4

Minerals

Minerals are the solid constituents of all rocks, igneous, mineralogist, the commonly occurring silicates are rela-
sedimentary and metamorphic (p. 1), and occur as tively few.
crystals. A mineral can be defined as a natural inorganic
substance having a particular chemical composition or
range of composition, and a regular atomic structure to Physical characters
which its crystalline form is related. Before beginning the
study of rocks it is necessary to know something of the Included under this head are properties such as colour,
chief rock-forming minerals. lustre, form, hardness, cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and
The average composition of crustal rocks is given in specific gravity. Not all of these properties would neces-
Table 4.1 and has been calculated from many chemical sarily be needed to identify any one mineral; two or three
of them taken together may be sufficient, apart from
T a b l e 4.1 The average composition of crustal rocks
optical properties (p. 65). Other characters such as fusi-
bility, fluorescence, magnetism, and electrical conductivity
are also useful in some cases as means of identification,
%
SiO 2 59.26
and will be referred to as they arise in the descriptions of
AI 2 O 3 15.35
mineral species. In a few instances taste (e.g. rock-salt)
Fe2O3 3.14 and touch (e.g. talc, feels soapy) are useful indicators.
FeO 3.74
MgO 3.46 Colour
CaO 5.08 Some minerals have a distinctive colour, for example the
Na 2 O 3.81 green colour of chlorite, but most naturally occurring
K2O 3.12 minerals contain traces of substances which modify their
H2O 1.26 colour. Thus quartz, which is colourless when pure, may
P2O5 0.28 be white, grey, pink or yellow, when certain chemical
TiO 2 0.73
impurities or included particles are present.
rest 0.77
Total: 100.0 Much more constant is the colour of a mineral in the
powdered condition, known as the streak. This may be
produced by rubbing the mineral on a piece of unglazed
analyses. The last item includes the oxides of other metals; porcelain, called a streak-plate, or other rough surface.
and also gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, Streak is useful, for example, in distinguishing the various
chlorine, fluorine, and others; and trace elements, which oxides of iron; haematite (Fe2O3) gives a red streak,
occur in very small quantities. limonite (hydrated Fe2O3) a brown, and magnetite
Table 4.2 lists eight elements in their order of abund- (Fe3O4) a grey streak.
ance in crustal rocks. Thus silicon and oxygen together
make up nearly 75 per cent of crustal rocks, and the other Lustre
elements over 98 per cent. Lustre is the appearance of a mineral surface in reflected
Since silicon and oxygen preponderate in the rocks, the light. It may be described as metallic, as in pyrite or
chief rock-forming minerals are silicates. Although over galena; glassy or vitreous, as in quartz; resinous or greasy,
three thousand different minerals are known to the as in opal; pearly, as in talc; or silky, as infibrousminerals
such as asbestos and satin-spar (fibrous gypsum). Min-
Table 4.2 The most abundant elements erals with no lustre are described as dull.
Oxygen (46.60%) Form
Silicon (27.72%)
Aluminium (8.13%)
Under this heading come a number of terms which are
Iron (5.00%) commonly used to describe various shapes assumed by
Calcium (3.63%) minerals in groups or clusters (Fig. 4.1); the crystalline
Sodium (2.83%) form of individual minerals is discussed on page 63.
Potassium (259%) Acicular - in fine needle-like crystals (also described as
Magnesium (2.09%)
filiform), e.g. schorl, natrolite.
 mineral resembling those of kidneys; e.g. kidney iron-
ore, a variety of haematite.
Tabular - showing broad flat surfaces; e.g. the 6-sided
crystals of mica.
Note that the above terms do not apply to rocks.
Figure 4.2 illustrates five commonly occurring mineral
relationships, as follows.
Drusy - closely packed small crystals growing into a
cavity, such as a gas bubble preserved in solidified lava.
Radiated - needle-like crystals radiating from a centre:
the illustration is of a pyrite (FeS2) concretion.
Fibrous - consisting of fine thread-like strands; e.g. asbes-
tos and the satin-spar variety of gypsum.
Granular - in grains, either coarse orfine;the rock marble
is an even granular aggregate of calcite crystals.
Reticulated - a mesh of crossing crystals.

Table 4.3 Mohs' Scale of Hardness

1. Talc 6. Orthoclase Feldspar

2. Gypsum 7. Quartz
3. Calcite 8. Topaz
4. Fluorspar 9. Corundum
5. Apatite 10. Diamond
Fig. 4.1 Common shapes of mineral clusters: scale
bar=1 cm. (a) Botryoidal. (b) Reniform. (c) Tabular, (d)
Dendritic, (e) Acicular. (f and g) Concretionary.
Hardness
Hardness, or resistance to abrasion, is measured relative
Botryoidal - consisting of spheroidal aggregations, some- to a standard scale often minerals, known as Mohs' Scale
what resembling a bunch of grapes; e.g. chalcedony. of Hardness: Table 4.3. These minerals are chosen so that
The curved surfaces are boundaries of the ends of many their hardness increases in the order 1 to 10. Hardness is
crystal fibres arranged in radiating clusters. tested by attempting to scratch the minerals of the scale
Concretionary or nodular - terms applied to minerals with the specimen under examination. A mineral which
found in detached masses of spherical, ellipsoidal, or scratches calcite, for example, but not fluorspar, is said to
irregular shape; e.g. the flint nodules of the chalk. have a hardness between 3 and 4, or H = 3-4. Talc and
Dendritic - moss-like or tree-like forms, generally pro- gypsum can be scratched with a finger-nail, and a steel
duced by the deposition of a mineral in thin veneers on knife will cut apatite (5) and perhaps feldspar (6), but not
joint planes or in crevices; e.g. dendritic deposits of quartz (7). Soft glass can be scratched by quartz. The
manganese oxide. hardness test, in various forms, is simple, easily made,
Reniform - kidney-shaped, the rounded surfaces of the and useful; it is a ready means for distinguishing, for
example, between quartz and calcite.

Cleavage
Many minerals possess a tendency to split easily in certain
regular directions, and yield smooth plane surfaces called
cleavage planes when thus broken. These directions de-
pend on the arrangement of the atoms in a mineral (p. 70),
and are parallel to definite crystal faces. Perfect, good,
distinct, and imperfect are terms used to describe the
quality of mineral cleavage. Mica, for example, has a
perfect cleavage by means of which it can be split into
very thin flakes; feldspars have two sets of good cleavage
planes. Calcite has three directions of cleavage.

Fracture
Fig. 4.2 Common relationship between minerals in clusters, The nature of a broken surface of a mineral is known as
(a) Drusy. (b) Radiated, (c) Fibrous, (d) Granular, (e) Re- fracture, the break being irregular and independent of
ticulated. cleavage. It is sometimes characteristic of a mineral and,
also, a fresh fracture shows the true colour of a mineral The specific gravity of small mineral grains is estimated
Fracture is described as conchoidal, when the mineral by the use of heavy liquids, of which the chief are
breaks with a curved surface, e.g. in quartz and flint; as bromoform (CHBr3), G = 2.80, and methylene iodide
even, when it is nearly flat; as uneven, when it is rough; (CH 3 I 2 ), G = 3.33, both of which may be diluted with
and as hackly when the surface carries small sharp irre- benzene, and Clerici's solution (G=4.25), a mixture of
gularities (Fig. 4.3). Most minerals show uneven fracture. thallium salts which may be diluted with water.
The separation of fragments of a particular mineral
from a sediment containing many minerals may be
achieved by placing them in a liquid solution of known
specific gravity equal to that of the mineral to be
separated. Grains of greater specific gravity than the
liquid will sink whilst those of lower specific gravity will
float. Magnetic minerals such as magnetite and ilmenite
may be separated from non-magnetic minerals, such as
cassiterite, by an electro-magnet.

