Oilfield Review

Spring 2011

Offshore Pipelines
Managed Pressure Drilling
Formation Water
Dielectric Logging
11-OR-0002
Understanding the E&P Challenge—Defining the Basics

The supply of safe, affordable and transportable energy is In this issue of Oilfield Review, we are launching a
one of the fundamental prerequisites for global economic series of articles that details the underlying concepts and
development. For more than a hundred years, hydrocarbon- technologies on which the E&P industry is built. These
based fuels—including oil, coal and gas—have made up “Defining …” articles are written to be accessible to a
the bulk of the world’s energy needs and today remain the wider audience than the E&P professionals who typically
only viable option for meeting up to 80 percent of the read Oilfield Review.
world’s energy demand forecast to 2030. For the exploration The first article is “Defining Logging” (see “Discovering
and production of oil and gas, this dependence represents the Secrets of the Earth,” page 60). We chose this topic to
two major challenges. lead the series because it reflects the origin of Schlumberger
First, it is becoming much harder to ensure future sup- in subsurface logging. In the next few issues, we will intro-
ply. The E&P industry is investing heavily to maximize pro- duce exploration, drilling, completions and production,
duction from existing reserves, while simultaneously before moving into subtopics such as resistivity logging and
developing new resources in more challenging environ- reservoir modeling.
ments such as the arctic and deep water. It is also increas- I hope that you find these articles interesting and that
ing exploration and production in unconventional reserves they provide you with a more in-depth knowledge of the
such as shale gas, shale oil and heavy oil. technical challenges and technological solutions that
Second, it has become imperative that we protect encompass the E&P cycle. In addition, it is important
and preserve our environment. E&P activities must that we attract young professionals who are motivated to
leave a smaller operational footprint and provide pursue these challenges for the long term because our
greater assurance against environmental damage, par- industry has a major role to play in the sustainable
ticularly as the industry continues to explore more energy future.

Paal Kibsgaard
sensitive ecological environments.
Given this context, the industry is becoming increasingly
dependent on technology as an enabler for future supply. Chief Operating Officer
Technologies deployed in E&P activities today offer excep- Schlumberger Limited
tional breadth and depth compared with the technologies
Paal Kibsgaard is Chief Operating Officer of Schlumberger Limited. Prior to
of only a few decades ago. This is exciting from the per- his most recent position as president of Reservoir Characterization, he held a
spective of young professionals who are joining the E&P variety of global management positions including vice president of Engineering,
industry today, but technology, because of its complexities, Manufacturing and Sustaining; vice president of Personnel for Schlumberger
can also create barriers to understanding. Limited; and president of Schlumberger Drilling & Measurements. Earlier in his
Schlumberger career, he was a GeoMarket* manager for the Caspian region
after holding various field positions in technical sales and customer support.
A petroleum engineer with a master’s degree from the Norwegian Institute of
Technology, Paal began his career in 1992 working for ExxonMobil. He joined
Schlumberger in 1997.

* GeoMarket is a mark of Schlumberger.

1
 Schlumberger

Oilfield Review
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview

Executive Editor 1 Understanding the E&P Challenge—Defining the Basics

Mark A. Andersen
Editorial contributed by Paal Kibsgaard, Chief Operating Officer, Schlumberger Limited
Advisory Editor
Lisa Stewart

Senior Editors
Matt Varhaug
Rick von Flatern

Editors
Vladislav Glyanchenko
Tony Smithson 4 Pipeline to Market
Contributing Editor Pipelines provide an economical and reliable means of
Ginger Oppenheimer transporting oil and gas to market, and are as vital to the
Design/Production development of offshore oil and gas resources as are the
Herring Design wells and platforms they support. The pipeline industry must
Mike Messinger
meet a broad range of technical challenges as it expands this
Illustration key infrastructure.
Chris Lockwood
Tom McNeff
Mike Messinger
George Stewart

Printing
Wetmore Printing Company
Curtis Weeks

14 Managed Pressure Drilling Erases the Lines

Increasingly complex wellbores make it ever more difficult to
Managed pressure
stay within prescribed bottomhole pressures using traditional drilling

drilling methods. Managed pressure drilling techniques offer

drillers a method for maintaining a BHP that is neither too
high nor too low.

On the cover:

An engineer prepares a dielectric tool

to run into a well. The caliper arm (right )
pushes the articulated pad (left ) securely
against the borehole wall. The pad’s
transmitters send out microwaves that
return to multiple receivers also located
on the pad. Transmitter-receiver spacing, About Oilfield Review
Oilfield Review, a Schlumberger journal, Oilfield Review is published quarterly and © 2011 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.
electromagnetic-field orientation and printed in the USA. Reproductions without permission are
fluids in the pores determine shape and communicates technical advances in
finding and producing hydrocarbons strictly prohibited.
depth of the sensed region (inset ). Visit www.slb.com/oilfieldreview for
to employees, clients and other oilfield
professionals. Contributors to articles electronic copies of articles in multiple For a comprehensive dictionary of oilfield
include industry professionals and experts languages. terms, see the Schlumberger Oilfield
from around the world; those listed with Glossary at www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.
only geographic location are employees
of Schlumberger or its affiliates.

2
 Spring 2011
Volume 23
Number 1
ISSN 0923-1730

24 Finding Value in Formation Water Advisory Panel

Abdulla I. Al-Kubaisy
Formation water analysis is a crucial step in hydrocarbon Saudi Aramco
exploration and production. It provides input to petrophysical Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia
evaluation, helps assess potential for corrosion, scaling and Dilip M. Kale
souring, and aids in the understanding of reservoir connectivity. ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi, India
This article explains the causes of variation in formation
Roland Hamp
water chemistry—between formations and over time. Case Woodside Energy Ltd.
studies highlight methods for ensuring sample purity and Perth, Australia
demonstrate applications of downhole and laboratory evalu- George King
ation techniques. Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas, USA
Richard Woodhouse
Independent consultant
Surrey, England
36 Zapping Rocks Alexander Zazovsky
Chevron
Dielectric logging tools provide supplemental information for Houston, Texas
analyzing freshwater reservoirs and identifying movable hydro-
carbons. A recently introduced tool offers a dielectric disper-
R XA

sion measurement to evaluate rock texture in carbonates and

4

ud
R XA

ca
ke
3
R XA

shale effects in siliciclastics. Case studies from freshwater,

pr
ob
2
R XA

heavy-oil and carbonate reservoirs illustrate applications of

1

TA

dielectric data.
TB
R XB
1
R XB
2
R XB
3
R XB
4

53 Contributors Oilfield Review is pleased to welcome

Alexander Zazovsky to its editorial adviso-
ry panel. He is Completions Engineering
55 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review Advisor and Research Consultant at
Chevron in Houston, where he is responsi-
60 Defining Logging: ble for managing and leading technology
Discovering the Secrets of the Earth development and technical services pro-
jects. Prior to joining Chevron in 2011, he
was an engineering advisor for
Schlumberger in Sugar Land, Texas.
Alexander received an MS degree in
applied mathematics, a PhD degree in
fluid mechanics, and a doctorate of tech-
nical sciences in petroleum engineering
(Habilitation), all from Gubkin Russian
State University of Oil and Gas in
Moscow. He began his career in Moscow,
where he worked at the Research Institute
of Nuclear Geophysics and Geochemistry,
the Institute for Problems in Mechanics of
the Academy of Sciences, the All-Union
Editorial correspondence Subscriptions Distribution inquiries Oil Institute for Scientific Research
Oilfield Review Client subscriptions can be obtained Tony Smithson (VNIIneft), and the Oil and Gas Research
5599 San Felipe through any Schlumberger sales office. Oilfield Review Institute of the Academy of Sciences.
Houston, Texas 77056 USA Clients can obtain additional subscrip- 12149 Lakeview Manor Dr. Next, Alexander worked at the Laboratoire
(1) 713-513-1194 tion information and update subscription Northport, Alabama 35475 USA d’Aérothermique du CNRS, Meudon,
Fax: (1) 713-513-2057 addresses at www.slb.com/oilfieldreview. (1) 832-886-5217 France, as an invited scientist before join-
E-mail: [email protected] Paid subscriptions are available from Fax: (1) 281-285-0065 ing Schlumberger in 1993. He has been
Oilfield Review Services E-mail: [email protected] editor of several professional journals and
Pear Tree Cottage, Kelsall Road a consulting editor of the Russian edition
Ashton Hayes, Chester CH3 8BH UK of Oilfield Review.
Fax: (44) 1829 759163
E-mail: [email protected]
Current subscription rates are available
at www.oilfieldreview.com.
3
 Pipeline to Market

Alexander P. Albert The success of every prospect depends as much on an operator’s ability to move oil
Houston, Texas, USA
and gas to market as it does on getting the product out of the ground. In many regions,
Daniel L. Lanier pipelines offer the most economical and dependable means of transporting hydro-
Geoscience Earth and Marine Services, Inc.
Houston carbons from wellhead to refinery. Pipeline companies go to great lengths to safely
install and operate their transmission systems.
Brian L. Perilloux
Williams Midstream Services, LLC
Houston

Andrew Strong
Southampton, Hampshire, England
In response to maturing production in established Even in the face of such challenges, the pipe-
Oilfield Review Spring 2011: 23, no. 1. onshore and shallow-water basins, many E&P line industry continues to break records. In 2000,
Copyright © 2011 Schlumberger. companies are extending their quest for reserves a 64-km [40-mi] pipeline laid to service the
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Kamran
Akbarzadeh, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Michael Carney, toward deeper offshore prospects. Drilling and Hoover-Diana project in the Gulf of Mexico,
Houston; Marsha Cohen, Terra et Aqua magazine, The completion confirm prospect viability, then set reached water depths of 1,450 m [4,800 ft]. By
Hague; Julie Gentz, The Williams Companies, Inc., Tulsa;
Stelios Kyriakides, The University of Texas at Austin; the stage for platform construction and place- 2005, the Blue Stream project had installed
Domitille Lucereau, La Défense, France; Frank McWilliams, ment. Even after the wells are tied in to the plat- 386 km [240 mi] of twin pipelines in depths of
Tata Steel International, Sugar Land, Texas; and Matt Pond,
Corrosion Resistant Alloys, Houston. form, the job is far from finished. 2,150 m [7,050 ft] in the Black Sea. In 2008,
Integriti Platinum, PIPESIM and RealView are marks Some method of transporting the product to 206 km [128 mi] of pipeline at the Perdido Norte
of Schlumberger. market must be put in place. In developed areas project was laid between the Alaminos Canyon
1. For more on infield pipeline systems: Amin A, Riding M, supported by an established infrastructure, this and East Breaks areas of the Gulf of Mexico, in
Shepler R, Smedstad E and Ratulowski J: “Subsea
Development from Pore to Process,” Oilfield Review 17, often calls for installation of a few kilometers of record depths ranging from 1,067 m to 2,530 m
no. 1 (Spring 2005): 4–17. export line to tie a platform to an existing pipe- [3,500 ft to 8,300 ft]. The Galsi pipeline, slated for
2. Codes and practices for subsea pipeline design, line. In frontier areas, operators must either lay construction in 2011, will stretch beneath the
construction and inspection have been published by a
number of technical institutes, such as the American extensive pipeline systems over several kilome- Mediterranean Ocean from Algeria to Sardinia,
National Standards Institute, American Petroleum ters, or rely on ships—typically shuttle tankers and is expected to set a new depth record of
Institute, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Det Norske Veritas, Institution of Gas Engineers and from a floating production, storage and offloading 2,824 m [9,265 ft]. Distance records are also
Managers, and United Kingdom Offshore Operators (FPSO) vessel—to move the product to a receiv- being set. Between 2004 and 2007, the Langeled
Association. A listing of various international codes can
be found in the UK Health and Safety Executive: “Use of ing terminal. From there, it is usually piped to a gas pipeline was laid between Norway and
Pipeline Standards and Good Practice Guidance,” http:// refinery. Until a means of transport is available, England; at 1,173 km [729 mi], it is the world’s
www.hse.gov.uk/pipelines/resources/pipelinestandards.
htm (accessed November 25, 2010). hard-won reserves are simply stranded, and oper- longest subsea pipeline.
3. Connelly M: “Deepwater Pipelines—Taking the ators must leave those reserves in the ground. Whether it sets a record or not, each pipeline
Challenge to New Depths,” Offshore Magazine 69,
no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 94–97. Pipeline companies strive to keep pace with has unique characteristics. Product chemistry
4. MacPherson H: “Unique Challenges in Managing E&P companies as they move deeper offshore. largely dictates metallurgy, while pipeline length
Deepwater Pipeline Integrity,” PetroMin Pipeliner 5, To do so, the pipeline industry must design and and depth gradients dictate operating pressures
no. 3 (July–September 2009): 14–25.
5. KCI Publications (ed): “Clad Pipes: Growing Market install pipeline systems that can push high-tem- and flow rates, both of which in turn influence
Increasing Requirements,” Stainless Steel World 20, perature, high-pressure fluids uphill over long pipeline diameter and wall thickness. These
(January–February 2008): 18–21.
distances in a deep, dark, high-pressure, low- design considerations have a direct bearing on
temperature environment. operation and maintenance practices. This article
provides a broad overview of offshore pipeline con-
struction, operations and monitoring activities.

4 Oilfield Review
 Platform

Wellhead Riser

Gathering line
Manifold

> Pipeline segments. Infield lines (pink) run from the wellhead to the platform or other preliminary gathering and processing facility. Export, or sales, lines
(green) run downstream from the platform.

