7

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphism is the term used to denote the transfor- (1) Thermal or Contact Metamorphism, where rise of tem-
mation of rocks into new types by the recrystallization of perature is the dominant factor. Thermal effects are
their constituents; the term is derived from Greek meta, brought about in contact zones adjacent to igneous
after (signifying a change), and morphe, shape. intrusions; or when sediments are down-folded into
The original rocks may be igneous, sedimentary or hotter regions in the crust.
ones that have already been metamorphosed and changes (2) Dynamic or Dislocation Metamorphism, where the
which occur in them result from the addition of heat or dominant control is stress, as in belts of shearing.
the operation of pressure. Heat and pressure are the (3) Regional Metamorphism, where both temperature
agents of metamorphism which impart energy to the and pressure have operated over a large (regional)
rocks, sufficient to mobilize the constituents of minerals area.
and reassemble them as new minerals whose composition
and crystal lattice are in equilibrium with existing condi- Figures which illustrate the typical occurrence of these
tions. Such processes transform, or metamorphose the classes of metamorphism are listed in Table 7.1.
rocks and can impose upon them a metamorphic texture
that may be entirely different from the texture they ori- Table 7.1 Figures illustrating the occurrence of
ginally possessed. The superimposition of textures en- metamorphism
ables the history of metamorphic rocks to be defined
especially when the composition and orientation of new Contact metamorphism adjacent to
minerals reflect the temperature of metamorphism and small intrusions: 5.6. 5.7, 5.9, 5.10
the prevailing direction of stress (Fig. 7.1). larger intrusions: 5.3, 5.13, 5.14. 5.27, 7.3
Dislocation metamorphism associated with thrusts:2.3, 2,6,
7.11
Cleavage Regional metamorphism associated with fold belts:2.3, 2.4,
2.17b, 7.6, 7.11

Contact metamorphism
The intrusion of a hot igneous mass such as granite or
Bedding gabbro produces an increase of temperature in the sur-
rounding rocks (or 'country-rocks'). This increase pro-
motes the recrystallization of some or all of the compo-
nents of the rocks affected, the most marked changes
occurring near the contact with the igneous body. When
recrystallization can develop uninhibited by an external
stress acting on the rocks, the new minerals grow hap-
hazardly in all directions and the metamorphosed rock
acquires a granular fabric, which is known as the hornfels
Fig. 7.1 Cleavage in slate, formed at right angles to the
texture (p. 136).
maximum compression during metamorphism of the original During the metamorphism there may also be a transfer
sediment. t c =trace of cleavage on bedding, t b = trace of bed- of material at the contact, when hot gases from the ig-
ding on cleavage surface. neous mass penetrate the country-rocks, the process
known as pneumatolysis (p. 109). The country-rocks are
not melted, but hot emanations such as carbonic acid,
Metamorphic minerals grow in solid rock, their de- SO2, water vapour, and volatile compounds of boron and
velopment being aided by solvents, especially water ex- fluorine, percolate into them and result in the formation
pelled from remaining pores and the dehydration of clay of new minerals. Temperatures may range from about
minerals. 500 to 8000C during pneumatolysis (p. 109), and asso-
Three broad classes of metamorphism, depending on ciated hydrothermal emanations may carry ore-metals
the controls exercised by temperature and pressure, may such as Sn, Zn, and Fe which are deposited as mineral
be distinguished: veins in fissures in the country-rocks.
Dislocation metamorphism Fabric
Where stress is the principal control and temperature is The term fabric is used to denote the arrangement of
subordinate, as in zones affected by strong shearing mineral constituents and textural elements in a rock, in
movements, the rocks undergo dislocation metamorphism, three dimensions. This is particularly useful in meta-
with the production of cataclastic textures (p. 141); these morphic rocks, as it enables the preferred orientation of
result from the mechanical breakdown of the rocks under minerals, when present, to be described with reference to
stress, e.g. by shearing or brecciation. broader structures. Thus, rocks are either isotropic, when
there is no orderly arrangement of their components (as
Regional metamorphism in hornfels); or anisotropic (as in schists) when there is
The operation of stresses as well as rise of temperature parallel orientation of minerals, often well developed.
results in recrystallization, with the formation of new Relict textures from an original sediment, such as banding
minerals many of which grow with their length or flat due to variation in composition, may also be preserved in
cleavage surfaces at right angles to the direction of the the fabric of the equivalent metamorphic rock (Fig. 7.1).
maximum compressive stress (Fig. 7.1). High tempera- In graded bedding (Figs. 2.1; 6.6) for example, the upper
tures and stresses are produced in orogenic belts of the (clayey) part of a graded bed will show conspicuous
crust, and regional metamorphic rocks are found in these crystals grown from the clays (e.g. andalusite), in contrast
great fold-belts where they have become exposed after to the equigranular crystals of quartz, formed from the
denudation. Many components of the rocks have ac- sandy base of the bed.
quired a largely parallel orientation, which gives the rocks Terms commonly used to describe the shape and size
characteristic textures: the oriented texture produced by of metamorphic minerals, and their fabric, are listed in
platy or columnar minerals is known as schistosity Table 7.2.
(Fig. 7.2), and an alteration of schistose layers with others
Table 7.2 Commonly used terms for describing
metamorphic rock texture: all may be used as field terms