Crystalline form
Fig. 4.3 Mineral fracture, (a) Conchoidal, which can occur Minerals occur as crystals, i.e. bodies of geometric shape
on a smaller scale than shown, (b) Even, (c) Uneven, (d) which are bounded by faces arranged in a regular manner
Hackly.
and related to the internal atomic structure (p. 70). When
a mineral substance grows freely from a fused, liquid state
Tenacity (or out of solution, or by sublimation), it tends to assume
The response of a mineral to a hammer blow, to cutting its own characteristic crystal shape; the angles between
with a knife and to bending is described by its tenacity. adjacent crystal faces are always constant for similar
Minerals that can be beaten into new shapes are malle- crystals of any particular mineral. Faces are conveniently
able; e.g. the native metals of gold, silver and copper. defined by reference to crystallographic axes, three or four
Most minerals are brittle and fracture when struck with in number, which intersect in a common origin within the
a hammer. A few brittle minerals can be cut with a knife crystal and form, as it were, a scaffolding on which the
and are described as sectile. Flakes of mica can be bent crystal faces are erected. The arrangements of faces in
and yet return to their flat tabular shape when free to do crystals possess varying degrees of symmetry, and accord-
so: they are both flexible and elastic: cleavage flakes of ing to their type of symmetry, crystals can be arranged in
gypsum are flexible but inelastic. seven Systems, which are summarized below and illus-
trated in Fig. 4.4. A plane of symmetry divides a crystal
Specific gravity into exactly similar halves, each of which is the mirror
Minerals range from 1 to over 20 in specific gravity (e.g. image of the other; it contains one or more of the crystal-
native platinum, 21.46), but most lie betwen 2 and 7 (see lographic axes. The number of planes of symmetry stated
Table 4.4). For determining this property a steelyard in Fig. 4.4 is that for the highest class of symmetry in each
of the Systems. Two other forms of symmetry exist,
Table 4.4 Specific gravity of common minerals namely axes of symmetry and centres of symmetry
(Fig. 4.5). Planes, axes and centres of symmetry define 32
halite 2.16 muscovite 2.8-3.0 rutile 4.2 classes of symmetry which are grouped into the seven
glauconite 2.3 apatite 3.2 zircon 4.7 Systems. These correspond to the seven types of unit cell
gypsum 2.32 hornblende 3.2 (av.) haematite 4.72 determined by X-ray analyses of the three-dimensional
feldspar 2.56-2.7 tourmaline 3.0-3.2 ilmenite 4.8 patterns of the atoms in crystals. The unit cell is the
clays 2.5-2.8 sphene 3.5 pyrite 5.01
smallest complete unit of pattern in the atomic structure
quartz 2.65 topaz 3.6 monazite 5.2
calcite 2.71 kyanite 3.6 magnetite 5.2 of a crystal.
dolomite 2.85 staurolite 3.7 cassiterite 6.9
chlorite 2.6-3.3 garnet 3.7-4.3 Crystal faces
In the Cubic System many crystals are bounded by faces
which are all similar; such a shape is called a/or/w. Two
apparatus such as the Walker Balance can be used, for forms are illustrated in fig. 4.4a, the cube (six faces) and
crystals or fragments which are not too small. The min- the octahedron (eight faces); other forms are the dodeca-
eral (or rock) is weighed in air and in water, and the hedron (twelve diamond-shaped faces, fig. 4.35a), the
specific gravity, G, is calculated from the formula: trapezohedron (24 faces, Fig. 4.356), and with lower sym-
G = W1I(W1 — W2), where W1 is the weight in air and W1 the
metry the pyritohedron (12 pentagonal faces, fig. 4.40);
weight in water. Other apparatus is described in appro- among others the tetrahedron has four triangular faces,
priate textbooks. the smallest number possible for a regular solid. Crystals
 Planes of
Axes symmetry Mineral examples
(max.)

3 equal axes at right Garnet, leucite, fluorite,

angles to one another rocksalt, zinc- blende,
Magnetite Fluorspar pyrite
(octahedron) (cube)

4 axes : three equal and

horizontal,and spaced Beryl, nepheline,apatite
at equal intervals, Tourmaline, calcite
one vertical axis quartz
Calcite
Hexagonal and trigonal Beryl (rhombohedron)

3 axes at right angles

two equal and horizontal,
Zircon, cassiterite
one vertical axis longer
( t i n - s t o n e ) , idocrase
or shorter than the
others
Tetragonal Zircon ldocrase

3 axes at right angles,all Olivine,enstatite, topaz,

unequal barytes

Topaz Barytes
Orthorhombic

3 unequal axes : the vertical

axis(<r) and one hori-
zontal axis [b)at right Orthoclase feldspar,
angles,the third axis [o) hornblende,augite,
inclined in the plane biotite, gypsum
normal to b
Monoclinic Orthoclase Hornblende

3 unequal axes,no two at Plagioclase feldspars,

right angles axinite

Triclinic Albite Axinite

may grow as one form only, or as a combination of two follows: a face which (when produced) would cut all three
or more forms; for example, Garnet (Fig. 4.35a, b) occurs axes is called a pyramid; there are eight such faces in a
as the dodecahedron, as the trapezohedron, or as a com- complete form, one in each octant formed by the axes.
bination of the two. Faces which cut two lateral axes and are parallel to the
In the Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, and Triclinic Sys- vertical axis are known as prisims, and make groups of
tems, where the axes are all unequal, faces are named as four, symmetrically placed about the axes. A pinacoid is
a face which cuts any one axis and is parallel to the other
two. A dome cuts one lateral and the vertical axis, and is
parallel to the other lateral axis. These faces are illustrated
in Fig. 4.6.
Lastly, in the Hexagonal and Trigonal Systems the
names pyramid and prism are used as before for faces
which cut more than one lateral axis; but since there are
now three lateral axes instead of two, six prism faces
(parallel to the c-axis) are found in the Hexagonal System
(Fig. AAb, beryl), and 12 pyramid faces. In Trigonal
crystals, some faces are arranged in groups of three,
equally spaced around the c-axis. This is seen, for exam-
ple, in a rhombohedron of calcite (Fig. 4.46), a form
Fig. 4.5 Crystal symmetry, (a) Plane, (b) Axis (in this case having six equal diamond-shaped faces. Calcite also
a three-fold axis), (c) Centre. occurs as 'nail-head' crystals, bounded by the faces of the
 Twin crystals
Basal pinacoid When two closely adjacent crystals have grown together
with a crystallographic plane or direction common to
Dome both, but one reversed relative to the other, a twin crystal
results. In many instances the twin crystal appears as if a
single crystal had been divided on a plane, and one half
Side of the crystal rotated relative to the other half on this
Front pinacoid plane. If the rotation is 180°, points at opposite ends of a
pinacoid crystal are thus brought to the same end as a result of the
twinning and re-entrant angles between crystal faces are
then frequently produced; they are characteristic of many
twins. Examples are shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.6 Olivine crystal. To show crystal axes and faces in

the orthorhombic system. pr = prism. c/=dome. pyr = pyramid.

rhombohedron combined with the hexagonal prism

(Fig. 4.7a); and in 'dog-tooth' crystals (Fig. 4.76) where
the pointed terminations are bounded by the six faces of
the scalenohedron, each face of which is a scalene triangle.
In quartz crystals the six-sided terminations, which some-
times appear symmetrical, are a combination of two
rhombohedra whose faces alternate, as shown by shading
in Fig. 4.7c. This fact is shown by etching a quartz crystal
with hydrofluoric acid; two different sets of etch-marks
appear on the alternate triangular faces indicating the
arrangement of the atomic structure within the crystal to
be in trigonal and not hexagonal symmetry. Trigonal (or Fig. 4.8 Twin crystals, (a) Augite, showing re-entrant angle
three-fold) symmetry of quartz is also shown by extra R; twin plane parallel to front pinacoid. (b) Arrow-head twin
faces which are sometimes present. of Gypsum, (c) Carlsbad twin of Orthoclase. (d) Multiple
twin of Plagioclase (Albite twinning).

Optical properties of minerals

Rock slices
In making a rock slice, a chip of rock (or slice cut by a
rotating steel disc armed with diamond dust) is smoothed
on one side and mounted on a strip of glass 75 x 25 mm
(Fig. 4.9). The specimen is cemented to the glass strip by
means of Canada balsam, a gum which sets hard after
Fig. 4.7 Calcite and quartz, (a) Nail-head spar, (b) Dog- being heated, or a synthetic resin. The mounted chip of
tooth spar, (c) Quartz, with negative rhombohedron shaded. rock is then ground down with carborundum and emery
r = faces of rhombohedron. pr = prism. s = scalenohedron. abrasives to the required thinness, generally 30/im (1
micrometre = J^o millimetre). It is now a transparent
Symbols are given to crystal faces and are based on the slice, and is completed by being covered with a thin glass
lengths of the intercepts which the faces make on the strip fixed with balsam. Surplus balsam is washed off with
crystallographic axes, or the reciprocals of the intercepts methylated spirit. The surfaces of the specimen have been
(Miller symbols). The Miller notation is set out fully in smoothed in making the slice, and they are free from all
textbooks of Mineralogy. but very small irregularities. The effects observable when
 Balsam 1.54 appear in weak relief, as in the case of quartz
(«=1.553 to 1.544). Some minerals have an index less
than 1.54, e.g. fluorspar (n= 1.43).

Polarized light
According to the Wave Theory of Light, a ray is repre-
Glass strip
sented as a wave motion, propagated by vibrations in
directions at right angles to the path of the ray. In ordi-
Cover glass Rock slice
nary light these vibrations take place in all planes con-
taining the direction of propagation; in plane polarized
Glass strip
light the vibrations are confined to one plane (Fig. 4.11).
Ordinary Polarized
Fig. 4.9 Preparation of a thin section for the microscope,
(a) Section sliced from sample of rock, (b) Slice mounted on
glass strip, (c) Final section ready for use. Slice thick-
ness= 30/im.

light is transmitted through such a slice of crystalline

material are now described.