Design Considerations and temperature, the composition and flow rate threat of corrosion. Infield lines transport unpro-
Pipeline systems consist of all the pipe, valves, of fluids carried by the pipeline as well as the cessed fluids; these fluids may contain hydrocar-
pumps, meters and facilities through which pro- topography on which the pipeline will be laid. bons mixed with a corrosive blend of water, carbon
duction streams are transported. These systems These factors will ultimately impact the pipeline dioxide, chlorides or hydrogen sulfide [H2S], often
can be divided into distinct segments (above). costs, manufacturing processes, pipe-lay tech- at elevated temperatures. And conditions gener-
Infield lines are relatively small-diameter pipe- niques and operating strategies. ally change over time as reservoir depletion alters
lines (less than 16 in.) consisting of flowlines, Pipelines are designed to withstand the inter- the fluid mixture.
gathering lines and risers, which run between the nal pressures generated by a specified rate of The pipeline industry has developed a variety
wellhead and the production platform or FPSO.1 flow. However, in deep waters, internal pressure of approaches to mitigate corrosion problems.
The infield lines transport a raw, unrefined well concerns are secondary to the need for pipelines Some pipeline designs increase pipe wall thick-
stream, usually consisting of a multiphase mixture to withstand external collapse pressures imposed ness to compensate for the expected loss of metal
of gas, oil and water from oil wells; or the lines by water depth—especially during the installa- caused by corrosion. Others use corrosion-resis-
transport gas, natural gas liquids and water from tion phase when no fluids are being pumped tant alloys (CRAs). These alloys combine metals
gas wells. Export pipelines, also called trunklines through the pipeline. Resistance to hydrostatic such as stainless steel, chrome, nickel, iron, cop-
or transmission or sales lines, generally consist of collapse is governed by the ovality and the com- per, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten or titanium.
larger diameter pipelines (ranging from 16 in. to pressive strength afforded by the pipe’s metal- CRAs resist corrosion more effectively than car-
44 in.) for transporting processed fluids to shore lurgy and wall thickness.3 Thus, while internal bon-steel pipe, and are chosen based on their
from one or more fields. The processed stream, pressure dictates pipe thickness in conventional resistance to specific produced fluid properties.
having undergone separation and initial treatment settings, hydrostatic pressure is the dominant Although resistant to corrosion, CRAs may not
aboard a production platform or FPSO, usually influence on thickness in deepwater pipelines. have the tensile and compressive strength of
consists of oil with minor amounts of water, or of While burst and collapse pressures are prime carbon-steel pipe.
gas and condensate. These pipelines typically tie drivers, pipeline design must also consider other CRA cladding can be used to line the inside of
in to onshore pipelines that transmit the fluids to factors. A study of Gulf of Mexico pipelines showed the pipe. In such cases, the carbon-steel outer
refineries located farther inland. that the single most significant cause of damage to pipe withstands the internal and external pres-
Pipelines are built in accordance with strin- pipelines is corrosion.4 The composition and tem- sure, while the alloy cladding provides corrosion
gent codes and standards.2 Design requirements perature of fluids transmitted through a pipe can protection.5 CRA selection must also take into
for subsea pipelines must account for a variety of affect its susceptibility to internal corrosion, thus consideration the strength, toughness and weld-
factors, including projected length, water depth metallurgy becomes a significant design consider- ability of the alloy.
ation—not only for strength but for offsetting the

Spring 2011 5
 Second coating erode the seabed beneath unburied pipelines.
First coating VIV suppression devices, such as helical fin
Pipe strakes and fairings, can be used to protect
freespans from hazards created by ocean cur-
rents (below left).
Thermally induced stress is another problem.
The flow of hot crude oil through a pipeline can
result in metal expansion, which may cause the
pipeline to shift position. In a straight line
between two fixed and immobile points, such
> Fusion-bonded epoxy coating. To protect pipe from corrosion and movement could result in catastrophic failure in
mechanical damage, epoxy resin coatings are electrostatically applied to the pipeline system. However, engineers can com-
the steel pipe. The resin is applied at temperatures up to 110°C [230°F]; it pensate for expansion and contraction by plan-
then hardens thermoplastically. Typical thickness ranges from 350 um to ning a gently meandering pipeline that permits
450 um. A second layer may be applied for additional protection.
(Illustration courtesy of EUROPIPE GmbH.) lateral movement along the line; this configura-
tion can even dampen the effects of movement
caused by earthquakes and mudslides.
In combination with corrosion-resistant met- In addition, design specifications must pre-
allurgy, chemical inhibition is often employed to clude biochemical reactions. Sulfate-reducing Pipe Manufacture
mitigate corrosion: This technique introduces bacteria in marine silts generate H2S, which can The pipe used for building pipelines is known as
chemical additives into the production stream to attack pipelines; other organisms, such as lim- line pipe. Most line pipe is made of carbon steel;
reduce the fluid’s corrosiveness. pets or barnacles, can rasp or bore into unpro- often specific alloys are chosen to attain crucial
Pipelines are susceptible to external tected metals. To ward off the ravages of the mechanical and metallurgical properties, and
corrosion—for subsea pipelines, the primary subsea environment and extend the life of pipe- stainless steel may be used on occasion.7 The
culprit is seawater, an efficient electrolyte that lines, fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) or other exter- mechanical property requirements for pipeline
promotes aqueous corrosion. All metals and nal coatings may be employed in conjunction steel are very stringent, demanding high strength,
alloys in this environment are subject to corro- with cathodic protection (above). ductility, toughness, corrosion resistance and
sion, depending on their individual electrical Pipeline design must also thwart fatigue— weldability in a single grade of steel. Line pipe
potential and the pH of the seawater. The electro- progressive, localized damage caused by cyclic design properties are achieved by carefully regu-
chemical reaction that causes corrosion can be loading of the pipe. One form of cyclic loading lating alloy chemistry and thermo-mechanical
mitigated to an extent by cathodic protection.6 can be caused by vortex-induced vibrations processing during production. Quality control is
However, with increasing depth, water tempera- (VIVs) as water currents flow above and below monitored throughout the production process,
ture falls, decreasing conductivity, hence unsupported pipeline spans. These freespans from the steel mill to the pipe yard.
decreasing the effectiveness of anodes intended result as the pipeline crosses dips and valleys in Line pipe specifications often call for special-
to protect the pipeline. the seabed terrain or as water currents scour and ized processes, from the casting of steel slabs to
the subsequent rolling of the plates into strips
that are shaped into the pipe. Much of the pro-
cess is computer controlled, then checked by a
comprehensive array of nondestructive tests,
including ultrasonic, magnetic particle, and
X-ray evaluations of thickness and welds.
Line pipe is either seamless or seam welded.
Seamless pipe can be manufactured up to about
16 in. OD. The seam-welded variety is commonly
manufactured in sizes ranging from 16 in. to
64 in. OD.
Most seamless pipe starts as cast ingots or bil-
lets that are heated in a rotary hearth furnace,
then pierced by a center punch. The pierced
Water
Pipe Eddies ingot goes to a pierce rolling mill where it is
current
lengthened as its diameter and wall thickness are
reduced. A mandrel is inserted in the annulus of
the hollow ingot to hold and shape the ingot as it
> Pipe strakes. Water currents flowing past unsupported spans create eddies on the trailing side of
passes through a series of rollers and then is
the pipe (inset). As the vortices break away from the pipe, they set up vibrations that can cause the
pipe to fail through cyclic loading. VIV strakes can be strapped to the outside of the pipe (yellow) to
passed to a specialized mill to achieve exact pipe
break up the flow of the water current, forcing vortices well beyond the pipeline. (Illustration courtesy shape, thickness and diameter.
of Mark Tool & Rubber Co. Inc.)

6 Oilfield Review
 Seam-welded pipes start with coils of steel,
which are split into widths that conform to the
requisite pipe diameter. They are then rolled and
pressed to form plates of specific size and thick-
ness. The plates are cold formed to create a tubu-
lar shape whose seam is welded shut to create
the pipe.
Finished pipes are subjected to hydrostatic
testing, followed by a variety of mechanical tests
that measure hardness, tensile strength and other
properties. To protect against corrosion, the line Freespan
pipe may be coated with a layer of epoxy. Each pipe
is then individually numbered and issued a certifi-
cate that documents its metallurgy, physical prop-
erties and manufacturing history.

Pipeline Routing
Subsea pipeline routing must account for local
geography and the attendant vagaries of mete- > Freespan. Uneven topography or seabed erosion by water scouring beneath a pipeline can cause
orologic and geologic hazards presented by hur- freespans. To prevent pipeline problems associated with freespans, the low areas may be filled in with
rock using vessels designed especially for this purpose.
ricanes, tsunamis, subsea earthquakes, mudslides,
strong currents and erosion. Pipeline routing has
a direct bearing on the cost and feasibility of any
production project. The route is ultimately a com-
promise that considers: where bottom conditions or routing require- Surveys play an important role in protecting
sTHENEEDFORMINIMIZINGTHELENGTHOFTHEPIPE- ments call for additional sediment samples. This the marine environment. They are useful in iden-
line while reducing the need for presweeping of preliminary assessment is instrumental in devel- tifying high-density accumulations of deepwater
rock or debris that could damage the pipeline oping a proposed pipeline route, identifying areas benthic inhabitants such as chemosynthetic
sMINIMIZINGTHENEEDFORTRENCHINGBURYINGAND that require more-detailed evaluations and communities, corals and hardbottom communi-
freespan remediation determining how the subsequent preinstallation ties. Chemosynthetic communities, in particular,
sAVOIDINGPIPELINECROSSINGS8 survey will be conducted. Thus, for example, are unlike most other life on Earth. They utilize
Pipeline route selection involves far more than when a desktop assessment identifies a known chemical energy from hydrocarbons and create
simply running a straight line between two points. ordnance dumping zone near the pipeline route, colonies of unusually high biomass compared
Route design must consider the topography and it would call for a visual survey to be conducted with the surrounding sea bottom.11 These commu-
stability of the sediments on which the pipeline is using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). nities are thought to be closely linked with geo-
to be laid, its impact on benthic communities, the Next, a seafloor survey contractor conducts a logic faults, natural hydrocarbon seeps and
effects of shipping, fishing, drilling and construc- preinstallation survey and maps the locations of hydrocarbon-charged sediments.
tion activities and the presence of existing pipe- any shallow hazards, seafloor obstructions, 6. Cathodic protection is a technique used to minimize the
lines that may cross the path of the proposed archeological evidence and benthic communities rate of corrosion of a pipeline or other metal structure.
This technique does not eliminate corrosion; rather,
pipeline.9 Furthermore, routes may be influenced along the proposed route. The preinstallation it transfers corrosion from the protected structure to
by uneven or rugged seafloor topography, which survey covers a wide swath, which includes an sacrificial anodes (plates or metal bars) that can be
replaced. Cathodic protection relies on the electro-
increase the potential for freespans and failure offset on either side of the proposed pipeline chemical nature of corrosion, whereby electrical current
from VIV or bending stress (above right). Uneven path to cover areas that pipe-lay barge anchors is discharged through sacrificial anodes that corrode
instead of the pipeline.
terrain also contributes to severe terrain-induced might disturb. This swath also creates a margin
7. Kyriakides S and Corona E: Mechanics of Offshore
pressure fluctuations as hydrocarbons are pumped for fine-tuning the proposed route without need Pipelines, Volume I: Buckling and Collapse. Amsterdam:
up and down steep slopes.10 for resurveying each adjustment. In deep water, Elsevier, 2007.
8. Bai Y and Bai Q: Subsea Pipelines and Risers.
Long before a potential route is surveyed, a the standard swath is about 760 m [2,500 ft] wide. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005.
preliminary desktop survey is carried out. The The surveys assess geologic and man-made 9. Benthic communities consist of organisms that live near
desktop evaluation maps geopolitical boundaries, features on the seafloor and in the shallow sub- or on the bottom of a body of water.
surface. Seafloor geologic hazards include boul- 10. Cranswick D: “Brief Overview of Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil
existing pipelines, offshore structures, environ- and Gas Pipelines: Installation, Potential Impacts, and
mentally sensitive areas, archeological sites, ders, fault scarps, gas vents, reefs and unstable Mitigation Measures,” New Orleans: US Department of
slopes; subsurface geologic hazards include gas- the Interior Minerals Management Service, OCS Report
restricted areas and known geologic or oceanic MMS 2001-067, August 2001.
hazards that may lie between the pipeline’s pro- charged sediments, abnormal pressure zones and 11. MacDonald IR (ed): “Stability and Change in Gulf of
posed starting point and its landfall. It lays out buried channels. Man-made obstructions include Mexico Chemosynthetic Communities. Volume II:
Technical Report,” New Orleans: US Department of the
prescribed seabed coring intervals, and indicates pipelines, wellheads, shipwrecks, ordnance, com- Interior, Minerals Management Service, OCS Study
munication cables, wellheads and debris from MMS 2002-036, 2002.
previous oil and gas activities.

Spring 2011 7
 tion. Survey instrumentation is keyed to a differ-
ential GPS navigation system to ensure positioning
Bow anchors
integration of the various data. Generally this
instrumentation includes, at a minimum:
Lateral
Stern anchor anchors sMAGNETOMETER TO DETERMINE THE PRESENCE OF
pipelines and other ferromagnetic objects
sSIDE SCAN SONAR TO RECORD CONTINUOUS IMAGES
Laid pipeline that permit detection and evaluation of seafloor
Direction of travel
objects and features within the survey area
sSHALLOW PENETRATION SUBBOTTOM PROlLER TO
determine the character of near-surface
geologic features within the upper 15 m (50 ft)
of sediment
Chain sHIGH FREQUENCY SINGLE AND MULTIBEAM SWATH
Anchor echosounders for continuous water depth mea-
surements, with multibeam backscatter data
> Shifting anchors. A conventionally moored lay barge pays out pipeline over the stern as it advances providing seabed textural information.
by winching ahead on its forward anchors and easing out anchor chain at the stern. Some anchors, Follow-on investigations often involve under-
especially the lateral anchors, may be dragged sideways in the process, and eventually all anchors water cameras, video, coring or additional geo-
will be reset by an anchor-handling vessel.
physical survey lines.
Should any of these instruments indicate the
presence of shipwreck debris or concentrations
For their protection, bottom-dwelling com- caused by disturbance and resuspension of sedi- of man-made objects such as bottles, ceramics or
munities generally require buffer zones of several ment resulting from these activities. Survey piles of ballast rock, the discovery will prompt an
hundred feet. Benthic dwellers can be adversely results can be helpful in planning buffer zones. imposition of a buffer zone and cessation of fur-
affected by pipe laying and attendant anchor- Government approval of pipeline permits is con- ther operations to prevent the site from being
handling activities. Beyond the actual impacts of ditioned largely on what a seafloor survey reveals. disturbed. Archeological discoveries require
pipeline touchdown, anchors and associated Surveys scrutinize the seafloor using a variety immediate notification of government authorities
ground tackle, there is also potential harm of instruments prescribed by government regula- who will assess the site for its potential historical
significance. Thus, surveys, by providing a means
of detecting geohazards, benthic communities
and archeological sites, allow pipeline operators
to make adjustments along the proposed route to
preclude damage of both the environment and
the pipeline.

Pipeline Fabrication and Construction

The pipeline industry’s migration from shallow to
deep water is exemplified by changes in vessel
design and capabilities. Just as drilling rigs have
evolved to handle greater water depths, pipe-lay
vessels have followed a similar progression, from
shallow-water lay barges to deep-draft ships and
semisubmersibles.
Lay barges have long been employed for pipe-
line installation in relatively shallow waters of
the Continental Shelf. Early barges were conven-
tionally moored and relied on multiple anchors—
often 12 or more, depending on the size of the
vessel (above left). As the pipestring was paid out
over the stern, the vessel moved forward by reel-
ing in anchor chain at the bow while easing it out
over the stern. Once all the anchor chain was
paid out, an anchor-handling vessel reset the
> S-lay vessel. The Allseas Solitaire, the largest pipe-lay vessel in the world, is 300 m [984 ft] in length
anchors before the pipe-lay vessel advanced.
overall, excluding stinger. This vessel is capable of laying pipe from 2 in. to 60 in. OD, and has a holding
force of 1,050 t, enabling it to lay the heaviest of pipelines. The framework extending over the stern controls Long anchor chains, however, decrease station-
the angle of the stinger, shown raised above the water (inset). (Photographs courtesy of Allseas.) keeping precision, thus the depth in which con-