1. Banding.
Foliation = series of parallel surfaces. (Fig. 7.6)
Lineation = series of parallel lines as produced by the
trace of foliation on a rock surface; e.g. the wall of a
tunnel (Figs 7.1, 7.8, 7.10)
2. Visible crystallinity.
Phaneritic = individual crystals can be distinguished
Aphanitic = granularity from the presence of crystals
can be seen but individual crystals cannot be
Fig. 7.2 Block diagrams to illustrate schistosity. (a) Parallel
distinguished
orientation of mica crystals in mica-schist; quartz grains lie
3. Crystal size. .
between the micaceous layers, (b) Oriented hornblende
Coarse= >2.0mm T
prisms in hornblende-schist.
Medium = 2.0-0.06 mm_ .L -Pbaneritic.
Fine= <0.06mm
4. Relative crystal size.
less schistose gives the banded texture known as foliation Granoblastic = all crystals are approximately the same
(p. 140). Argillaceous rocks under the influence of mod- size
erate to low temperature and high stress develop slaty Porphyroblastic = larger crystals surrounded by much
cleavage (p. 139). smaller crystals. (Fig 7.9)

Crystal shape and fabric

Classification
The crystalline shape of a metamorphic mineral partly
determines the ease of its growth during metamorphism; The visible character most useful for the classification of
thus micas and chlorites, with a single cleavage, grow as metamorphic rock is the presence or absence of foliation
thin plates oriented perpendicular to the maximum stress, (see Fig. 7.1). In Table 7.3 the common metamorphic
and amphiboles such as hornblende grow in prismatic rocks are classified under three headings that describe the
forms with length at right angles to the maximum stress. anisotropy created by foliation.
Some minerals of high crystallization strength, e.g. garnet The names of most metamorphic rocks are prefixed by
and andalusite, grow to a relatively large size in meta- the names of the minerals they contain, e.g. quartz-bio-
morphic rocks and are then called porphyroblasts, i.e. tite-schist. When the original rock type is known the
conspicuous crystals in contrast to those which make up prefix met a may be used, e.g. metasandstone, or metagab-
the rest of the rock. Feldspars and quartz have low and bro. Metamorphosed arenaceous sediments (i.e. sands)
nearly equal strengths of crystallization, and meta- may be described zspsammitic, e.g. psammitic gneiss, and
morphic rocks composed of quartz and feldspar show metamorphosed argillaceous sediments (i.e. silts and
typically a granular texture (granulites). clays) as pelitic, e.g. pelitic gneiss.
 ORIGINALMATERIAL METAMORPHIC EQUIVALENT

Clays & silts Slate, Phyllite, Schist WELL

Volcanic ash (Fig. 7.1) (Figs. 7.2a, 7.4b) FOLIATED
Basic igneous rocks Schist
(Fig. 7.2b)

Migmatite, Gneiss
Mixed detrital terrigenous (Figs 7.9 7.10) MODERATELY
Acid igneous rocks Granulite FOLIATED
(Fig. 7.6b)
All rock types of all grain sizes Mylonite

Sand Quartzite
Limestone Marble (Fig. 7.4c) NO NOTICEABLE
Amphibolite FOLIATION
Base igneous rocks Serpentine
Hornfels Ecfogite
All rock types
(Fig. 7.4a)
Clay Silt Sand Gravel Guide to grain size divisions in igneous and sedimentary
Dykes Plutonic rocks rocks.
Volcanic rocks
& sills

Contact metamorphism amount of heat that was transferred, i.e. on the size and
temperature of the igneous body, and is also related to
The effects of contact metamorphism on the main sedi- the steepness or otherwise of the contact (Table 7.4).
mentary rock types (shale, sandstone, limestone) are now
discussed, assuming rise of temperature to be the domi- Table 7.4 The reduction in temperature away from an
nant and controlling factor. At the contact zone border- intrusion similar to that in Fig. 7.3
ing an igneous mass an aureole of metamorphism is de-
veloped (Fig. 7.3). Within the aureole, zones of increasing Basic intrusion Acid intrusion
(e.g. gabbro) (e.g. granite)
metamorphism can be traced as the contact is
approached, and they are distinguished by the growth of magma 12000C 8000C
new minerals. The width of the aureole depends on the contact 9000C 65O0C
0.1 km 82O0C 600°C
1.0 km 6800C 5000C
10.0 km 35O°C 3200C