Refraction and refractive index

A ray of light travelling through one medium is bent or
refracted'when it enters another medium of different den-
sity. Figure 4.10 shows the path of such a ray (RR), which
makes angles i and r with the normal (NN) to the surface Fig. 4.11 Ordinary light (diagrammatic), composed of
many vibrations in planes containing the direction of the ray
separating the two media. The angle between the ray and (double-headed arrows represent double amplitude of vibra-
the normal to the surface is smaller in the denser medium, tions) enters a crystal and is polarized, vibrations in one plane
i.e. a ray is bent towards the normal on entering a denser only being transmitted.
medium, and conversely.
Light which passes through a crystal is, in general, polar-
ized. While much can be learned from a microscopic
examination of minerals in ordinary transmitted light,
polarized light enables minerals to be identified with cer-
tainty.

Double refraction
Material
denser Crystals other than those in the Cubic System have the
than air property of splitting a ray of light which enters them into
two rays, one of which is refracted more than the other.
A cleavage rhomb of clear calcite does this effectively, as
is shown if it is placed over a dot on a piece of paper; two
Fig. 4.10 Refraction of light at the interface between two
media (seetext). dots are then seen on looking down through the crystal,
i.e. two images are produced (1 and 2 in Fig. 4.12). On

If the angle of incidence (/) is measured for air, as is

usual, then the ratio sin //sin r is called the refractive
index, n, for the other medium, and is constant whatever
the angle of incidence. It can be shown that sin i and sin
r are proportional to the velocities of light (^1, v2) in the
two media, i.e. « = sin //sin r = V1Iv2 (Snell's Law). The
refractive index of a substance is therefore inversely pro-
portional to the velocity of light through the substance.
For Canada balsam, and similar cements in which rock
slices are mounted, n — 1.54. Minerals with a much higher
or lower refractive index than this appear in stronger
outline, in a thin section under the microscope, than those
which are nearer in value to 1.54; garnet (« = 1.83) is an Fig. 4.12 Double refraction of calcite. O = ordinary ray.
example of a mineral which shows a very strong outline E = extraordinary ray. 1, ordinary image. 2, extraordinary
(Fig. 4.34). Minerals whose refractive index is near to image, (a) In vertical section, (b) When viewed from above.
turning the crystal, one dot appears to move round the Eyepiece
other. The light passing through the calcite is split into
two rays, called the ordinary ray (O) and the extraordi- Slot
nary ray (E). The orientation of the plane of vibration for
the O-ray is 90° from that for the E-ray. The two rays
Fine adjustment
travel at different velocities in the crystal, the E-ray being Focussing screw
the faster, and both rays are plane polarized.
A mineral which has this property of dividing a ray of Analyser
light into two is said to be doubly refractive or birefringent.
Since the two rays within the mineral travel at different High power
velocities, there are two values of refractive index, one for objective
each ray. The difference between these two values is
known as the birefringence of the mineral. Graduated
Minerals which have the same refractive index for light stage
25 mm
which enters in any direction are called isotropic; they do objective
not divide a ray entering them and are therefore singly
refracting. AU Cubic crystals are isotropic, and also all
Condenser
basal sections of Hexagonal and Tetragonal crystals.
and polarizer
Stand
Optic axis Mirror
There is one direction in a calcite crystal, for example,
along which light entering it is not split into two rays but
passes through the crystal undivided. This direction is
called the optic axis of the crystal, and in calcite it coin-
cides with the crystallographic c-axis. Such a mineral is Fig. 4.13 A petrological microscope.
called uniaxial; all Hexagonal and Tetragonal minerals
are uniaxial. Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, and Triclinic
crystals all have two optic axes, i.e. two directions along Passage of light through the microscope
which light can pass without being doubly refracted. They Light is reflected from the mirror (Fig. 4.13) up through
are therefore called biaxial. the polarizer, where it is plane polarized. If no mineral or
rock section is placed on the stage, the light from the
Petrological microscope polarizer passes up through the objective and so enters
the analyser, vibrating as it leaves the polarizer. Since the
For obtaining polarized light a synthetic material, pol- analyser only transmits vibrations at right angles to those
aroids is used in which are embedded many minute from the polarizer, the polars being 'crossed', no light
needle-shaped crystals, oriented parallel to one another, emerges from the eyepiece of the microscope. This fact
i.e. in one direction. The material polarizes light which should be tested as follows: with polarizer in, analyser
passes through it. Two discs of polaroid are mounted in out, look through the eyepiece and adjust the mirror so
the microscope (Fig. 4.13), one (the polarizer) below the that the light is reflected up the tube. Slide in the analyser;
stage, the other (the analyser) above the stage. The two a completely dark field of view should result if the
polaroids are so set that the directions for their polarized polaroids are in adjustment and of good quality.
light are at right angles. This setting is known as 'crossed But when a slice of a doubly refracting mineral is placed
polars'. The stage of the microscope can be rotated and on the stage of the microscope between crossed polars, a
is graduated in degrees. coloured image of the mineral is usually seen. A thicker

O-ray

Mirror Lower
Ordinary polar Mineral E-ray
light
Upper polar
(= Analyser)
Phase
difference

Fig. 4.14 Passage of light through microscope (diagrammatic): plane of polarization is ' E - W for lower polar, and 'N-S' for
upper polar, but may also be 'N-S' and ' E - W respectively.
or thinner slice of the same mineral produces a different the thickness of the slice. These facts are now illustrated
colour. These effects are explained as follows: by reference to the mineral quartz.
The ray of light which leaves the polarizer vibrating in
one plane enters the thin section of the mineral on the Polarization of quartz
stage of the microscope, and is divided into two rays A crystal of quartz has a maximum refractive index of
(since the mineral is birefringent), an O-ray and an E-ray 1.553, for light vibrating parallel to the oaxis of the
(Fig. 4.14). One of these travels faster than the other crystal, and a minimum value of 1.544 for light vibrating
through the mineral slice; they can therefore be called the in a direction perpendicular to the c-axis (Fig. 4.16). The
'fast' ray and the 'slow' ray. They emerge from the min- difference in these two values is 0.009, which is the maxi-
eral slice vibrating in two planes at right angles, and there mum birefringence for the mineral. This birefringence
is a phase difference between them, since they have trav- holds only for a longitudinal slice of the quartz crystal;
elled at different speeds and by different paths through the polarization colour of such a slice is a pale yellow (if
the mineral slice. the slice is of standard thickness). As explained above,
The two rays enter the analyser, but only the compo- the polarization colour is produced by the interference of
nent of their movement in the plane of polarization is two rays which have acquired a phase difference in trav-
transmitted (Fig. 4.15). The rays emerge from it vibrating ersing the mineral; the birefringence of 0.009 represents a
in the same plane but out of phase with one another. This phase difference of 0.009 fim, or 9 nm, per /zm thickness
results in interference between the emergent vibrations, of slice. Since the usual thickness is 30 /an, the full phase
and the eye sees an interference colour, also called the difference between the two rays after passing through the
polarization colour, which is of diagnostic value. slice of quartz is 30 x 9 = 270 nm, which corresponds to a
pale yellow.
Consider now a basal section of quartz, i.e. one cut
perpendicular to the c-axis (the direction aa in Fig. 4.16).
Such a slice has only one value of refractive index for
light vibrations traversing it. It has therefore no birefring-
ence, i.e. it is isotropic and appears completely black
between crossed polars.
Between the above extremes, the pale yellow colour
(maximum) and black (or nil), a slice of quartz cut ob-
liquely to the c-axis will show a white or grey polarization
colour, the tint passing from dark grey to pale grey and
Fig. 4.15 Resolution of waves in the analyser ( = upper white as the orientation of the slice approaches parallel-
polar). On left, rays arrive at analyser which transmits their ism with c-axis.
components in the plane of polarization. On right, form of Thus, in general, a crystal slice gives a characteristic
resolved waves in the plane of polarization. colour between crossed polars according to the direction
in which it has been cut from the mineral. The maximum
Polarization colours
White light is made up of waves of coloured light, from Table 4.5 Polarization colours for some common minerals
red at one end of the spectrum to violet at the other. Each in sections of standard thickness
colour has a different wavelength; that of red light, for
example, is 0.00076 mm, and of violet light 0.00040 mm. Mineral Max. Biref. nm Colour
These lengths are also expressed as 760 and 400 nm res-
pectively. Muscovite 0.043 1290 = delicate green
The polarization colour obtained with a particular Olivine 0.035 1050 = bright red
mineral slice depends on (1) the birefringence of the slice, Augite 0.025 750 = bright blue
Quartz 0.009 270 = pale yellow
which in turn depends on the refractive indexes of the Orthoclase 0.007 210 = palegrey
mineral and the direction in which it has been cut; and (2)