8 Oilfield Review
ventionally moored lay barges can be used is
limited to around 1,000 ft [305 m].12
Deep waters call for pipe-lay ships or semi- Pipe overbend
submersibles that employ dynamic positioning
for station keeping. These vessels use multiple
thrusters—propellers that swivel azimuthally to Liftoff point Stinger Thrusters
create opposing thrusts—to maintain their
desired position. The dynamic positioning systems
are usually driven by a computer system linked to
Pipe sagbend
a satellite-based geographic positioning system.
Dynamic positioning requires significantly more
Touchdown point
fuel than conventional mooring, but increases the
efficiency of the pipe-lay operation.13
> S-lay configuration. Bow and stern thrusters hold the pipe-lay vessel in
Pipeline design—particularly diameter, thick-
position while the pipeline is lowered onto the seabed. A long stinger
ness and metallurgy—dictates the maximum projects from the stern, and its configuration controls the angle between
tension, compression and bending stresses that a the liftoff and touchdown points. (Illustration courtesy of Allseas.)
pipe can sustain during installation. Likewise, to
avoid stress limits that could cause the pipe to
buckle during installation, the choice of installa-
tion technique is crucial. The selection is largely The S-lay method has evolved for operations uppermost station of the tower, where they are
governed by water depth; the most common are in ultradeep waters through modifications of the vertically joined together at automated welding
the S-lay, J-lay, pipe-reel and tow-in techniques. stinger and tensioner system.15 Deep waters stations. The pipe is then lowered to an ultra-
The S-lay technique—so designated because require a steep liftoff angle to accommodate the sonic inspection station and a field coating sta-
the pipeline assumes an elongated S-shaped overbend segment, which can be achieved by a tion before it passes through the moonpool and
profile as it is lowered from the vessel to the longer and more curved stinger. To date, this into the water.17 On some vessels, a short stinger
seafloor—was originally developed for relatively method has been used in waters as deep as extends beneath the hull to support the pipe
shallow waters. An S-lay vessel is distinguished 8,960 ft [2,731 m], and on such projects, the string, which takes on a J-shaped profile as it
by a long stinger, a truss-like structure, which is stinger length can easily exceed 450 ft [137 m].16 contacts the seabed. This profile puts less bend-
equipped with rollers and a tensioner (previous The J-lay method was developed for laying ing stress on the pipe string in deep waters.
page, bottom). The stinger is mounted off the pipe in deep waters. J-lay vessels are distin- However, the J-lay method becomes impractical
stern to support the pipe as it leaves the vessel. guished by a near-vertical fabrication tower for shallower waters, where depths of less than
On an S-lay vessel, individual joints of line pipe (below). Lengths of pipe are positioned at the 200 to 500 ft [61 to 152 m] limit the shape of the
are laid out horizontally, welded together, X-rayed
or ultrasonically inspected and coated with FBE
as the pipeline is built on deck.
Stinger configuration affects the bending
stresses that occur as the pipe is lowered to the Welding station
seafloor. The pipe departs the stinger at the liftoff
Field coating
point, and contacts the seabed tangentially at the
Tensioners
touchdown point (above right). The pipe experi-
ences the greatest stresses at the overbend, where
Suspended Thrusters
the pipe leaves the vessel, and in the sagbend, pipe
which extends upward from the pipeline touch-
down point on the seafloor. The curvature of the
overbend is controlled by the rollers on the stinger;
sagbend curvature is controlled by the tensioner
and vessel positioning.14 Pipe sagbend
12. Cranswick, reference 10.
13. Kyriakides and Corona, reference 7. Touchdown point
14. Kyriakides and Corona, reference 7.
15. Kammerzell J: “Pipelay Vessels Survey Expands to
Include Worldwide Fleet,” Offshore Magazine 69, > J-lay configuration. Pipe is raised to the top of the vertical tower, and
no. 11 (November 2009). travels through welding, ultrasonic inspection and field-coating stations as
16. Flowlines from Cheyenne field, set in 8,960 ft [2,731 m] of it is lowered toward the water. The J-lay method is suitable for deep water
water, were laid to the Independence Hub platform at because the pipeline is bent only once—at the seabed—and thus
Mission Canyon Block 920 in the Gulf of Mexico.
experiences less stress during installation. The J-lay method is less suitable
17. A moonpool is an opening in the vessel hull designed to
permit the passage of equipment between the deck and
for shallow waters because it imposes a bend that the pipe cannot
sea. A moonpool may be found on reel-lay vessels and accommodate. (Adapted from Kyriakides and Corona, reference 7.)
on certain J-lay vessels.

Spring 2011 9
 makes landfall and must be installed in the often
treacherous zone between land and sea.
To address the issue, a cofferdam can be
Reels
extended from the beach for hundreds of feet,
into near-shore waters. A dredge deepens the
seaward approach to enable a pipe-lay vessel to
reach the cofferdam. The cofferdam provides a
DEEP BLUE
stable framework in which a concrete conduit
can be buried well below the depth of the existing
beach floor.
Moonpool Thrusters
This approach was used to land the Langeled
pipeline at Easington, on the east coast of
England (next page). The 44-in. gas line approaches
shore in a pre-excavated offshore trench, dredged
some 12 mi [20 km] from shore, starting in water
120 ft [37 m] deep. As required in shallow waters,
to prevent anchor, trawl and dropped-object dam-
age, the 6.5-ft [2-m] deep trench was backfilled
to bury the pipeline. For the shore crossing, a
temporary causeway had to be constructed dur-
ing low tides using land-based heavy construction
> Spoolbase. The Technip spoolbase near Mobile, Alabama, USA, is capable of handling and welding equipment. This causeway provided access
pipe up to 18 in. OD for reel lay. The fabrication building houses two independent welding lines with through the intertidal zone for construction of a
alignment, welding, nondestructive examination and field joint coating stations. Technip’s Deep Blue 787-ft [240-m] long sheet-piled cofferdam, built
pipe-lay vessel, docked at the end of the queue (upper left), is reeling aboard pipe. The vessel (inset),
alongside the causeway. Starting at a tie-in pit
is 677.5 ft [206.5 m] long, and is equipped with twin reels, 131 ft [40 m] in diameter, each capable of
carrying 2,800 t of rigid pipeline ranging from 4 in. to 18 in. OD. Flexible pipeline can be carried below located inland from the high-water mark, the cof-
deck. (Graphics courtesy of Technip USA Inc.) ferdam extended from the beach 200 ft [60 m]
beyond the low-tide level.20
pipe angle and impose severe bending stresses on A fourth approach, called the tow-in method, An unstable cliff face stood between the beach
the pipe. is used typically for insulated pipe-in-pipe or and a gas terminal. A tunnel-boring machine cre-
Pipeline installation is also carried out by reel bundled pipe assemblies. This method first calls ated a 1,247-ft [380-m] long concrete tunnel that
ship. At an onshore spoolbase, long sections of for welding, inspection, joint coating and anode provided a conduit through the cliff to permit
rigid steel pipeline, each about 1 km [0.62 mi] installation at an onshore fabrication facility. The access between the gas terminal, tie-in point and
long, are welded together (above). The welds are assembled pipe is then placed in the water and cofferdam. The tunnel and cofferdam were com-
inspected and coated with a resilient protective submerged. Buoyancy tanks and chain weights pleted in advance of the lay barge arrival. A 500-t
coating of flexible epoxy or polyethylene, then are usually attached to achieve neutral buoyancy. winch was then used to pull the pipeline from the
the pipe is spooled aboard a vessel-mounted reel. Seagoing tugboats or offshore support vessels lay barge into the tie-in pit, and the pipe was tied
After reeling the pipe on board, the ship departs then tow the pipe along a tightly controlled route in 43 ft [13 m] below the low-tide level. Pipe welds
for the pipe-laying area. that has been surveyed to identify potential sea- were inspected and coated as the offshore pipe-
There, the pipe is fed off the reel, straight- floor hazards. line was tied in to the onshore line. Once the tun-
ened and anchored to the seabed. In deep waters, The main advantages of the tow-in method are nel and pipeline were safely buried, the causeway
the pipe may need to be tensioned to minimize that it permits complex or specialized fabrication and cofferdam were removed and the site was
sag that would otherwise develop as the pipe is techniques to be carried out in controlled condi- restored to its natural state, providing no visible
lowered from the surface to the seabed. If the sag tions at facilities ashore. However, the length of evidence of landfall for a pipeline that carries
bend becomes too severe, the pipe will buckle. the pipeline is also constrained by the space nearly 20% of the UK’s demand for natural gas.
The ship then steams ahead at about one knot limitations of the fabrication facility.19 This
[1.85 km/h, or 1.15 mi/h], depending on weather method is especially suitable for bundled pipe- Operations and Maintenance
conditions, as it slowly reels out the pipe. When lines, where several pipe sections or umbilicals Deepwater pipelines operate in low water
all pipe has been led off the reel, a bull-plug is are tied together and shrouded within a carrier temperatures under high hydrostatic pressures.
welded in place to seal the end of the pipe, then pipe. However, the tow-in method carries Despite this hostile setting, the life span of most
it is lowered to the seabed. A buoy is attached to increased risk that the pipeline could be damaged pipelines is 20 to 40 years, in part because
mark the end of the pipe. The ship then proceeds through contact with a submerged obstruction. corrosion management strategies and attentive
to port to replenish the reel or to take on a new, A combination of techniques may be employed pipeline monitoring are helping to increase
fully loaded reel. Upon returning offshore, the over the course of the pipeline installation, par- their longevity.
end of the previous pipeline is retrieved from the ticularly if water depths change drastically along
seafloor, welded to the new line, and the process the proposed route. Perhaps the most challeng-
is repeated.18 ing problem arises when an offshore pipeline

10 Oilfield Review
> Langeled pipeline landfall. The dredging vessel J.F.J. De Nul deepens the seaward approach toward a cofferdam extending from the beach. A temporary
sand causeway provides access to the cofferdam, which has been constructed of metal pilings situated on the right-hand side of this causeway. The
cofferdam stretches beyond the intertidal zone. (Photograph courtesy of Terra et Aqua magazine.)

A chief concern for deepwater pipeline engi- RealView test cell consists of a cylindrical vessel analysis software to build wax- and asphaltene-
neers is the formation of solid compounds, such with an axially centered heat source. The outer deposition simulations. Armed with these results,
as asphaltenes, hydrates and wax.21 Under certain wall of the vessel is stationary, and the inner wall, operators can fine-tune flow rates in their pipe-
conditions, these compounds can increase fluid or spindle, rotates to create either a turbulent or line system, determine how frequently remedial
viscosity and restrict flow within pipelines. laminar flow regime in the annular space. procedures need to be conducted and select the
Pressure, temperature, fluid composition, pipe Controls on this live solids deposition cell optimal chemical treatment and dosage.
surface, flow regime, and shear can affect the enable precise and independent regulation of
18. Kyriakides and Corona, reference 7.
deposition of waxes and asphaltenes. To precisely pressure, temperature, differential temperature 19. As of 2007, the maximum length of towed-in pipeline was
understand how these individual parameters and spindle speed. The deposits are collected 7 km [4.35 mi]. Kyriakides and Corona, reference 7.
affect deposition inside pipelines, Schlumberger and then quantified using high-temperature gas 20. Vercruysse W and Fitzsimons M: “Landfall and Shore
Approach of the New Langeled Pipeline at Easington,
engineers have developed a testing cell. chromatography for wax deposit analysis. UK,” Terra et Aqua 102 (March 2006): 12–18.
The RealView live solids test cell measures oil Simulated distillation, a technique that uses gas 21. For more on asphaltenes: Akbarzadeh K, Hammami A,
Kharrat A, Zhang D, Allenson S, Creek J, Kabir S,
deposition in turbulent flow, with temperature chromatography to simulate the distillation pro- Jamaluddin A, Marshall AG, Rodgers RP, Mullins OC and
control from 4°C to 150°C [39°F to 302°F] and cess in the laboratory, is employed for asphaltene Solbakken T: “Asphaltenes—Problematic but Rich in
Potential,” Oilfield Review 19, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 22–43.
pressure adaptability to 103 MPa [15,000 psi]. deposit analysis. Deposit mass is then used to
Hydrates are discussed further in: Birchwood R, Dai J,
This deposition cell is suitable for testing sour, calculate a deposition rate. RealView live solids Shelander D, Boswell R, Collett T, Cook A, Dallimore S,
H2S-entrained fluids. In closed batch mode, the deposition studies can help operators evaluate Fujii K, Imasato Y, Fukuhara M, Kusaka K, Murray D
and Saeki T: “Developments in Gas Hydrates,”
cell requires a sample volume of only 150 ml the effects of chemical additives on deposits Oilfield Review 22, no. 1 (Spring 2010): 18–33.
[9.15 in.3] per test run, but can accept up to one under representative conditions. The RealView
liter [61 in.3] for flow-through testing. The experimental data can also be used in commer-
cial software such as PIPESIM production system

Spring 2011 11
 relax to a lower state, light is emitted at a dif-
ferent wavelength, which is measured by a fluo-
rescence detector.
s-ASS BALANCE METHODS MONITOR THE PRESSURE
drop between two or more pressure sensors
installed in the pipeline.
s-ETHANE SNIFFERS RELY ON THE DIFFUSION OF DIS-
solved methane through a membrane and into
a sensor chamber, where the dissolved meth-
ane changes the electrical resistance, which
generates a signal from the detector. A varia-
tion on this method uses optical nondispersive
infrared spectrometry. Using this method, the
methane concentration is measured as the
degree of absorption of infrared light at a cer-
tain wavelength, in which the intensity of infra-
red light at the detector is a measure of the
methane concentration.
s0ASSIVE ACOUSTIC SENSORS USE HYDROPHONES TO
> Smart pig. Pipeline inspection gauges were originally created to remove internal buildup and
maintain flow. Modern pigs are sophisticated devices that closely measure a pipe’s internal surfaces, measure the pressure of a sound wave gener-
weld integrity, state of cathodic protection and corrosion. Using magnetic flux leakage and ultrasonic ated by a rupture or leak as it is transmitted
testing technology, this pig can detect metal loss and pipeline wall features in a single inspection run. through a structure or water. By using more
This device runs in 16-in. pipelines and is approximately 3.6 m [11.8 ft] long. (Photograph courtesy of than two sensors to measure the arrival time of
ROSEN Group.)
sound, it is possible to triangulate on the origin
of the sound.
Some pipelines require insulation or heating Routine pigging operations remove deposits s3ONAR DETECTORS EMIT PULSES OF SOUND THAT
to meet proper thermodynamic conditions. Many in the pipe as a normal part of production opera- are reflected by impedance changes between
pipelines rely on chemical injections of inhibitors tions. The frequency of pigging varies with flow different media. The impedance depends on
or solvents, such as ethylene glycol, tri-ethylene rates, operating temperatures and nature of the sound velocity, density, salinity and tempera-
glycol or methanol. Operators also routinely produced fluid, and may be carried out on weekly, TUREOFTHEMEDIUM&LUIDSOFDIFFERENTDENSITY
resort to a mechanical approach to remove build- monthly or less frequent intervals. such as water and hydrocarbons, will have
ups from their pipelines. different acoustic impedance.
Pipeline inspection gauges, or pigs, are Monitoring at the Speed of Light s6IDEOCAMERASENABLEVISUALSURVEILLANCEOFTHE
plunger-like devices that clean the inner walls of Operators monitor the integrity of pipelines to subsea system.
the pipeline. Pigs are available in various sizes, ensure their continued performance, protect the Ideally, a monitoring system would continu-
shapes and materials, ranging from metal pipe environment and prevent product loss. There are ously detect and locate conditions that might
scrapers and flexible brushes to plastic foam two approaches to monitoring pipelines. Periodic forewarn operators of potential troubles any-
spheres. Most have an outside diameter nearly inspection and surveying use mobile units such as where along the pipeline, then combine and
equal to the inside diameter of the pipe to ensure pigs, ROVs or autonomous underwater vehicles interpret the outputs of multiple measurements
a fairly tight fit. Some pigs are equipped with sen- (AUVs). Continuous monitoring involves perma- in a meaningful, prioritized display. These capa-
sors (above). These “smart pigs” are even capa- nently installed leak detection sensors. bilities have been incorporated into fiber-optic
ble of detecting internal corrosion or locating A variety of sensor technologies has been monitoring systems that are being installed in
leaks in pipelines.22 adapted for subsea pipeline monitoring.23 These offshore and onshore pipelines worldwide.
A pig is forced through the pipeline by exert- include the following: Optical-fiber sensors have an established
ing pressure on a gas or liquid to the back, or s#APACITIVE SENSORS MEASURE CHANGES IN THE track record of reliability, and distributed tem-
upstream end, of the pig. As the pig travels down- dielectric constant of the medium surrounding perature sensors (DTS) have been in use since
stream, it scrapes the inside of the pipe and the sensor. The capacitor is formed by two the mid-1980s. This type of sensor uses the opti-
sweeps any accumulated buildup or liquids ahead concentric, insulated capacitor plates. The cal fiber itself as both the sensing element and
of it. These are collected, along with the pig, at sensor’s capacitance is directly proportional to the data highway back to the controller. These
the end of a segment of pipe known as a pig trap. the dielectric constant of the medium between sensors are based on optical time domain reflec-
22. Cranswick, reference 10.
the capacitor plates. Because the dielectric tometry (OTDR), a proven technique long used in
23. Det Norske Veritas: “Selection and Use of Subsea Leak constants of seawater and hydrocarbons differ, the telecommunications industry. DTS systems
Detection Systems,” Høvik, Norway, Recommended direct contact with hydrocarbons will register are able to make precise temperature measure-
Practice DNV-RP-F302, April 2010.
24. For more on fiber-optic DTS: Brown G: “Downhole
as a change in measured capacitance. ments every few meters along the optical fiber for
Temperatures from Optical Fiber,” Oilfield Review 20, s&LUORESCENCE DETECTORS USE A LIGHT SOURCE TO distances up to 100 km [62 mi]. More-localized
no. 4 (Winter 2008/2009): 34–39.
excite molecules in the target material to a measurements use a technology known as fiber
higher energy level. When those molecules Bragg gratings, which performs highly precise

