STRENGTH OF MATERIALS - 2

(CEN 3200)

LABORATORY MANUAL

SUBMITTED BY:

NAME: ___________________________

REGISTRATION NO: ___________________________

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB LAHORE

0
 University of Central Punjab
(Incorporated by Ordinance No. XXIV of 2002 promulgated by Government of the Punjab)

Table of Contents
Sr
Description
No.
I Safety instructions for Strength of Materials laboratory.

II Guidelines on preparing lab reports.

III Lab Evaluation Criteria.

IV Laboratory operation agreement.

To perform the tension test on

 Hot rolled deformed mild steel specimen.
1.
 Tor steel specimen.
 Cast iron specimen.

To determine Euler critical buckling load for different end conditions using
2.
ST370 Column Buckling Apparatus.

To Perform Torsion test on

 Steel Specimen.
3.
 Brass Specimen.
 Aluminum Specimen.

4. Determination of Shear Center of a Cantilever Channel Section.

To determine the critical buckling load and initial imperfection of a pin ended
5.
column using South-well plot Technique.

6. To determine stress-strain using Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges.

7. To Study bending of a Z-section Cantilever Beam.

 SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS FOR STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
LABORATORY

OUTLINE

This document is intended to ensure safe working laboratory conditions of the Structural Engineering
Laboratory. Students are expected to conduct all the jobs in a risk-free manner and thus, respect the
physical welfare of their fellow students and themselves. Students are required to read and comprehend
all the contents of this document and are required to sign the Laboratory Operation Agreement, at the
end of this document. The contents of this document may not be comprehensive; therefore,
supplemental safety procedures may be required as each situation warrants.

LABORATORY SAFETY GUIDELINES

 BE PREPARED. Read and fully comprehend the lab procedure as set forth in the lab manual
before you begin any experiment. If you do not understand the procedure, see your instructor.
 KNOW THE HAZARDS OF ANY MATERIALS OR MACHINERY YOU ARE
WORKING WITH. The laboratory manual and/or instructor will review specific safety issues
on individual experiments before you perform any tests.
 THINK SAFETY. Work safely and carefully. No horseplay.
 Do not use damaged equipment.
 Do not attempt to oil, clean, adjust or repair any machine/equipment while it is running.
 Do not try to stop any machine with your hand or body.
 Do not carry materials and/or equipment between lab and store room by hand. Use appropriate
carriers, trays, racks and carts.
 NEVER WORK ALONE. All laboratory students must be supervised. If a student is required
to make-up a lab due to absence during their regular lab hours, then the student must make
arrangements not to be alone in the lab.
 Perform lab work in the designated lab area, not in other areas (such as storage, hallway,
corridor, etc.)
 Do not store or leave materials on floors or other places where people could trip over them.
 Do not leave equipment unattended when it is operating.
 Keep fingers, hands and arms out of “pinch points” in load assembly, i.e. points where
movement of the heads on the test machine could trap or crush these appendages.
  FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH THE LOCATION OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT
(such as fire extinguishers, eyewash stations and first aid kits), evacuation routes and other
safety practices of the lab.
 Protect any breakable containers with appropriate protection with wrapping to safeguard
against breakage and explosion.
 Store breakable containers in chemically-resistant trays or overwrap containers.
 Clean up spills and broken glass etc. immediately.
 All students must wear appropriate safety equipment based on specific experimental
requirements.
 All students must wear appropriate laboratory attire. No open toed shoes; no loose fitting
clothing; jewelry should be removed; long hair should be tied back.
 No food or beverage must be allowed in the laboratory.
 KNOW EMERGENCY PROCEDURES. Make note of fire escape routes.
 Doorways and walkways within the lab shall not be blocked or used for storage.
 All tools and equipment shall be returned to their proper storage location after use.
 Immediately report any perceived safety hazards including any spills, equipment malfunctions,
and injuries to your instructor or staff member.
 Keep your work area clean.
 FAILURE TO CONFORM TO ANY OF THE ABOVE RULES MAY RESULT IN NOT
BEING ALLOWED TO PARTICIPATE IN THE LABORATORY EXPERIMENT.

FIRE SAFETY

In case of fire:
 EVACUATE IMMEDIATELY, checking your immediate area to ensure everyone leaves the
building. Close doors when leaving.
 USE THE STAIRWAYS, NOT THE ELEVATORS!
 Touch closed doors with your hand before opening to check for heat that may indicate a fire
on the other side. Look through the window for signs of smoke.
 If you need to travel through smoke, stay low and breathe through a wet cloth, if possible.
 Do not enter the building until the safety personnel gives an all-clear sign.
 Locate all the fire safety equipment near your laboratory. Memorize your escape routes
including how many flights of stairs are associated with each one.
 GUIDELINES ON PREPARING LAB REPORTS

Each student will maintain a lab notebook for each lab course. He / She will write a report for each experiment
performed in lab. A format has been developed for writing these lab reports.