Fig. 4.16 Vibration directions and re-

fractive indices in vertical and horizontal
sections of quartz, and variation of
birefringence with direction of slice
through the crystal.
birefringence and polarization colour of some common Opaque minerals
minerals, for a 30 /im thickness of slice, are given in Table The composition of some minerals prevents them trans-
4.5. mitting light and they appear dark brown or black when
viewed through the microscope. These are called opaque
minerals: common examples are listed in Table 4.6.
Extinction Table 4.6 Some commonly occurring opaque minerals
When a birefringent mineral slice is rotated on the micro-
scope stage between crossed polars, one or other vibration
Mineral Colour of reflected light
direction in the mineral can be brought parallel to the
vibration plane of the polarizer. This occurs four times in Graphite (C) Black
each complete rotation. In such positions the light vibra- Pyrite (FeS2) Brass yellow
tions from the polarizer pass directly through the mineral Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) Strong brass yellow
slice to the analyser, where they are cut out (because it is Haematite (Fe2O3) Blue, red and black
set at right angles to the polarizer), so that no light Limonite (2Fe2O3) (3H2O) Yellow-brown
emerges; the mineral thus appears completely dark at llmenite (FeTiO3) Strong purple-black
intervals of 90° during rotation. This effect is known as Magnetite (Fe3O4) Blue-black
Chromite (FeCr2O4) Brown-black
extinction. Half-way between successive extinction posi-
Leucoxene (TiO2) White
tions the mineral appears brightest.
The polars of the microscope are set so that their vibra-
To eyepiece
tion planes are parallel to the cross-wires of the dia- Light source
phragm, one 'east-west', the other 'north-south'. If now
a mineral is found to be in extinction when some crystal-
lographic direction such as its length or a prominent Analyser
cleavage is brought parallel to a cross-wire, the mineral is
said to have straight extinction with regard to that length Objective
or cleavage. If extinction occurs when the length of the
mineral makes an angle with the cross-wire, it is said to
have oblique extinction; the extinction angle can be Polished specimen
measured by means of the graduations around the edge
of the stage (Fig. 4.17). Fig. 4.18 Study of opaque minerals by reflected light.

Upper
polar

Fig. 4.17 Extinction observed through the microscope. Straight for Biotite mica (left). Oblique for Plagioclase feldspar
(right). In all cases the lower polar is in position, its plane of polarization being N-S. Polarization of upper polar is E-W.
cl = cleavage. tw = twin plane (Fig. 4.8). Ext=extinction angle.

Pleochroism Opaque minerals must be illuminated from above to be

In some minerals a change of colour is seen when only studied with the microscope (Fig. 4.18). Light is directed
the lower polarizer is used and the mineral is rotated so that the mineral surface reflects it into the objective
above it on the stage of the microscope. This pleochroism and thence up the microscope to the eyepiece where it can
is due to the fact that the mineral absorbs the components be seen. When ores consisting mainly of opaque minerals
of white light differently in different directions. It is shown are to be studied a piece of the rock (about 20 mm3) is
strongly by the mica biotite, which when oriented with its mounted on a glass plate and its upper surface ground
cleavage direction parallel to the vibration plane of the flat, parallel to the glass plate. The ground surface is then
polarizer appears a much darker brown than when at 90° polished to enhance its reflection of light and enable the
to that position (Fig. 4.17). Hornblende and tourmaline fine details of mineral structure to be observed. Physical
are two other strongly pleochroic minerals. and chemical tests, such as scratching the surface of
minerals and etching them with acid, may be conducted SiO4-tetrahedron is the unit of silicate structure, and is
on the polished surface and their result observed through built into the different structures as follows:
the microscope. 1. Separate SiO^-groups are found in some minerals,
Table 4.7 summarizes the observations to be made with are closely packed in regularly spaced rows and columns
a thin slice of rock. throughout the crystal structure, and linked together by
metal atoms (Mg, Fe, Ca, etc.) situated between the tetra-
Table 4.7 Summary of observations with a thin slice of hedra. Since each oxygen has two negative valencies and
rock silicon four positive valencies, the SiO4-group has an
excess of four negative valencies; these are balanced when
(1) With hand lens: observe form of minerals, their it is linked to metal atoms contributing four positive
relative size, any preferred valencies, as in olivine, Mg 2 SiO 4 . Some Mg atoms may
orientation of minerals and be replaced by Fe. {Note: in this account the word atom
presence of opaque minerals,
(2) With microscope: (ordinary light), look at mineral is used instead of ion, which is more strictly correct.)
form, colour, inclusions and 2. Single Chain Structures (Si2O6) are formed by
alteration products. Study SiO4-groups linked together in linear chains, each group
opaque minerals under reflected sharing two oxygens with its neighbours (Fig. 4.2Oe). This
light, structure is characteristic of the Pyroxenes, e.g. diopside,
(3) Insert lower polar: test for pleochrosim. CaMg(Si2O6). The chains lie parallel to the c-axis of the
(4) Insert upper polar: (analyser), observe isotropic mineral, are bonded together by Mg, Fe, Ca, or other
minerals (cubic). In other
(anisotropic) minerals observe
atoms, which lie between them. An end view of a chain is
the polarization colour, given at (f) in the figure. The vertical cleavages in the
extinction (straight or oblique), mineral run between the chains, as shown in ( f ) , and
twinning (present or absent) and intersect at an angle of 93°. Aluminium atoms, since they
alteration if any. have nearly the same size as silicon, may repace silicon in
the structure to a limited extent, and may also occur
Note; The magnification of the microscope for the among the atoms which lie between the chains; in this
combination of lenses used may be assessed by observing a way aluminous pyroxenes such as augite are formed.
scale with small graduations, e.g. mm. Ring structures are built up by groups of three, four, or
six tetrahedra, each of which shares two oxygens with its
Atomic structures neighbours. Figure 4.2Od shows a ring of six linked tetra-
hedra, which is found in the mineral beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 .
The atomic structure of crystals can be investigated by 3. Double Chain Structures (Si 4 O 11 ), in which two
methods of X-ray analysis. The arrangement and spacing single chains are joined together side by side (Fig. 4.2Og),
of the atoms of which a crystal is composed control its are found in the Amphiboles, e.g. tremolite,
regular form and properties. For example, the atoms of Ca 2 Mg 5 (Si 4 On) 2 (OH) 2 . The double chains run parallel
sodium and chlorine in a crystal of common salt (NaCl) to the c-axis of the minerals, and are linked laterally by
are arranged alternately at the corners of a cubic pattern metal atoms lying between the chains. The cleavage direc-
(Fig. 4.19), which is repeated indefinitely in all directions. tions are as shown at (Ii), and intersect at an angle of 56°.
Salt crystals grown from solution are cubes, a shape In hornblende, aluminium replaces part of the silicon (cf.
which expresses the internal structure. augite above). Hydroxyl groups (OH), are always present
in amphiboles to the extent of about one to every eleven
oxygens.
4. Sheet Structures (Si 4 O 10 ) are formed when the
SiO4-tetrahedra are linked by three oxygens each, and lie
with their bases in a common plane (Fig. 4.20/). Sheets of
this kind are found in the Micas and other flaky minerals
(e.g. chlorite, talc, the clay minerals), whose perfect cleav-
age is parallel to the silicon-oxygen sheets. In the mica
muscovite, KAl 2 (AlSi 3 )O 10 (OH) 2 , aluminium replaces
about one quarter of the silicon, and hydroxyl is always
present. The Si4O10-sheets are arranged in pairs, with
Fig. 4.19 Arrangement of atoms in unit cell of NaCI (small
circles, with ornament. Na; large circles, Cl).
aluminium atoms between them, and each pair is
separated from the next pair by a layer of potassium
When the silicate minerals were investigated it was atoms (Fig. 4.26). Other structures involving silicon-
found that they could be placed in a very few groups, oxygen sheets are discussed under Clay Minerals, p. 80.
according to the arrangement of the silicon and oxygen 5. Three-dimensional Frameworks (SiO2) are formed
atoms. The silicon atom is tetravalent, and is always when each tetrahedron is linked by all four oxygens,
surrounded by four oxygen atoms which are spaced at sharing the oxygens with adjacent groups. The mineral
the corners of a regular tetrahedron (Fig. 4.20). This quartz, SiO2, has a framework in which the SiO4-groups
Fig. 4.20 Silicate structures, (a) SiO4-tetrahedron: large circles represent oxygen ions, small circle silicon, (b) The tetra-
hedron in plan, apex upwards (circles omitted), (c) Two tetrahedra sharing one oxygen, Si2O7. (d) Ring of six tetrahedra (the
centres of the two outer oxygens lie one above another), Si6O18. (e) Single chain, Si2O6; tetrahedra share two oxygens each;
(f) conventional end-view of single chain, (g) Double chain, Si4O11, and (h) end-view of double chain, (i) Sheet of tetrahedra,
Si4O10; each shares three oxygens with adjoining tetrahedra. (f', h') Stacking of single and double chains respectively (viewed
along c-axis); resulting cleavage directions shown by heavy lines. The typical appearance of single and double chain minerals
cut 90° to vertical (c) axis shown in bottom right: ( f ) a pyroxene, (h') an amphibole.
form a series of linked spirals (Fig. 4.32). In the Feldspars In the following descriptions of minerals, notes are in-
another type of framework is found, and Al replaces part cluded to aid identification in the hand specimen on the
of the Si. Thus in orthoclase feldspar, one silicon in four above lines with abbreviations for specific gravity (G) and
is replaced by Al; the substitution of trivalent aluminium hardness (H). They are followed by notes on the simpler
for a tetravalent silicon releases one negative (oxygen) optical properties, headed in thin sections, and include
valency, which is satisfied by the attachment of a univa- refractive index (RJ.) and birefringence (Biref.).
lent sodium or potassium atom, thus:
Orthoclase = KAlSi3O8; Albite = NaAlSi3O8; and An-
orthite = CaAl2Si2O8. Silicate minerals
The K, Na, or Ca atoms are accommodated in spaces
within the frameworks. The structure of the silicate mi- The olivine group
nerals is summarized in Table 4.8.
Olivine
Table 4.8 Structure of silicate minerals. Simple structures, Common olivine has the composition (MgFe)2SiO4,
such as that of olivine, form at higher temperatures than in which Fe2 + replaces part of the Mg2 + .
those more complex structures such as that of quartz. Crystals: Orthorhombic (Fig. 4.6); pale olive-green or
yellow; vitreous lustre; conchoidal fracture. H = 6J.
Type of structure Si:0 Repeated Mineral G = 3.2to3.6.
ratio pattern group Olivine occurs chiefly in basic and ultrabasic rocks.
Since it crystallizes at a high temperature, over 100O0C,
Separate SiO4-
groups 1:4 SiO4 Olivine
it is one of thefirstminerals to form from many basic
Single chain 1:3 Si2O6 Pyroxenes magmas. (Magma is the molten rock-material from
Double chain 1:2.75 Si4O11 Amphiboles which igneous rocks have solidifed, p. 91.) Alteration to
Sheet 1:2.5 Si4O10 Micas green serpentine is common (p. 80).
Framework 1:2
/ ( A L S i ) n O 2 , Feldspars In thin section; Porphyritic crystals (which are large
I 5/O2 Quartz compared with the grain size of the matrix in which they
are set; they are generally well-formed crystals)
commonly show 6- or 8-sided sections, the outline
generally somewhat rounded. Cleavage rarely seen;
The rock-forming minerals irregular cracks common (Fig. 4.21).
It is convenient to distinguish between minerals which are
essential constituents of the rocks in which they occur,
their presence being implied by the rock name, and others
which are accessory. The latter are commonly found in
small amount in a rock but their presence or absence does
not affect the naming of it. Secondary minerals are those
which result from the decomposition of earlier minerals,
often promoted by the action of water in some form, with
the addition or subtraction of other material, and with
the formation of mineral by-products.