Igneous rocks

Contact metamorphism of a shale or clay

An argillaceous rock such as shale is made up of very
small particles, most of which are clay minerals and are
essentially hydrated aluminium silicates; with them are
Aureole
small sericite (secondary white mica)flakesand chlorite,
and smaller amounts of colloidal silica, colloidal iron
oxide, carbon, and other substances. The two dominant
oxides in a clay or shale, as would be given in a chemical
analysis, are thus SiO2 and Al2O3, and when the shale is
subjected to heat over a long period the aluminium silicate
Fig. 7.3 Map of part of a metamorphic aureol around an
andalusite, or its variety chiastolite (Fig. 4.34), is formed.
intrusive igneous mass; small area near B is a relic of denuded Cordierite (Fig. 4.36) is another mineral frequently
roof of the intrusion. Below, section along the line AB; bed- formed at the same time; it grows as porphyroblasts in
ding of sediments not shown. the metamorphosed shales.
 In the outermost zone of the aureole, farthest from the Contact metamorphism of a sandstone
contact, small but noticeable changes are produced: the A siliceous rock such as sandstone is converted into a
shales are somewhat hardened and specks of opaque mag- metamorphic quartzite. The original quartz grains of the
netite are formed. Somewhat nearer the contact incipient sandstone (and siliceous cement if present) are recrystal-
crystals of chiastolite and cordierite appear, as small dark lized as an interlocking mosaic of quartz crystals. Partial
spots; and with further progress towards the igneous con- fusion of the mass may occur in special circumstances,
tact andalusite and cordierite are better developed, as but rarely. Constituents other than quartz in the cement
distinct spots, and small flakes of biotite have grown from between the grains give a rise to new minerals, depending
the chlorite and sericite in the shale. This is the spotted- on their composition: e.g. a little biotite (from clay), and
rock zone in Fig. 7.3. The recrystallization is continued in magnetite (from iron oxide, as in a ferruginous sand-
the zone nearest the contact, including the growth of stone). The bulk of the rock consists essentially of quartz.
muscovite flakes and quartz and larger magnetites;
crystals of rutile (TiO2, tetragonal) may also be present, Contact metamorphism of a limestone
derived from titanium in the original sediment. The shale Limestones are made up mainly of calcium carbonate,
has now been completely recrystallized, and is called a together with some magnesium carbonate, silica, and
hornfels, or to give it its full name, a biotite-andalusite- minor constituents, and the metamorphic product is a
cordierite-hornfels. It is hard, with a 'horny' fracture, marble.
and has a finely granular hornfels texture (Fig. 7.4). In (O In the ideal case of a pure calcium carbonate rock

Quartz Biotite
Cordierite
Calcite
Biotite. Forsterite
Quartz

Fig. 7.4 Metamorphic rocks in thin

section, (a) Biotite-cordierite-quartz-
hornfels; the rounded cordierite contains
many inclusions, (b) Mica-schist with
garnets, (c) Forsterite-marble (all x 15).