12 Oilfield Review
measurements of parameters such as strain and
temperature using optical gratings inscribed in
the core of the optical fiber.24
The Integriti Platinum fully integrated pipe-
line monitoring system uses fiber-optic technol-
ogy to help pipeline operators monitor conditions
along the length of the pipeline. Continuous tem-
perature, strain and vibration measurements
enable the detection of a wide range of events
that may threaten a pipeline’s integrity. This
fiber-optic system uses variations on the DTS
theme: Distributed strain temperature sensors
(DSTSs) have been developed for monitoring
strain; distributed vibration sensors (DVSs) mea-
sure vibrations or acoustic signals along the opti-
cal fiber. The Integriti Platinum system can
measure temperature variations of 2°C [3.6°F] > Dalia field production system. This field, operated by Total, is located 135
across 100 km of pipeline and measure strain km [84 mi] off the coast of Angola in waters ranging from 1,200 m to 1,500 m
[3,940 ft to 4,920 ft] in depth. Production from three main reservoirs is routed
with a resolution of 40 microstrain at 10-m [33-ft] through infield lines and risers to an FPSO at the surface. (Illustration
intervals. The integrated sensors can detect and courtesy of Total.)
locate small pipeline leaks that are below the
threshold of traditional leak detection systems transfer requires that produced fluids arrive at deposition. However, operating at higher-than-
based on pipeline flow rate—typical gas leak the FPSO facility at a temperature greater than necessary temperature is inefficient and wastes
response time is just 30 s. The system can be used 34°C [93°F]. Even in the event of a shutdown, the energy. As conditions vary along the flowline,
for a number of monitoring applications. fluid temperature must be maintained above knowledge of the temperature at every point
Onshore pipeline operators have used the 21°C [70°F]. along the production bundle is invaluable for flow
DVS capability to detect the approach of heavy To accommodate the optical fiber, each of the assurance and minimizing energy consumption.
equipment, thus warning of digging and con- eight riser bundles was constructed with a stain- A condition monitoring system allowed Statoil
struction activity taking place near their pipe- less steel tube that spirals around the bundle from to observe temperatures in the bundles so they
line. The vibration sensors are sensitive enough surface to seabed then doubles back to surface to could be efficiently operated just above the criti-
to detect human foot traffic. Offshore or onshore form a long loop. After the IPBs were installed off- cal temperature. The first system was installed in
gas leaks may initially be detected by DVS, which shore, Schlumberger engineers pumped optical a 14-km [8.7 mi] flowline bundle comprising two
identifies the characteristic noise of escaping fiber into one end of the spiral tube to convey it flowlines, three hot-water heating lines, and a
high-pressure gas and issues an alert. This event down to the seabed and back to the FPSO. small-diameter conduit, all in an insulated
can be followed by DTS or DSTS detection of The double-ended optical system interrogates sleeve. After the flowline bundle was installed
localized Joule-Thomson cooling. Fluid leaks and the fiber from both ends of the loop. This method and connected to the Gullfaks C platform,
flow assurance problems are detected by the tem- provides more precise temperature measure- Schlumberger operators pumped a continuous
perature anomalies sensed by DTS or DSTS. ments than single-ended systems. Accurate, real- fiber-optic temperature sensor down the conduit.
Ground movement or pipeline strains affect time readings are recorded at 1-m [3.3-ft] This technology has helped to optimize operation
optical-fiber strain and can be detected by fiber intervals along the length of the riser bundle. In of the heating system and reduce the amounts of
Bragg gratings or DSTS. the unlikely event of fiber breakage, each portion wax and hydrate inhibitors required. The system
DTS technology is being used by Total in the of fiber will continue to function as a single- helps minimize disruptive pigging operations to
Dalia field, offshore Angola (above right). One of ended system, which provides some redundancy clear blockages, and when temperature anoma-
the challenges for Total in developing this deepwa- until a new replacement fiber can be pumped lies resulting from extreme flow and pressure
ter field was to maintain the flow of produced flu- down. A customized graphical user interface dis- changes at restrictions in the flowline are
ids in the integrated production bundle (IPB) plays the normal operating temperatures of the detected, the system data can help optimize the
risers. The temperature of the relatively viscous oil production pipe and the gas lift tubing, and pigging operations required to clear any block-
(21 to 23 degrees API) is 45°C to 50°C [113°F to alarms indicate the location of any temperature ages, thus saving money and reducing downtime.
122°F] when it leaves the reservoir. After reaching deviation. As well as helping to avoid blockages, These monitoring systems make up just a frac-
the seabed, where the water temperature is only the fiber-optic system facilitates efficient man- tion of the highly evolved and specialized tech-
4°C [39°F], the fluid is piped 1,650 m [5,413 ft] to agement of the electrical heating system. nologies required to install and operate a subsea
the FPSO facility through the IPB risers. A different type of temperature challenge oil and gas transmission system. Far from being
Accurate temperature monitoring in the bun- awaited Statoil at Gullfaks field in the North Sea, dumb iron or brute, insensitive conduits, each
dles is essential for flow assurance. If the tem- where production from satellite wells is con- subsea pipeline is, by necessity, formed of special-
perature in the risers falls below a critical level, nected to platforms by long subsea flowlines. To ized metallurgy, fabricated with great care, laid
waxes and hydrates may form and cause block- avoid blockages, the lines are heated above with utmost attention to subsea pressure and
ages, which result in costly downtime. Successful the critical temperature for wax and hydrate stress, and attentively monitored. —MV

Spring 2011 13
 Managed Pressure Drilling Erases the Lines

Dave Elliott For generations, prudent drilling engineers have maintained mud density in a well
Shell E&P
The Hague, The Netherlands such that its hydrostatic pressure was greater than the pore pressure of the formations
being drilled. Engineers today are learning the benefits of managing pressure at the
Julio Montilva
Shell E&P surface to manage drilling conditions downhole, thereby pushing back the limits
Houston, Texas, USA once imposed on them by wellbore stability and formation-fracture pressures.

Paul Francis
The Hague, The Netherlands

Don Reitsma
Jaye Shelton Drilling operations exist in a world circum- that is greater than pore pressure, but is below
Houston, Texas scribed by high and low pressures. The unex- the pressure necessary to fracture the formation
pected appearance of either can lead to delays, being drilled.1 This pressure is often referred to
Vincent Roes increased costs and even to failure. With increas- by drilling experts as the fracture gradient. The
Talisman Energy ing frequency, operators are arming themselves pressure range above pore pressure and below
Calgary, Alberta, Canada against the consequences of pressure-related fracture initiation pressure is the drilling margin,
surprises with techniques different from those or pore-pressure–fracture-gradient window. If at
Oilfield Review Spring 2011: 23, no. 1. used in the past. One such departure from tradi- any point the ECD goes outside these bounds,
Copyright © 2011 Schlumberger.
tion is called managed pressure drilling (MPD). operators must set casing and begin drilling the
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Sonny
Espey, Paul Fredericks, Wayne Matlock, Marie Merle, Traditional drilling practices rely on main- next, smaller hole size.
Mike Rafferty, Roger Suter and Eric Wilshusen, Houston. taining hydrostatic pressure in the annulus to The practice of maintaining a borehole pres-
HOLD is a mark of Schlumberger.
prevent formation fluids from entering the bore- sure that exceeds the pore pressure gradient is
AUTOCHOKE and WARP are marks of M-I L.L.C.
hole. Ideally, when drilling fluid, or mud, is circu- called overbalanced drilling (OBD). It has been
lated down the drillstring and up the annulus, an the method of choice for the majority of wells
equivalent circulating density (ECD) is created drilled since the early 20th century. But OBD has

14 Oilfield Review
its drawbacks. Foremost among them is its 20-in.
dependence on the use of multiple casing strings
16-in.
to prevent fluid losses as the fluid density
required to contain formation pressure is
increased and ECD approaches fracture initia- 13 3/8 -in.
Zone A
tion pressure. In some instances, particularly in Kick
11 3/4 -in.
wells in ultradeep water, pore pressures may be

Depth
high relative to formation strength even in the
shallower sections of the well, which forces the 9 5/8 -in.
Zone B Kick
operator to set numerous casing strings before
reaching the target formation. The result can be
a well whose diameter at TD may be too small to
accommodate production tubing large enough to
produce economic volumes of hydrocarbons 7-in.
(right). Additional strings of casing usually raise 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
the final cost of the well significantly above ini- lbm/galUS
tial estimates. Pressure gradients
Besides these considerations when drilling Fracture initiation pressure ECD
Resistivity pore pressure estimate
overbalanced, mud filtrate and mud solids can
Seismic pore pressure estimate
cause damage to the formation. When solids
> Conventional drilling. In response to increased pore pressure (kicks) in
invade and are deposited in pore spaces, they
zones A and B when drilling overbalanced, the ECD (blue line) is increased by
may impair productivity and lower ultimate raising mud density, which causes BHP to approach the fracture initiation
recovery. In addition, high overbalance during pressure (purple line). In response, a casing string must be set to protect the
drilling can cause differential sticking and other formation, which can result in additional casing points and subsequent
problems related to hole cleaning.2 Efforts to free narrowing of the wellbore diameter (black triangles). In deepwater wells, the
window between fracture initiation pressure and pore pressure is often very
stuck pipe routinely result in hours or even days narrow. In this instance, the operator was forced to set six increasingly
of NPT. In the worst cases, particularly in the smaller–ID casing strings, which resulted in a borehole too small to
presence of other aggravating conditions, such as accommodate economic volumes of oil and gas.
cuttings beds packing around it, the drillstring
may become permanently stuck and the hole may
be lost or require a sidetrack (below, right).
The drilling fluids industry has developed
chemical additives and practices to reduce the
severity and frequency of mud-induced formation
damage and stuck pipe. But in the 1980s, as oper-
ators drilled horizontal sections to expose enough
formation to make their wells profitable, they
found it impossible to maintain ECD below the
fracture gradient. That is because while the frac-
ture gradient increases with TVD, it remains vir-
tually unchanged from the heel to the toe of
horizontal wells; however, as the wellbore length-
ens, friction pressure losses increase. Pump pres-
sure must then be increased to maintain
1. ECD is the effective density exerted by a circulating
fluid against the formation The ECD is calculated as:
ECD = d + P/ (0.052*D), where d is the mud weight in Cutting beds
pounds per gallon (lbm/galUS). P is the pressure drop
(psi) in the annulus between depth D and surface, and
D is the true vertical depth (feet).
2. Differential sticking occurs when the drillstring cannot be
moved (rotated or reciprocated) along the axis of the
wellbore. Differential sticking typically occurs when
high-contact forces caused by low reservoir pressures, > Cuttings beds. Though they may occur in any well configuration, beds of
high wellbore pressures, or both, are exerted over a
sufficiently large area of the drillstring. The sticking force cuttings, or solids (light brown), are particularly prevalent in deviated wells
is a product of the differential pressure between the where cuttings and cavings settle to the low side of the hole. When the
wellbore and the reservoir and the area that the differential pumps are shut off, the BHA may become stuck in these beds as cuttings and
pressure is acting upon. This means that a relatively low cavings (not shown) slide down the annulus and pack off the drillstring. This
differential pressure applied over a large working area phenomenon, known as avalanching, may also occur while pumps are on.
can be just as effective in sticking the pipe as can a high
differential pressure applied over a small area.

Spring 2011 15
 ment required to execute it. Case histories from
US and Australia onshore and offshore wells
demonstrate its application in mature fields,
Fracture high-pressure and high-temperature environ-
initiation
MPD pressure ments and fractured formations.

Closed Vessels
Depth

OBD
Conventionally drilled wells are open systems. As
UBD a well is drilled, fluid is pumped down the drill-
Wellbore pipe, through the bit and back to the surface
stability
pressure along the annulus between the drillstring and the
borehole. The return line at the surface—which
Pore pressure leads to the shale shaker and mud pits where
drilling fluid is processed and stored in prepara-
Pressure
tion for reuse—is open to the atmosphere.
> Managing pressure. Conventional drilling methods are predominantly Though they are quite different, UBD and
concerned with containing formation fluid inflow during drilling. This MPD methods use closed systems that deploy a
overbalanced drilling (OBD) method uses drilling fluids to create an ECD that rotating control device (RCD) to divert formation
results in a BHP greater than pore pressure (purple line) but less than the and drilling fluid flow to a separator. Among oper-
fracture initiation pressure (red line) of the formation being penetrated. ators who require two barriers between the well
Underbalanced drilling (UBD) is focused on preventing drilling fluid loss to the
formation and so maintains an ECD that is less than pore pressure but greater and the surface, the RCD and the drilling fluids
than pressure required to maintain wellbore stability. This allows the formation are considered primary barriers, and the blowout
fluid to flow out of the formation, preventing drilling fluid from flowing into the preventer is a backup. MPD operations use the
formation. Managed pressure drilling (yellow) is aimed at overcoming drilling RCD to create a closed system and a drilling
problems by using surface pressure to maintain a constant downhole pressure
that prevents the flow of formation fluids into the wellbore while keeping choke manifold and backpressure pump to con-
pressure well below fracture initiation pressure. During drilling operations, the trol downhole pressure. In that way, engineers
ECD of OBD and MPD may, at some depths, be equal. can maintain a constant BHP during drilling
operations while the mud pumps are on and while
the pumps are turned off to make connections.
Once the downhole pressure environment has
been defined by pore pressures, fracture pres-
sufficient circulation rates to lift cuttings to the ing is forbidden, or while drilling through sures and wellbore-stability pressures—often
surface via the annulus. Given sufficient length high-permeability formations. through the use of real-time fingerprinting, with
along a horizontal section, the ECD will result in In wells with sufficiently large drilling mar- annular pressure decreases to induce flow or
a bottomhole pressure (BHP) that equals and gins, pressure losses may also be manageable increases to induce losses—MPD is used to
then exceeds the fracture initiation pressure, through the manipulation of drilling fluid proper- maintain an appropriate annular hydraulic pres-
with inevitable unacceptable levels of fluid loss. ties, flow rates and rates of penetration. Drilling sure profile. Thus MPD allows operators to keep
In wells or sections of wells with very narrow fluids experts at M-I SWACO, a Schlumberger the ECD within a narrow pore-pressure–fracture-
drilling margins, operators have addressed the company, have developed a micronized weighting gradient window while still maintaining pres-
issue of fluid loss through underbalanced drilling agent and a fluid system built around it. The sures conducive to wellbore stability. This is
(UBD), during which ECD is kept below the pore WARP system uses a weighting agent composed of accomplished primarily through manipulation of
pressure of the formation being drilled. As a con- particles ground ten times smaller than conven- backpressure on the annulus while taking into
sequence, fluid from exposed formations are tional barite, with 60% being less than 2 um in account factors that affect the ECD such as fluid
allowed to flow into the wellbore during drilling diameter. And although accepted wisdom would density, fluid rheology, annular fluid velocity, cir-
operations. This prevents drilling fluids from dictate that such finely ground particles would culating friction and hole geometry (above left).5
entering even underpressured zones. yield a highly viscous fluid, because of the manu- Maintaining a constant downhole pressure
But as the industry honed its ability to drill facturing process, WARP fluid systems are char- within the prescribed boundaries minimizes
very long extended-reach wells, it was met with acterized by low viscosities, low gel strengths and formation damage, prevents mud loss, inhibits
challenges other than fluid loss. Operators low sag potential.4 formation fluid influx and often results in higher
encountered various pressure-associated chal- Because these characteristics minimize ECD rates of penetration. MPD may permit the opera-
lenges while drilling these wells, including well- while maintaining good cuttings transport ability, tor to extend a casing setting point or even elimi-
bore instability and well control problems. WARP fluid systems are particularly well suited to nate a casing string. It also offers operators the
Efforts to overcome these challenges gave rise to use with MPD on extended-reach wells. One ability to instantaneously react to downhole pres-
the development of MPD.3 MPD is used primarily major operator in the Gulf of Mexico has used the sure variations, which may be used to minimize
to drill wells that do not lend themselves to system to drill 13 of its 16 MPD wells. formation influxes or mud losses without inter-
either conventional overbalanced or under- This article discusses the development and rupting drilling. Additionally, because its density
balanced methods, such as in areas where flar- practice of MPD and the techniques and equip-

