverting it into improved natural or constructed drains, by shaping and graiding of the
land surface towards such drains.
1.2.3 Drainage to control water logging
(1) To remove excess water from the root zone, subsurface drainage is used.
This is done by digging open drains or installing pipes, at depths varying from 1 to 3m .
The excess water flows down through the soil into these drains or pipes so that the water
table can be controlled.
(2) Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from soils via
ground water flow to the drains so that the water table and root-zone salinity are
controlled.
1.2.4 Drainage to control salinization
(1) To remove salts from the soil, more irrigation water is applied to the field than the
required quantity by crops.
The extra water infiltrates into the soil and percolates trhough the root zone.
While water is percolating, it disolves the salts in the soil and removes them through the
subsurface drains.
This process, in which water washes the salts out of the root zone, is called leaching.

(2) Leaching is the removal of soluble salts by water percolating through the soil.
(3) The extra water required for leaching must be removed from the root zone by
drainage, otherwise tha water table will rise and this will bring the salts back into the root
zone.
i.e salinity is controlled by a combination of irrigation and drainage.
NOTE 1: Obtainng a satisfactory stand of furrow irrigated crops on saline soils (or using
saline water)
(a) If both sides of raised bed are wetted, the salts accumulate in the center top of
the bed.
i.e (c) The double seed-row planted near the 2 shoulders at extreme edges will place the
crops away from salts accumulation.
(b) & (d) If only one side of the raised bed is wetted, the salts accumulated away at the
shoulder of the extreme edge i.e one crop row at nearest shoulder.
(e) & (f) A better crop salinity control can be achieved by using sloping beds with seeds
planted on the sloping side just above the water line.

NOTE 2: If saline water is used, salts tend to accumulate along the fringes of the wetted
strip.
i.e plant root may be restricted to the soil volume near each emitter as shown in the
following figure:
1.2.5 Needs to control field water table
- The water table is the upper boundary of the groung water;

- The water table is at atmospheric pressure;
- Below the water able, all the soil pores are filled with water: This is known as
the saturated zone;
- Most of the flow groundwater towards the drains takes place in the saturated
zone;
- A bove the water table, there is a zone where the soil pores are partly filled with
water and partly filled with air: This is the unsaturated zone or the zone of
aeration.
- The unsaturated zone is very important for plant growth: This is the zone where
root take up water i.e capillary water.
- The water table fluctuates with time: afte irrigation or rainfall, there is a sudden
rise of the water table, followed by a gradual fall due to the flow of water
towards the drainage system.
NOTE: The relationship of subsurface drainage to root development is illustrated in the

following figure: A high water table in the rainy season oinhibits root development,
leaving a plant with an inadequate root system during the dry season, allows maximum
root development for such drainage conditions.

1.3 SALINITY AND WATER LOGGING
1.3.1 Definition of water logging
An agricultural land is said to be waterlogged when its productivity or fertility is affected by high
water-table
NOTE: The depth of water-table which tends to make the soil water-logged depends upon the
height of capillary fringe.
1.3.2 Causes of water logging
1) Inadequate surface dranage

2) Seepage fron canal system
3) Over irrigation
4) Obstruction of the natural drainage
5) Inadequate capacity of the drainage channel
6) Construction of the water reservoir
7) Natural obstruction to the flow of ground water.

1.3.3 Effects of water logging
1) Inhabiting activity of soil bacteria

2) The fall in soil temperature
3) Defective air circulation
4) Rise of salt
5) Delaying cultivation criteria
6) Growing of wild flora
7) Adverse effects of community health.
NOTE: Effects of water logging (Explanations)
1. Inhabiting activity of soil bacteria
The activity of soil soil bacteria depends on the liberation of plant food from the soil.
But in case of water logging, it is defficult for soil bacteria to liberate plant food, due to excess of
soil tension.
2. The fall in soil temperature
Because of fall in soil temperature, the action of soil bacteria becomes slow and then the plant
food available is less.
3. Defective air circulation
The CO2 released by plant roots can not be dissolved and removed.
i.e the season fresh air is not available for soil bacteria to do its action
4. Rise of salt
Because of upward flow of water, the dissolved salts in H2O reach the root zone of plants and get
deposited due to evaporation of water.
The deposition of salts leads to changes in the PH value of the soil, which may adversely affect
yield.
PH Yield
7-8 Normal
8–9 Decreased
≥ 11 Infertile
1.3.4 Remedial measures for a waterlogged land
1) Efficient surface drainage networks

2) By means of subsurface drainage networks

3) By reducing the seepage from canal system
4) Control the frequency of irrigation
5) Removing obstruction in the natural drainage
6) Preventing seepage loss from reservoir
7) Lowering ground water table trhough pumping
8) Changing the crop pattern
9) Adopting sprinkler method of irrigation
1.3.5 Salinity process
The salinity process = the gradual accumulation of salts on the ground surface or in the root zone
of crops which leads to saline (acidic) and alkaline (basic) conditions.
1.3.6 Effects of soil salinity
The salinity of the soil results in:

1) Loss of permeability of the soil
2) Toxixity of the soil
3) Anaerobic conditions
4) Difficult for plants to derive nutrients due to high soil moisture tension
5) Unhealthy growth of the plant
6) Loss of the yield
1.3.7 Causes of salinity
1) Rise of water table

2) Quality of irrigation water
3) Unfavorable climatic conditions
4) The type of soil:
- The leaching is slow for fine-grained soil
- The height of capillarity fringe is more for fine-grained soils and less for coarse-
grained ones.
5) Under irrigation
6) Sea water intrusion
1.3.8 Leaching process
Leaching is the process of removing accumulated salt by means of water trhough irrigation
1.3.9 Reclamation of salt affected land
1) By ensuring ant-water logging measures

e.g: - Surface drainage
- Subsurface drainage

- Pumping
- Control of seepage loss
- Recycling
2) By using proper quality of irrigation water
3) By leaching of the soil salt
4) By choosing salt tolerant crops and by adopting crop rotation
5) By using chemicals
(Certains chemicals like sulphur and sulphilic acid (H2SO4), gypsum, iron sulphate and limestone
neutralise harmfull salt present in soil)
1.4 BENEFIT OF DRAINAGE
1.4.1 Drainage requirement
The drainage requirement is the amount of water that must be removed from an area within a
certain period to avoid an uncceptable rise in the level of the ground water or surface water.
1.4.2 Main benefit of drainage
One of the benefit of installing a drainage system to remove the excess water is that the soil is
better aerated.
This leads to a higher productivity of crop land or grassland because:
a) The crops can root more deeply
b) The choice of crops to be grown is greater
c) There will be fewer weeds
d) Fertilizers will be used more efficiently
e) There will be less denitrification
1.4.3 Other benefits of a well-drained soil
1) The land is more easily accessible

2) The land has a greater bearing capacity
3) The soil has a better workability and tilth
4) The period in which tillage operation can take place is longer
5) The activity of micro-fauna (e.g earth worms) is increased, which improves permeability
6) The soil structure is better, which improves also permability
7) The soil temperatures are higher, so crops (particularly horticultural crops) can be grown
earlier.
1.4.4 Benefits of controlling water table
1) The root zone cannot become salinized by the capillary rise of saline ground water
2) Leaching is made possible
1.4.5 Benefits of leaching

1) It prevents inceases of soil saliniy in the root zone making them irrigated land use
sustainable in the long term
2) By removing salts, it allows salts-sensitive crops (i.e a wider range of crops) to be grown
3) It makes possible the reclamation of salt-affected soils, bringing then a new land into
cultivation.
1.5 PRINCIPALES METHODES DE DRAINAGE
1.5.1 Drainage par fossés (2.4)

1.5.2 Drainage par tuyaux enterrés (Ch. III)
1.5.3 Drainage par tranchées drainantes (5.4 & 5.5)
a) Drainage par captage de résurgence « les mouillère »
b) Drainage methods to control GW table
1.5.4 Non-conventional drainage methods(5.6)
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINS
1.6.1 Natural drains vs Artificial drains
1) Natural drains
- These are the lowest velley line between 2 ridges
- The natural drainage should be improved by removing debris from the waterways
(waterway under the road bridges, culverts waterways, etc…)
2) Artificial drains
These are the constructed drains, generally alined along the drainage line.
1.6.2 Open drains vs closed drain
1) Open drains or surface drains
- Surface drains are normally used for the removal of ecxess surface irrigation
water or for the disposal of storm water
- They remove water before it has entered the soil
NOTE: Deep surface drains with bed level below water table also can be used to drain
surface water and seepage water.
2) Closed drains or subsurface drains
- Closed drains or field buried drains are known as tile drains. They remove water
which has entered the soil.
- They are usually laid 1 to 1.5m below the ground surface at a suitable spacing and
grade to lower down the GW table.

1.6.3 Components of a drainage system
1) A field drainage system, which prevents ponding water on the field or controls the water
table
2) A main drainage system, which conveys the water away from the farm
3) An outlet, which is the point where the drainage water is led out of the area.
1.6.4 Field drainage system
= a network that gathers the excess water from the land by means of field drains and
possibly supplemented by measures to promote the flow of water into these drains.
1.6.5 Flow diagram of drains classification
The drains may be open drains or closed drains with further classification as under:
1) Seepage drains
- Are used to drains the subsoil water
- They are made deep enough to allow water table to drop in the drain
2) Surface-cum-seepage drains
They serve the dual purpose of seepage and storm water drain: during rainy season, they carry
storm water and seepage water.(They have bed level below the water table)
3) Mole drain
- Mole drain is a method of draining soils by means of mole drains
- Mole drains are cylindrical drains formed in the subsoil by pulling a mole plough
of 5 to 10cm diameter by a tructor.
4) Link drains and field drains
Field drains are small drains draining individually or a group of fields into the link drains.

1.7 TILE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
- The drainage system comprises: a main drain, its branches and subsidiary drains.
- Tile system is so divised to drain all the wet areas that could eventually be drained
into one main drain.
- Various tile drainage systems are as follows:

1.7.1 Natural system
- Consists of a system of drains, similar to trunk system, but covering much large
area.
- The main drains are located along the depressions or low spots depending of
topography.
1.7.2 Parallel system
- Consists of a system of drains with long parallel laterals emptying into a single
main drain.
- It is used in poorly drained soils having unifor texture and little slope.
1.7.3 Herringbone system
- Consists of a main and a sumain along the depression with parallel line of a field
drain sloping towards the main drains and joining it at staggered intervals.
- It is used for lands lying on both sides of a narrow depression and laterals must
enter from both sides.
- It is less economical on account of double drainage occuring where the laterals
and main join.
1.7.4 Grid iron system
- In this system, the field drains are constructed in parallel lines along the direction
of slope and join the main drain at its lower end via submains.
- It is used for flat land with a uniform slope.
1.7.5 Double drainage system
- Is a system of drains similar to that of herringbone system, except that they are 2
main drains on each side of the depression in this system.
- It is used wghen the bottom of the depression is wide.
1.7.6 Grouping system
- It is similar to the natural system, except that a few laterals are provided in wet
areas or ponds along the system.
- It envisage collection of water from a number of small systems and
discharginginto the ditch through one outlet.
- It is used where the topography and wetness on the field vary and pattern of
drainage must changed to fit different directions.

1.7.7 Randomn system
- In this system, drains are laid more or less at random to drain the wet areas.
- The main is located at natural drainage line and individual wet spots are
connected through submains and laterals.
- Where wet spots are large, the arrangement of the submain and laterals for each
wet place may utilise one or more of the parallel systems to provide the required
drainage.
- It is used where scattered wet areas are isolated from each other.
1.7.8 Intercepting system
- In this system, tiles are placed along he hillside to intercept the seepage water that
flow the upper surface of an impervious subsoil to prevent it from leaching the
land fields.
- It is used for draining seepage along hillsides.
1.7.9 Composite system
- It is a combination of systems of tile drain arrangement such as herringbone and

grid system.
1.7.10 Sink hole drainage system
- It is a system of dranage used to intercept seepage water, but has in addition wells
dug at regular intervals to let the water come up from a lower stratum and enter
the drain.
1.7.11 Zigzag system
- In this system, field drains and mains are constructed in zigzag to reduce high
velocities.