Identification of minerals in hand specimen

It should be possible to identify the common rock-
forming minerals in the hand specimen with a pocket lens
where one dimension of the mineral grain is not less than
about 1 mm. With practice much smaller grains can be
determined. The most useful characteristics for this pur-
pose are: Fig. 4.21 Olivine in thin section ( x 12): (a) with serpentine
filled cracks, (b) almost completely altered, (c) fresh, (d)
(1) General shape of grains, depending on the crystalli- exhibiting weak cleavage, (e) in straight extinction.
zation of the mineral; the faces of well-formed crystals
can often be observed, but where grains have been
modified (e.g. by rounding) other characters may be Colour: None when fresh. Alteration to greenish
needed. serpentine is very characteristic, this mineral being often
(2) Colour and transparency. developed along cracks and around the margins of
(3) Presence or absence of cleavage. olivine crystals. Some olivines have been entirely
(4) Presence or absence of twinning, and type of twin- converted to serpentine; or relics of original olivine may
ning. be preserved as isolated colourless areas in the
(5) Hardness. serpentine. Magnetite (Fe3O4) may be formed during
the alteration, from iron in the original olivine, and
appears as small black specks in the serpentine.
Mean R.I. = 1.66 to 1.68, giving a bold outline.
Biref: Strong (max. = 0.04), giving bright polarization
colours.
Extinction: Straight, parallel to crystal outlines and
traces of cleavage.

The pyroxene group Pyramid

Minerals of this group belong to two systems of

crystallization:
1. Orthorhombic, e.g. enstatite, hypersthene. Fig. 4.22 Crystal of augite: oblique view and vertical view
2. Monoclinic, e.g. augite, diopside. showing cleavage and principal crystal faces.
They possess two good cleavage directions parallel to unless it is porphyritic. Augite is also a constituent of
the prism faces of the crystals {prismatic cleavage)', the some andesites and diorites, and occasionally of
intersection angle of the cleavages is nearly 90°, a granites.
characteristic feature of the group (see Fig. 4.2Of). They In thin section: idiomorphic (i.e. well formed) crystals
form 8-sided crystals, and being silicates of Fe and Mg show characteristic 8-sided transverse sections, bounded
they are dark in colour (except diopside, CaMg). by prism and pinacoid faces, with the two prismatic
cleavages intersecting at nearly 90°. Longitudinal
Orthorhombic pyroxenes sections show only one cleavage direction (Fig. 4.23).

Enstatite, MgSiO3. Hypersthene (MgFe)SiO3

The names 'enstatite' and 'hypersthene' have Greek
derivations which refer to colour changes in
pleochroism: enstates, weak; sthene, strong.
Crystals: Usually dark brown or green (hypersthene
nearly black), 8-sided and prismatic. In addition to the
prismatic cleavages mentioned above there are poorer
partings parallel to the front and side pinacoids; lustre,
vitreous to metallic. H = 5 to 6. G = 3.2 (enstatite),
increasing with the iron content to 3.5 (hypersthene).
The minerals occur in some basic rocks such as norite
(q.v.), as black lustrous grains interlocked with the other
constituent minerals; also in some andesites, usually as
small black porphyritic crystals; and in certain
ultrabasic rocks.
Fig. 4.23 Augite in thin section ( x 12): (a) regular cross-
Monoclinic pyroxenes section with 93° cleavage, (b) irregular fragment displaying
diagnostic cleavage, (c) vertical section, (d) symmetrical ex-
Augite (CaMgFeAl)2(SiAl)2O6 tinction, (e) oblique extinction for long section.
An aluminous silicate whose formula can be written
as above in conformity with the Si2O6 pattern of the Colour: Pale brown to nil. Pleochroism generally
atomic chain structure. The relative proportions of the absent or weak.
metal ions (Ca, Mg, Fe, Al) are variable within limits, Mean R.I. = about 1.70, giving strong relief in balsam.
giving a range of composition and different varieties of Biref: Hypersthene: weak (0.106) giving grey, white or
the mineral. Some Al3 + is substituted for Si4 + . yellow polarization colours. Augite: strong (0.025)
Crystals: Commonly 8-sided and prismatic, giving bright blues, reds and browns.
terminated by two pyramid faces at each end (Fig. 4.22); Extinction: Hypersthene: parallel to cleavage in long
brown to black in colour, vitreous to resinous lustre. section. Augite: oblique to cleavage in long section.
Twin crystals (Fig. 4.8a) show a re-entrant angle. H = 5
to 6. G = 3.3 to 3.5. The two vertical cleavages may be The amphibole group
observed on the end faces of suitable crystals.
Augite occurs chiefly in basic and ultrabasic rocks; Minerals of this group are mainly monoclinic. The
e.g. in gabbro, where it appears as dark areas crystals are elongated in the ^-direction and usually
intermingled with the paler feldspar. In fine-grained bounded by six vertical faces, of which the prism faces
basic rocks it is not distinguishable in the hand specimen intersect at an angle of 124°, Fig. 4.24. This is also the
 characteristic (Fig. 4.25), and show the prismatic
cleavages intersecting at 124°. Longitudinal sections are
elongated and show one cleavage direction parallel with
the length.
Colour: Green to brown; pleochroism strong in
shades of green, yellow, and brown.
Mean RJ. varies from 1.63 to 1.72.
Biref: Strong (max. = 0.024).
Extinction: Oblique in most longitudinal sections, at
angles up to 25° with the cleavage; sections parallel to
the front pinacoid show straight extinction. Symmetrical
Fig. 4.24 Crystal of hornblende: oblique view and vertical extinction in transverse section. Twinning is common.
view showing cleavage and principal crystal faces. Alteration is to chlorite, often with the formation of
Pin = pinacoid.
by-products.
angle between the two cleavage directions, parallel to Hornblende is to be distinguished from augite by its
the prisms (Fig. 4.2Og, h, h'). Only the most common colour and lower maximum angle of extinction; and
monoclinic amphibole, hornblende, is given here in from biotite, which it may resemble in sections showing
detail. one cleavage, by the fact that biotite always gives
straight extinction.
Hornblende (CaMgFeNaAl)3-(AlSi)4O11 (OH)
An aluminous silicate whose relative proportions of Asbestos
the metal ions vary within the limits shown, giving a Thefibrousform of the amphibole tremolite, in which
range of composition; the (OH)-radicle is found in all crystals grow very long and areflexible.In commerce
amphiboles. Al3 + is substituted for Si4 + in about one in the term 'asbestos' also includes other fibrous minerals
four positions. such as chrysotile (fibrous serpentine, q.v.) and
Crystals: Monoclinic, dark brown or greenish black; crocidolite (a soda-amphibole). These minerals are
usually 6-sided, of longer habit than augite, with three useful because of their resistance to heat and because of
dome faces at each end (Fig. 4.24). Vitreous lustre. H = 5 their fibrous nature, which enables them to be woven
to 6. G = 3 to 3.4. intofireprooffabrics, cord, and brake-linings, and made
Common hornblende is found in diorites and some in to boards, tiles, and felt.
andesites as the dark constituent; in andesite it is
porphyritic and may be recognized by its elongated The mica group
shape, the length of a crystal being often several times
its breadth. It is also found in some syenites and The micas are a group of monoclinic minerals whose
granodiorites, and in metamorphic rocks such as property of splitting into very thinflakesis
hornblende-schist. characteristic and easily recognized. It is due to the
In thin section: 6-sided transverse sections, bounded
by four prism and two pinacoid faces, are very
Pinacoid
Pinacoid