16 Oilfield Review
 Outflow
AUTOCHOKE
Visual body
indicator pin Static trim
Drive bushing
assembly
Latching lug Orifice
Seal element
Bearing Wear sleeve
assembly
High-pressure Shuttle
seals assembly

Inflow from
casing
To choke
Dynamic trim

Hydraulic set point

pressure chamber
Mounting
Blowout spool
preventer

Inlet
flange

> RCD and automatic choke. The HOLD RCD (center) is mounted on top of the blowout preventer (red,
left), providing a seal that converts the drilling well from a normally open system to a closed system.
The drive bushing, installed into or removed from the RCD via the drillstring, contains the seal element,
which provides the seal between the annulus and the drillstring. A high-pressure seal provides a
barrier that prevents wellbore fluids from entering the bearing chamber of the RCD and contaminating
the lubrication system, which would destroy the bearings. A visual indicator lets the driller know that
the latching system holding the drive bushing seal element is locked in place. The mounting spool
connects the RCD to the BOP stack and the receptacle of the bearing assembly and to the flowline
carrying returns away from the drill floor.
The AUTOCHOKE unit (right) uses a dynamically positioned shuttle assembly that slides inside the
AUTOCHOKE body. The dynamic trim is connected to the shuttle assembly and slides inside the static
trim to form a circular orifice. Hydraulic pressure from the AUTOCHOKE console (not shown) is applied to
the backside of the shuttle assembly inside the hydraulic set point pressure chamber, and casing
pressure is applied to the front side of the shuttle assembly. If the casing pressure is higher than the
hydraulic set point pressure, the shuttle assembly moves back, increasing the orifice size, thus
reducing the casing pressure. If the casing pressure is lower than the hydraulic set point pressure, the
shuttle assembly moves forward, reducing the orifice size and raising the casing pressure. As the
shuttle assembly moves back and forth, it regulates the flow of fluid or gas from the well by
automatically adjusting the orifice size as it balances the two pressures.

remains unchanged, there is no need to circulate ifold and to the mud pits (above). The choke are turned off, for example during connections, a
the mud during these events and so MPD prac- allows drillers to adjust backpressure on the dedicated pump supplies required fluid to the
tices save rig time.6 annulus while the pumps are on and the drilling system to compensate for the loss of ECD when
fluid is being circulated. When the mud pumps the system goes from dynamic to static mode.
Parts That Make the Hole
3. Malloy KP, Stone CR, Medley GH Jr, Hannegan D, SPE 96285, presented at Offshore Europe, Aberdeen,
MPD relies on the driller’s ability to maintain, Coker O, Reitsma D, Santos H, Kinder J, Eck-Olsen J, September 6–9, 2005.
either manually or automatically, a precise target McCaskill J, May J, Smith K and Sonneman P: Sag refers to particles of weighting material settling out
“Managed-Pressure Drilling: What It Is and What It Is of the drilling mud.
downhole pressure. The key to this ability is the Not,” paper IADC/SPE 122281, presented at the IADC/
5. ECD is often converted to equivalent mud weight in
creation of a closed system, which is made possi- SPE Managed Pressure Drilling and Underbalanced
lbm/galUS and is equal to the mud weight required to
Operations Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio,
ble by the use of the RCD, sometimes called a generate pressure at depth during static operations.
Texas, USA, February 12–13, 2009.
6. van Riet EJ and Reitsma D: “Development and Testing
rotating head. The RCD provides a seal around 4. Taugbøl K, Fimreite G, Prebensen OI, Svanes K,
of a Fully Automated System to Accurately Control
Omland TH, Svela PE and Breivik DH: “Development
the drillpipe during rotary drilling operations Downhole Pressure During Drilling Operations,” paper
and Field Testing of a Unique High-Temperature/
SPE/IADC 85310, presented at the SPE/IADC Middle East
and diverts drilling fluids to a drilling choke man- High-Pressure (HPHT) Oil-Based Drilling Fluid With
Drilling Technology Conference & Exhibition, Abu Dhabi,
Minimum Rheology and Maximum Sag Stability,” paper
UAE, October 20–22, 2003.

Spring 2011 17
 Pressure However, narrow drilling margins, high pres-
sures and temperatures, highly permeable or
fractured reservoirs and hole instability are situ-
ations for which MPD is particularly suited.
These conditions demand adjustments be made
with an accuracy and frequency possible only
through automated MPD.
In the early 2000s, engineers at Shell
International E&P developed and tested an auto-
mated MPD system that incorporated a hydrauli-
cally operated choke manifold and connected a
Casing
shoe positive displacement pump to the annulus.8 Two
computer systems—one to run a hydraulics
simulator and another for user interface—and a

Frac
programmable logic controller adjust the choke

ture
Pore

manifold. The intent of the automated MPD sys-

initi
tem was threefold: to automatically calculate in
pres

a
tion
sure

real time the backpressure required to maintain

pres
Depth

constant downhole pressure, to control the choke

sure and pump that generate backpressure at all
times and to provide automatic kick detection.
The resulting dynamic annular pressure con-
Conventional drilling MPD Drilling window trol (DAPC) system calculates in real time the
Hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure
Dynamic pressure Hydrostatic pressure + backpressure backpressure, or set point, required to maintain a
Dynamic pressure + backpressure desired downhole pressure. It imposes this back-
> Fluid densities and BHP. To keep the BHP between pore pressure (black line) pressure on the annulus by continuously adjust-
and fracture initiation pressure (blue line) when using conventional drilling ing the hydraulically controlled choke and pump
methods below a casing shoe, the BHP resulting from the mud weight must be settings based on real-time data acquisition
greater than pore pressure so that it may contain formation pressure when the
(next page).
rig pumps are off (solid red line) and less than fracture initiation pressure
when the pumps are on (dashed red line). MPD allows the operator to use a The control system varies with each applica-
drilling fluid that creates a hydrostatic pressure less than pore pressure when tion but consists essentially of five parts:
the pumps are off (solid green line). When pumps are off, formation pressure is sSINGLE PHASEHYDRAULICSMODEL
contained by adding backpressure (short-dashed green line) to increase BHP
sDATA COMMUNICATION INTERFACE AND HISTORICAL
without increasing mud density. When the pumps are on (long-dashed green
line), backpressure is reduced to a point that results in a BHP above pore database
pressure but below fracture initiation pressure. sGRAPHICALUSERINTERFACE'5)
sPROPORTIONALINTEGRALDERIVATIVE0)$ DEVICE
controller
sPROGRAMMABLELOGICCONTROLLER0,# SENSORS
This manipulation of backpressure in reac- With the ability to react to annular pressure and controls.
tion to pressure variations caused by drilling variations, the operator can drill with a fluid that Drilling engineers use the hydraulics model
operations is frequently referred to as dynamic creates sufficient ECD to contain formations to calculate the surface pressure set point that
pressure control. Downhole pressure is equal to uphole from the bit, even though the well may will deliver the desired downhole pressure. Input
surface pressure plus annular pressure, which is become underbalanced when static. Using MPD to the model includes frequently changing data,
itself made up of a static component and a techniques, the driller can safely stop the pumps such as pump rate; static values, such as well
dynamic component. while making connections even though the drillstring geometry; and slowly changing proper-
Dynamic pressure includes friction pressure hydrostatic pressure of the mud column alone is ties, such as mud density and viscosity.
losses, and its value is a function of circulating less than the pore pressure of the formation. Data are delivered using the wellsite infor-
conditions. Therefore, when the pumps are off, When wells are drilled through relatively MATION TRANSFER SPECIlCATIONS 7)43 ,EVEL ))
the dynamic pressure is equal to zero, and only stable formations, with widely separated pore protocol and may be internally measured and
the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid acts on the pressure and fracture initiation pressure, there logged in a historical database.94HE'5)ALLOWS
formation. Also, during drilling operations with may be sufficient margin to accommodate the dif- operators to configure the system with limits on
the mud pumps on, dynamic pressure may fluctu- ference between dynamic and static downhole variables, which can be set up to issue warnings
ate because of variations in the mud pump rate or pressures. In these cases, reaction to changing WHENTHOSELIMITSAREBREACHED4HE'5)ISAVAIL-
mud density, or in response to events such as conditions need not be overly precise. It is possi- able for manual operation of chokes and valves.
drilling motor stalls, cuttings loading and pipe ble to maintain constant BHP through manual The control system, using a PID controller, deter-
rotation (above).7 manipulation of the choke, mud pumps and mines the optimal choke position to control the
dedicated pump.

18 Oilfield Review
 Rig pump

RCD

DAPC backpressure pump

AC-1

AC-2

Trip tank

DAPC
choke manifold
Shale shaker
AC-3 Flowmeter
Blowout
preventer

Gas vent

Main Auxillary
controller controller
Separator
DAPC control system
Mud pit
> Automated DAPC system. To maintain constant BHP during transition from drilling to making connections when the
pumps are shut off, the DAPC system stabilizes the backpressure by pumping drilling fluid into the choke manifold
regulated through choke AC-1. Backpressure is reduced or not applied when the pumps resume for drilling. The DAPC’s
control system, which is directly linked to the real-time hydraulics analysis and continuous kick detection, stabilizes and
controls the BHP through adjustment of the DAPC backpressure pump and chokes AC-2 and AC-3. A flowmeter (dashed
oval) connected to the low-pressure side of the choke manifold provides flow-out data, which the pressure manager
continuously monitors and compares to flow-in data for kick detection.

backpressure.10 One PLC runs the PID controllers To determine optimal settings, a single opera- The team also simulated drilling problems
and another is used as a sensor interface and for tional parameter was changed for each test. such as choke plugging, hole bridging and fluid
choke positioning. Results showed the system was able to signifi- loss. In all cases, the system compensated for
Shell tested the DAPC system in a well- cantly reduce pressure variations downhole, and these events and maintained constant downhole
simulation facility that included a fully equipped through fine-tuning, engineers were able to fur- pressures. Additionally, the controller was able to
rig and vertical hole about 1,530-m [5,020-ft] ther enhance that ability. Test results also indi- use the automated choke and pump to circulate
deep, with 51/2-in. casing and a 2 7/8-in. drillstring cated that faster cycling of the pumps caused out simulated gas kicks. This was achieved by
run to bottom. The well was configured so that larger pressure variations. Tripping and drilling increasing backpressure at the surface to com-
nitrogen could be injected into the annulus to tests showed the system was able to compensate pensate for the reduction in static pressure
simulate gas kicks. Downhole pressures were for pressure variations over a wide range caused when nitrogen pumped into the annulus
recorded in real time. of conditions. reduced the density of the fluid column.11
7. Reitsma D and van Riet E: “Utilizing an Automated be turned on and off by the rig operator and assigned
Annular Pressure Control System for Managed sampling rates. WITS also enables computers at remote Taking it to Mars
Pressure Drilling in Mature Offshore Oilfields,” paper locations to send instructions to another computer to The Shell DAPC system was first used in deep
SPE 96646, presented at Offshore Europe, Aberdeen, change parameters, including data type and sampling rate.
September 6–9, 2005. 10. A PID controller is used in many industrial applications water at the company’s Gulf of Mexico Mars plat-
8. van Riet and Reitsma, reference 6. to calculate the difference between a measured variable form located about 130 mi [209 km] southeast of
9. WITS is an industry-standard communications format and a desired set point such as surface pressure. The
PID controller attempts to minimize differences between New Orleans in about 3,000 ft [914 m] of water.
used to transfer a wide variety of wellsite data from one
computer system to another. A WITS data stream the two by adjusting the process inputs. As in most deepwater fields, the difference
consists of discrete data record types, each of which can 11. van Riet and Reitsma, reference 6.