II SURFACE DRAINAGE
2.1 GROSS COMMAND AREA (G.C.A)
Gross command area = the whole area enclosed between an imaginary boundary line which
can be included in an irrigation project for supplying water to agricultural land by the network
of canals.
It includes both culturable and unculturable areas.
2.2 SOURCES OF EXCESS WATER ON THE LAND FIELD
(1) Rainfall
(2) Snow melting
(3) Excess irrigation
(4) Rising of GWT
(5) Seepage from canals and reservoirs
(6) Leaching of soil (while removing salts from soil by supplying extra-
water)
(7) Artesian wells

2.3 DRAINAGE TO CONTROL SURFACE WATER
a. Control of water approaching from outside the project boundary (external

water):
- By providing interception water
b. Control of water within the project area (internal water)

2.4 DRAINAGE PAR FOSES
2.4.1 Shallow and deep drains
1) Surface drainage is the removal of excess water by using and constructing

open ditches and related structures:
- The open drains are constructed in order to remove the excess irrigation water
applied to the fields as well as the storm-water;
- In irrigated lands, drainage ditches are also necessary to remove water, required
for leaching undesirable salts from the soil and to dispose of the excess of rainfall
- There are shollow surface drains and deep surface drains.
2) Shallow surface drains (0.40m depth)

Are construced to remove excess irrigationwater applied to the
farms and the storm water:
- They cannot be deep enough as they interfera with the agricultural operations.
- Usually, the excess irrigation water is neglected and these drains are desinged
only for the runoff resulting from the average storms.
- The surface water from: the pot holes, depressions, road ditches, farm flows,
etc… may be removed by connection them to shallow surface drains which
system is known as random field-drain system for surface drainage:

- By connecting an intake structure called an open inlet or surface inlet, the pit
water can be carried into the sub-surface or tile-drain:
(3) Deep surface drains or outlet drains
Carry the storm water discharge fom the shallow surface drains and the seepage water coming
from the tile drains:
- Generally a cunnette is provided in the centre of the drain bed to carry small
discharges of the seepage water.
- A steeper slope is given to the cunnette and it is lined so as to withstand higher
flow velocities and thus to inhbit weed growth.
- The full section would operate only during the storms.
2.4.2 Types de drains
Le drainage des terres par fossés ouverts consiste à ouvrir sur les parcelles à assainir des fossés
superficiels qui véhiculent l’eau vers des collecteurs qui se déversent dans l’émissaire.
Cette technique de drainage superficiel est appelée « colature » dans le cas où les fossés sont peu
profonds (0.40m).
(1) Les cannaux de ceinture
Sont destinés à protéger le périmètre contre les eaux extérieures qui ruissellent sur les versants.
(2) Les drains et les petits drains
Recueillent les eaux excédentaires des terres à assainir et les conduisent aux collecteurs.

(3) Le collecteurs
- Les collecteurs secondaires
Recueillent le eaux des fossés et les véhiculent vers le collecteur principal
- Le collecteur principal
Reçoit les eaaux des collecteurs secondaires et les véhicule jusqu’au point du périmètre à assainir
où il débouche dans l’émissaire ou dans un bassin régulateur.
(4) Le canal émissaire
Dans la plupart des cas, il s’agit d’un cours d’eau naturel qui est alors redimensionné pour
évacuer le débit de drainage.

2.4.3 Elimination de l’excès de l’eau par modèle de surface


2.4.4 Base du calcul d’un reseau d’assainissement
• Le calcul des débits :

- Débits unitaires des parcelles
- Débits des fossés et des collecteurs
Conditionne le dimensionnement des cannaux et ouvrage d’un réseau de drainage.
• Ce dit dimensionnement est conduit à partir des données suivantes :

- Durée admissible de submersion des cultures
- Niveau optimal de la nappe
- Pluviométrie de la région
(1) Durée admissible de submersion des cultures
La durée de submersion acceptable est fixée en fonction des limites de submersion admises pour
chaque plantes :
- Culture du riz ; 7 – 10 jours
- Maїs et coton : 7 jours
- Canne à sucre : 7 jours
- Légumes : 1 jour
(2) Niveau optimal de la nappe
- L aération du sol qui doit recevoir les racines des plantes, est indispensable pour
obtainir un bon rendement.
- Une inondation permanente cause une humidité excessive qui réduit l’aération du
sol et les processus d’oxydation.
- D’autre part, un drainage trop poussé devient nefaste car il diminue la quantité
d’eau fournie aux plantes par l’ascension capillaire.
- D’où il y a pour chaque plante un niveau optimal de la nappe qui permet son
meilleur développement.
Ce niveau varie en fonction de la profondeur des racines.
(3) Pluie critique
Le réseau de drainage doit être calculé de façon à pouvoir évacuer la pluie critique dont la
durée est égale à la durée de submersion et dont la périodicité moyenne de retour est fixée
en fonction des caractéristiques culturales de la plante.

2.4.5 Tracé d’un réseau de drainage

2.4.6 Entretient du réseau de drainage
L’ensemble des fossés du réseau doit être curé régulièrement : Cette opération consiste à
desherber et à remettre aux dimensions initiales les fossées et les collecteurs.
2.5 DRAINAGE CHANNEL DESIGN
2.5.1 Rational formula
KiA
Q= ; Q (cumecs) = design peak discharge of runoff
36
K = runoff coefficient
A = total area to be drained ; A (ha)
i = intensity of rainfall ; i (cm/hr)
NOTE: The value of K = 0.30 – 0.60 for a cultivated area.
Example:
Determine the design discharge of drainage channel with the following data:
(1) Intensity of raifall: i = 0.625cm/hr
(2) Total water logged area: A = 600ha
(3) Runoff coefficient: K = 0.60
Solution:
Estimation of runoff by rational method.
KiA
Q= ; i = 0.625cm/hr
36
A = 600ha
K = 0.06
KiA 0.60 × 0.625 × 600

⇒Q= = = 6.25 cumecs
36 36

2.5.2 Open channel flow
a. Open channel = passage in which liquid flows eith its upper surface exposed to atmosphere
NOTE: Flow in a conduit with afree surface is also a channel flow.
b. Classification of open channels
- Open channels are known as natural channels (natural streams and rivers) and
artificial channels (canal, flume, chute, culvert, tunnel, ditch, partially filled pipes
which are drains or aqueducts of any chape).
- Artificial channels are excavated in a hard rock or in a rodible materials:
(1) Rigid-boundary channels (i.e lined or unlined non-erodible channel)

(2) Loose-boundary channels ( = erodible-boundary channels
= unlined alluvial channel)
- Irrigation canals, formed in alluvial and other granular material are erodible
unless lined with non-erodible materials.
c. Channel sections
- Normally, most of irrigation canals are trapezoidal in section. Rectangular cross-

section are also in use in special situations such as for canals excavated in rock or
for steep lined chutes and in cross drainage works.
- Geometry of the cross-section

Definition of various geometric elements:
(1) Depth of flow: y = vertical distance from the channel bottom to the free
surface.
(2) Depth of the flow section: d = depth of the flow narmal to the direction
of flow (d = y cos θ )
(3) Top width: T = width of the free surface
(4) Flow area: A = cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow
(5) Wetted perimeter: P = the length of the channel surface in contact with
water across a channel section
A
(6) Hydraulic radius: R =
P
A
(7) Hydraulic depth: D =
T
A3
(8) Section factor: Z = =A D
T
2
(9) Section factor for uniform flow: Z n = AR 3
2.5.3 Flow resistance formulae
a. Prismatic channel = channel which side slopes, channel slope and cross-sectional area are
constant.
NOTE : All irrigation canals are prismatic
b. Mean velocity of flow ( v )
- The velocity of flow is not constant at all depths of water in the canal or river.
- It is found by observation that the velocity at a depth of 0.6d represent the mean
velocity, where d = depth of water in the canal or river.
c. Flow resistance formulae
After many investigations in various canals, the following formulae are used to determine the
mean velocity of flow in canals:
(1) Chezy’s formula : v = C RS ; C = Chezy’s constant

1 2 1
(2) Manning’s formula: v = R 3 S 2 ; n = Manning’s coefficient
n
of rugosity

87
(3) Bazin’s formula: C = ; K = Bazin’s constant
K
1+
R
R = Channel hydraulic radius
C = Chezy’s constant
NOTE: K = 1.30 to 1.75 (for unlined)
K = 0.45 to 0.85 (for lined)
0.00155 1
23 + +
(4) Kutter’s formula: C = S n ;
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ n
1 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟×
⎝ S ⎠ R
n = Manning’s constant
S = Kutter’s coefficient
2.5.4 Design of rigid- boundary channels
• Les 19 pages suivantes constituent un extrait des notes de cours:

CET 3222 FLUID MECHANICS
KIST- MAY 2008
Dispensé au KIST par Ir MAJORO Félicien
• A travers ces pages sont expliquées et illustrées à l’aide des examples :

- La formule de Chezy et la formule de Manning pour le calcul des écoulements
uniformes :
(1) Canal rectangulaire
(2) Canal trapézoidal
(3) Canal triangulaire
(4) Canal circulaire
- Le concept de section efficace d’un canal quelconque.
NB : La plupart des cannaux d’irrigation et de drainage sont de section trapézoidale.

FLOW TRHOUGH OPEN CHANNELS

1 DEFINITION OF A FLOW CHANNEL
(i) Open channel = Passing in which liquid flows with its upper surface exposed to
atmosphere.
(Flow in a conduit with a free surface is also known as open channel flow)
e.g: Flows in irrigation channels
Streams and rivers
Navigation channels
Drainage channels
Sewers etc….
(ii) Types of channels
- Natural channel, eg: rivers, streams, etc…

- Artificial channel (built artificially for carrying water for various purposes)
- Open channel, e.g: irrigation channel, rivers, flumes streams and water falls.
- Covered channel, e.g: sewerage line, tunnels & underground drains
- Prismatic channel = channel with constant bed slope and the same cross-section along
its length.
2 CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOWS
Open channel can be classified:
(1) According to the change in flow depth with respect to time and space.

Hence the following tree diagram:
(2) Classification based on forces
a) Effect of viscous forces
The state of flow in an open channel is governed by the effects of viscosity and gravity relative
to the inertia forces of flow:
F ρL2 v 2 ρv L
Re = i = = ; µ = dynamic viscosity of the flowing fluid.
Fv µv L µ

ρv D vD
(a) For a pipe flow: Re = ; D = pipe diameter or Re =
µ υ
vR A
(b) For an open channel flow: Re = ; R= ; R = hydraulic radius
υ P
A = wetted area
vR
NOTE: Laminar flow ceases to exist in pipe when Re = is greater than 2000
υ
v (4 R )
i.e. For open channel: Laminar flow exists when ≤ 2000
υ
vR
i.e. When ≤ 500 ;υ = Kinematic viscosity of the flowing liquid.
υ
vR
That is why Reynolds’s number is defined as: Re =
υ
And from experiments:
vR
Laminar: ≤ 500
υ
vR
Transition: 500 ≤ ≤ 2000
υ
vR
Turbulent: ≥ 2000
υ
(b) Effect of gravity: Regimes of flow
(i) Froude number (Fr)
Fi ρL2 v 2 v2 v
Definition: Fr = = = =
Fg ρL g
3
Lg gL
(Ratio of inertia forces to gravitational forces)
Where: L = Characteristic length
⎛ A⎞
In open channel: L = D ⎜ = ⎟ ; D = Hydraulic mean depth
⎝ T⎠
v
i.e: Fr = (For any open channel)
gD
v
⇒ Fr = (For a rectangular channel)
gy
(ii) Subcritical, critical and supercritical flows
Fr = 1 ⇒ critical flow (i.e: when v = gD )

Fr < 1 ⇒ subcritical flow (i.e: when v < gD ) ⇒ tranquil flow

Fr > 1 ⇒ supercritical flow (i.e: when v > gD ) ⇒ rapid, shooting, torrential flow
(3) R.V.F vs G.V.F
Non uniform flows in open channel are also called varied flows:
i.e: Non-uniform flows are classified into 2 types:
- R.V.F (Rapid Varied Flows)
- G.V.F (Gradually Varied Flows)
a) G.V.F
If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of the channel, the
flow is said to be gradually varied flow.
b) R.V.F
Flow in which the depth of flow changes abruptly over a small length of the channel.
e.g: Flow over an over flow spillway.
3 GEOMETRIC ELEMENT FOR OPEN CHANNELS
(1) Prismatic and non-prismatic channels
- Prismatic channel
Channel of constant slope and cross-section for sufficient length.
NOTE: Mostly, the artificial channels are prismatic channels:

Generally, a triangular cross-section is adopted for small discharge and trapezoidal section for
carrying large discharge.