Si 4 O 10 sheet

Al-layer

Si 4 O 10 sheet

Fig. 4.26 Crystal of mica: oblique view showing cleavage

parallel to basal pinacoid, and a vertical view of pseudo-
hexagonal symmetry and principal crystal faces. Below is the
Fig. 4.25 Hornblende in thin section ( x 1 2 ) . (a) regular structure of muscovite (diagrammatic). The silicon-oxygen
cross section with 1 24° cleavage, (b) irregular fragment dis- tetrahedra are linked to form 'sheets', two of which are shown,
playing diagnostic cleavage and twinning, (c) vertical sec- with aluminium ions lying between them. Layers of potassium
tion, (d) symmetrical extinction, (e) oblique extinction for ions are situated between successive pairs of the Si4O10
long section, (f) twinning in vertical section. sheets, cl = cleavage.
perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane in mica polarizer. Basal sections have a deeper tint and are only
crystals, which in turn results from the layered atomic feebly pleochroic.
structure of the minerals, as shown in Fig. 4.26. It is Mean R.I. = about 1.64.
along the K + layers, where the bonding is weak, that the Biref: Strong, about 0.05 (max.). Basal sections are
cleavage directions lie. almost isotropic.
The commonly occurring micas, muscovite (colourless Extinction: Parallel to the cleavage.
or slightly tinted) and biotite (dark brown to nearly Alteration to green chlorite is common, when the
black), are described below. mineral loses its strong birefringence and polarizes in
Mica crystals are six-sided, with pseudo-hexagonal light greys (see under Chlorite, p. 80).
symmetry. Their cleavage flakes areflexible,elastic, and
transparent. A six-rayed percussionfigureis produced
when aflakeis struck with a pointed instrument, and The feldspar group
one of the cracks thus formed is parallel to the plane of
symmetry of the monoclinic mineral. The feldspars form a large group of monoclinic and
triclinic minerals, and are the most abundant
Muscovite, KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 constituents of the igneous rocks. The chief members of
Form and cleavage as stated above. White in colour, the Feldspar family can be classified by composition as
unless impurities are present to tint the mineral; pearly orthoclase, KAlSi3O8; albite, NaAlSi 3 O 8 ; and anorthite,
lustre. H = 2 to 2\ (easily cut with a knife). G = about CaAl2Si2O8. They are represented in Fig. 4.27 at the
2.9 (variable). corners of a triangle.
Muscovite occurs in granites and other acid rocks as Orthoclase, KAlSi3O8. Potassium feldspar
silvery crystals, from whichflakescan be readily Crystals: Monoclinic; white or pink in colour,
detached by the point of a penknife; also in some vitreous lustre; bounded by prism faces, basal and side
gneisses and mica-schists. It is a very stable mineral, and pinacoids, and domes (Fig. 4.28). Simple twins are
persists as minuteflakesin sedimentary rocks such as frequent: Carlsbad twins unite on the side pinacoid
micaceous sandstones. The name sericite is given to (Fig. 4.8b), Manebach twins on the basal plane, and
secondary muscovite, which may be produced by the Baveno twins on a diagonal plane (dome) parallel to the
alteration of orthoclase. The mica of commerce comes tf-axis (Fig. 4.29). Two good cleavages, parallel to the
from large crystals found in pegmatite veins (p. 106). side and basal pinacoids, intersect at 90°; the name of
In thin section: vertical sections (i.e. across the the mineral is due to this property (from the Greek
cleavage) are often parallel-sided and show the perfect orthos, straight or rectangular, and k las is, breaking).
cleavage (Fig. 4.17); basal sections appear as 6-sided or H = 6. G = 2.56. The colourless glassy variety, sanidine,
irregular colourless plates. Alteration uncommon. is a high temperature form found in quickly-cooled
Mean *./.= 1.59. lavas.
Biref: Strong (max. = 0.04), giving bright pinks and Orthoclase occurs in granites and syenites as hard,
greens in vertical sections. cleaved white or pink crystals, generally constituting the
Extinction: Straight, with reference to the cleavage. greater part of the rock. In the dyke rocks related to
granites and syenites, orthoclase may occur as
Biotite, K(MgFe)3(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 porphyritic crystals (see p. 106). Found also in some
Crystals are brown to nearly black in hand specimen; gneisses and felspathic sandstones.
singleflakesare pale brown and have a sub-metallic or In thin section: shape often nearly rectangular if
pearly lustre. Form and cleavage as stated above. H = 2\ crystals are idiomorphic, irregular if interlocked with
to 3. G = 2.8to3.1. other minerals. Cleavage not always seen.
Biotite occurs in many igneous rocks, e.g. granites, Colour: None when fresh, but shows frequent
syenites, diorites, and their lavas and dyke rocks, as alteration to kaolin (p. 80), when the mineral appears
dark lustrous crystals, distinguished from muscovite by 'cloudy' and looks white by top light (reflected from the
their colour. Also a common constituent of certain surface of the slice).
gneisses and schists. Mean R.I. = 1.52.
In thin section: Sections showing the cleavage often Biref: Weak (max. = 0.008), giving grey and white
have two parallel sides and ragged ends (Fig. 4.17). In polarization colours, in sections of normal thickness.
some biotites, small crystals of zircon enclosed in the Extinction: Oblique, up to 21° on the side pinacoid;
mica have developed spheres of alteration around sections perpendicular to the side pinacoid show straighi
themselves by radioactivity. These spheres in section extinction. Simple twins common (Fig. 4.29);
appear as small dark areas or 'haloes' around the zircon distinguished from plagioclase by the absence of
and are pleochroic. multiple twinning.
Colour: Shades of brown and yellow in sections across Alteration to kaolin is common (p. 80); sometimes
the cleavage, which are strongly pleochroic; the mineral alters to an aggregate of very smallflakesof sericite
is darkest (i.e. light absorption is a maximum) when the (secondary white mica), revealed by their bright
cleavage is parallel to the vibration direction of the polarization colours.
 Orthoclase
(microcline)

No feldspar
in this area Fig. 4.27 Feldspar composition diagram. For
a feldspar represented by a point within the tri-
angle, the proportions of the three quantities
Feldspar Orthoclase, Albite, Anorthite are given by the
stable only lengths of the perpendiculars from the point
;at high temperatures onto the sides of the triangle. Each corner re-
presents 100% of the component named there.
With increasing Ca the plagioclases grade from
Plagioclases Albite (0-10% CaAI2) to Oligoclase. Andesine,
NaAISi3O8 CaAI2Si2O8 Labradorite, Bytownite and Anorthite (90-
Albite Anorthite 100% CaAI2).
Pinacoid

Fig. 4.28 Crystal of orthoclase (left) showing cleavage; (a)

cross section and (b) vertical section showing cleavage and
principal crystal faces.