LAB REPORT FORMAT

The format of the report will include:

1. Objective: What are the learning goals of the experiment?

2. Introduction/ Related Theory: Introduce area explored in the experiment.
3. Measurements/Procedure: How the experiment is performed.
a. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the experiment and how
they were resolved?
b. Graphs: Draw graphs and show important points and calculations if any.
4. Conclusions: What conclusions can be drawn from the measurements?
5. Applications: Suggest a real-world application where this experiment may apply.
 LAB EVALUATION CRITERIA

LABS WITHOUT PROJECTS

1. Experiments and their report 40%

2. Quizzes (2-3) 20%
3. Lab Viva and Lab Performance 40%

NOTICE:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of copying
may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be reported to DC. This may
result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.
 LABORATORY OPERATION AGREEMENT

Date: 09-03-2020

I have read and agree to observe all laboratory safety rules. I understand these rules are to ensure my
own safety, and that of my fellow students, instructors, staff members, and visitors. I will cooperate to
the fullest extent to maintain a safe laboratory environment. I will follow all written and oral
instructions provided by my instructor. I am aware that any violation of these rules may result in not
being allowed to participate in the laboratory experiment, receiving a failing grade, and/or dismissal
from the course.

Name: _______________________________

Registration Number: _______________________________

Signature: _______________________________
JOB # 1

To Perform the Tension Test (ASTM A615/ 615-M)

1. Specimen
 Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar
 Cold Twisted Deformed Steel Bar
 Cast Iron

2. Objectives

 To study the stress strain behavior of the given samples.

 To determine the different mechanical properties of the samples e.g. yield strength,
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility etc.
 To check the adequacy of samples as per standards.

3. Apparatus

 1000 KN Universal testing machine

 Baty’s extensometer ( L.C. = 0.01 mm)
 Spring Divider
 Vernier Calipers (L.C. = 0.05 mm )
 Steel Ruler
 Electronic Weighing Balance

4. Related Theory
4.1. Steel

Steel is an alloy with major component as iron with carbon content between 0.06%
to 2 % by weight.

4.1.1. Types of steel based upon carbon content

 Low carbon steel: (carbon contents up to 0.25% by weight of steel)

 Medium carbon steel: (carbon contents ranges from 0.25% to 0.45% by weight)
 High carbon steel: (carbon contents ranges from 0.45% to 1.50% by weight)
4.1.2. Types of steel based on fabrication
 Hot Rolled:
 Hot Rolled Plain Steel Bars
 Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars

Hot Rolled deformed steel bars having ribs / protrusions on the surface are most
commonly used in reinforced cement concrete (RCC).

 Cold Twisted / Cold Worked:

By applying pre-calculated twist to the hot rolled deformed steel bars, yielding
portion is eliminated in steel, after twisting at the normal temperature that is why it
is called twisted steel. Commercial name is Torr Steel.

 Advantages

We can fully utilize the strength of the material by sacrificing ductility.

 Disadvantages

Ductility / Warning before failure is decreased as the yielding zone is eliminated.

4.2. Properties of Steel

 Tensile Strength
It is maximum tensile stress that a material can withstand before failure.

 Hardness

Resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

 Scratch Hardness
 Indentation Hardness
 Rebound Hardness

 Ductility
It is a mechanical property defining the extent to which material can be deformed
without fracture. Ductility gives the warning before failure. Two parameters
indicating ductility are

 % age elongation
 % age reduction in area
4.3. Stress-Strain Curve

It is the graph between stress and strain. The data obtained from experiment is load
and elongation. Stress is obtained by dividing load and x-section area. Strain is
obtained by dividing gauge length and elongation.

The stress-strain diagram consists of four stages

 Elastic: The stress range in which a material will recover its original form when
the force (or. loading) is removed
 Yielding: The stress range in which a material like steel deforms without the
increase of stress.
 Strain Hardening: The stress range after yielding in which the particles of the
material like steel rearrange themselves to take stress again.
 Necking: Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after the ultimate
strength is called necking.

From yielding stage, some permanent plastic deformation occurs.

Typical Stress Strain Curve of Mild Steel Specimen

4.4. Components of Stress-Strain Curve

 Proportional Limit

Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that stress
is linear function of strain. Brittle material has no proportional limit. Up to
proportional limit, the stress strain relationship is linear & elastic.

 Plastic Range
The region extending from plastic limit to the point of fracture or failure is called
as plastic range.

 Tensile / Ultimate Strength

Maximum or highest ordinate (Stress) on the Stress-Strain diagram is called as

Tensile / Ultimate Strength of the sample. It is commonly considered as the
maximum strength of the material.