- Non-prismatic channel
Channel of irregular shape.
NOTE: The slopes at various cross-sections of all natural stream do not remain the same
throughout the reach.
(2) Depth of flow (y)
The vertical distance from the free surface to the channel bottom.
(3) Depth of flow section (d)
The depth of flow normal to the direction of flow: d = y cos θ
(4) Wetted area (A)
Cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of flow.
(5) Top width (T)
Width of the channel section at the free surface.
(6) Wetted perimeter (P)
Length of the wetted line of the cross-sectional area.
(7) Hydraulic depth (D)
A
Ratio of the water area to the top width i.e: D =
T
(8) Hydraulic ratio (R)
A
Ratio of water area A to the wetted perimeter P i.e: R =
P
(9) Normal depth (y0 or yn)
A certain depth at which a given discharge will flow as uniform in a channel of known slope S0
or Sn
NOTE: Usually the uniform flow parameters are designated with a subscript 0 or n.

Geometrical elements of common open channel cross-sections.
Establish the following formulas:
4 OPEN CHANNEL FORMULAS FOR UNIFORM FLOW.
4.1 Manning’s formula
The most widely used resistance equation for uniform flow is the Manning’s formula:
1 2 3 12
v= Rh S b
n
Where: n = roughness coefficient;

= Manning’s n coefficient
The coefficient n is essentially a function of the boundary surface and has the dimensions of
−1
L 3T .
0.013 ≤ n : Smooth concrete surface

n ≤ 0.025 : Irregular channels in excavated rocks
Natural streams and rivers: 0.20 ≤ n ≤ 0.130

Some typical values of n:
Surface of the channel Kutter’s / Manning’s constant (n)

Smooth cement 0.010
Very smooth concrete 0.011
Smooth concrete 0.012
Glazed brick work 0.013
Vitrified clay 0.014
Brick surface lined with cement mortar 0.015
Earth channels in best conditions 0.017
Earth canals in good conditions 0.020
Rivers and earth canals in fair condition 0.025
Canal and river of rough surface with 0.030
weeds
4.2 Chezy’s formula
Another popular resistance equation, known as Chezy formula is:
A
v = C Rh S 0 ; Rh = Area of flow, wetted perimeter Rh =
P
S0 = Bottom slope of the channel.
i.e: Q = CA Rh S 0
4.3 Relationships between n, f and C
v2
(1) v = C RS Chezy’s ⇒ S = equation
RC 2
1 2 3 12 n2v 2
(2) v = R S Maning’s equation ⇒ S = 4
n R3
hf fv 2
(3) S = = Darcy-Weisbach equation
L 2 gD
(i) (1) & (2) : Relation between C and n
1 2 3 12
CR 2 S/ = R S/
1 1
2
n
1
1 1 R6
C = ⋅R 6 ⇒ n=
n C

(ii) (1) & (3) : Relation between C and f
v/ 2 fv/ 2
=
RC 2 2 gD
8g 8g
f = 2
⇔C=
C f
(iii) (2) & (3): Relation between n and f
n 2 v/ 2 fv/ 2
4
=
R3 2 gD
1
8 gn 2 fR 3
f = 1 ⇔n=
R3 8g
Conveyance of the channel section (K)
Q
Q = CA Rh S 0 ⇒ Q = K S 0 ; K = CA Rh = .
S0
Definition: The conveyance of the channel K = CA Rh is a measure of the carrying capacity of
the channel.
Examples: Uniform flow in open channel (Manning & Chezy’s formulas)
1. Rectangular channels
A rectangular channel has a width of 4.5m and a slope of 1:800.

The depth of water is 1.2m. Assume Chezy’s resistance coefficient C to be 49.
Determine:
(i) The mean velocity of flow;
(ii) The discharge flow rate through the channel.
Solution:
(i)
A by 4 .5 × 1 .2
v = C RS ;R = = = = 0.78m
P b + 2 y 4 .5 + 2 × 1 .2
1
v = 49 × 0.783 × = 1.53m / s
800
(ii) Q = Ax v = (4.5 x 1.2) x 1.53 = 8.262m3/s

1. Triangular open channels
A triangular channel has a side slope of 1 vertical to 1.5 horizontal and is laid on a longitudinal
slope of 1 in 1650.
Assuming Manning’s n = 0.013, determine the normal depth required to pass a discharge of
0.3m3 /sec.
Solution:
1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S 0 2
n
S 0 = 1 : 1650
Q = 0.3m 3 / s
n = 0.013
2 2
A = my 0 = 1.5 y 0
P = 2 y0 1 + m 2
2
A 1.5 y 0
⇒R= = = 0.416 y 0
P 3.6 y 0
( )
1
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
× 1.5 y 0 × (0.416 y 0 ) 3 × ⎜
2 2
⇔ 0.3 = ⎟
0.013 ⎝ 1650 ⎠
8
⇔ 0.3 = 1.583 y 0 3
⇒ y 0 = 0.54m
2. Trapezoidal open channels

A trapezoidal channel has a bed width of 2m and side slopes of 1 vertical to 1.5 horizontal.
If the Manning’s coefficient of the channel boundary is 0.018 and if the depth of the flow is
1.4m, determine:
(i) The mean velocity of the flow;
(ii) The discharge flow rate through the channel.
Solution:
1 2 3 12
v= R S0
n
S 0 = 1 : 4000
(i) n = 0.018
R=
(b + my ) y = (2 + 1.5 × 1.4) × 1.4 = 0.814m
b + 2 y 1 + m 2 2 + 2 × 1.4 1 + (1.5)2
1
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
× (0.814 ) × ⎜
2
⇒v = 3
⎟ = 0.766m / s
3
0.018 ⎝ 4000 ⎠
(ii) Q = A x v = 5.74 x 0.766 = 4.4m3/s
4. Circular open channels
A circular drainage pipe 0.8m in diameter conveying a discharge at a depth of 0.3m has a slope
of 1 in 90.
Determine the discharge through the channel.
Assume Manning’s n = 0.015.

Solution:
1 1
Q=
2
AR 3 S 0 2
n
S 0 = 1 : 900
n = 0.015
D2 2y 0.3
A= (2θ − sin 2θ ) ; cos θ = 1 − = 1− 2× = 0.25 ⇒ θ = 75.52 0
8 D 0.8
⇒ A=
(0.8)
2
[2 × 1.318 − sin (2 × 75.52)] = 0.1722m 2
8
P = Dθ = 0.8 × 1.318 = 1.054m
A 0.1722
⇒R= = = 0.1634m
P 1.054
1
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
× (0.1722) × (0.1634) 3
2
Thus Q = ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.114m / s
3
0.015 ⎝ 900 ⎠
5. A river has a cross section, snown below during the high flood. It has an average bed slope of
0.001. The channel has water to a depth of 2m in the shallow section and 5m in the deep section.
The value of n for shallow section is given as 0.038 where as for deep section as 0.028.
Compute the discharge through this section.

Solution:
Q = QI + QII ; I = Section ACDEG & II = Section GEBF
1 2 1
10 ) Q1 = A1 R1 3 S 0 2
n1
S 0 = 0.001 = 10 −3
n1 = 0.028
y1
A1 = (2my1 + 2b1 ) × = (b1 + my1 ) y1 = (100 + 1 × 5) × 5 = 525m 2
2
P1 = b1 + y1 + (my1 ) +
2 2
( y1 − 2)2 + [m( y1 − 2)]2
[
= b1 + y1 2 + ( y1 − 2 ) 2 = b1 + (2 y1 − 2) 2 = 100 + (2 × 5 − 2) × 2 = 111.314m ]
A1 525
⇒ R1 = = = 4.716m
P1 111.314
× 525 × (4.716) 3 × (10 −3 )2 = 1667.441m 3 / s

1 2
1
and hence Q =
0.028
1 2 1
2 0 ) Q2 = A2 R2 3 S 0 2
n2
S 0 = 0.001 = 10 −3
n2 = 0.038
A2 = b2 × y 2 = 25 × 2 = 50m 2
2 2
(
P2 = b2 + z 2 = b2 y 2 + my 2 = b2 + y 2 2 = 25 + 2 2 = 27.828m )

A2 50
⇒ R2 = = = 1.797m
P2 27.828
× 50 × (1.797 ) 3 × (10 −3 )2 = 61.501m 3 / s

1 2
1
and hence Q =
0.038
10 & 20 ⇒ Total discharge :
Q = Q1 + Q2 = (1667.441 + 61.501) = 1728.942 m3/s.
5 MOST ECONOMICAL CHANNEL SECTIONS
5.1 Définition: Most economical channel section

= Best hydraulic section
= Best section “Simply”
= Most efficient section
Most economical section of a channel = one which gives the maximum discharge for a given
area, bed slope and surface roughness.
NOTE: The most economical section of a channel would be that one with the smallest
wetted perimeter.
i.e. For an optimum channel, the shape requires the least amount of excavation and less
amount of lining and surface finishing.
In other words, a most economical channel section would tend to be the cheapest.
5.2 Most economical rectangular section
For the section to be the most economical efficient, the wetted perimeter P must be a minimum
one.
P = b + 2y ; y & b variables.
A
A=bxy ⇒b=
y
A
⇒ P= + 2y
y
i.e: Q = Qoptimum ⇔ P = Pmin (due to the definition of a most efficient channel
section)
dP d ⎛A ⎞
for Pmin = =0⇔ ⎜ 2 y ⎟ = 0 ; A = constant
dy dy ⎜⎝ y ⎟⎠

A
⇔ − +2=0
y2
⇔ A = by = 2 y 2
b
⇔ b = 2 y or y=
2
b
Result: “A rectangular channel section is the most economical when: y = ”.
2
Example:
A rectangular channel is to be dug in the rocky portion of a soil.

Determine its most economical cross-section if it is to convey 12m3 /sec of water with average
velocity of 3m/sec.
Assume Chezy coefficient to be C = 50.
Solution:
Q = fn (n, y0, S0, b)

i.e. a function of 5 variables to be solved
(1) Design a rectangular channel means “Determination of 5 variables:n (or C), y0, S0, b and Q”
(or v ).
b
Condition for a most economical rectangular channel: y = which means that:
2
⎡b = 2 y
⎢
⎢A = b× y = 2y
2
⎢P = b + 2 y = 4 y
⎢
⎢R = y
⎢ 2
⎢
⎢C = 50
⎢Q = 12 m 3 / s
⎢
⎣⎢v = 3m / s
i.e. Unknown: 3 variables to determine for the complete design.

Q 12
(i) y determination: Q = A × v = 2 y 2 × v ⇒ y = = = 1.414m
2v 2×3
(ii) b determination: Thus the geometrical elements of the channel becomes:
⎡b = 2 y = 2 × 1.414 = 2.828m
⎢
⎢ A = b × y = 2 y = 2 × (1.414 ) = 4m
2 2 2
⎢ P = b + 2 y = 4 y = 4 × 1.414 = 5.567
⎢
⎢ R = y = 1.414 = 0.707
⎢⎣ 2 2
v2 32 1
v = C RS ⇔ S = = = 5.09 × 10 −3 =
(iii) S0 determination : RC 2
0.707 × 50 2
196
⇒ S = 1 : 196
5.3 Most economical trapezoidal channel sections
(1) Conditions for most economical trapezoidal channel section:
(1) Half top width = side length
⎛ T ⎞ b + 2my
i.e: ⎜ = ⎟ = y 1 + m 2 (This is the condition for best side slopes)
⎝2 ⎠ 2
(2) tan θ = 3 or θ = 60 0 (This is the condition for best slopes).