some hornfelses, next to a high temperature contact, the marble would be composed entirely of grains of cal-
needle-shaped crystals of sillimanite may be formed from cite. The coarseness of texture of the rock depends on the
excess alumina, in addition to the other minerals. The degree of heating to which it has been subjected, larger
'zones' described above are not sharply separated but crystals growing if the metamorphism is prolonged. Dis-
grade into one another; and it is assumed that there has sociation of the carbonate into CaO and CO2 is prevented
been neither addition nor subtraction of material during by the operation of pressure. Examples of rocks with a
the metamorphism. high degree of purity are provided by the statuary mar-
Localities in Britain where the sequence of rock types bles.
- shale (or slate) -• spotted rock -• hornfels - is found in (H) In the metamorphism of a limestone in which some
contact aureoles include those around the granites of content of silica is present, as quartz grains or in colloidal
Cornwall and Devon (where also mineralized veins have form, the following reaction takes place in addition to the
been formed); and in Scottish aureoles as at the Ben Nevis crystallization of calcite:
granite or the Insch (Aberdeenshire) gabbro. An interest- CaCO3 +SiO2-^CaSiO3 (wollastonite) + CO2
ing case is that of the Skiddaw granite, Cumbria, which giving a wollastonite-marble, as in parts of the Carbon-
is exposed over only three small areas, each less than a iferous Limestone of Carlingford, Ireland (metamor-
kilometre across, in the valleys of streams flowing from phosed by gabbro intrusions). The mineral wollastonite
the north-east side of the mountain. Over a considerable forms white or grey tabular, translucent crystals.
area of adjacent ground, however, there are exposures of (Hi) During contact metamorphism of a magnesian or
chiastolite-bearing rock, indicating the existence of the dolomitic limestone the dolomite is dissociated, thus:
granite at no great depth below the present surface, and CaCO3-MgCO3-^CaCO3 (calcite)
marking a stage in the process of unroofing of the granite + MgO (periclase) + CO2
by denudation. The periclase is readily hydrated to form brucite,
Mg(OH)2, in colourless tabular hexagonal crystals, and
the product is a brucite-marble. Blocks of this rock have
been ejected from Vesuvius; British occurrences of bru- as calcium-feldspar (after zeolite) and amphibole (after
cite-marble are in Skye and in the north-west Highlands. chlorite and epidote).
When silica and dolomite are both present, the mag- Igneous rocks which were much weathered before
nesium silicate forsterite, an olivine, (p. 72) is formed metamorphism may acquire calc-silicate minerals (e.g.
together with calcite, CO2 being lost in the reaction, thus: Ca-garnet) derived from calcium and Al-silicates in the
2CaCO3.MgCO3 + SiO2-+2CaCO3 (calcite) original rock, and hornblende from chlorite. Andesites
+ Mg2SiO4 (forsterite) + 2CO2. and andesitic tuffs during contact metamorphism may
The metamorphosed rock is aforsterite-marble (Fig. 7.4); develop many smallflakesof brown mica and crystals of
a British locality for this is at Kilchrist, Skye. If the further magnetite, as in the Shap Granite contact zone. Basic
change from forsterite to serpentine takes place (by hy- granulites (rocks of equigranular texture, p. 141) are
dration) the rock becomes a serpentine-marble. The white formed from basic rocks such as gabbro by prolonged
calcite streaked with green serpentine in the marble gives high-grade metamorphism, involving high temperature
an attractive decorative stone, e.g. the Connemara Mar- and complete recrystallization; pyroxenes and plagioclase
ble of Ireland. are the main minerals. The term granulite is used broadly
(iv) When clay is present as well as silica in the original for rocks in which the main minerals are roughly equi-
rock, minerals such as tremolite and diopside (Ca-Mg- dimensional (see further under regional metamorphism).
silicates) and CaAl-garnets are formed by the meta-
morphism, in addition to calcite, and the resulting rock is
a calc-silicate-hornfels. Its mineral composition varies Pneumatolysis
according to the amounts of different substances in the
original limestone; the textures of these rocks tend to be In the foregoing discussion it has been assumed that there
coarse because of the fluxing action of dissociated has been no transfer of material from the igneous body
MgCO3, and the rock is often very hard. across the contact and that metasomatic changes (i.e.
A zone of calc-silicate-hornfels was passed through by changes of substance) have involved only the recombin-
the Lochaber water-power tunnel at Ben Nevis; this ex- ing of original constituents and loss of gas. It frequently
tremely hard rock together with baked schists at a granite happens that the volatile substances accumulated in the
contact, reduced the rate of progress of the tunnel exca- upper part of a body of magma as it crystallized, pass
vation to half the average rate. (Halcrow, W. T., 1930- into the country-rocks at a moderately high temperature
31.) stage in the cooling process of the igneous mass. Their
Many varieties of marble may arise, some beautifully reaction with the rock is called pneumatolysis
coloured because of traces of substances in the original (pneuma = gases), and can affect rocks, as indicated on
sediment. Decorative stones of this kind are exported p. 109). The emanating volatiles include compounds of
from Italy and Greece. The rocks are cut into thin slabs, boron, fluorine, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and
with one surface polished, and are used as panels for others; characteristic minerals such as tourmaline, topaz,
interior decoration; advantage may be taken of any pat- axinite, fluorspar (q.v.), and kaolin are formed near a
tern due to veining or zones of brecciation by arranging contact under these conditions.
the slabs symmetrically in groups of two or four. The
white Carrara Marble (N.W. Italy) is a metamorphosed Tourmaline
Jurassic limestone. This is formed by the pneumatolytic action of boron
Unfortunately the term 'marble' is also used as a trade and fluorine on mafic minerals (p. 79). It has a high con-
name for any soft rock that will take a polish easily, and tent of alumina (between 30 and 40%) and is found also
includes many limestones used as decorative stones on in rocks of clayey composition adjacent to an igneous
account of their colouring or content of fossils. Among contact. When the biotite of a granite is converted into
these in Britain are the Ashburton 'marble' (a Devonian tourmaline the granite itself is often locally reddened by
coral limestone with stromatoporoids), the Hopton the introduction of iron. The name luxullianite, from a
Wood stone (a Carboniferous crinoidal limestone), and Cornish locality, Luxullian, is given to a tourmalinized
the Purbeck 'marble' (an Upper Jurassic limestone from granite in which the tourmaline occurs as radiating clus-
Dorset, containing the fossil shell Paludina, Fig. 2.14). ters of slender crystals of schorl embedded in quartz
(Fig. 4Ae). Veins of quartz and tourmaline, some carry-
Contact metamorphism of igneous rocks ing cassiterite, are common in certain granite areas.
The effects here are not so striking as in the sedimentary Axinite
rocks, because the minerals of igneous rocks were formed This is a calcium-boron-silicate occurring in contact
at a relatively high temperature and are less affected by metamorphic aureoles where boron has been introduced
re-heating; but some degree of recrystallization is often into limestone or altered rocks containing calcite. Axinite
evident. A basic rock such as dolerite or diabase may be crystals are typically flat and acute-edged (Fig. 4.4/),
converted into one containing hornblende and biotite, brown and transparent with a glassy lustre.
from the original augite and chlorite, the plagioclase
being recrystallized. Secondary minerals that occupy ve- Topaz
sicles, as in amygdaloidal basalt, yield new minerals such This occurs in cavities in acid igneous rocks, often
associated with beryl, tourmaline, and fluorite, and com- weight of overlying rocks and the shearing stresses pro-
monly found in greisen (see below and Fig. 4Ad). duced by the system of unequal principal stresses asso-
ciated with plate movement. From Fig. 2.4 it is evident
Kaolinization that temperature and pressure increase towards the cen-
The term kaolin (or China Clay) is used for the decom- tral root of an orogenic belt and that the grade of meta-
position products that result from the alteration of the morphism will increase with depth. Likewise, concentric
feldspars of granites, and is partly crystalline kaolinite zones may be defined around the root in which operate
and partly amorphous matter. One equation for the different intensities of metamorphism.
change, in which potassium is removed and silica is lib-
erated, is as follows: Metamorphic grades
These can be defined in relation to the temperature and
4KAlSi3O8 + 2CO2 + 4H2O = 2K2CO3 stress conditions that prevail (Fig. 7.5); they are named
orthoclase + Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 8SiO2
kaolinite
Parts of the Cornish granites, as at St Austell, have been