Microcline, KAlSi3O8. Triclinic; the low temperature

form of potassium feldspar. Fig. 4.29 Orthoclase in thin section ( x 3). (a) alteration to
Crystal form is similar to that of orthoclase, but the kaolin, (b) vertical section exhibiting Carlsbad twin, (c) Bav-
enotwin, (d) Microcline.
two cleavages (parallel to the basal and side pinacoids)
intersect at about 89° instead of 90°.
Colour: White, pink, or green. The Plagioclases
R.I. and Biref: Similar to orthoclase. Multiple Feldspars of this series are formed of mixtures (solid
twinning, with two intersecting sets of gently tapering solutions) of albite, NaAlSi3O8, and anorthite,
twin-lamellae; in thin sections this is seen as a CaAl2Si2O8, in all proportions. The range of
characteristic 'cross-hatching' effect between crossed composition is divided into six parts, which are named.
polars, and distinguishes microcline from other A plagioclase, for example, containing 40 per cent albite
feldspars (Fig. 4.29). and 60 per cent anorthite would be called labradorite
Anorthoclase Triclinic. (Fig. 4.27.) The beautiful (written Ab40An60).
grey schillerized feldspar which occurs in laurvikite (a Crystals: Triclinic; white or colourless (albite) to grey
Norwegian syenite, p. 107); it is also found as rhomb- (anorthite), bounded by prisms, basal and side
shaped crystals in rhomb-porphyry in the Oslo district. pinacoids, and domes (Fig. 4.30). Vitreous lustre.
Schiller is the play of colours seen by reflected light in Cleavages parallel to the basal and side pinacoids meet
some minerals, in which minute platy inclusions are at an angle of about 86° (hence the name; Greek plagios,
arranged in parallel planes; the effect is produced by the oblique; klasis, breaking). Multiple twins parallel to the
interference of light from these platy inclusions. side pinacoid (Albite twinning, Figs 4.8c and 4.31a) are
 (Fig. 4.31), and sets of alternate stripes extinguish
obliquely in different positions. Average values for the
optical properties of the plagioclases are: R.I. = 1.55,
birefringence weak (0.009) which gives grey and yellow

Pinacoid
polarization colours, and oblique extinction of long
Pinacoid
sections that varies from approximately 15° for albite to
40° for anorthite.
Zoned crystals Many crystals possess internal
variations of composition which are expressed (i) by
colour, e.g. tourmaline, Fig. 4.36; (ii) by inclusions,
small particles locked up in a crystal at some stage in its
growth, e.g. quartz, Fig. 4.33, or (Ui) by zones of
different composition. This last is particularly evident in
Fig. 4.30 Crystal of albite (a plagioclase): oblique view some plagioclases, where it results from differences in
showing cleavage, (a) cross section and (b) vertical section, successive layers of material acquired during a crystal's
showing cleavage and principal crystal faces. growth. For example, a plagioclase may have begun to
grow as anorthite; but because of changes in the relative
characteristic of plagioclases; the closely spaced twin- concentrations of constituents in the melt that was
lamellae can often be seen with a lens as stripes on the breeding the crystal, further growth may have used
basal cleavage and other surfaces. Another set of twins material containing less anorthite and more albite. A
is sometimes developed on planes, parallel to the 6-axis, slice of such a crystal seen between crossed polars does
which make a small angle with the basal pinacoid, not show sharp extinction in one position, but the zones
Fig. 4.31 (Pericline twinning). H = 6 to 6f G = 2.60 of different composition extinguish successively at
(albite),risingto 2.76 (anorthite). slightly different angles as the slice is rotated
Plagioclase feldspars occur in most igneous rocks, and (Fig. 4.31c). Augite and hornblende may also show
in some sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. They compositional zoning of this kind.
appear as white or grey cleaved crystals in the coarse-
grained igneous rocks, where their multiple twinning The feldspathoid group
may be seen with a hand lens in suitable crystals.
In thin section: idiomorphic crystals (e.g. in lavas) Minerals of this group resemble the feldspars
commonly show rectangular sections; parallel-sided chemically, and have 3-dimensional framework
laths', with their length several times as great as their structures; they differ from the feldspars in their lower
breadth, are seen when the crystals sectioned are flat and content of silicon. Stated in another way, the Al: Si ratio
thin parallel to the side pinacoid (see Fig. 5.19). is higher in the feldspathoids than in the corresponding
Cleavage not often visible. The minerals are normally feldspars. The two chief minerals of the group, which
colourless but may be clouded with alteration products: are not discussed here because their occurrence is
these are mainly kaolin in Na-rich, and epidote in Ca- somewhat limited in nature, are:
rich varieties. Leucite, K(AlSi2)O6 (cf. Orthoclase)
The characteristic multiple twinning appears as light Nepheline, Na(AlSi)O4 (cf. Albite), usually with a
and dark grey parallel stripes between crossed polars little K.
Feldspathoids occur in certain undersaturated lavas,
which have a low silica- and high alkali-content, such as
the leucite-basalts from Vesuvius.
Forms of silica
Silica is found uncombined with other elements in
several crystalline forms of which quartz, one of the
most common minerals in nature, is of special
importance. As the quartz content of a rock increases so
may its strength and also its abrasiveness to machinery
used for drilling and excavating. When drilling quartz-
rich rock fine dust may be created which should not be
inhaled as it may damage lung tissue. Other forms of
silica include the high temperature tridymite (see below);
chalcedony, aggregates of quartz fibres; and the
cryptocrystalline formsflintand opal, and chert (p. 126).
Fig. 4.31 Plagioclase in thin section ( x 2) (upper polar in)
- see also Fig. 4.17. (a) Common albite twin, (b) pericline Quartz, SiO2
twin, (c) zoned, (d) combined carlsbad-albite twin. In the structure of quartz the silicon-oxygen
tetrahedra build up a three-dimensional framework in
which each oxygen is shared between two silicons. There
are no substitutions of other ions in the silicon
positions.
Crystals: Trigonal with 6-sided prisms and
rhombohedral terminations (Figs. 4.32 and 4.7); faces
sometimes unequally developed; occasionally other
faces belonging to trigonal forms are present. Vitreous
lustre; conchoidal fracture. Colourless when pure (e.g.
'rock crystal'), but many coloured varieties occur, the
colour being due to traces of impurities, e.g. rose quartz
(pink), smoky quartz (grey), milky quartz (white),
amethyst (violet). Some quartz contains minute
inclusions or liquid-filled cavities, which may be
arranged in regular directions in a crystal. No cleavage;
twins rare. H = 7, cannot be scratched with a knife.
G = 2.66. Fig. 4.33 Quartz in thin section ( x 1 0 ) . (a) Cross-section
normal to c-axis; (b) vertical section parallel to c-axis; and
(c) irregular (from an igneous rock such as granite), lines of
minute inclusions (dots) may be present.

R.I. = 1.553 (max.), 1.544 (min.); weak outline in

Canada balsam.
Biref: = 0.009 (max.) (see p. 68).
Extinction: Straight in longitudinal sections.
Quartz is distinguished from orthoclase by the
absence of twinning and by its entire lack of alteration;
it always appears fresh, although inclusions may be
present. The mineral may show strain polarization in
rocks which have been deformed and then has no sharp
extinction position.

Chalcedony, SiO2
Radiating aggregates of quartzfibres,their ends often
Fig. 4.32 (a) Spiral structure in atomic framework of quartz, forming a curved surface; white or brownish colour and
(b) Quartz crystal with extra (trigonal) faces. of waxy appearance in the mass. Chiefly found in layers
lining the vesicles of igneous rocks (Fig. 4.2a). In thin
Quartz is an essential constituent of granites, and can section, such layers show a radiating structure, of which
be recognized in the rock as hard, glassy grains of the crystalfibreshave straight extinction and give an
irregular shape and without cleavage. It occurs in extinction 'brush' which remains in position as the stage
smaller amount in granodiorite and quartz-diorite, and is rotated. R.I. = 1.54; polarization colours are light
is present as well-shaped porphyritic crystals in acid greys.
dyke-rocks and lavas. Vein quartz is an aggregate of Flint Cryptocrystalline (i.e. made of a large number of
interlocking crystals of glassy or milky appearance, minute crystals which are too small to be distinguished
filling fractures in rocks; the boundaries of the crystals separately except under very high magnification) silica,
may be coated with brown iron oxide. Well-shaped possibly with an admixture of opal, representing a
quartz crystals are found in cavities {druses) in both dried-up gel; occurs in nodules in the chalk (see p. 127).
veins and granitic rocks. Most sands and sandstones Often black in colour on a freshly broken surface, with
have quartz as their main constituent; the grains have a conchoidal fracture. Splitflintswere much used in the
high resistance to abrasion and thus persist over long past as a decorative facing to buildings.
periods during erosion and transport. The mineral is Opal Hydrated silica, SiO2nH2O; amorphous. White,
also found abundantly in gneisses, quartzites, and in grey, or yellow in colour, with a pearly appearance
some schists and other metamorphic rocks. (opalescence), and often displaying coloured internal
In thin section: basal sections are regular hexagons reflections. Conchoidal fracture. H = about 6. G = 2.2.
(Fig. 4.16) when the crystals are well formed; also see Occurs as afillingto cracks and cavities in igneous
Fig. 4.16 for longitudinal section. When the mineral has rocks. When it replaces woody tissues it preserves the
crystallized among others, as in granite, its shape is original textures and is known as wood opal. The
irregular (Figs. 4.33 and 5.24). microscopic organisms known as diatoms (p. 30) which
Colourless. Never shows alteration, but crystals in live in oceans and lakes, are also composed of opaline
lavas sometimes have corroded and embayed margins. silica. Opal is an undesirable constituent in rocks used
for concrete aggregates, owing to the possibility of
reaction occurring between it and alkalis in the cement
In thin section, colourless and isotropic, with low R.I.
(1.44).