 Rupture / Fracture / Breaking Strength

Rupture or breaking strength is the stress at failure. Rupture strength is always less
than the ultimate strength. For brittle material, the ultimate and rupture strength is
almost same.

 Modulus of Elasticity
It is the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain in case of steel. It is determined as
the slope of straight line from zero to proportional limit of the stress-strain diagram.

The stress-strain linear relationship was discovered by Robert Hook in 1676 and is
known as Hook’s Law. It is mathematically represented as

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖

Where E is represented as modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus with units of

stress. For mild steel E = 200000𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 200 GPa.

 Yield Point & Yielding

A point in the stress strain curve after which there is an increase in strain with no
significant increase in stress is called as yield point & the phenomenon is called as
yielding. The stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield strength of the
material, which if represented in “ksi” gives the grade of steel.
 Proof Stress
It is the stress corresponding to the point of the material having no clear indication
of the yield point & this yield point is obtained from the graphical solution of stress-
strain curve.

 Resilience and modulus of Resilience:

The ability of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range (without permanent
deformation) is called as resilience.

Modulus of resilience is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as a

sample’s tensile force is increased
from zero to proportional limit
(P.L). It is calculated as the total
area under the stress-strain
diagram up to the proportional
limit. Its unit is Psi or MPa.

Mathematically,
2
1 1 𝜎𝑃.𝐿
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎𝑃.𝐿 . 𝜖𝑃.𝐿 =
2 2 𝐸
 Toughness and modulus of toughness:

The ability of the material to absorb the energy up to the plastic range (permanent
deformations) is called as toughness.

The work done on a unit volume of material as a simple tensile force is gradually
increased from zero to the value causing rupture is defined as the Modulus of
Toughness. This may be
calculated as the entire area under
the stress-strain curve from the
origin to rupture. Its unit is Psi or
MPa. It is denoted by Ut and it can
be measured by integration,
plotting graph on auto-cad,
counting no. of boxes under the
graph and multiplying with area
of one box.
  Residual Strain

When the material is located beyond the elastic limit then after unloading the
material does not come back to its original position and there is a permanent
deformations/set in the specimen, which is called residual strain. So these are the
strain corresponding to produce permanent set or permanent change in shape.

 Specific Strength

Ratio of ultimate / tensile strength to the specific weight (weight per unit volume)
is called as specific strength. Its units are of length.

 Elasticity

The ability of the material to regain its original shape and size after the removal of
the load. The elastic strain is the reversible change in the dimension of the body.

 Plasticity

The property of the material by which it retains the shape given to it. A plastic strain
is deformation or change in dimension which is irreversible and remains in after the
load has been removed.

4.5. Methods of finding Yield Point

Following four methods can be used for finding yield point.

 Luder Line’s Method

` This method is named after a British researcher

“when the specimen yields a pattern of fine lines
appears on the polished surface, they roughly
interact at right angle to each other and 450
approximately to the longitudinal axis of the
bar. If the rod is not painted, then the
metallurgical coating formed over the rod’s
surface during manufacturing and drop down
indicating yielding.
 Offset Method

This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress strain
diagram at 0.2 % strain.

 Specific Strain Method

Yield occurs at a specified strain value and this value is 0.5 % i.e. yielding stress is
the stress corresponding to 0.5 % of strain.
  Halting of Machine or Drop of Beam Method

To access the yielding of material, when machine halts, it is indication of yielding.

This is valid for machines where there is needle. In other case, when the beam of
the machine drops/dips, it’s the indication of yielding. These methods are valid for
hot rolled mild steel.

4.6. Terminologies regarding Steel Specimen:

 Gauge Length
It is the length between two marks on the bars. It’s a reference length for the
determination of elongation.

 For Mild Steel G.L = 5 x D(Nominal Diameter)

𝑀 (𝑘𝑔)
 For Torr Steel G.L = 5.65 √𝑆𝑜 So = 𝑘𝑔
2
0.00785 ( 𝑚𝑚 ). 𝐿 (𝑚)
𝑚

 For Cast Iron, G.L = 50 mm

G.L
Marked Gauge Length on the Bars = 2

 Percentage Elongation

The change in length per unit original length expressed in percentage.

L𝑓 −Lo
% age Elongation = x100
Lo

Lo = original Length of sample Lf = final length of the sample

 Percentage Reduction in Area

Reduction in x-sectional area per unit original area expressed in percentage.