Pressure (x 1O 2 MNAn 2 )
decomposed by this hydrothermal action, giving a soft
mass of quartz, kaolin, and mica which crumbles at the Phyllite

Depth ( km)
touch. In the quarries the kaolinized rock is washed down Schist
by jets of water; the milky-looking fluid is then pumped
from the sumps into which it has drained and allowed to Gneiss
Base of
gravitate through a series of tanks. These removefirstthe Continental Migmatite
crust
mica and quartz, and the kaolin is allowed to settle out of Granulite
suspension as a whitish sludge.
Kaolin is an important economic product, and is used
as a paper filler, and to a lesser extent in pottery manu-
facture and for numerous other purposes as an inert Temperature
absorbent. Fig. 7.5 Grades of increasing metamorphism produced by
the burial of a muddy sediment.
Greisen
Composed essentially of quartz, white mica, and acces- after the main rock types produced, viz. slate, schist, and
sory amounts of tourmaline, fluorite, and topaz, this is gneiss. In the slate grade of metamorphism, low tempera-
formed from granite under certain pneumatolytic condi- ture and high stress differences are the controlling factors
tions; where, for example, the formation OfK2CO3 in the (Fig. 7.1). In the schist grade moderate temperatures and
above equation is inhibited, white mica (secondary mus- moderate stress operate during the metamorphism
covite) is formed from the feldspar of the granite and the (Fig. 7.2). And in the gneiss grade the metamorphism
name greisen is given to the resulting rock. involves high temperatures and low stress differences.
With the gneisses can also be included the granulites,
China-stone which have a texture of nearly equal-sized crystals.
This represents an arrested stage in the kaolinization
of granite; in addition to quartz and decomposed feldspar Zones of regional metamorphism
it frequently contains topaz (Al2SiO4F2) and fluorspar, The existence of metamorphic zones is best revealed by
both of which point to incoming fluorine. the metamorphism of clayey sediments of constant bulk
composition. With a progressive increase in temperature,
zones of increasing metamorphism are defined by the
Regional metamorphism appearance of index-minerals in the rocks. Different
index-minerals come into equilibrium at successively
Rocks which have undergone regional metamorphism higher temperatures, and provide a guide to the tempera-
have a much greater extent at the surface than those ture reached by the rocks containing them. Most of the
formed by contact-metamorphism and may be found ex- metamorphism takes place in the temperature range from
posed over many hundreds of square kilometres. A sub- about 200° to 7000C.
stantial input of energy is required for such metamorph- The sequence of index-minerals in order of rising tem-
ism and occurs at the boundaries of colliding plates. Such perature is: chlorite, biotite, garnet (almandine), stauro-
a boundary is shown in Fig. 1.20 and the location of lite, kyanite, and sillimanite, and the minerals define a
others like it, where regional metamorphism is occurring series of metamorphic zones. In the chlorite-zone (low-
at present, is given in Fig. 1.17. Mountains form from grade metamorphism) the chlorite is formed from sericite
these zones (Figs 2.3 and 2.4) and the deformation that and other minute mineral particles in the original sedi-
occurs within them is illustrated in Fig. 2.176. ment. At a somewhat higher temperature a red-brown
Regional metamorphism develops under the hydro- biotite is formed and marks the beginning of the biotite
static pressure (or confining pressure) arising from the zone. The appearance of abundant pink garnet (alman-
dine, p. 79) defines the next zone; and the rocks are now (p. 141) may be developed. Sillimanite also occurs in the
garnetiferous mica-schists (Fig. IAb). Following the gar- innermost (hottest) parts of some thermal aureoles
net zone, a staurolite zone before the kyanite zone; but (p. 136).
the two minerals commonly occur together. (Staurolite is The above sequence of zones was demonstrated by
a Mg-Fe-Al-silicate, and has a crystal structure com- G. Barrow (1893) from extensive field mapping of rocks
posed of alternate 'layers' of kyanite and ferrous hydrox- in the south-east Scottish Highlands (the area situated
ide.) Kyanite is stable under stress, and the rocks contain- between the Highland Boundary Fault and the Great
ing it are kyanite-schists, formed under moderate to Glen Fault in Fig. 2.18). Here the roots of the Caledonide
high-grade metamorphism. Lastly, sillimanite (p. 79) is mountain chain are exposed (Fig. 7.6): similar zones exist
formed at higher temperatures; the rocks of the sillimanite in the Appalachians which are a continuation of this
zone are schists and gneisses, with which migmatites orogenic belt (Fig. 1.10), and in mountains elsewhere.
Figure 1.6b illustrates some of the folded sediments within
MOlNE THRUST
this orogenic belt. Their layered structure has been pre-
served despite changes that the sediments have sustained.