NOTE: The geometric elements for a most economical trapezoidal channel section are:
A = (b + my ) y
P = 2(b + my )
y
R=
2
T b + 2my
= = y 1+ m2
2 2
1
tan θ =
m
Example:
Design a most economical trapezoidal channel with velocity of flow of 1m/sec, discharge of 3m3
/sec and a side slope of 1vertical : 2 horizontal.
Assume Chezy’s coefficient C = 55.
Solution:
NOTE : Designing a trapezoidal channel means to determine :

(1) Its bottom width (b)
(2) Its bed slope (S0)
(3) Its water depth (y)
(1) To determine y:
(a) For a most economical channel: half top width = the sloping side
b + 2my
= y 1 + m2 ;m = 2
2
b + (2 × 2 y )
i.e. = y 1 + 22
2
b + 4y = 2y 5
b = 0.47 y

(b)
Q
= A=
(2b + 2my ) × y
v 2
3
i.e. = A = y (b + 2 y ) or 3 = y (b + 2 y )
1
⎧b = 0.47 y
(a) and (b) means: ⎨ ⇒ 3 = y(0.47 y + 2 y ) ⇒ y ≈ 1.1m
⎩3 = y (b + 2 y )
(2) To determine b:
b = 0.47y = 0.47 x 1.1 = 0.52m
(3) To determine S0:
y 1 .1
v = C RS ;R = = (For a most economical trapezoidal channel)
2 2
i.e. R = 0.55m ; C = 55 ; v = 1m / s
⎛ 1 ⎞
Thus : 1 = 55 × 0.55 × S 0 ⇒ S 0 = 6 × 10 − 4 ; ⎜ = ⎟
⎝ 1667 ⎠
5.3.1 Most economical triangular channel sections
Condition for a most economical triangular channel section : θ = 45 0 i.e m = 1

2
A my my y
NOTE: For m = 1 , R = = = =
P 2y 1+ m 2
2 1+ m 2 2

5.3.2 Most economical circular channel sections
2 conditions for most economical circular channel section:

(1) Condition for maximum velocity: θ = 128 .75 0
θ = 128 .75 0
R = 0.304d (= 0.608r)
y = 0.81d
(2) Condition for maximum discharge: θ = 154 0

θ = 154 0
R = 0.29d (= 0.573r)
y = 0.95d (= 1.9r)
Example:
A concrete lined circular channel of 3.6m diameter has a bed slope of 1:600.
Deteremine the velocity and flow rate for the conditions of;
(i) maximum velocity
(ii) maximum discharge
Assume Chezy’s coefficient : C = 50
Solution:
(i) For maximum velocity

v = C RS ; R ≈ 0.304d = 0.304 × 3.6 = 1.0944m
1
S=
600
(1)
C = 50
1
⇒ v = 50 1.0944 × = 2.135m / s
600
r2
Q = A× v ;A= (2θ − sin 2θ ) ;2θ = 257.50
2
(2) =
(1.8)
2
( )
4.494 − sin 257.5 0 = 8.86m 2
2
⇒ Q = 2.135 × 8.86 = 18.9m 3 / s

(ii) For maximum velocity
v = C RS ; R ≈ 0.29d = 0.29 × 3.6 = 1.044m

1
S=
600
(1)
C = 50
1
⇒ v = 50 1.044 × = 2.09m / s
600
r2
Q = A× v ;A= (2θ − sin 2θ ) ;2θ = 308 0
2
(2) =
(1.8)2 5.3756 − sin 3080 = 9.985m 2
( )
2
⇒ Q = 2.09 × 9.985 = 20.87m 3 / s
6 CHANNEL DESIGN
1 1
The design of canals is based on uniform flow: Q =
2
AR 3 S 0 2 where A and R are functions of
n
the geometric elements of the chnanel.
Example:
n, S0
⇒ Q = f n (n, y 0 , S 0 ,b,m )
i.e a function of 6 variables to be solved.
i.e: If the cannal is of tapezoidal cross-section, channel desing means the determination of six
varibles out of which one is a dependent and the rest five are dependent.

2.5.5 Design of loose-boundary channels
- In designing erodible channels, consideration have to be given to the stability of the

channel due to substantial scouring and stilting of the channel.
- Stable channels = non-silting and non-scouring channels (as it has defined by )
- Since the channels are operated over a wide range of discharge conditions, it is not
possible to design a channel to be stable for more than one discharge. But since the
sediment deposited at low flows will be carried away during high flows, it should be
desinged for maximum discharge.
- Two methods are used for desinging erodible channels: The permissible velocity
method and the tractive force method. For these 2 methods, there are two appoaches
in the desing: the regime theory and the tractive force theory.
- The regime theory is suitable to channels carrying the sediment load. The earlyier
regime theory by Kennedy (1895), Lindley (1919), Lacey (1930), Inglis (1941) and
Blench (1952) was developed for channels formed in silt-sand range.
- More recent studies by Kellerhals (1967) and Charton et al. (1978) have been made
for gravel bed channels.
- The tractive force theory is convenient for:
(1) Silt and sand-bed channels carrying clean water without
sediment
(2) Gravel-bed channels carrying fine sediment
(3) And rigid-boundary channels carrying sediment of any size.
- Permissible velocity method
(1) The channel slope: is generally decided by he topography of
the land or the desired elevations of the head and the tail of the
canal. Usually the slopes are of order of 0.0001 (The slope can
be choosen that the channel will be stable under all conditions)
(2) The coefficient of roughness: is determined by the type of the
channel boundary
(3) Channel side slopes: the following table gives appropriate side
slopes for different materials.

- Regime theory
Lacey defines a regime channel as one which carries a constant discharge under uniform
flow and which has the bed and bank materials of the same characteristics as that of the
transported material and without changing the bottom slope, shape or size of the cross-
section over a period of time.
i.e when the silt charge and charge are constant i.e the term regime is used in connection
with alluvial channel to signify a state of equilibrium.
2.5.6 Kennedy’s silt theory
(1) Statement of Kennedy’s theory
After many investigations for designing stable channels, Kennedy arrived at a theory which
states that “The silt carried by flowing water in a channel is kept in suspension by the vertical
component of eddy current which is formed over the entire bed width of the channel and the
suspended silt rises up gently towards the surface”
(2) Assumptions made by Kennedy in support of his theory
(a) The eddy current is developed due to the roughness of the bed
(b) The quality of the suspended silt is proportional to the bed width
(c) It is applicable to those channels which are flowing through the bed consisting of
sandy silt or same grade of silt.
(3) Critical velocity concept
- Kennedy established the idea of critical velocity (v) which will make a channel free
from silting and free from scouring:
v o = C × m × D 0.64
Vo = critical velocity
v
m = CVR i.e m = ; v = mean velocity
v0
D = full supply depth (= depth of flow)
C = constant depending on type of bed and side material
NOTE 1: Value of C for various grades of material
Type of material Value of C

Light sand silt 0.53
Coarser light silt 0.59
Sandy loan 0.65
Coarse silt 0.70

NOTE 2: Value of m for different types of silt
Type of silt Value of m

Light sandy silt 1.00
Coarser light sandy silt 1.10
Sandy loamy silt 1.20
Coarse silt 1.30
Silt 1.70
NOTE 3: For non-silting & non-scouring (i.e stable channel) Kennedy found the coefficient
C = 0.546 and the exponent n = 0.64 on the basis of his observation on the channel
bed material of 0.32mm of media size
i.e v o = 0.546 × m × D 0.64
vo < v ⇒ Silting occurs
vo > v ⇒ Scouring occurs
(4) Expressions for Kennedy’s design of erodible channels
(a) Critical velocity: v o = 0.546 × m × D 0.64

1 0.00155
23 +
+
(b) Mean velocity: v = C × RS where: C = N S
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ N
1 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟+
⎝ S ⎠ R
(Kutter’s formula)
N = Kutter’s coefficient for unlined earthen channel

A
R = hydraulic radius =
P
NOTE: Values of N
Channel condition N
Very good 0.0225
Good 0.025
Indifferent 0.0275
Poor 0.03
B
(c) Ratio assumed between 3.5 to 12
y0
(d) The full supply depth is assumed by to satisfy the value of m.
Generally the trial depth is assumed between 1m to 2m.

If the condition is not satisfied within this limit, then it may be assumed accordingly.
(5) Design steps
N 1 S 0 v0
v = C RS
Case I : Given Q1 N1 m and S
Step I: Assume D between 1m to 2m

Calculate v o = 0.546 × m × D 0.64
Q
Step II: Find area of flow: A = ; (assuming vo ≈ v )
v0
Step III: Calculate B
Step IV: B, D are know known
A BD + 2 D 2
Find R = =
P B + 2 5D
1 0.00155
23 + +
Step V: use v = N S × RS
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ N
1 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟×
⎝ S ⎠ R
Compare vo of step I to v of step V
If they are the same vo ≈ v assumption of D of step I is ok.
Otherwise, repeat step I to step V till the 2 velocities are the same ( vo ≈ v ).

Example:
15
Case I: Given: Q = 50m3/s ; N = 0.0225 ; m = 1 ; S = = 0.015
1000
Step I: Let us assume D = 1.5m
Calculation of v o = 0.546 × m × D 0.64
= 0.55 × 1 × (1.5)
0.64
= 0.71m / s
Q 50
Step II: Area of flow: A = = = 70.4m 2
v0 0.71
Step III: Side slope = 1V:2H
Calculation of B: 70.4 = A = (B + 2D) D
= B x 1.5 + 2 x (1.5)2
⇒ B = 43.9m
Step IV: B and D are now known
A BD + 2 D 2 70.4
R= = = = 1.39m
P B + 2 5 D 43.9 + 2 5 × 1.5
1 0.00155
23 + +
Step V: R and S in: v = 0.0025 0.015 × 1.39 × 0.015 = 4.6m / s
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ 0.0225
1 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟×
⎝ 0.015 ⎠ 1.39
v0 = 0.71m / s ⎫
⎬ The difference is high. i.e the difference >40%
v = 4.6m / s ⎭
⇒ Repeat step I to V
ASSIGNMENT: Write a programme for above calculations and give the answer to this
problem i.e D, B for which vo ≈ v = 0.7

B B
Case II: Given Q1 N1 m and ratio i.e =x
D D
Design steps:
Step I : Find B = x × D
Find A = BD + 2D 2
= xD 2 + 2D 2
= D 2 (x + 2)
Step II: v o = 0.546 × m × D 0.64 ; vo ≈ v for a stable channel
Q = A× v ; vo ≈ v
[D 2
(x + 2)]× (0.55 × m × D 0.64 )
⇒ Find D: (and hence B)
Step III : B & D are now known
A
Find R =
P
Step IV : Calculate v o = 0.546 × m × D 0.64
1 0.00155
23 +
+
Step V: use v = N S × RS
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ N
1 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟×
⎝ S ⎠ R
To calculate S using v of step IV knowing N and R of step III.
(6) Limitations of Kennedy’s method
a) This theory is limited to average regime channel only. It uses Kutter’s equation
only.
b) The design of channel is based on the trial and error method. For a given bed
slope, there are many combination of width and depth of flow to suit a given
discharge.