Spring 2011 19
 Conventional drilling: Mars A-14 sidetrack prognosis
12,000
FIT
12,500

13,000

13,500

TVD, ft 14,000

14,500

15,000

15,500

16,000

16,500
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0
Pore-pressure–fracture-gradient
Equivalent mud weight, lbm/galUS

Managed pressure drilling: Mars A-14 sidetrack prognosis

12,000
FIT
12,500

13,000

13,500

14,000
TVD, ft

14,500

15,000

15,500

16,000

16,500
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0
Pore-pressure–fracture-gradient
Equivalent mud weight, lbm/galUS

Pore pressure Static MW MPD Static EMW Dynamic EMW Fracture gradient

> Conventional drilling and MPD in deepwater. Diagnoses of two failed sidetracks at the Shell-operated
Mars platform led to a prognosis that conventional drilling (top) would result in an ECD that was within
0.05 lbm/galUS [0.006 g/cm3] equivalent mud weight (EMW) of the formation integrity test (FIT) (red
dots, top) value. Using MPD methods (bottom), the EMW could be reduced (green) and, by adding 525
psi [3.62 MPa] annular pressure, the gap between the FIT (red dots) and the ECD would be expanded
to 0.3 lbm/galUS [0.036 g/cm3] equivalent (red dots, bottom). (Adapted from Roes et al, reference 12.)

between pore pressure and fracture initiation Furthermore, hydrocarbon extraction may The A-14 well targeted the waterflooded
pressure is often small. In the case of Mars, the change rock stress characteristics. Because the M1/M2 reservoir that contained the majority of
field had experienced considerable zonal deple- wells have been on production since 1996, reser- the field’s reserves. In May 2003, it had been shut
tion. This made controlling ECD even more criti- voir and nonreservoir rock formation strength has in because of sand production; sidetrack opera-
cal and more difficult because deepwater become reduced. Therefore, lowering mud density tions to reenter the M1/M2 reservoir were begun
developments typically use high-angle, very long has resulted in wellbore instability. However, dur- in 2004. The first attempt failed when the BHA
wells to reach stranded or secondary reserves. ing attempts to sidetrack the Mars A-14 well, the was lost at 21,144 ft [6,445 m] MD, 16,340 ft
Consequently, the wellbore must often pass use of high-density drilling fluids caused lost-cir- [4,980 m] TVD, due to lost circulation and well-
repeatedly through low-pressure depleted zones culation problems in depleted zones. bore stability problems. An attempt to sidetrack
and high-pressure virgin sands. from the previous casing shoe failed when the

20 Oilfield Review
same problems prevented engineers getting an Mexico HPHT well
Wellbore flow prior to MPD
expandable liner to depth.
500
Shell turned to the DAPC system developed
by its E&P research arm. At the Mars platform, 450
the DAPC control system was modified to com- 400

Pressure, psi and flow, galUS/min

municate with a third-party choke controller
350
system. The DAPC controller was therefore Loss
limited to determining the necessary back- 300
pressure and communicating that to the choke 250
controller system.
200
BHP was calculated in real time using a Shell
hydraulics steady-state model that contained 150
static data such as mud weight, BHA configura- 100
Gain
tion, well geometry and directional data, and was
50
updated by rig data every second. Though there
was generally good agreement between model 0
22:40:00 22:48:20 22:56:40 23:05:00 23:13:20
and measured BHPs, string rotation was not
Time
properly compensated for, which resulted in the
actual equivalent mud weight of the BHP being Flow-in rig pumps, galUS/min Backpressure, psi Flowmeter, galUS/min
about 0.2 lbm/galUS [0.024 g/cm3] higher than
> Fingerprinting flowback. This fingerprint of the flowback in one high-pressure, high-temperature
the model. To address this, the model was manu-
(HPHT) well in Mexico was recorded during the second connection by the DAPC system before MPD
ally adjusted with corrected values. operations. The volume of flowback, or gain, after the pumps are turned off (green shaded area) is
The well was drilled to TD using a mud complemented by the losses (gray shaded area) when the pumps are turned back on and the operator
density of 13.1 lbm/galUS [1.57 g/cm3], which is goes from static to dynamic drilling mode. (Adapted from Fredericks et al, reference 13.)
0.3 lbm/galUS [0.036 g/cm3] less than the previous
two attempts. This was made possible by using
the DAPC to maintain a BHP set point equivalent the mud pumps are shut off. Additionally, in Unusual flowback volumes are often an indica-
to 13.7 lbm/galUS [1.64 g/cm3] (previous page). highly pressured formations, apparent kicks, if tion of what is known as wellbore breathing or
Using these specifications, there were no indica- misdiagnosed or mishandled, are more likely to ballooning. This phenomenon occurs when drill-
tions of hole instability or lost circulation and the become well control events than in normally ing-induced fractures absorb a volume of drilling
liner was run without incident.12 pressured environments. fluid. When the pumps are shut off and the ECD is
Following this success, Shell chose to use Typically, HPHT wells are further complicated reduced, these fractures close and expel the fluid,
MPD on 11 more wells. In one field, after repeat- by narrower drilling margins and little offset well resulting in flowback at the surface. By recording
edly failing to reach TD using conventional information. Faced with one or both of these situ- the flowback volume before and immediately after
methods, engineers reached target depth in six of ations, drillers must be prepared for the conse- drilling out of casing—a process known as finger-
six tries using MPD. The program was so success- quences of higher-than-anticipated pressures printing—drillers can establish a baseline flow-
ful in the maturing field, production facilities even when dealing with routine situations. For back volume to be expected from a particular well
reached capacity. example, during traditional drilling operations, when the pumps are shut off (above). When the
MPD proved to be the solution in two more multiple prediction and detection methods help flowback volume exceeds the fingerprint volume,
Shell-operated deepwater fields and six more reduce uncertainty related to pressure. However, the excess is often mistakenly interpreted as a
wells with similar challenging relationships some operators are loath to rely on the practice kick, a pressure-induced influx of formation fluids
between fracture initiation pressure, pore pres- of pore pressure prediction in HPHT wells. rather than wellbore breathing.
sure and wellbore stability. Shell is also applying Shell uses MPD equipment on wells charac- Drillers react to a kick by increasing mud
the technique in other challenging circum- terized by a high degree of pressure uncertainty. density. However, doing so when the volume gain
stances including cementing wells that prove dif- By routinely and intentionally inducing flow dur- is due to wellbore breathing can have serious
ficult because of depletion, safely penetrating ing MPD operations—essentially using both UBD consequences; an increase in mud density may
high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) sec- and MPD in different sections of the well— turn a slightly overbalanced condition into a
tions and for drilling wells that are otherwise engineers are able to determine pore pressure in severely overbalanced condition that causes even
impossible to drill within existing HSE standards. real time. Armed with accurate pore-pressure greater fluid loss.
data, the operator can drill ahead while maintain- By drilling with an MPD package and main-
High Pressure, Depletion and Cement ing a constant bottomhole pressure to stay within taining a constant BHP, engineers can eliminate
MPD is particularly suited to wells targeting high- the drilling window. Additionally, Shell manipu- not only the pressure fluctuations between
pressure formations. The subsurface in which lates the drilling fluid systems to strengthen the dynamic and static drilling modes that cause
these wells locations are found is often marked borehole, effectively altering the fracture gradi-
12. Roes V, Reitsma D, Smith L, McCaskill J and Hefren F:
by uncertain pressures, complex lithology and ent and thus expanding the drilling margin. “First Deepwater Application of Dynamic Annular
Pressure Control Succeeds,” paper IADC/SPE 98077,
indeterminate flowback, which is the volume of presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Miami,
drilling fluid that flows from the annulus after Florida, USA, February 21–23, 2006.

Spring 2011 21
 Mexico HPHT well difficult to predict the pore-pressure and fracture-
Connection 5
gradient regimes in the target reservoir sands
500 18.5
through which Shell intended to drill.
450 The operator’s plan called for a 7 5/8-in. casing
shoe at about 8,700 ft [2,652 m] MD. A 2,100-ft

ECD Equivalent mud weight, lbm/galUS

400
Pressure, psi and flow, galUS/min

18.0 [640-m] horizontal reach was then to be drilled

350
conventionally in an S-shaped trajectory along a
300 19° tangent.16 Next, a 61/2-in. hole was to be
250 17.5
drilled vertically using jointed pipe and auto-
mated MPD to 10,360 ft [3,158 m]. From there
200
the 61/2-in. section would be drilled to 11,065 ft
150 [3,373 m] using casing drilling and MPD (next
17.0
page). The entire 61/2-in. section was to be drilled
100
statically underbalanced.
50 The ECD set point was 14.15 lbm/galUS
0 16.5 [1.7 g/cm3] at the casing shoe, increasing to
14.9 lbm/galUS [1.8 g/cm3] at TD. On average,
1:46
1:47
1:48
1:49
1:50
1:51
1:52
1:53
1:54
1:55
1:56
1:57
1:58
1:59
2:00
2:01
2:02
2:03
2:04
2:05
2:06
2:07
2:08
2:09
2:10
2:11
2:12
2:13
2:14
2:15
2:16
Time the system controlled the ECD to within
±0.12 lbm/galUS [0.01 g/cm3] of the set point by
Backpressure pump, galUS/min ECD set point pressure, lbm/galUS continuously managing the backpressure
Flow-in rig pumps, galUS/min Flow out flowmeter, galUS/min
Backpressure, psi ECD, lbm/galUS
between 100 and 200 psi [0.7 and 1.38 MPa]. In
the section drilled with conventional drillpipe,
> No wellbore breathing. Pressure data recorded by DAPC during the fifth connection on the same this included 16 pump transitions; during these
HPHT well as in previous figure show no signs of wellbore breathing (orange line). As the rig pumps times the pumps were turned off and on for 15
are cycled (green), the DAPC backpressure pump pressure and rate (black and purple lines) are
increased or decreased automatically to maintain the ECD set point pressure (red line) and density
connections and one time to replace leaking
(blue line) in both dynamic and static drilling modes. The absence of gains or losses due to flowback seals in the rotary control device.
or wellbore breathing indicates the well is at equilibrium at this constant BHP. (Adapted from The second section of the 61/2-in. hole met
Fredericks et al, reference 13.) with pore pressures of at least 1.5 lbm/galUS
[0.02 g/cm3] higher than any encountered
uphole. Combined with expected depletion
wellbore breathing but also any possibility of mis- the hole, thus eliminating tripping and the need levels, it was determined that fluid losses would
diagnosis (above). Moreover, the accuracy and to raise mud density—was used to solve the prob- be too great with a conventional drilling assem-
speed with which they can react to pressure lem in those wells. bly, so engineers opted to casing drill to final
variations make automated MPD systems well Liner drilling worked in these fields because TD.17 Static mud weight for the entire section was
suited to quickly identifying and addressing the low permeability of the zones being drilled 15.7 lbm/galUS [1.8 g/cm3] and ECD was a con-
numerous common drilling hazards before they prevented flow into the wellbore even when the stant 16.2 lbm/galUS [1.9 g/cm3].
become issues.13 pumps were shut off and the equivalent mud den- Though gas flowed from the well during drill-
In some cases, once drilling hazards have sity fell below pore pressure. Uncertainty about ing and the flow volume increased with depth,
been identified, MPD practices may be used with pressure and an expectation of high permeability BHP was held constant to within an average
other technologies to overcome them. In the made use of this strategy alone untenable in the equivalent mud weight of ±0.18 lbm/galUS
Shell-operated McAllen-Pharr field in Hidalgo McAllen-Pharr field. [0.02 g/cm3], including through 13 pump transi-
County, Texas, USA, for example, the operator was Shell turned to automated MPD equipment, tions. Using MPD to avoid losses while maintain-
faced with drilling through produced zones in adapting its system to onshore applications. ing a constant ECD, engineers reached TD with a
which depletion prediction was complicated by Engineers decreased the size and weight of the 31/2-in. casing drillstring.
difficult-to-map faulting. Additionally, zones that choke manifold by reducing the number of Finally, engineers used automated pressure
had been depleted to as much as 5,000 psi chokes, valves and bypass lines, which also drove control practices to cement the production cas-
[34 MPa] below original pressure were often improvements to the hydraulic power system. ing, holding 90 psi [0.6 MPa] of backpressure
found between layers of overpressured virgin The reduced manifold moved from a three-choke while circulating bottoms up ahead of cementing.
sands, which made isolating them with a drilling to a two-choke design, with one choke dedicated Once returns were stabilized, the pumps were
liner impractical.14 to backpressure management and the other to shut down to install a cementing head and the
In nearby fields, as a consequence of raising duty as both a backup and for automated pres- BHP held constant by application of 200 to
mud weight in preparation for tripping out of the sure relief.15 A rig pump, rather than a dedicated 210 psi [1.38 to 1.45 MPa] backpressure. After
hole, the operator had experienced severe fluid pump, provided backpressure when the primary the spacer was pumped, the choke was used to
losses when the liner setting point was reached. mud pumps were off. maintain a constant 16.2 lbm/galUS [1.9 g/cm3]
Liner or casing drilling—in which the drillstring The first well in the field drilled with the mod- ECD during cementing. As a result, the well was
is replaced by a liner or casing that can be left in ified unit, the Bales 7, was characterized by com- successfully cemented with no fluid losses.
plex faulting and little offset data. This made it

22 Oilfield Review
 While liner drilling the McAllen-Pharr wells Bales 7 well, vertical section
using MPD equipment, gas was circulated 0
kickoff
through the gas buster. In order to minimize fluid joint 1,000
losses, mud weight was occasionally adjusted. 2,000
Shell used this melding of MPD, UBD and casing 3,000
drilling to expand its casing drilling program to
4,000
19˚ tangent
other fields in South Texas and to avoid the
5,000
significant expense of using a liner as part of a
6,000
contingency plan.18
7,000

Drilling the Impossible, the Very Hot and More 5

7 /8 -in. casing at 8,278 ft TVD 8,000
Using externally applied backpressure in a closed 9,000
drilling system to maintain a constant downhole 10,000
pressure is a relatively new approach to drilling 11,000
through narrow drilling margins. Operators con-
12,000
tinue to discover new applications for MPD as 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0
they seek answers to unique pressure-related Horizontal length, ft

drilling challenges. > Wellbore profile. The Bales 7 well was drilled as a high-angle well to the
For example, in maturing basins, operators 75/8-in. casing point and then turned vertical. The production section was then
often opt to drill sidetrack wells from existing drilled in two steps aimed at addressing varying pore pressure and fracture
initiation pressure regimes that engendered fluid loss in some sections and
wellbores to reach stranded reserves with which gas influx in others. (Adapted from Montilva et al, reference 14.)
to shore up falling production. These efforts are
often hampered, however, by high annular fluid
losses as wellbores pass through depleted zones.
Conventional drilling practices in this environ- slimhole sidetracks are drilled traditionally using pressure between 220 and 295 psi [1.5 and
ment frequently fail to access the stranded oil positive-displacement motors. These motors cre- 2.0 MPa] during drilling operations and 525 and
because of drilling issues such as stuck pipe or ate continuous fluctuations in ECD as they move 625 psi [3.6 and 4.3 MPa] during connections.20
difficulty running casing. from sliding to rotating mode, making constant
While MPD would seem a likely solution, the BHP nearly impossible. The solution for one oper- The Proper Tool for the Proper Job
challenge is further complicated because these ator in the Gulf of Mexico was MPD in combina- Due to its flexibility and continuous flow and
13. Fredericks P, Sehsah O, Gallo F and Lupo C: “Practical
tion with a new generation of rotary steerable pressure control, MPD is often a safer and less
Aspects and Value of Automated MPD in HPHT Wells,” tools and pressure-while-drilling sensors.19 Based costly drilling method than either under- or
paper AADE 2009NTCE-04-04, presented at the AADE
National Technical Conference and Exhibition,
on this company’s success, operators throughout overbalanced drilling. This is especially true for
New Orleans, March 31–April 1, 2009. the Gulf are reevaluating opportunities for environments with narrow or unknown drilling
14. Montilva J, Fredericks P and Sehsah O: “New extending life and profitability from mature fields margins. MPD has been used, for example, in
Automated Control System Manages Pressure and
Return Flow While Drilling and Cementing Casing in through slimhole sidetracks. forestalling kicks while crossing the rubble zones
Depleted Onshore Field,” paper SPE 128923, presented In Australia, while drilling wells for a geother- in subsalt drilling. It has also been used to
at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, February 2–4, 2010. mal project in the Cooper Basin, Geodynamics replace Coriolis mass flowmeters—which can be
15. Montilva et al, reference 14. Limited found that the granite basement was sensitive to entrained gas and vibration and
16. For more on extended reach drilling: Bennetzen B, unexpectedly overpressured by as much as highly susceptible to poor maintenance—for
Fuller J, Isevcan E, Krepp T, Meehan R, Mohammed N,
Poupeau J-F and Sonowal K: “Extended-Reach Wells,” 5,200 psi [36 MPa]. Additionally, the existing early kick detection.21
Oilfield Review 22, no. 3 (Autumn 2010): 4–15. stress regime of the granite created conditions Getting the most value from MPD requires it
17. For more on casing drilling: Fontenot KR, Lesso B,
Strickler RD and Warren TM: “Using Casing to Drill
that led to kicks and fluid losses. In this first well, be applied in drilling situations for which it is
Directional Wells,” Oilfield Review 17, no. 2 (Summer drilled using conventional techniques, the opera- best suited. While it is often and correctly viewed
2005): 44–61.
tor incurred considerable NPT when it was forced as a way to successfully drill wells that would
18. Montilva et al, reference 14.
19. Njoku JC, Husser A and Clyde R: “New Generation
to use a 4.0-lbm/galUS [0.5 g/cm3] mud density otherwise not reach their targets, it should be
Rotary Steerable System and Pressure While Drilling increase to control and kill a fluid influx from the thought of neither as the answer to all drilling
Tool Extends the Benefits of Managed Pressure Drilling
in the Gulf of Mexico,” paper SPE 113491, presented at
overpressured basement. problems nor the method of last resort. The
the Indian Oil and Gas Technical Conference and The operator then turned to DAPC to main- most appropriate candidates for MPD are for
Exhibition, Mumbai, March 4–6, 2008.
tain the delicate balance between the overpres- wells with offsets characterized by wellbore
20. @balance: “Successful Use of Managed Pressure
Drilling to Eliminate Losses and Control Influx in Hot sure and fracture gradient on the next two wells. instability, excessive drilling fluid losses or those
Fractured Rock Geothermal Wells,” http://www. On the second well, engineers used the system to that will be drilled through pressured, virgin
atbalance.com/NE_News_Geothermal.html (accessed
December 1, 2010). control and kill a fluid influx in 90 minutes while zones and depleted, or otherwise underpressured
21. For more on subsalt drilling: Perez MA, Clyde R, raising the mud density by only 0.7 lbm/galUS ones. Those parameters alone suggest the num-
D’Ambrosio P, Israel R, Leavitt T, Nutt L, Johnson C
and Williamson D: “Meeting the Subsalt Challenge,”
[0.1 g/cm3]. They also used the system to main- ber of wells that are good MPD candidates is
Oilfield Review 20, no. 3 (Autumn 2008): 32–45. tain a constant ECD by manipulating the back- quite considerable. —RvF

Spring 2011 23
 Finding Value in Formation Water

Operators usually consider formation water an undesirable byproduct of hydrocarbon

production. However, samples and analysis of that same water can provide vital
information for the field development plan, including optimization of completion
design, materials selection and hydrocarbon recovery.