Slate
Under the influence of high stress combined with low to
moderate temperature, argillaceous sediments such as
shales are compressed and become slate. Minute crystals
of flaky minerals such as chlorite and sericite grow with
their cleavage surfaces at right angles to the direction of
maximum compression and some original minerals, e.g.
quartz grains, recrystallize with their length parallel to
GREAT GLEN FAULT
this direction (Fig. 7.7). The rock thus possesses a prefer-

Fig. 7.7 Change of shape of a grain, e.g. quartz, under

stress, original grain shown by dotted outline. Stress lowers
the melting point, especially where grains touch; solution
takes place there with redeposition along directions at right
angles to the maximum stress direction (arrowed).

ential direction of splitting, or slaty cleavage (to be distin-

guished from mineral cleavage), parallel to the flat sur-
faces of the oriented crystals and independent of original
bedding (Fig. 7.1). Slaty cleavage is often very regular
and perfect, yielding smooth-sided thin plates of rock.
Fossils may be deformed by this metamorphism. The
cleavage pattern can extend over a wide area and cuts
across folds that may be present in the rocks (Fig. 7.8).
The essential minerals are chlorite, sericite and quartz.
Fig. 7.6(a) Metamorphic zones of the Scottish Highlands Some slates are derived fromfine-grainedvolcanic tuffs
S = sillmanite, K = kyanite, A = andalusite, G = garnet, B- (Table 7.3), e.g. the green Cumbrian slates of andesitic
C = biotite-chlorite. Displacement on the Great Glen Fault composition, which have become cleaved during a re-
occurred after the zones had formed and has been reversed
to restore the zones to their original relative positions. Section
gional metamorphism that affected also other rocks.
schematically illustrates structures within the area: compare The commercial value of slate depends upon the per-
with Fig. 2.17b. (Based on Dewey & Pankhurst, 1970.) fection of its cleavage and absence of accessory minerals
(b) Steeply dipping Moine granulites, Loch Moidart, Argyll, such as calcite and pyrite which may weather in acid rain
Scotland. The rocks retain the bedding planes of the original to leave holes.
sediments and are recrystallized quartz-sands. British slate localities include the Bethesda and Llan-
beris quarries, North Wales (Cambrian age), and Pen- together with quartz in variable amount. Quartz grains
rhyn and Bangor slates; Ballachulish, Scotland (black under the influence of stress become elongated (Fig. 7.7)
slates, some with pyrite); Skiddaw quarries, Cumbria and lie with their length in the surface of schistosity.
(green slates formed from the fine ash deposits of Or- Lenticles of quartz and mica alternate in the rock
dovician volcanoes); and Delabole, Cornwall (a deep (Fig. IAb); garnets may be formed if a higher temperature
quarry in grey slates of Upper Devonian age). is reached, and grow as porphyroblasts, tending to push
apart the micaceous layers.
Axial surface
Quartz-schist
Derived from sandy sediment, i.e. is psammitic, with a
Axial surface
smaller clay content than sediment which forms mica-
schist. Certain coarsely foliated rocks of the same deriva-
tion, formed at a higher grade of regional metamorphism,
are the mica-gneisses (Fig. 7.5).