B
c) The ratio has to be chosen only when a unique design is possible
D
d) The method does not take into account the sediments load.
Example:
Design a channel section by Kennedy’s theory given the following data:
a) Discharge: Q = 28m3/s
b) Kutter’s N = 0.0225
c) C.V.R: m = 1
1
d) Side slope = :1
2
B
e) ratio = 7.6
D
Solution:
1) B = 7.6D
2) v o = 0.55 × m × D 0.64 ; m = 1 ⇒ v o = 0.55 × D 0.64
3)
⎛ 1 ⎞
A = ⎜ B + D ⎟ D ; B = 7.6 D
⎝ 2 ⎠
= (7.6 D + 0.5D )D
= 8.1D 2
4)
Q = A × v ; v ≅ v0
(
= 8.1D 2 × 0.55D 0.64 )
28 = 4.455D 2.64 ⇒ D = 2.01
Hence B = 7.6 × 2.01 = 15.248m

5)
A = 8.1D 2 = 8.1(2.01) = 32.725m 2

2
P = B + 5 D = 15.248 + 2.236 × 2.01 = 19.742m

A 32.725
⇒R= = = 1.658m
P 19.742
6) v = 0.55 × 1 × D 0.64 = 0.860 m / s
7) v = C RS ;
(Kutter’s formula)
i.e:
1 0.00155
23 + +
0.86 = 0.0225 S × 1.658
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ 0.0225
1 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟×
⎝ S ⎠ 1.658
⎛ 1 0.00155 ⎞
⎜ 23 + + ⎟× S
⎝ 0.0225 S ⎠
0.86 =
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ 0.0225
0.777 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟×
⎝ S ⎠ 1.658
⎡ ⎛ 0.00155 ⎞ ⎤
0.86 = ⎢0.777 + ⎜ 23 + ⎟ × 0.0136⎥
⎣ ⎝ S ⎠ ⎦
⎛ 0.00155 ⎞
= ⎜ 23 + 44.444 + ⎟× S
⎝ S ⎠
1
By trial & error: S = = 0.00016
6250

2.5.7 Lacey’s theory
(1) Investigation of Lacey
Lacey’s theory is based on the concept of the regime condition of the channel.
The regime condition will be satisfied if:
- The channel flows uniformly in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character
which is transported by the channel.
- The silt grade and silt charge remains constant
- The discharge remains constant
(2) Statement of Lacey’s theory
In his theory Lacey states that:
‘The silt carried by the flowing water is kept in suspension by the vertical components of
eddies”
The eddies are generated at all points on the wetted perimeter of the channel section.
(3) Silt factor
During the investigations works in various canals in alluvial soil, Gerald Lacey established the
effect of silt on the determination of discharge and the cannal section.
So he introduced the notion of silt factor of: f = 1.76 dr ; dr mean dia of the silt in mm.
Where, mr = mean particle size of silt in mm.
Particle Particle size (in mm) Silt factor (f)

Very fine silt 0.05 0.40
Fine silt 0.12 0.60
Medium silt 0.23 0.85
Coarse silt 0.32 1.00

(4) Lacey’s fundamental regime equations
(i) f = 1.76 dr ; where dr = mean dia of silt in mm

(ii) Af 2 = 140v 5 ; v (m / s ) & A(m 2 )
1
⎛ Qf 2 ⎞
6
(iii) v = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ; Q = (m3/s)
⎝ 140 ⎠
(iv) P = 4.75 Q ; P(m)
(v) v = 10.8R 3 S
2 1
;(Regime flow equation) and S = bed slope (= water surface slope)
3
3 5
f 2 f 3
(vi) Regime slope equation: S = 1
& S = 1
4980 R 3 3340Q 6
1
⎛Q⎞
3
(vii) Regime scour depth: R = 0.47⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ; R = Hydraulic radius or scour depth

⎝f ⎠
6
⎛ f 3 ⎞
5
(viii) Q = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ 3340 × S ⎠
1
(ix) N = 0.0225 f 4
(5) Lacey Design Procedure
Given Q & dr
Step I : Calculate f = 1.76 dr

1
⎛ Qf 2 ⎞
6
Step II : v = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 140 ⎠
Q
Step III: A =
v
Step IV: P = 4.75 Q
Step V: Find B and D
A 5⎛v2 ⎞
Step VI: R = ; R = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and compare the two “Rs”
P 2⎝ f ⎠
5
f 3
Step VII: Find S = 1
3340Q 6
(6) Limitations of Lacey’s theory

a) The concept of true regime is theoretical and cannot be achieved practically

b) The various equations are derived by considering the silt factor f which is not
constant at all.
c) The concentration of silt is not taken into account
d) Silt grade and silt change are not clearly defined
e) The equations are empirical and based on the available data for a particular type
of soil
f) The characteristics of regime channel may not be the same for all cases
Example:
Design a canal bya Lacey’s theory to convey 40m3/s of water.

The canal is to be cut in an alluvial soil i.e side slope = ½ :1 of medium size of 0.6mm.
Solution:
(i) Silt factor:

f = 1.76 dr
= 1.76 0.6
= 1.363
(ii) Longitudinal slope:
(1.363) 3
5 5
f 3
S= =
3340Q 6 3340 × (40 ) 6
1 1
⎛ 1 ⎞
= 2.713 × 10 − 4 ⎜= ⎟
⎝ 3686 ⎠
(iii) Wetted perimeter:
P = 4.75 Q
= 4.75 × 40
= 30.042m
⎡ 40 × (1.363)2 ⎤
1 1
⎛ Qf 2 ⎞
6 6
(iv) v = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.900m / s
⎝ 140 ⎠ ⎣ 140 ⎦
Q 40
(v) c/s area : A = = = 44.444m 2
v 0 .9

(vi) Hydraulic radius:

1 1
⎛Q⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
3 3
R = 0.47⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.47 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.450m

⎝f ⎠ ⎝ 1.363 ⎠
5 v 2 5 (0.9 )
2
or R= × = × = 1.48m
2 f 2 1.363
A 44.444
check : R = = = 1.480m
P 30.042
(vii) B & D calculations
⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎪44.444 = A = ⎜ B + D ⎟ D (1)
⎨ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎪30.042 = P = B + 5 D ⇒ B = 30.042 − 2.236 D ( 2)
⎩
(2) in (1)
44.444 = (30.042 − 2.236 D + 0.5 D )D
1.736 D 2 − 30.042 D + 44.444 = 0
30.042 ± (30.042)2 − 4 × 1.736 × 44.444
⇒D=
2 × 1.736
⇒ D+ = 15.672m ⇒ B + = 30.042 − 2.236 × 15.672 = −5m (absurde!)
⇒ D− = 1.634m ⇒ B− = 30.042 − 2.236 × 1.634 = 26.388m
Hence the design:
D0 = 1.634m (y0 = 1.634m)

B = 26.388m
1
S0 = 2.713 x 10-4 (= )
3686
Side slope = 0.5H:1V

2.5.8 Comparison between Kennedy’s theory and Lacey’s theory.
Kennedy’s theory Lacey’s theory

1. It atates that the silt carried by the 1. It atates that the silt carried by the
flowing water is kept in suspension by the flowing water is kept in suspension by the
rertical component of eddies which are rertical component of eddies which are
generated from the bed of the channel. generated from the entere wetted perimiter
of the channel.
2. It gives relation between “V” and “D” 2. It gives relation between “V” and “R”
3. In this theory, a factor known as critical 3. In this theory, a factor known as critical
velocity ratio “m” is introduced to make velocity ratio “f” is introduced to make the
the equation applicable to different equation applicable to different channels
channels with different silt grades. with different silt grades.
4. In this theory Kutter’s equation is used 4. This theory gives an equation for finding
for finding the mean velocity. the mean mean velocity
5. This theory gives no equation for bed 5.This theory gives an equation for bed
slope. slope.
6. In this theory, the design is based on trial 6. This theory does not involve trial – and –
– and – error method. error method.
2.5.9 Maintenance of irrigation canals
It is essential to maintain irrigation channels frequently for their proper efficient functionning.
The main results for poor functionning of channels are:

(1) Silting of canals
(2) Breaching of canals due to weak banks
(3) Weeds growth
(4) Overflow of canal banks.
NOTE: Banks erosion can be due to bad design since each type of canal banks has its
corresponding maximumu allowable velocity to avoid banks erosion.
- Remedial mesures (or canal system maintenance)

i.e preventive measures & curative measures

a) Silt removal
The deposited silts in the canal can be removed by the following methods:
(1) By flushing and bed cleaned with clear water.
(2) By silt scouring
v0
- by mechanical or manual agitation of flow. E.g silting means < 1 ⇒ v ↑ to v ≈ v0
v
- by reduction of the area of flow
- by excavation if the flow is not there
b) Breaching of canals due to weak banks
Is defined as the failure of canal banks due to tearing (or breaching when the canal is in
filling.
b1 Causes of canal breaching
(1) Due to deffect to deging & construction e.g: phreatic line failure due to excessive
seepage force.
(2) Rush of water through rat holes
(3) Due to piping near the d/s toe
(4) Piping due to excessive exit gradient: earth materials are removed from the
foundation.

b2 Maintenance or repair for breach
(1) by diverting the canal discharge to a near escape canal on the u/s of the gap
(2) by filling the gap with sufficient amount of earth
c) Weeds control
Weeds cabn be controled in two ways:
(1) by increasing of the velocity of flow through the canal
v0
NOTE: The canal should be in silting i.e < 1 ⇒ v ↑ to v ≈ v0
v
(2) by rush rotation: i.e the channel is run with full supply discharge for sometimes and
kept dry completely
d) Overflow of cannal banks
This can be done in two ways:
(1) by regulating the flow of canal at the diversion headworks
(2) by increasing the cross-section area of flow through all the zone of overflow.
2.6 SYSTEMS OF SURFACE DRAINAGE
2.6.1 Definition of surface drainage
Surface drainage is the removal of excess water within a given period of time from the land
surface over or through the uppermost top soil layer by a proper open drainage system.
2.6.2 Surface drainage to control erosion
The main concern of draining flat areas is timely the removal of stagnant surface water while the
drainage of sloping areas, the emphasis should be given on the removal of water without causing
soil erosion.

2.6.3 Land farming, grading and smoothing
(1) Land farming
- It is a process of changing the natural topography of a field to ensure the orderly

movement of water over the land and to allow the use of the recognised farming.
- It includes one or a combination of practices, such as land levelling for irrigation,
drainage and ditches which can be crossed through farm fields.
NOTE: Land levelling, land grading and land shaping are synonimous.
- Land farming also includes grading works for erosion control for example: contour
benching and earth work for parallel terraces.
(2) Land grading
- It is the transport of the earth according to the specific cuts and fills based on a
predetermined grade.
- Land grading for both irrigation and drainage is entirely practical and compatible.
- Land grading is essential to the development of surface irrigation systems.
(3) Land smoothing
Land smoothing is genarally the final operation of removing the minaor differences in
elevations of the land fields without changing the general topography of the land.

2.6.4 Four systems of drainage for flat areas.
(1) Random system
- From economical point of view, these drains are best suited to the scattered
depressions where the depth of cut is not over 1m.
The layout of a typical random field drain system is shown below:
- Whenever possible, the drains connect one depression to an other in conveying water
to a suitable outlet: cuts and fills for small depression which are not connected to the
system can be dore.
- The drain depth depends on the topography of the area and the design discharge:
usyally the depth should not be more than 25cm; the side slope should be ranged from
8:1 to 10:1 whenever they are to be crossed.
- Minimum ditch side slope of 4:1 are desired if the field is farmed parallel to the ditch.

(2) Bedding drainage system
- The land is devided into anumber of narrow-width plots known as beds. The beds
being separated by deadfurrows which serve as drains and running parallel to the
prevailing slope:
- Bedding system is most practicable on flat slopes of less than 1.5% and the soils are
slowly permeable. i.e where pipe drainage should not be economical.
- Design and layout of bedding system involves
(1) The design of field beds
• Width of the beds varies between 10-30m depending on the land use, slope of the fills
and deadfurrows, sand permeability, farming operations and the width of the farm
machinery.
• Beds gradient after levelling = 0.1%
• Height of the beds varies between 15-45cm
• Side slope of the beds: usually 1.5% (= side slope of the ditch)
• The length of the beds may vary from 90m to 300m
(2) Deadfurrows
• They are shallow with average depth of 25cm (25-35cm)

• The ditch slope = the prevailing slope of the land = 0.1% after levelling
• Ditch width = 15-30cm
• Ditch side slope = 1.5%

- Desadvantages of the bedding system
(1) The topmost soil is removed from the soil of the beds to the
middle, which may cause reduction in the yield.
(2) The dead furrows need frequent maintenace
(3) To a certain extent, the system requires a mechanical farming.
NOTE: A particular case of W-drain system
- The cross-section for field drains may be V-shaped or trapezoidal in the bedding
system. But the W-drains shown below consists essentially of 2 parallel ditches with a
narrow spacing: All of the spoil is placed between the channels, making the cross-
section similar to that os a road.