Medhat Abdou At the mention of unexpected formation water in increase water handling and disposal costs. But
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Operations their wells, many oil and gas producers react with capturing a certain amount of formation water is
Abu Dhabi, UAE alarm. Unanticipated water production, particu- also valuable; water properties contain a wealth
larly if it contains unwanted impurities, can of information that can be used to significantly
Andrew Carnegie significantly reduce the value of a hydrocarbon impact field economics.
Woodside Petroleum
asset. It can accelerate equipment damage and
Perth, Western Australia, Australia

S. George Mathews
Kevin McCarthy
Houston, Texas, USA

Michael O’Keefe
London, England

Bhavani Raghuraman
Princeton, New Jersey, USA

Wei Wei
Chevron
Houston, Texas

ChengGang Xian
Shenzhen, China

Oilfield Review Spring 2011: 23, no. 1.

Copyright © 2011 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Sherif
Abdel-Shakour and Greg Bowen, Abu Dhabi, UAE; Ahmed
Berrim, Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company, Abu Dhabi,
UAE; Hadrien Dumont, Balikpapan, Indonesia; Will Haug,
Cuong Jackson and Oliver Mullins, Houston; Chee Kin
Khong, Luanda, Angola; Cholid Mas, Jakarta; and Artur
Stankiewicz, Clamart, France.
InSitu Density, InSitu Fluid Analyzer, InSitu pH, MDT,
Oilphase-DBR, PS Platform and Quicksilver Probe are marks
of Schlumberger.
1. Ali SA, Clark WJ, Moore WR and Dribus JR: “Diagenesis
and Reservoir Quality,” Oilfield Review 22, no. 2
(Summer 2010): 14–27.
2. Interstitial water is the water between grains. For more
on evaporites: Warren JK: Evaporites: Sediments,
Resources and Hydrocarbons. Berlin, Germany:
Springer, 2006.

24 Oilfield Review
 Formation water analysis plays a role in stand how it affects the original fluid within the Salinity, Parts
Water Type
dynamic modeling of reservoirs, quantifying rock—the water. per Thousand
reserves and calculating completion costs, includ- Connate water varies with depositional envi- Average river water 0.11
ing how much will be spent on casing and surface ronment. In marine sediments, it is seawater. In Seawater 35
Evaporite systems 35 to 350
equipment—capital expenditures (capex). Water lake and river deposits, it is freshwater. In evapo-
Formation water 7 to 270
analysis also helps operators estimate operating rite deposits, the interstitial water is high-
expenditures (opex), such as the cost of chemical salinity brine (right).2 These water solutions con- > Salinity variations. Salinity of connate water
injection. Quantifying water chemistry aids in the tain ionic components, including cations such as varies with depositional environment, increasing
from the freshwater of rivers to seawater and
understanding of reservoir connectivity and in sodium [Na+], magnesium [Mg2+], calcium
briny evaporite systems. Formation water, the
characterizing transition zones in carbonates, [Ca2+], potassium [K+], manganese [Mn2+], result of water mixing and other physical and
thereby impacting estimates of reservoir extent. It strontium [Sr2+], barium [Ba2+] and iron [Fe2+ chemical processes, can have a wide range of
helps development planners determine whether and Fe3+]; anions such as chloride [Cl–], sulfate salinities. (Data from Warren, reference 2.)
new discoveries can be tied into existing infra- [SO42–], bicarbonate [HCO –3 ], carbonate [CO32–],
structure and is crucial for designing water injec- hydroxide [OH–], borate [BO33–], bromide [Br–]
tion projects. and phosphate [PO43–]; and nonvolatile weak
Formation water properties vary from one acids. The water may also contain dissolved gases, tance to dissolution and remain as grain matrix. If
reservoir to another as well as within reservoirs. such as carbon dioxide [CO2] and hydrogen the water is saturated with the rock’s ions, miner-
Water composition depends on a number of sulfide [H2S], nitrogen, organic acids, sulfur- als can precipitate and form new grains or grow
parameters, including depositional environment, reducing bacteria, dissolved and suspended solids on existing grains. Water properties such as pH
mineralogy of the formation, its pressure and and traces of hydrocarbon compounds. and ion concentration are some of the factors that
temperature history and the influx or migration Concentrations of these components may vary control or influence water-rock interactions.
of fluids. Consequently, water properties can as water is expelled by compaction and as it reacts Even after equilibrium is reached, water-rock
change over time as the water and rock interact, with formation minerals. Some minerals react interactions continue. However, changes in tem-
and as reservoir fluids are produced and replaced easily. For example, the clay mineral glauconite perature, pressure, depth and structural dip can
with water from other formations, injected water has approximately the following composition: disrupt equilibrium, as can the migration and
or other injected fluids. K0.6Na0.05Fe 3+ 2+
1.3Mg0.4Fe 0.2Al0.3Si3.8O10(OH)2. If the accumulation of oil and gas, which force the
This article examines the causes of variation connate water is undersaturated in the compo- water deeper as the lighter hydrocarbons rise
in water composition and describes the value of nents of the clay, it will interact with the mineral through a formation. The influx of water from
formation water analysis throughout reservoir grain by ion exchange, leaching ions from the other sources, such as meteoric water, aquifers,
life, from exploration to development and pro- glauconite into the aqueous solution. Other min- injected water and other injected fluids, can also
duction. Examples from Norway, the Middle East, erals, such as quartz [SiO2], have higher resis- cause water properties to change (below).
the Gulf of Mexico and China illustrate methods
for collecting high-quality water samples and
show how formation water analysis both down-
hole and at surface conditions contributes to res-
ervoir understanding and development. Rain (meteoric water)

Water Composition
Most reservoir rocks are formed in water, by the Sea
deposition of rock grains or biological detritus. Hydrocarbon
The water that remains trapped in pores as the accumulation
Faults Shale
sediments compact and bind together is called
connate water; the water in the reservoir at the
Sandstone
time it is penetrated by a drill bit is called forma-
tion water. Connate water reacts with the rock to Basement
an extent that depends on temperature, pres- Shale
Salt
sure, the composition of the water and the miner-
alogy of the formation. Chemical and biological
reactions may begin as soon as sediments are
deposited. The reactions can continue and accel- > Water movement and processes that can influence the evolution of
erate as the formation is subjected to greater formation water. Composition of formation water originally filling a
pressure and temperature during burial. The sandstone layer can be modified by the addition of water from other
sources (arrows), such as meteoric water and water expressed from
combined effects of these chemical, physical and
compacting shales and salt. The water can also be altered by the influx of
biological processes are known as diagenesis.1 migrating hydrocarbons. Sealing faults and other flow barriers can create
Although a great deal of effort has gone into compartments with different water compositions. On the other hand,
studying the impact of diagenesis on rock forma- conducting faults can facilitate flow.
tions, relatively little has been made to under-

Spring 2011 25
 scale deposition that may eventually choke off
flow (left).6 Precipitation can be predicted through
modeling or laboratory experimentation if forma-
tion water chemistry is known.
Scale can also form when waters of different
compositions mix.7 For example, precipitation of
barium sulfate [BaSO4] or strontium sulfate
[SrSO4] solids is a common problem when sea-
water, which contains sulfates, is injected into
formations that contain barium or strontium. It
also occurs when sulfates from drilling-fluid
invasion interact with the formation water, and
is the primary reason behind recent industry
practices using low-sulfate drilling fluids. Such
scale may be deposited in the formation or in
production tubing.8 Partially blocked tubing can
sometimes be cleaned with workover tools that
deploy abrasives and jetting action. However, if
the scale is too thick, there is little that can be
done except to pull the tubing and replace it—at
significant cost.
Effective scale management is an important
> Scale buildup in production tubing. Scale causes reduced flow rates and issue for field development planning and can have
can, eventually, completely block production. a direct impact on production viability, especially
in marginally economic fields.9 The formation
Production of formation water is another Before the material for casing or production water’s potential to create scale when mixed with
cause of disequilibrium; dissolved minerals and tubing is selected, it is vital to evaluate the cor- injected water must be assessed if any part of a
gases may come out of solution as the fluid is rosivity of the gas, oil and water to be produced. field is to be produced with pressure support from
brought to the surface—especially in reaction to Free gas in the formation may contain corrosive injected fluids. In several cases, operators have
sulfates introduced into the formation through constituents—such as H2S and CO2—and these had to change plans—for example, halting sea-
drilling fluid invasion or injection of seawater. same constituents may be dissolved in the forma- water injection and finding another, more costly
These losses of the dissolved components alter tion water. Wells producing such fluids at concen- source for injection water—based on knowledge
the composition of the produced or sampled trations exceeding certain limits require casing of formation water properties.10
water, so water recovered at the surface may not with special metallurgical formulations that will In assessing scaling potential, one of the
represent the actual formation water in place. For resist corrosion, or treatment with corrosion- greatest uncertainties may be the formation
this reason it is important to collect and analyze inhibiting chemicals.4 Furthermore, pipelines water composition and downhole properties.
formation water under in situ conditions, and to and surface facilities must be capable of handling Some companies have adopted water monitoring
continue to do so as reservoir conditions change. the produced water with its accompanying gases as routine practice for scale-prone fields. For
(see “Pipeline to Market,” page 4). To design pro- example, Statoil monitors the composition of
Applications of Water Analysis duction tubing, flowlines and surface facilities, water produced from the majority of its oil and
Formation water is rich with information about engineers must know the chemical composition gas wells, and uses crossplots of the ratio of ion
the rock in which it resides, and it can provide of the formation water. The water pH and salinity concentrations to assist in defining producing
crucial input to analyses during every stage in the values used in metallurgical calculations for water zones.11 Sampling frequency depends on
life of a reservoir. Early in field life, analysis of for- selection of tubulars must include values for the need: In cases of high scale potential, water is
mation water establishes the salinity and resistiv- downhole conditions of reservoir pressure and sampled every one to two weeks.
ity of the water for petrophysical evaluation.3 temperature and water composition.5 An additional use of water modeling in
Archie’s water saturation equation, from which oil As reservoir fluids are produced, the accom- development planning is the optimization of
saturation and reserves are most frequently com- panying pressure reduction may cause the well-stream mixing and process sharing: when
puted from logs, requires formation water resistiv- release of gas from solution and the precipitation production streams from several wells, espe-
ity as an input. That value is often computed from and deposition of solids in the reservoir pores cially subsea wells, are combined before being
resistivity and porosity logging measurements and on production tubing and downhole equip- piped to intermediate separators or processing
made in a water zone, where the water may not ment. For example, as pressure decreases, forma- facilities. To minimize risk of pipeline scaling
have the same composition as the reservoir forma- tion water liberates CO2 gas, water pH increases and corrosion, operators must fully understand
tion water in other zones. Analysis of formation and the solution becomes supersaturated with the chemical interaction of produced water from
water samples from the oil leg is considered one calcium carbonate [CaCO3], which can result in different sources before committing to large
of the most reliable ways to obtain water salinity capital expenditures.
and resistivity for saturation calculations.