Schists formed from original igneous rocks include the

following:
Cleavage
Chlorite-schist
The metamorphic equivalent of basalt of dolerite, con-
Fig. 7.8 Slaty cleavage in relation to a fold; arrows show sists predominantly of chlorite crystals in parallel orienta-
deforming forces. Cleavage is developed in the direction of tion, often with a little quartz and porphyroblasts of
easiest relief, and is often parallel to the axial surfaces of folds. magnetite or garnet. It is formed under moderate stress
The angle between cleavage and bedding varies, and is and moderate temperature.
greatest at the crest of a fold. tc = trace of cleavage on bed-
ding (see Fig. 7.1). Hornblende-schist
This is also derived from basic rocks such as dolerite,
but at a rather higher grade of metamorphism and con-
Phyllite tains essentially hornblende and quartz (Fig. 1.2b). The
With stresses continuing and if some rise of temperature term amphibolite is used as a group name for meta-
ensues, the above mentioned minerals continue to grow morphic rocks in which hornblende, quartz, and plagio-
to give larger crystals of muscovite and chlorite, and a clase are the main minerals. Hornblende-schist is one
lustrous, finely crystalline rock called phyllite results. member of this group. British examples of hornblende-
With continued metamorphism the minerals increase schist are found in the Dalradian rocks of the Scottish
further in size, leading to the formation of mica-schists. Highlands (Fig. 7.6), as in the Loch Tay area, Perthshire;
There is thus a gradation, and in the Lewisian near Loch Maree, Ross-shire; and in
shale -+ slate -> phyllite -• mica-schist England at Start Point, Devon, and Landewednack,
the several types being formed from original muddy S. Cornwall.
sediment under conditions of increasing grade of meta- Derivatives of ultrabasic rocks such as peridotite and
morphism (Fig. 7.5). dunite (p. 101) include some serpentine-schists and talc-
schists. The latter are composed of talc (a very soft min-
Schist eral) together with some mica. Soft rocks such as talc-
This is a crystalline rock of mainly medium-grained tex- schist and chlorite-schist, and sometimes decomposed
ture, whose mineral constituents can be distinguished mica-shists, may be a source of weakness in engineering
either by eye or with a hand lens. Different varieties of excavations, and fail easily along the foliae. Instances are
schist have been formed from sedimentary or igneous on record where underground works have been hindered
rocks during regional metamorphism, under moderately when such rocks were encountered in tunnelling and bor-
high temperature and pressure. Because of the parallel ing: the schist, when unsupported in a working face, may
orientation of their minerals, schists break into more or begin to move rapidly (or 'flow') under the pressure ex-
less flat fragments or foliae, which have lustrous surfaces erted by the surrounding rocks (see Chapter 16).
and similar mineral composition. The name 'schist' (from
Greek schistos, divided) was originally used to denote this Gneiss
property of splitting into foliae (Figs 7.2 and IAb). Gneiss has a rough banding or foliation, in which pale
Consider first those schists derived from original sedi- coloured bands of quartz and feldspar lie parallel with
mentary material: bands or streaks of mafic minerals; the mafic minerals are
mainly biotite, hornblende, or in some cases pyroxene.
Mica-schist Biotite is often accompanied by muscovite, and garnets
Formed from argillaceous or pelitic sediments such as are common accessory minerals. A gneiss breaks less
shale or clay, and composed of muscovite and biotite readily than a schist and commonly splits across the fol-
iation; it is often coarser in texture than most schists,
though some gneisses are relatively fine-grained.
The term orthogneiss is used for rocks derived from
igneous rocks such as granite by regional metamorphism;
and the name paragneiss is given to those rocks derived
from sediments.
An example of the latter is biotite-gneiss, a high grade
derivative from argillaceous rocks such as shales
(Fig. 7.9). It is composed of bands in which quartz and

Fig. 7.10 Injection gneiss, near Lochinver, Sutherland

(length of hammer head about 1 2cm).