- Adaptability of the W-drains
- The W- drain is best adequate to relatively flat land where the rows are drained through
both directions.
- A minimum width for W-drains varies from 5 – 30m depending on the size of the beds.
- Advantages of the W-drains
(1) It allows better row drainage because spoil does not have to be spread;
(2) It may be used as a turn row;
(3) It may serve as a field road;
(4) It can be constructed and maintained with ordinary farm equipment;
(5) It may be seeded to grass or row crops.
- Desadvantages of the W-drain
(1) The spoil is not available for filling depressions;

(2) A greater quantity of the soil must be moved;
(3) A larger area is occupied by drains.
(3) Parallel field drainage system
- Parallel field drains are similar to the bedding drains except that the channels are
spaced further apart and may have a greater capacity than the dead furrows. Also
drains do not need to be equally spaced and water may move in only one direction.

- As bedding system, the tun strip is provided where ditches border a fence line.
- Parallel field drains are constructed at convenient distances, the drain spacing
depending upon the permeability of the soil, the crops to be grown, the topography
and the gradient of the land after levelling.
- The side slopes should be 8:1 or flatter to facilitate crossing with farm machinery.
- For a maximum length of rows upo 200m having a continuous slope: provide a land
sloping in one direction and for lands of lengths beyond 200m upto 400m: the slope is
given in both directions.
NOTE: The length and grade of rows should be limited to prevent damage by erosion: on
highly erosive soils which are slowly permeable, the slope length should be reduced to
90m or less.
- Advantages of parallel field drainage system
(1) It provides good drainage at each part

(2) Since few number of ditches are required, the mechanised farming operations
can be done.
- Desadvantage of parallel field drainage system
It is most expansive
NOTE: Land grading system (for parallel field drainage)

(4) Parallel open ditch system
- This system is used for moderate permeable soils

- Parallel open ditch system is similar to field drain system except that ditches are
deeper. i.e the field drains are replaced by open ditches having 50 – 100cm depth and
side slopes of 1:1 to 1.5:1 depending on the soil.
- The maximum spacing within the drains varies from 60 t0 200m

- These ditches cannot be crossed with farm machinery
- For clarty, the minimum size for open ditches is 0.3m deep and side slopes steeper
than 6:1
- The purpose of lateral open ditches is to control GW table and to provide surface
drainage.
- These ditches are applicable for draining peat “tourbe” and muck “sol boueux”
- As in other methods of drainage on flat land, the surface must be graded and
smoothed and large depressions filled or drained by random field drains.

2.6.5 Three type of land drainage systems in sloping area.
In the sloping areas, the main concern is to regulate any occuring overland flow which has to be
intercepted before it becomes dangerous as an erosive force for the soil erosion.
(1) Cross-slope drainage system
- It mostly used on the lands with a regular slope of 2 to 4% and having numerous
shallow depressions. i.e the land is generally too steep for bedding or field drains
which would result in excessive erosion.
- Field drains are constructed parallel to the contours on a uniform grade ranging from
1:1 to 1:100.. Field drains are known as cross-slope ditches or channel type terraces.
- Spoils from the drains are used to fill depressions.(about 80% of the field drains is
below the original land surface)
- Smoothing of the land between the drains is essential for good operation of the
system.
- The distance between the field drains depend on the slope, rainfall intensity, soil
erodibility and type of crops. The distance varies from 30m (for 4% land slope) to
45m( for 2% land slope).
- The maximum length of a sloping field drain is only : 350 to 450cm.
- The depth of field drain varies from 15-25cm
- The top width varies between 5-7.5cm
- The cross-section area varie between 0.4 to 7m2.
(2) Diversion drainage system
- This system is a measure to protect flat areas from watrelogging caused by upland
runoff.
- It is implemented by the construction of the individual design channels, known as
diversion drains, near the top of the hill areas across the slope. i.e the diversion drains
are so designed for intercepting the flow to protect the
d/s flat areas from upland runoff.
- When the diversion drains are deep enough, they can also collect surface runoff.
(3) Terrace drainage system.
Soil erosion is prevented by constructing terraces for soil and water conservation.
Terraces are of 2 types:
a) Bench terrace or step type terrace
In this type of terracing, the original steep slopes are converted to several vertical
steps separating the horizontal plots of land.
b) Broad base terrace ( = Ridge type terrace = Magnum terrace)

- This type pf terrace is used on slopes up to 10%

- It has a broad surface channel to differe from the channels used in the cross-slope
drainage system
- The spoil from the soil is used to build a relatively high ridge on the down slope side
- Only 505 of the cross-section area is below original land surface
NOTE 1:
- T erraces can be constructed without any grade or with a decreasing grade in the u/s
direction for the purpose of creating an approximate constant water depth in the
channel to promote water conservation
- Terraces withreasonably constant water are sometimes used in erosion control
practices to prevent silting of the channel
- The grades of terraces usually vary from 0.1 – 0.6%
- The side slope of the channel varies from 10:1 (for 10% land slope) to 4:1 (for 10%
land slope)
- The distances between channel are fixed on the basis of local practices
NOTE 2: Criteria for location of terrace
(1) The natural impediments and sharp curves should be avoided

(2) The area of the uppermost terrace should not exceed 1 – 1.5ha
(3) The channel should be located just at a certain break in grade
2.7 CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
Refer to Module4, Part B2: Chap. V ADVANCED IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
2.8 CULVERTS AND SMALL BRIDGES ACROSS OPEN DRAINS
- When ever a new road has to cross an existing drain or a canal, or sometimes adrain
has to cross an existing road, a small bridge or a culvert is constructed at the point of
crossing.
- These small bridges or culverts should be designed safely and economically to avoid
unnecessary over investments

2.9 DRAINAGE BEHIND LININGS (= UNDER DRAINAGE OF LINED CANALS)
Many of linings fail due to build up of water pressure behind lining:
1. A water pressure may essentially develop when the water table rises above the canal bed;
and there may be low flow or no flow in the canal.
Such situation will always cause an uplift pressure force on the lining, equal to the difference
in the water heads as shown in the figure below:
Net uplift exerted on the channel bed
2. In case of a low drainage backfill (i.e backfill of low permeability)
The hydrostatic pressures may also be caused on the lining by the seeping rain water in the
backfill, even when the water table remains below the canal bed.
In fact, the backfill may get saturated over a period of time due to seepage water trhough the
joints and cracks and during the drawdown in the canal, the water in the backfill may not be
drained out as quickly as the occuring draw downs, leading to build up of pressure behind the
lining.
NOTE: In all such case, drainage arrangements such as drainage pockets or open jointed pipe
drains must be provided to help in reducing such hydrostatic pressures to safe limits.

III SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
3.1 DEFINITION DU DRAINAGE PAR TUYAUX ENTERRES
- Le drainage de terres par tyaux enterrés
Consiste à disposer dans le sol un réseau se tuyaux pour drainer l’eau du sol ou l’eau
superficielle afin d’aérer et d’assainir le sol.
- Le réseau comprend des tuyaux en plastique de 2 grandeur distinctes :
(1) Les drains composés de tuyaux de petits diamètres

(2) Les collecteurs compsés de tuyaux de diamètres plus important
3.2 DONNEES DE BASE DU DRAINAGE PAR TUYAUX ENTERRES
(1) Causes d’humudité

(2) Niveau optimale de la nappe
(3) Nature du sol et sa permeabilité
(4) Débit caractéristique du drainage
3.3 LES MATERIAUX DE DRAINAGE
- Les tuyaux en matière plastique les plus utilisés sont :

(1) Les tuyaux lisses en PVC à fentes longitudinales
(2) Les tuyaux annelés en PVC à perforations avalisées
- Les tuyaux se présentent en éléments rectilignes de 6m de longueur
- Les tuyaux souples pour petits drains sont enroulés sur bobines de 2m de diamètre
- Afin de faciliter la pénétration de l’eau de la nappe dans le drain et d’empêcher la
pénétration des éléments fins dans les canalisations, des filtres enrobant le drain
préalablement à la pose sont mis en place :
Les filtres de l’ordre d’1cm d’épaisseur sont constitués de tourbe fibreus, de paille, de
fibre de coco ou de polystyrène expansé.
Ils sont maintenus en place autour du drain par un treillis en nylon ou par de la ficelle.
NB : Souvent les filtres constituéde sable et du gravier sont utilisés.
- Les caractéristiques des drains sont les suivantes :
(1) Tuyaux lisses
• Dia intérieur = 47,5mm

• Epaisseur = 1mm

• Largeur des fentes = 0,6 -1,5mm

• Longueur des fentes = 30mm
• Superficie des fentes = 10cm2/m de tuyau
(2) Tuyaux annelés
• Dia intérieur = 44mm

• Epaisseur = 0,4mm
• Largeur des fentes = 0,6 -1,5mm
• Longueur des fentes = 5mm
• Superficie des fentes = 10cm2/m de tuyau
- Les diamètres extérieurs des drains varient de 52mm à 200mm

- Le diamètre utilisécoulamment pour les petites drains est compris entre 5 et 8cm
- La longueur maximale des drains de 5cm de dia est de 150m et celle de drains de 6cm
est de 200m
- La détermination du dia descollecteurs revient au calcul de la section pour assurer
l’écoulement d’un débit donné avec une fente donnée
3.4 LES MATERIELS POUR LES OPERATIONS DE DRAINAGE
Peuvent se classer en trois catégories principales :
- Les tranheuses-poseuses
- Les poseuses à outil-taupe
- Les pelles hydrauliques et autres engins de terrassement
(1) Les trancheuses-poseuses
- Elles sont équipées, selon les types, de roues à godets ou de chaînes munies de
couteaux é creuser
- Elles permettent l’ouverture d’une tranchée dans les terrains de toutes natures, à
l’exception des terrains rocheux
- Les déblais sont extarits et répartis à l’aide d’un tapis convoyeur ou d’une vis sans
fin.
(2) Les poseuses à outil-taupe
Elles sont équipés d’un coutre, sorte de masse métallique inerte dont la forme est étudiée pour
écartel le sol afin d’enfouir les drains sans avoir à ouvrir de tranchée.
(3) Les pelles hydrauliques
(et les autres engins de terrassement)

3.5 LES OUVRAGES D’UN RESEAU DE DRAINAGE
(1) Bouche de drainage
- Bouche de drainage = ouvrage qui recueille les eaux de drainage d’un collecteur
principal et les resttue dans un émissaire.
- Les bouches doivent toujours se déverse au-dessus du niveau des eaux moyennes.
- A la bouche de décharge, le collecteur doit être enterré de 0,75m
- La bouche se compose d’un massif en maçonnerie ou en béton ayant au minimum 1m
de largeur et 0,50m d’épaisseur
- Le massif est prolongé par un radier disposé à 0,30m de la génératrice inférieur du
collecteur
- Une grille protège la bouche contre l’entrée des petits annaux dans le collecteur
(2) Regards et chambres de raccord

- Les regards sont des ouvrages destinés à vérifier le bon fonctionnement des
collecteurs.
- Placé au point de rencontre de plusieurs collecteurs, ils servent de chambre de raccord
- Ils sont de forme carrée ou rectangulaire et sont construits en maçonnerie ou en béton
ordinaire
- Ils reposent sur un radier en béton
- Ils dépassent le niveau du sol et sont recouverts d’une dalle en béton armé servant de
couvercle
3.6 LE TRACE DU REGIME DE DRAINAGE
- Les collecteurs sont disposés dand les thalwegs et le petits drains à l’intérieur de
chaque bassin versant unitaire correspondent à un collecteur.
- Les drains peuvent être placés :
• Soit suivant la ligne de plus grande pente
• Soit transversalement à cette pente
-
La jonction des drains et des collecteurs doit se faire sous un angle compris entre 300
et 600
3.7 DESIGN OF FIELD DRAINS
(1) Definition of field drains
Field drains = subsurface drainage systems that can control ground water table and
carries water to other types of drains for final disposal.
(2) Design requirements of field drains
- Proper spacing between the drains

- Proper depths and direction of drains
(3) Placement depth of drains
The placement depth of the field drains depend on the soil-hydrological characteristics.
Usually a depth of 1.5-3.0m is recommended. (Practical experience)
NOTE: It been seen that the maximum efficiency of removal of water is obtained at the
approximative depth of 2.1m below the GL.
(4) The spacing of field drains