Ao −𝐴f
% age reduction in X-Area = x100
Ao

Ao = original x- sectional area Af = Actual Rupture Area

4.7. Preferred nominal sizes

4.8. Tolerances

 Tolerance on mass

 Deviation on Size:
Deviation on size or dimension should not exceed 8% of nominal dimension in any
case. It can be calculated as follows:
(𝐷)𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙−(𝐷)𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
Deviation on Size =
(𝐷)𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
× 100
  Minimum Length of bar for Tension Test:
Length of test specimen should be larger of either 600mm or 20D where D is the
nominal diameter of the specimen. This is because of following reasons:

 So that %age elongation can be checked more easily.

 Specimen can be fixed easily in the machine.
 So that it can present better visual results.

 Tensile Properties:

4.9. Measurement of Ductility

Ductility is a qualitative, subjective property of the material. In general, measurement

of ductility is of interest in three ways.

 To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in metal
working operations such as rolling and extrusions.
 To indicate to the designer, in a way, the ability of the metal to follow plastically
before fracture. A high ductility indicates that the metal is forgiving and likely to
deform locally without fracture.
  To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions.
The conventional measures of ductility that are obtained from the tension test are the
strain at fracture (usually called elongation) & the reduction of area at fracture. Both
of these properties are obtained after fracture by putting the specimen back together
and taking measurements of length and cross sectional area.

Because an appreciable fraction of the plastic deformations will be concentrated in

the necked region of the tension specimen. The value of rupture strain (elongation)
will depend upon the gauge length over which the measurements was taken. The
smaller the gauge length, the greater would be the contribution to the overall
elongation from the necked region and the higher will be the value of rupture strain.
Therefore, when reporting values of percentage elongation, the gauge length Lo
always should be given.

4.10. Failure Patterns

 Cast Iron Failure in tension Test

Cast iron is brittle material which is week
in tension as compared to shear, so it
should fail in tension. The maximum
tensile stress due to tensile loading
develops at 900 hence cast iron fails at 900
with longitudinal axis.
  Mild Steel failure in Tension
As mild steel is a ductile material which is week in shear as compared to tension so
it should fail in shear. As maximum shearing stress developed at 450 therefore,
failure plane in mild steel occurs roughly at 450 with the longitudinal axis.

5. Procedure

 First of all, we took the samples for testing purpose and measured their physical
properties i.e. length and diameter of the sample etc. The physical properties were
measured by taking the average of 4 readings so that probability of errors can be
reduced.
 Then we marked the gauge length (calculated according to specifications) on the
samples and then punched them with the help of jib and hammer.
 Now the sample was ready for the test.
 Now we put the sample in the jaws of 1000KN UTM machine for the testing purpose.
 Then we increased the load gradually and measured the readings on extensometer
already present in the machine.
  After the failure of sample, we again measured the physical properties. Also we
measured the increased length of sample with respect to the reference length.
 Then we made calculations and plotted down the graph.

6. Observations and Calculations

Name of Specimen =

6.1 Measurements Before Test

Length of bar = Lo =

Mass of bar = M =

Density of bar = ρ =

Diameter of bar = Do = ⸫Density = Mass / Volume

π
Cross sectional area of bar = Ao = D𝑜 2 =
4

Gauge length = G.L =

Least Count of Extensometer = L.C =

6.2 Measurements After Test

Length of bar = Lf =

Diameter of bar at the point of Necking= Df =

π
Cross Sectional Area of bar at the point of Necking = Af = D𝑓 2 =
4

=
6.3 Calculations
Lf − Lo
% age elongation in length = ⨯ 100 =
Lo

Ao − Af
% age reduction in area = ⨯ 100 =
Ao
6.4 Observation Table

Extension
Sr. Spring %age Nominal
Load meter Extension Strain
No Divider Strain Stress Remarks
Reading
𝜹= 𝜹 𝜹 𝑷
P E.M.R S.D.R ⨯ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝝈=
E.M.R⨯L.C 𝑮. 𝑳 𝑮. 𝑳 𝑨𝒐
N - mm mm - - MPa

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
6.5 Percentage Strain vs Stress Graph
6.6 Observation Table for Percentage Elongation vs Gauge Length

Cumulative Elongated
Sr.No. Elongation %age Elongation
Gauge Length Length

mm mm mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

6.7 Percentage Elongation Vs Gauge Length Graph:

6.8 Modulus of Elasticity (E):

6.9 Modulus of Resilience (Ur):

6.10 Modulus of Toughness

6.11 Table of Results

Sr.
Specimen Name
No
1. Stress at proportional limit (𝛔𝐏.𝐋)
2. Stress at yielding point (𝛔𝐲 )

3. Ultimate/ Tensile strength (𝛔𝐮𝐥𝐭 )

4. Stress at Fracture (𝛔𝐅 )
5. %age elongation in length
6. %age reduction in area
7. Modulus of Elasticity (E)
8. Modulus of Resilience (Ur)
9. Modulus of Toughness

7. Applications

8. Comments