Migmatite
The introduction of igneous (e.g. granitic) material into
country-rocks of various kinds produces mixed rocks or
migmatites (p. 106). In some migmatites the mixing is
mechanical, by the injection of veins or stripes; in others
the mixing is chemical, and arises from the permeation or
soaking of the country-rocks by the invading fluids
(cf. granitization, p. 108). The subject is too extensive for
further consideration here, but we may note that mig-
Fig. 7.9 Biotite-gneiss, Sutherland, showing foliation and matites of many kinds are found in the Precambrian rocks
augen-structure, of Scandinavia and Finland, the Baltic Shield and similar
feldspar are concentrated, and mica-rich bands inter- areas of Precambrian rock (Fig. 2.5); also in areas of high
spersed with them; the proportions of the felsic (/eldspar, grade metamorphism in many orogenic belts.
and light coloured) and mafic (magnesium and /errous
iron, and dark coloured) material may vary according to Granulite
the composition of the original sediment. Biotite-gneiss A rock composed of quartz, feldspar, pyroxene and gar-
thus represents the higher grade of metamorphism in the net in nearly equidimensional grains (granoblastic tex-
series: ture) in which schistosity is less pronounced because the
phyllite-* mica-schist-• biotite-gneiss (see Fig. 7.5) platy minerals, especially mica, are scarce. Granulites are
Some orthogneisses have the composition of a granite or believed to form in conditions of high temperature and
granodiorite, and show bands of quartz-feldspar com- pressure (Figs 7.5 and 1.6b).
position in parallel with streaks of oriented biotite, or
biotite and hornblende. Some of the feldspar in the
quartz-feldspar bands may be clustered into lenticular or Dislocation metamorphism
eye-shaped areas for which the name 'augen' ( = eye) is
used. Such a rock is an augen-gneiss; the foliation is often Dislocation metamorphism occurs on faults and thrusts
deflected around the eye-shaped areas (Fig. 7.9). An ex- where rock is altered by earth movement (see Figs 1.20
ample of augen-gneiss is the metamorphosed granite of and 2.3). Much energy stored in the surrounding crust is
Inchbae, N. Scotland; the porphyritic feldspars of the released along these zones and dislocation metamorphism
original granite are now the augen of the gneiss. The is associated with earthquakes (Chapter 1). Within 10 km
granite was intruded into argillaceous rocks, and a con- of the Earth's surface these movements involve brittle
tact aureole with andalusite-hornfels was developed fracture of rock, the mechanical breaking caused by
around it. When the area underwent a second (regional) shearing, grinding and crushing being termed brecciation
metamorphism, the hornfelses were converted into kyan- or cataclasis ( = breaking down). Major shear zones con-
ite schists and the granite into augen-gneiss. tinue to great depths and below 10 km pressure and tem-
Beautifully striped gneisses can result from the injec- perature may be sufficient for dislocation to occur by
tion of thin sheets of quartz-feldspar material (of igneous plastic deformation. Fine-grained rocks are produced,
origin) along parallel surfaces in the parent rock, and called mylonites (Greek, myion = mi\\).
present a veined, striped appearance; they are called in- Zones of dislocation metamorphism often contain
jection-gneisses (Fig. 7.10). much greater quantities of the minerals mica and amphi-
bole than occur in adjacent rocks. These minerals require into the excavation. This problem seriously delayed the
abundant OH" in their lattice and it is believed they construction of an underground power station at Kariba
formed when the shear zones acted as conduits for the Dam in southern Africa, and bankrupted the contractor.
expulsion of water from the metamorphic belt, water
being the major source of OH ".
Ancient shear zones containing rocks metamorphosed Economic rocks and minerals
by dislocation exist in the roots of the Caledonian moun-
tains in Scotland (the Moine Thrust is one of many: Figs Important industries have developed to extract slate for
2.6 and 2.18), and in ancient mountain belts elsewhere. roofing, marble for ornamental stone, migmatite for fac-
Modern examples exist in the Alpine-Himalayan chain ing buildings and lining floors, and good quality hornfels
(Figs 1.17 and 2.17) and in the circum-Pacific orogenic for ballast. Of greater importance are special minerals
belts (Figs 1.4 and 1.17) in which are exposed the active produced by metamorphism.
shear zones of the Franciscan area in the Coast Ranges Asbestos (p. 74), graphite (p. 84), and talc (p. 80) are
of N. America, of Honshu Island in Japan, and of the found associated with metamorphic rocks but are not
Alpine Fault in New Zealand. restricted in their formation to metamorphism.
Sillimanite (p. 79), kyanite (p. 79) and andalusite
(p. 79) are metamorphic minerals of great value to the
Metamorphic rock associations refractory industry. Porcelain containing these minerals
is endowed with the ability to withstand very high tem-
The associations that have been described are illustrated peratures and exhibit little expansion. Commercial con-
in Fig. 7.11. This pattern of metamorphic conditions can centrations of these minerals occur in Kenya, the Appa-

TEMPERATURE(°C)
Melange
CONTACT MET
Ocean
REGIONAL
METAMORPfIISM

OCE/\/V/ c
PLAT?

Fig. 7.11 Metamorphic rock associations: HP, LP = high and low pressure: HT, LT = high and low temperature. 1 = burial that
results in severe distortion of strata. Ia = burial with the minimum of distortion. Eclogite = rock composed of garnet and
pyroxene and quartz. Melange = a chaotic mixture of rocks associated with major fault zones.

vary and an area once at high pressure and low tempera- lachians, California, India, S. Africa and Western
ture may gradually come under the influence of both high Australia: all are associated with schists.
pressure and high temperature. Many metamorphic rocks Garnet (p. 79) is an important abrasive and mined from
have a fabric and mineralogy that could only have been gneiss in New York, New Hampshire and N. Carolina.
produced by more than one phase of metamorphism. Placer deposits (p. 131) of garnet are worked in many
Numerous extensive excavations into metamorphic countries where the mineral concentration in rock is too
rock, for mines, tunnels, underground storage chambers low for economic extraction by mining.
and machine halls for power stations, have shown that a
mixture of metamorphic rock types must be expected.
Regionally metamorphosed rocks may be thermally meta- Selected bibliography
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tures of complex geometry and develop a new cleavage. rock
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excavation into rocks of such character is accompanied Engineering geology of the Gordon Dam, S.W. Tas-
by the constant risk of slabs of rock becoming detached mania. Q. Jl Engng. GeoL, 9, 1-24.
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