The spacing between 2 drains is calculated depending upon the flow conditions taking
place in the soil.
There are 2 conditions of flow namely:
- Steady state flow condition
- Unsteady state flow condition
(5) Spacing based on steady state flow condition
L = Drainage spacing ; L (m)

h = height of water table above the drain level, midway between drains; h (m)
q = drainage coefficient or constant recharge rate; q (m/day)
d = thickness of equivalent layer ; d (m)
K2 = hydraulic conductivity below drains ; K2 (m/day)
K1 = hydraulic conductivity above drains ; K1 (m/day)
a = distance between GL and existing WT ; a (m)
b = Placement depth of drains
According to HOOGOUDT (empirical formula):
8K 2 ⋅ d ⋅ h 4 K1h 2
L2 = +
q q

(6) HOOGOUDT tables for drains spacings


Example:
A soil with an impermeable layer located at 3m below the drains level for which:
(1) The hydraulic conductivity below and above drains are K2 = 1m/day and
K1 = 0.5m/day respectively;
(2) The drainage coefficient is q = 0.005m/day;
(3) The height of water table above the drains level, at midway between drains is
h = 0.6m
(4) And the radius of field drains is r = 0.10m
Sketch and determine the proper drains spacing.
Solution:
According to Hoogoudt,
8K 2 ⋅ d ⋅ h 4 K1h 2
L2 = + ;
q q
q = constant recharge rate or drainage coefficient ; q = (m/day)
K1 = 0.5m/day
K2 = 1m/day
r = 0.1m
q = 0.005m/day
h = 0.6m
d=?
⎧L = ?
⎪
d depends on ⎨r = ok
⎪ D = ok
⎩
d = thickness of equivalent layer (directly obtained from the special table provided
by Hoogoudt)

Trial and error method:
8 × 1 × d × 0.6 4 × 0.5 × (0.6 )

2
L =
2
+
0.005 0.005
⇒ L = 960d + 144
2
1st trial:
L = 40m ⎫
⎪
r = 0.10m⎬ ⇒ table d = 2.156m
D = 3m ⎪⎭
LHS = Left Hand Side of Hooghoudt’s equation

RHS = Right Hand Side of Hooghoudt’s eauation
i.e: LHS = 402 = 1600

RHS = 960 x 2.156 + 144 = 2214
⇒ LHS < RHS ⇒ increase L.
2nd trial:
L = 50m ⎫
⎪
r = 0.10m⎬ ⇒ table d = 2.287m
D = 3m ⎪⎭
LHS = 502 = 2500

RHS = 960 x 2.278 + 144 = 2340
⇒ LHS > RHS ⇒ decrease L slightly.
3rd trial:
L = 40 – 50m but very near to 50m

Let’s L = 48m
As the table does not include the L of 48m, d is to be obtained by interpolation.
Interpolating between L1 = 40m and L2 = 50m , d for L = 48m is:
∆d
d = d1 + × ∆L1
∆L

d 50 − d 40 ∆d ∆d
d 48 = d 40 + × (L48 − L40 ) ; 1 = ; ∆d1 = d − d1 and ∆L1 = L − L1
L50 − L40 ∆L1 ∆L
2.278 − 2.156
i.e: = 2.156 + × (48 − 40 )
50 − 40
= 2.2608
Recalculating:
L2 (d 48 ) = 960 × 2.2608 + 144 = 2314.368

⇒ L = 48.108m
≈ 48m
(i.e: the design drain spacing is L = 48m)
LHS = 48 2 = 2304⎫
⎬ LHS ≈ RHS ⇒ OK i.e L ≅ 48m
RHS = 2314 ⎭
(7)Drainage coefficient (D.C)
- The rate at which the water is removed by a drain is called the drainage coefficient
(D.C).
- It is expressed as the depth of water in cm or in metres, to be removed in 24 hours
from the drainage area.
- The D.C largery depends upon the rainfall but varies with the type of soil, the croppin
pattern, the type and layout of the drain, etc…
- Depending of local recommendations, the value of D.C is as follows:
(1) Mineral soils: 1 – 2.5cn/day
(2) Organic soils: 1.25 – 10cm/day
For digfferent crops.
Example:
A tile drainage, draining 12ha, flows at a design capacity for 2 days following a storm.
If the system is designeg using a D.C of 1.25 cm/day, determine the volume of water which will
be removed during this periods.
Solution:
1.25
i. Depth of water removed per day = = D.C
day
ii. Volume of water removed per day = D.C x A
= (1.25 x 10-2 )x 12
= 0.15 ha.m/day
iii. Volume of water removed after two days
= Vlume of water removed per day x Number of days
= 0.15 x 2 = 0.3ha.m = 0.3 x 104m3
= 3000m3

(8)Size of tiles drains
- The tail drains are designed according to Manning’s formula to carry a certain
1
discharge decided by the D.C : Q = ⋅ A ⋅ R 3 ⋅ S 2
2 1
n
- The drains are laid on a longitudinal slope varying from 0.05% to 3%.
A desirable minimum working grade is 0.2%
NOTE: Where sufficient slope is not available, the grade may be reduced to
0.1%.
- Depending apon the available slope of the soil surface and the depth of the
outlet, a suitable value of the longitudinal slope is given to the tiles.
- Tiles of 10 -15cm dia are are recommended minimum sizes.
Example:
Determine the dia of a tile at the outlet oa a 6ha drainage system if the D.C is 1cm/day
and the tile grade is o.3%.
Assume the Manning’s coefficient for the tile drain material as n = 0.011.
Solution:
(i) Tile drain discharge
Q = D.C x A ; D.C =1cm/day = 1x10-2/day

A = 6ha = 6x104m2
( ) ( )
⇒ Q = 1 × 10 − 2 × 6 × 10 4 = 600m 3 / day =
600
24 × 60 × 60
m3 / s =
1 3
144
m /s
(ii) For a circular drain running full
πD 2 ⎫
A= ⎪ D
4 ⎬⇒ R =
4
P = πD ⎪⎭

i.e:
1 2
Q= ⋅ A⋅ R 3 ⋅ S 2
1
n
2 1
1 1 πD 2 ⎛ D ⎞ 3 ⎛ 0.3 ⎞ 2
= × ×⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟
144 0.011 4 ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
2
π ⎛1⎞ 3
2
1 2+
× × ⎜ ⎟ × (0.003) 2 × D 3
1
=
0.011 4 ⎝ 4 ⎠
8
D = 4.4745 × 10 −3
3
⇒ D = 0.1315m
≈ 13.2cm
(9) Non-steady state drainage
- The term “Non-steady state drainage” implies that the position of water table is not
fixed with respect to time.
Hence drain outlet flow rate will also vary with time.
- This happens when the inflow to the soil is different than outflow from the soil:
If the inflow exceeds the outflow, the water table will rise and if the outflow exceeds
the inflow, the water table will decline.
- The drainage design parameters are again the depth and spacing of the subsurface
drains which have to be adequate to bring down the water table within a pre-
detremined period of time.
- When there is asudden occurrence of a large amount of rainfall or accumulation of
runoff over the land, the infiltrated volume over a time period usually exceeds the
narmal outflow from the soil profile and the water table rises:
Under such conditions, temporary rise of water table is inevitable.
NOTE: The subsurface drainage system ensures thet even the active root zone
becomes saturated fast enough to restore proper aeration of active root
zone.

- The schematic diagram of a non-steady state drainage is given below:
ho (Location of drain below ground surface)

( minimum permissiblw water depth)
= b - ao
ho = Maximum permissible water height above drains

ht = ho – recharge from irrigation.

(10) Maintenance of subsurface drains
1- The objective of the maintenance
Is to ensure the proper functionning of subsurface draining (i.e tube drains) or open
ditches (i.e subsurface drains).
- The functionning of open drains can be verified by visual observations without
making any measuerement during wet period.
- The functionning of tubes drains can be verified by knowing the head loss using
installed piezometers.
2- Clogging of tube drains
The tube drains perforations may be clogged by the soil particles (silting up), chemical
deposits (iron deposits ) or plant roots.
3- Maintenance needed
- Prevetion of siltingup
- Prevetion and removal of iron deposits
- Use no perforated plastic pipes where the drain lines cross a border of the tree roots.
4- Clogging by soil particles
- The soil particle may move into drains from above or below tha drains level
- The rate at which silting up takes place depends upon the soil conditions: The silting
up is largely decreased during wet periods.
NOTE: Prevention of silting up
• By covering the top and bottom of the drains using filter materials such as gravel
or wraping the pipe completely by the coconut fiber
• By cleaning the drains using flushing materials
• By maintening a proper gradient of the tube drains during construction to ensure a
minimum flow velocity of 0.35m/s so that soil particles could move with the flow
to the outlet.
5- Clogging by chemical deposits
Clogging by chemical deposits especially iron cannot be prevented by filter materials

because iron (Fe++) gets dissolved in ground water and enters the drain.
It can then be oxidised into soluble Fe+++ form which precipitates inside the drain.
NOTE: Prevention and removal of iron deposits

• The iron deposits can be removed by flushing using low pressure machines.
• The iron can be also be removed by dissolving it using sulphate dioxide (SO2)
dissolved in water.
• It can also be avoided by forcing the iron to precipitate using CaCO3 (lime)
before it enters the drain.
• It can be avoided by preventing air from entering the drain by keeping the drain
outlet under the water level of an open ditch so that no oxidation can take place.
• The good results can be obtained by pushing a dry plastic hose provided with a
head through the drain during the periods when the drain is flowing.
The hose looses iron deposits which can be removed by the drainage of water
6- Clogging by plant roots
Roots of certains species of trees, can enter through the perforations of tube drains and
my cause a co,mplete blockage of drain within a short time.
NOTE: Remedial measure
Use no perforated plastic pipes where he drains lines cross border of the tree roots

IV ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF DRAINAGE

TECHNIQUES
4.1 DEFINITION OF IMPACT
- Impacts represent changes of environmental factors due to implemetation of a project.

- These changes can be physical, biological or socio-economic.
4.2 ENVIRONMEANTAL ISSUES OF DRAINAGE TECHNIQUES
(1) Water related deseases and their vectors

(2) GW recharge
(3) Pesticides leaching from the soil
(4) Reclamation of saline and alkaline soils
4.3 DRAINAGE WATER MANAGEMENT
- Drainage water quantity

- Drainage water quality
- Drainage water treatment
- Health issues of drainage water
- Drainage water reuse
(1) Drainage water quantity characteristics
Pesticides, toxic trace elements, nutrients, sediments, bacteria, teperature.salinity and

major irons, sulphurous compounds, protection of beneficial uses.
( 2) Drainage water treatment
- Mehods of treatment
- Selection of treatment process
- Physico-chemical treatment
- Biological treatment
- Treatment in constructed wet lands
(3) Drainage water reuse
- Salinity process and leaching process

- Reuse for crop irrigation (Effect of salinity on crop growth and yield)
- Reuse in natural wetland
- Drainage water recycling methods
(4) Reclamation of waterlogged areas

A waterlogged area can be reclaimed for crop production by any one or a

combination of:
- Surface drainage
- Subsurface drainage
- GW pumping
- Adopting raised bed-pond system of cultivation
- Adopting scientific irrigation water and rainfall management
(5) Disposal and management of drainage water
- Disposal to natural hydrologic system: rivers and lakes

- Disposal to natural wetlands
- Land application
- Evaporation ponds
- Biological, chemical and physical treatment options
- Drainage water recycling

V ADVANCES IN DRAINAGE SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
5.1 VARIOUS INVESTIGATION FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
5.1.1 People’s participation
- The cultivators are the best judges to ascertain if drainage is a problem which is
affecting their agricultural production.
They should be knowledgeble about its main causes and its effects and some possible
solutions.
- The major primary concern of drainage investigator is to conduct detailed technical
investigations and find the best solution from the various altarnatives to the desing
and implementation of the drainage system.
5.1.2 Drainage survey procedures
(1) Reconnaissance survey
To recognise a problem and to find alternative means to the problem solution
(2) Crop yield
The direct and recognisable adverse effect of improper drainage is a reduced crop yield than
what is obtained under well drained conditions.
(3) Soil physical and chemical properties
The reconnaissance survey team is to be equipped with some simple and portable instruments to
ascertain some easily measurable soil physical and chemical properties that are relevant to
drainage.
- A soil auger can be used to measure soil depth, getting the soil profile of at few
depths, soil structure and find the existence of very wet soil in the crop root zone (i.e
shallow water table).
- A measuring tape will be used in noting the water table depth in the open wells. Also
a portable battery operated or mechanical water table depth indicator can be used.
- Portable electrical conductivity meter and PH meter can be used to test the quality of
water samples taken from open wells, auger holes and open water bodies.
- Certains other physical and chemical properties can be more rigorously determined in
the laboratory to depict ill-drainaed condition of the area by the survey team.
(4) Topography and othe features
Major topographic data to be avialable on the updated contour map by the survey team.