Accessory minerals
Fig. 4.35 Crystals of garnet oblique views, (a) rhombdo-
Minerals that occur as small crystals and in limited decahedron; (b) trapezohedron.
quantities are described as accessory. Occasionally they
may develop to form large crystals and in certain G = 3.5 to 4.0 according to species of mineral. Garnet
circumstances can be concentrated to become a major occurs in metamorphic rocks such as mica-schist. In thin
rock constituent. section crystals are isotropic. Fig. 4.34d.
Tourmaline, Complex silicate of Na, Mg, Fe, Al with
Si6O18 rings.
Trigonal. Colour, black, red, green, blue. H = 7,
G = 3.0. Tourmaline occurs in granites and vein rocks
such as pegmatites. The variety schorl commonly grows
in radiating clusters (Fig. 4.Ie) e.g. in pneumatolysed
granites. Yellow in thin section with extinction parallel
to length. Fig. 4.36a-c.

Cordierite, Mg2Al3(AlSi5)O18
Orthorhombic but commonly appears nearly
hexagonal in shape when crystals grow together as twins
(Fig. 4.36d). Occurs in metamorphic rocks such as
hornfels(p. 136).

Fig. 4.34 Some accessory minerals in thin section ( x 1 5).

(a) Zircon (at greater magnification than other minerals
shown), (b) Chiastolite cross-section, (b') long section, (c)
Sphene. (d) Garnet, showing isotropic character under
crossed polars.

Zircon, ZrSiO4
Tetragonal. H = 7.5, G = 4.7. Zircon occurs in granites
and syenites as an original constituent. Crystals are
usually very small and in thin section are recognized
chiefly by their shape: Fig. 4.34a.
Andalusite, Al2OSiO4 Fig. 4.36 Crystal of tourmaline. Tourmaline seen in thin
Orthorhombic. Colour, pink or grey. H = 7.5, G = 3.2. section ( x 5 ) , (a) and (b) cross-sections; (c) vertical section.
Andalusite occurs in contact metamorphosed shales and Also shown is cordierite (d).
slates. Crystals are prismatic and have a nearly square
transverse section. The variety chiastolite contains
inclusions of carbon (Fig. 4.346). Two other forms of Secondary minerals
Al2OSiO4 are sillimanite (formed at high temperature as
in an aureole) and kyanite (a pale blue mineral formed Described under this head are the minerals chlorite,
under high stress and moderate temperature). serpentine, talc, kaolin, epidote and zeolite, all of which
result from the alteration of pre-existent minerals. These
Sphene, CaTiSO4 (O, OH, F) minerals have little mechanical strength and small
Monoclinic. H = 5, G = 3.5. Sphene occurs as small angles of friction. Their presence on fractures can
wedge-shaped crystals (Gr. sphene, a wedge) in granite, significantly reduce the strength of a rock mass.
diorites and syenites. Fig. 4.34c.
Chlorite (MgFe)5Al(Si3Al)O10(OH)8, variable
Garnet (Ca, Mg, Fe2 + , Mn)3 (Al, Fe 3+ , Cr)2 (SiOJ3 The chlorites (Greek chloros, green) form a family of
Cubic (Fig. 4.35). Colour, pale pink. H = 6.5 to 7.5, greenflakyminerals which are hydrous silicates of
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magnesium and aluminium. Some Fe replaces Mg and associated with serpentine. Flakes are flexible but not
gives colour to the chlorite. Like the micas, they have a elastic, and are easily scratched by the finger-nail. H = I.
perfect cleavage, due to the atomic sheet structure
(Fig. 4.26). Different kinds of chlorite are given Kaolin (china clay)
distinctive names (e.g. penninite, clinochlore); these are This substance is largely made up of the mineral
not distinguished in the following general description. kaolinite, Al 4 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 8 , one of the group of Clay
Crystals: Monoclinic, frequently 6-sided in shape, Minerals which, like the micas, are built up of silicon-
with a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane; the oxygen sheets (Fig. 4.26).
mineral splits into hexagonal flakes which are flexible Kaolin is derived from the breakdown of feldspar by
but not elastic (cf. mica). H = 2 to 2\ (often soft enough the action of water and carbon dioxide; the chemical
to be scratched by the finger-nail). G = 2.65 to 3.0. equation for the change is given and the kaolinization of
Chlorite is found in igneous rocks, as described granite masses is described on p. 138. It is white or grey,
below, and in metamorphic rocks such as chlorite-schist, soft, and floury to the touch, with a clayey smell when
and in some clays. damp. G = 2.6. In thin section it is seen as a
In thin section: Chlorite occurs as an alteration decomposition product of feldspar (Fig. 4.29), which
product of biotite, augite, or hornblende; it may replace when altered appears clouded and looks white by top
these minerals completely, forming a pseudomorph light (i.e. by light reflected from the surface of the slice
( = 'false form') in which the aggregate of chlorite flakes and not transmitted through it).
and fibres retains the shape of the original mineral.
Together with other minerals such as calcite, chlorite Epidote, Ca 2 (AlFe) 3 (SiOJ 3 (OH)
also forms an infilling to cavities in basalts (q.v.). The monoclinic crystals of this mineral are typically
Colour: Shades of bluish-green and yellowish-green, of a yellowish-green colour. Often in radiating clusters;
sometimes very pale; noticeably pleochroic; cleavage vitreous lustre. H = 6 to 7. G = 3.4.
often seen. Epidote occurs as an alteration product of calcic
Mean RJ. = about 1.58. plagioclases or of augite; also as infillings to vesicles in
Biref: Weak grey. basalts, and as pale green veins traversing igneous and
metamorphoc rocks.
Serpentine, Mg 6 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 8 , some Fe replaces Mg, in
Zeolites
part
Serpentine is an alteration product of olivine, of These form a group of hydrous aluminous silicates of
orthorhombic pyroxene, or of hornblende. This reaction calcium, sodium, or potassium; they contain molecular
takes place in an igneous rock while it is still moderately water which is readily driven off on heating, a property
hot (hydrothermal action), the source of the hot water to which the name refers (Greek zein, to boil). They
being magmatic; it is thought that the change from occur as white or glassy crystals clusters, filling or lining
olivine to serpentine may also be brought about by the the cavities left by escaping gases (amygdales, p. 100) in
action of water and silica. basic lavas, or filling open joints, and are derived from
feldspars or feldspathoids by hydration.
Serpentine grows as a mass of green fibres or plates,
Two commonly occurring natural zeolites are:
which replace the original mineral as a pseudomorph. A
fibrous variety is called chrysotile, and is worked in veins
for commercial asbestos. In the mass, serpentine is Analcite, NaAlSi 2 O 6 H 2 O
rather soapy to the touch, and may be coloured red if Cubic; crystallized as trapezohedra (as in Fig. 4.35b),
iron oxide is present. H = 3 to 4. G = 2.6. Serpentine is white in colour. G = 2.25. Occurs in the amygdales of
found in basic and ultrabasic rocks (p. 101), and in basalts.
serpentine-marble.
In this section: as a pseudomorph after olivine, Natrolite, Na 2 Al 2 Si 3 O 10 2H 2 O
serpentine appears as a matte of pale green fibres, Forms white, acicular orthorhombic crystals,
weakly birefringent, and having a low RJ. (1.57). generally in radiating clusters. G = 2.2.
Specks of black magnetite, the oxidized by-product
from iron in the original olivine, are often present. The
change to serpentine involves an increase in volume, and Clay minerals
this expansion may fracture the surrounding minerals in
the rock, fine threads of serpentine being developed in Clays can form as either primary or secondary minerals.
the cracks so formed. Here they are grouped under one heading because of
their economic importance, their presence in most
profiles of weathering and their influence upon the
JaZcMg 3 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 mechanical character of rocks and less well consolidated
A soft, flaky mineral, white or greenish in colour, sediments. Being minute they can be seen using only an
which occurs as a secondary product in basic and electron microscope (Fig. 4.37), but their presence may
ultrabasic rocks, and in talc-schist (p. 140). It is often be revealed by placing a few particles of material that is