(5) Identifying water sources datas
Stream gauging data, rainfall data, climatological data, latest land use map, soilmap, socio-
economic parameters for adoption and maintenance of drainage system.
5.1.3 Measurement and analysis of rainfall data
- Rainfall data are available either in the discrete form of one day rainfall measured by
a non-recording raigauge or in a continuous fom as time versus raifall depth charts
from the recording raigauge.
- Intensity-Duration- Frequency curves (I D F curves) are of use in designing drainage
systems.
5.1.4 GW table investigations
- Measurement of water table

- Observation wells network to monitor the water table fluctuations over an area.
- GW table contour map which helps in identifying the direction of GW flow.
5.1.5 Miscellaneous site-specific investigations
- Height of accumulated water over agricultural land.

- Contour map and slope directions of longitudinal drains.
- Drainage outlets to dispose the surface drained water into the adjoining natural
stream, the path of minimum length is selected to lay the final length of an open
drain.
- Irrigation water management is relevant to drainage in the sense that such
investigations are able to identify irrigation related causative factors to drainage
problems and may suggest ways of improving irrigation water management to reduce
the drainage problem.
5.2 ASSAINISSEMENT DU SOL PAR DRAINAGE
5.2.1 Inconvénients des sols humides
-Les sols humides sont impermeables à l’air

-Les sols humides sont difficiles à travailler
-Les sols humides s’opposent à la pénétration des racines et le plantes y séjournant
sont atteintes des maladies : Les racines pourrissent soit en atteignant le niveau de la
nappe souterraine, soit sous l’action de champignons cryptogamiques.
5.2.2 But de l’assainissement agricole
Le but de l’assainissement agricole est la mise en valeur des terres humides, insolubles et
l’assèchement des marais et marécages.

5.2.3 Classification des différentes techniques d’assainissemnt
- Aménagement des énagement des émissaires:
Les émissaires constituent l’exutoire des réseaux de drainage, ils sont constitués soit par
une rivière naturelle ou par un canal artificiel.
Ils sont dimensionés pour évacuer les eaux excédentaires hors du périmètre.
- Assèchement :
= une opération effectuée sur des terres humides (marais et marécages) où des durées de
submersion interdisent toute mise en culture.
- Drainage :
= technique englobant tous le travaux ayant pour objet l’évacuation intesnive dans les
délais courts de l’eau de saturation du sol
- Colature :
= technique permettant l’évacuation des eaux superficiels.
5.3 DRAINAGE PAR TRANCHEES DRAINANTES
5.3.1 Drainage par captage de résurgence « Les mouillères »

5.3.2 Drainage methods to control Gwtable
The GW table may be lowered by the following methods :
1. Ditches and pump sumps

2. Well point system
3. Shallow well system
4. Deep well system
5. Vacuum method
6. Electro-osmosis method
1- Ditches and sumps
This is the simplest form of dewatering used in the shallow, excavations in coarse grained
soils whose permeability is greater than 10-3cm/sec. Shallow pits, called sumps are dug
along the periphery.




5.4 NON-CONVETIONAL DRAINAGE METHODS
- Non-convetional drainage methods are adopted when the convetional surface or

buried pipes subsurface drainage network are infeasible to adopt due to technical or
economic reasons.
- The various 6 methods described above are adopted to lower down the GW table as
non-convetional drainage methods.
- Other non-convetional drainage methods are:
(1) Mole drainage

(2) Drainage using recharge wells
(3) Bio-drainage
(4) Pump drainage
(5) Rised bed-pond cultivation
5.4.1 Mole drainage “Drainage – taupe” (1.6)

- A ground channel is formeg in the soil with cracks along the mole drain and the
drainage water enters the mole drains through these cracks and is carried along the
slope into the subsurface or open drains.

5.4.2 Drainage using recharge wells
One may investigate the feasibility of recharging the water into deep aquifer using a normal
thube well as a recharging well.
5.4.3 Bio-drainage “ Drainage biologique”
- Deep rooed trees like ecalptus draw a good quality of water from the ground.
- Eucalptus tree has roots extending up to 3m deep and transpires water at a high rate
i.e it works as a biological pump. It is thus a suitable anti-waterlogging measure to
take care of seepage along canals.
- The bio-drainage is effective if there is adequate aeration in the root zone and if the
roots extend up to the ground water reservoir and draw water from capillary zone.
5.4.4 Pump drainage
- If pumping of excess surface water is needed to decongest waterlogged lands during

rain seasons.
- It is adopted over relatively small flat areas as:
• Delta regions
• River plains
• Coastal regions
• Heavy raifall
If land submergence is relatively long duration resulting into irreversible damage to

the crop plants e.g paddy crops.
5.4.5 Raised-bed and pond system
- Land is configurated in such a waya that a part is elevated from its normal level by
spreading earth obtained from excavated pond over another place.
NOTE: The land equal to the surface area of the ponds is lost for cultivation but the
pond water may be useful in giving irrigation water to the crops grown on the
raised-bed.

5.5 PROJECT PLANNING FOR DRAINAGE WORKS
5.5.1 Preliminary investigations for drainage works
(1) Agro- climatological investigations
- Rainfall (Intensity, Duration, Frequency i.e IDF curves)

- Evapotranspiration
(2) Geological and geohydrological investigations
- Geology history of the area

- Extent depth and characteristics of main geological formations
- Barriers restricting ground water
- Hydraulic conductivity of soil
(3) Land use
- Present status of land in use

- Future development plan of the land
(4) Topographical studies
Map on scale: 1:10000 to 1:25000 is required for drainage system layout.
(5) Soil survey and land classificvation studies
- General stratification and properties of different layers

- Soil salinity and alkalinity
- Infiltartion of top soil layer
- Erodibility of top soil layer
5.5.2 Feasibility studies of drainage projects
(1) Agricultural and engineering studies
- Surface water studies:

• Stage discharge relations
• Flooding phenomena
- Ground water studies: Recharge of GW
(2) Financial and economic alternatives
- Do you have enough funds for completion of the project?

- Do you have enough funds for maintenance after the project completion?
- Benefit/cost analysis to select the best alternative
(3) Social and organisational aspects
- Social is the literacy level of the people “cultivators”?

- Farming knowledge
- Attitude towards changes
- Management problems
(4) Environmental aspects (Direct & indirect)
- Change in river hydrology

- Change in down stream flood plain
- Reduction in agricultural area
- Threat to survival of certain species of wild life.
- Etc…..
5.6 DRAINAGE FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Sustainable development or sustainability means “the development that meets the needs for the
present generation without jeoparadizing the possibilities of future generation to meet their own
needs”

ASSSIGNMENT
1. Rational formula
Determine the design discharge of a drainage channel with the following data:
i. Intensity of rainfall: i = 14.5mm/hr
ii. Catchment area: A = 15Km2 of which A1 = 10 Km2 is rural and A2 = 5Km2 is semi-
urban
iii. Runoff coefficient: K1 = 0.30 for rural area and K2 = 0.50 for semi-urban area
2. Open channel flow
A trapezoidal channel has a bed width of 2m and side slopes of 1.5 H: 1V.
The channel has a longitudinal slope of 1/4000.
If the Manning’s coefficient of the channel boundary is n = 0.018 and if the depth of the flow
is 1.4m, determine:
i. The mean velocity of the flow
ii. The discharge flow rate trhough the channel
3. Most economical channel section
Design a most economical trapezoidal section of a canal having the following data:
i. Discharge of the canal: Q = 20m3 /sec
ii. Permissible mean velocity = 0.85m/sec
iii. Bazin’s constant: K = 1.30
iv. Side slope of the canal = 1.5 H : 1V
4. Kennedy’s silt theory
Design an irrigation channel section by Kennedy’s theory with the following data:
i. Full supply discharge: Q = 10m3 /sec
ii. Bazin’s constant: K = 1.30
iii. Critical velocity ratio (CVR): m = 1
iv. Width to depth ratio: B/D = 4
v. Side slope: 1H : 1V
5. Lacey silt theory
A surface drainage channel has to be designed for the following data:

i. Area to be drained: A = 500ha
ii. Drainage coefficient: DC = 6cm/day
iii. Channel side slope = 1H:1V
iv. Lacey’s silt factor: f = 1.0

Determine:
a) The discharge to be drained
b) The Lacey’s mean velocity of flow
c) The wetted area and the Lacey’s wetted perimeter of the flow
d) The depth of the flow and the channel bed width
e) The Lacey’s regime slope
6. Hoogoudt steady state drains spacing
A soil with an impermeable layer lacated at 4m below the drains level for which:
i. The hydraulic conductivity below and above drains are K1 = K2 = K = 1m/day
ii. The drainage coefficient: DC = q = 3mm/day
iii.The height of water table above the drains level, at midway between drains is
h = 0.5m
iv. The radius of field drains is r = 0.05m
Sketch and determine the proper drains spacing
7. Drainage coefficient and discharge to be drained
A tile drainage system draining 10ha flows at a design capacity for three days
following a storm.
If the system is designed using a drainage coefficient of 2.0cm/day, determine the

volume of water which will be removed during this period.
8. Sizing tile drains
Determine the diameter of a tile at the outlet of a 6ha drainage system if the DC is 1cm/day
and the tile grade is 0.3%.
Assume the Manning’s coefficient for the tile drain as n = 0.011.

RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1) BASAK, N.N. (2004). Irrigation Engineering, 5th reprint, Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing
Company ltd, New Dehli.
2) BHATTACHARYA, A.K.& MICHAEL, A. M. (2003).
Land Drainage-Principles, Methods and Applications, Konard Publishers PVTltd.
New Dehli.
3) CHATURVEDI, M.C. (1997). Water Resources System Planning and Management, Tata
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CET 3414 Irrigation And Drainage

CET 3414 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

1.1 Definition of drainage

1.2 Needs for drainage

1.3 Salinity and water logging

1.4 Benefit of drainage

1.5 Principales méthodes de drainage

1.6 Classification of drains

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 1

1.7 Tile drainage system

II. SURFACE DRAINAGE

2.1 Gross command area

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 2

III. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

3.1 Definition du drainage par tuyaux enterrés

IV. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF DRAINAGE TECHNIQUES

4.1 Definition of impact

V. ADVANCES IN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

5.1 Various drainage investigations

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 3

5.4.1 Mole drainage

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 4

1.2 NEEDS FOR DRAINAGE

1.2.1 Related definitions to drainage

(i) Ponding: the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface.

1.2.2 Drainage to control ponding

1.2.3 Drainage to control water logging

1.2.4 Drainage to control salinization

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 5

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 6

1.2.5 Needs to control field water table

- The water table is the upper boundary of the groung water;

NOTE: The relationship of subsurface drainage to root development is illustrated in the

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 7

1.3 SALINITY AND WATER LOGGING

1.3.1 Definition of water logging

1.3.2 Causes of water logging

1) Inadequate surface dranage

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 8

1.3.3 Effects of water logging

1) Inhabiting activity of soil bacteria

NOTE: Effects of water logging (Explanations)

1. Inhabiting activity of soil bacteria

2. The fall in soil temperature

3. Defective air circulation

1.3.4 Remedial measures for a waterlogged land

1) Efficient surface drainage networks

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 9

2) By means of subsurface drainage networks

1.3.5 Salinity process

1.3.6 Effects of soil salinity

The salinity of the soil results in:

1.3.7 Causes of salinity

1) Rise of water table

1.3.8 Leaching process

1.3.9 Reclamation of salt affected land

1) By ensuring ant-water logging measures

Lecture notes by: Mr. Félicien MAJORO, January 2012 Page 10