26 Oilfield Review
 Formation water composition plays a role in programs and detecting injection-water break- Representative samples can be collected by a
“souring,” a process in which H2S concentration through. Analysis of formation water, and in par- wireline formation tester equipped with a probe
increases in the reservoir.12 In many cases, souring ticular, comparison of its natural isotopic or dual packer, a pumpout module, downhole
is attributed to microbial activity; injected seawa- composition with that of injection water, has fluid-analysis capabilities and sample chambers.
ter provides a source of sulfate-reducing bacteria been used for monitoring waterfloods.15 Isotopes The downhole water-sampling process begins
(SRB) and the formation water supplies nutrients act as tracers in the water to help reservoir engi- with a cleanup stage, in which fluid—initially a
in the form of low–molecular weight organic acids neers identify high-permeability layers, fractures mixture of mud filtrate and formation water—is
known as volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The conse- and other causes of interwell communication. drawn from the formation through the probe into
quences of reservoir souring are potentially costly. the tool.17 As pumping time increases, the propor-
Increased levels of H2S increase safety risks for Sampling Water tion of mud filtrate, or contamination, decreases,
oilfield personnel, decrease the sales value of pro- Water samples can be collected by several meth- and the proportion of pure formation water in the
duced hydrocarbons and increase corrosion rates ods. Samples of produced water can be obtained flowline increases.
in downhole equipment and surface facilities. An at the wellhead or from surface separators, but If the optical or resistivity properties of the
estimated 70% of waterflooded reservoirs world- these may not be representative of formation filtrate are significantly different from those of
wide have soured.13 Understanding water proper- water if gases have evolved or compounds have the formation water, optical fluid analyzers or
ties and modeling their changes throughout precipitated. However, these samples are useful resistivity sensors located in the tool flowline can
reservoir life help chemical engineers predict H2S and are typically collected for production surveil- measure the difference and thereby monitor con-
generation and make informed decisions regard- lance. Surface samples are used to monitor tamination in real time. In the early stages of
ing materials selection and facility design. Low- changes in water properties over time, to identify cleanup, the water is not pure enough to collect,
contamination water samples, therefore, are breakthrough of injection water and to compare and it is returned to the borehole. When the con-
essential to establish the level of VFAs in the for- with samples from other producing wells to tamination is below a designated level, the fluid
mation water.14 understand reservoir connectivity. Acquiring is directed into pressurized sample chambers,
Variations in formation water composition such samples is less expensive than downhole which are brought to the surface and transported
can also reveal compartmentalization—or lack sampling and can be done more routinely. Water to a laboratory for analysis.18
of hydraulic communication between adjacent samples can also be retrieved from preserved The quality of samples acquired downhole
reservoir volumes—if the reservoirs have been core.16 However, samples recovered by this tech- depends on the method of sampling and the type
isolated long enough for their formation waters nique have undergone pressure and temperature of drilling mud used in the sampled zones. In
to have reached different equilibrium states. decrease, and therefore may not be representa- zones drilled with oil-base muds (OBMs), high-
Understanding reservoir connectivity is impor- tive of actual formation water. quality water samples can usually be obtained
tant for estimating the extent of aquifer sup- During the exploration and appraisal stages, because the mud filtrate is not miscible with the
port—the natural water drive present in many when an operator builds an understanding of the formation water. Formation water and OBM typi-
reservoirs—and for planning development well reservoir fluids and uses the data for modeling, it cally have different optical and resistivity proper-
locations, formulating injection-related recovery is vital to have representative water samples. ties, allowing them to be distinguished by optical
3. Warren EA and Smalley PC (eds): North Sea Formation For an overview of scaling causes and mitigation: 13. Elshahawi H and Hashem M: “Accurate Measurement
Waters Atlas. London: The Geological Society, Geological Crabtree M, Eslinger D, Fletcher P, Miller M, Johnson A of the Hydrogen Sulfide Content in Formation Water
Society of London Memoir 15 (1994). and King G: “Fighting Scale—Removal and Prevention,” Samples—Case Studies,” paper SPE 94707, presented
4. For more on corrosion, see Acuña IA, Monsegue A, Oilfield Review 11, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 30–45. at the Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Brill TM, Graven H, Mulders F, Le Calvez J-L, Nichols EA, 9. Graham GM and Collins IR: “Assessing Scale Risks and Dallas, October 9–12, 2005.
Zapata Bermudez F, Notoadinegoro DM and Sofronov I: Uncertainties for Subsea Marginal Field Developments,” 14. Elshahawi and Hashem, reference 13.
“Scanning for Downhole Corrosion,” Oilfield Review 22, paper SPE 87460, presented at the Sixth International 15. Carrigan WJ, Nasr-El-Din HA, Al-Sharidi SH and
no. 1 (Spring 2010): 42–50. Symposium on Oilfield Scale, Aberdeen, May 26–27, 2004. Clark ID: “Geochemical Characterization of Injected and
5. Williford J, Rice P and Ray T: “Selection of Metallurgy 10. Graham and Collins, reference 9. Produced Water from Paleozoic Oil Reservoirs in Central
and Elastomers Used in Completion Products to Achieve Andersen KI, Halvorsen E, Sælensminde T and Saudi Arabia,” paper SPE 37270, presented at the
Predicted Product Integrity for the HP/HT Oil and Gas Østbye NO: “Water Management in a Closed Loop— International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, Houston,
Fields of Indonesia,” paper SPE 54291, presented at the Problems and Solutions at Brage Field,” paper SPE February 18–21, 1997.
SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition, 65162, presented at the SPE European Petroleum Danquigny J, Matthews J, Noman R and Mohsen AJ:
Jakarta, April 20–22, 1999. Conference, Paris, October 24–25, 2000. “Assessment of Interwell Communication in the
6. Ramstad K, Tydal T, Askvik KM and Fotland P: “Predicting 11. Ramstad K, Rohde HC, Tydal T and Christensen D: Carbonate Al Khalij Oilfield Using Isotope Ratio Water
Carbonate Scale in Oil Producers from High Temperature “Scale Squeeze Evaluation Through Improved Sample Sample Analysis,” paper IPTC 10628, presented at the
Reservoirs,” paper SPE 87430, presented at the Sixth Preservation, Inhibitor Detection and Minimum Inhibitor International Petroleum Technology Conference, Doha,
International Symposium on Oilfield Scale, Aberdeen, Concentration Monitoring,” paper SPE 114085, Qatar, November 21–23, 2005.
May 26–27, 2004. presented at the SPE International Oilfield Scale Smalley PC and England WA: “Reservoir Compartmen-
7. Mackay DJ and Sorbie KS: “Brine Mixing in Water- Conference, Aberdeen, May 28–29, 2008. talization Assessed with Fluid Compositional Data,”
flooded Reservoir and the Implications for Scale 12. Farquhar GB: “A Review and Update of the Role of SPE Reservoir Engineering (August 1994): 175–180.
Prevention,” paper SPE 60193, presented at the Second Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA’s) in Seawater Injection Ramstad et al, reference 11.
International Symposium on Oilfield Scale, Aberdeen, Systems,” paper NACE 98005, presented at the 53rd 16. Smalley and England, reference 15.
January 26–27, 2000. NACE Annual Conference, San Diego, California, USA,
17. Mud filtrate is the portion of the drilling fluid that invades
8. Bezerra MCM, Rosario FF, Rocha AA and Sombra CL: March 22–27, 1998.
the formation during the creation of mudcake on the
“Assessment of Scaling Tendency of Campos Basin Mueller RF and Nielsen PH: “Characterization of borehole wall. The filtrate is driven into the formation by
Fields Based on the Characterization of Formation Thermophilic Consortia from Two Souring Oil Reservoirs,” the pressure difference between the drilling mud and
Waters,” paper SPE 87452, presented at the Sixth Applied and Environmental Microbiology 62, no. 9 the formation fluid.
International Symposium on Oilfield Scale, Aberdeen, (September 1996): 3083–3807.
May 26–27, 2004. 18. Creek J, Cribbs M, Dong C, Mullins OC, Elshahawi H,
Hegeman P, O’Keefe M, Peters K and Zuo JY:
“Downhole Fluids Laboratory,” Oilfield Review 21,
no. 4 (Winter 2009/2010): 38–54.

Spring 2011 27
fluid analyzers and resistivity sensors. Water-base laboratory. The Oilphase-DBR single-phase multi- described in a later section. The results are
mud (WBM) filtrate, on the other hand, has opti- sample chamber (SPMC) uses a nitrogen charge entered in a multiphase equilibrium model—
cal properties similar to those of the formation to maintain downhole pressure on the reservoir various models are available commercially—to
water, so the two are difficult to distinguish by fluid sample between the downhole collection predict downhole pH and the potential for corro-
color. Also, WBM is miscible with formation water point and the laboratory. This practice ensures sion, scale and hydrate formation.
and can mix and react with it, leading to contami- that gases and salts remain in solution during the Because of the lack of a pH measurement on
nated and unrepresentative water samples unless trip from downhole to the laboratory, which may reconditioned samples, chemical engineers use
special care is taken to pump for a long time to not be possible with standard sample chambers. equilibrium modeling to predict pH under reser-
collect uncontaminated samples. Single-phase samples can also be obtained voir conditions. However, uncertainties in the
The Quicksilver Probe focused extraction from drillstem tests (DSTs). Usually, water is not thermodynamic models for formation waters at
technology can collect virtually contamination- intentionally sampled during a DST, but some high temperatures and pressures, as well as
free formation fluids, which is especially impor- operators make special efforts to study water uncertainties associated with the possible pre-
tant when sampling formation water in the composition and will collect DST water samples cipitation of salts, can propagate errors into
presence of WBM filtrate.19 The tool’s articulated for laboratory analysis.20 scale and corrosion models. Furthermore, unless
probe, which contacts the formation at the bore- Formation water samples can be obtained tools such as the SPMC are used, changes in pres-
hole wall, draws filtrate-contaminated fluid to later in field life during production logging opera- sure and temperature as the water sample is
the perimeter of the contact area, where it is tions. However, obtaining formation samples transported uphole may induce phase changes
pumped into a discharge flowline. This diversion prior to production is crucial for recording the that are not always fully reversible during the
preferentially allows pure reservoir fluid to flow baseline composition. The Compact Production reconditioning process.21
into the sampling flowline. The probe can be run Sampler captures conventional bottomhole sam- Since pH is a key parameter in understanding
as a module combined with the InSitu Fluid ples in producing wells. It can be run in any sec- water chemistry and plays a major role in predict-
Analyzer tool in the MDT modular formation tion of the PS Platform production logging string, ing corrosion and scale deposition, obtaining reli-
dynamics tester. conveyed by either slickline or electric line. able pH measurements on formation water at
Ideal sampling consists of collecting a single- Once the samples have been retrieved, they downhole conditions has been a priority for oil-
phase sample and keeping it in single phase as it are transported to a laboratory and recondi- field fluid specialists.
is brought to the surface and transported to the tioned to downhole conditions before analysis,

10

Spectroscopic
detector
Optical density ratio (570:445)

1.0
Lamp

Three-dye mix
0.1
Model
Experiment

Tool wall
2 4 6 8 10
pH

Dye
injector

Fluid
flow

> Downhole pH measurement. Equivalent to a downhole litmus test, the InSitu pH module (left) uses a mix of pH-sensitive dyes
and detects their color change as a function of pH. The spectroscopic detector measures optical density at two wavelengths:
570 nm and 445 nm. Laboratory experiments conducted as part of this technology development showed that pH is a predictable
function of the ratio of optical density at 570 nm wavelength to that at 445 nm (top right). The color of the water-dye mixture
ranges from yellow at a pH of 2 to purple at a pH of 10 (bottom right).

28 Oilfield Review
Measuring pH In Situ Well 2, an appraisal well drilled in a gas-
7.2
Schlumberger researchers developed a method condensate field, was drilled with an OBM system
for measuring pH downhole using pH-sensitive to facilitate high-quality water sampling. Before
7.0
dyes.22 The InSitu pH reservoir fluid sensor works collecting samples at three depths, the tool mea-

pH
on the same proven principles as other downhole sured pH, each time with multiple readings. At 6.8
optical fluid analyzers designed for hydrocarbon the shallowest measurement station, the fluid
analysis.23 One difference, though, is that the analyzer indicated the tool flowline contained a 6.6
InSitu pH module injects pH-sensitive dye into mixture of oil and formation water. However, the
the tool flowline, where it mixes with the fluid oil and water segregated within the tool, and the 6.4
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
being pumped from the formation (previous dye mixed only with the water, allowing the pH of Pumping time, s
page). The fluid mixture changes color according the water slugs to be measured. The pH values
> Monitoring water cleanup in an Egyptian well
to the water pH, and optical sensors quantify the did not vary over time because the OBM filtrate
before sample collection. As the tool pumped
color change by detecting optical density at mul- did not contaminate the formation water. fluid from the formation into the flow line, pH
tiple wavelengths. The wavelengths of the optical Laboratory analysis of the water samples measurements indicated the change in water
channels in the InSitu pH device have been acquired from these wells quantified concentra- composition. Early in the cleanup process, the
fluid mixture had a high pH, indicating
selected to detect the colors expected when tions of major components and physical proper- predominantly WBM filtrate. After about 6,000 s
waters of pH from about 3 to 9 react with a dye ties at surface conditions. Chemical engineers of pumping time, the pH leveled off to a low
mixture selected for this range. The measure- used these results as input for models to predict value, signaling that the fluid had cleaned up to
ment is similar to the well-known litmus test for pH at downhole conditions. an acceptable level of purity for sample collection.
indicating pH, but the science and applications For the sample from Well 1, the simulated pH
were adapted to the high-pressure, high-temper- value matched the downhole pH value within
ature conditions encountered downhole. 0.03 units, giving reservoir engineers confidence sample and the model. The middle sample, 3.8 m
At early pumping times in WBM systems, the in the downhole measurement, the condition of [12.5 ft] deeper, showed a significant mismatch
flowline fluid is predominantly filtrate, but as the sample and the modeling method (below). of 0.39 pH units between the simulated and mea-
pumping continues, the contamination level— In Well 2, the sample from the shallowest sured values—a discrepancy several times
the concentration of mud filtrate—decreases, level had similar downhole and simulated pH val- greater than the typical measurement accuracy.
producing a water sample more representative of ues, different by only 0.03 units, again validating Confidence in the downhole measurement at this
formation water. If the WBM-filtrate pH is signifi- the downhole measurement, the condition of the station comes from the averaging of 60 data
cantly different from formation-water pH (typical
ranges are pH of 7 to 10 for WBM, pH of 4 to 6 for
formation waters), then the pH of the mixture Well Depth, m Temperature, °C Downhole pH Modeled pH
changes as contamination decreases (top right).
1 Y,Y08.5 53.8 6.26 6.29
Monitoring this change helps interpreters quali-
2 X,X26.0 134.0 5.82 5.85
tatively track water-sample purity in real time
2 X,Y29.8 139.0 6.14 5.75
before collecting the water sample. The pH mea-
2 X,Y49.9 142.0 6.02 5.82
surement using this method is estimated to be
accurate to within 0.1 pH units. > Downhole and laboratory formation water measurements. The clean
An operator utilized this measurement tech- formation water samples were analyzed in the laboratory. Chemical
engineers used the ion concentrations and physical properties measured
nique in two wells offshore Norway, each pro-
from the liquid and the composition of the gas as inputs (not shown) to
posed to be tied back to different existing floating models to predict pH at downhole conditions. Comparison of these
production platforms.24 Knowledge of both hydro- predictions with downhole measurements shows reasonable matches in all
carbon and water composition is crucial for the cases except for the sample from Well 2 at X,Y29.8 m. The mismatch may
indicate a compromise in the integrity of the sample during transfer from
implementation of tieback development plans. In downhole conditions to the laboratory.
particular, water analysis is important for flow
assurance in the seafloor pipelines, and tieback
requires water compatibility with the process 19. For more on the Quicksilver Probe method, see: 22. Raghuraman B, O’Keefe M, Eriksen KO, Tau LA,
equipment on the main platform and with waters Akkurt R, Bowcock M, Davies J, Del Campo C, Hill B, Vikane O, Gustavson G and Indo K: “Real-Time
Joshi S, Kundu D, Kumar S, O’Keefe M, Samir M, Downhole pH Measurement Using Optical
flowing through it from other wells. Tarvin J, Weinheber P, Williams S and Zeybek M: Spectroscopy,” paper SPE 93057, presented at the
Well 1, an exploration well, was drilled with “Focusing on Downhole Fluid Sampling and Analysis,” SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry,
Oilfield Review 18, no. 4 (Winter 2006/2007): 4–19. Houston, February 2–4, 2005.
WBM through an oil reservoir and into an underly- 20. O’Keefe M, Eriksen KO, Williams S, Stensland D and 23. Andrews RJ, Beck G, Castelijns K, Chen A, Cribbs ME,
ing water zone. During cleanup of the water zone, Vasques R: “Focused Sampling of Reservoir Fluids Fadnes FH, Irvine-Fortescue J, Williams S, Hashem M,
Achieves Undetectable Levels of Contamination,” Jamaluddin A, Kurkjian A, Sass B, Mullins OC,
several series of dye injection followed by pH mea- paper SPE 101084, presented at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil Rylander E and Van Dusen A: “Quantifying Contamination
surement showed a clear change of pH over time, and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Adelaide, South Using Color of Crude and Condensate,” Oilfield Review 13,
Australia, Australia, September 11–13, 2005. no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 24–43.
indicating reduced contamination of the fluid in
21. It may have taken millions of years for the water to 24. Raghuraman et al, reference 22.
the flowline. Laboratory analysis of a tracer added equilibrate with the host formation. Once equilibrium is
to the drilling fluid confirmed low WBM contami- disturbed, it may not be regained in time for laboratory
analysis.
nation of 0.2% in the collected sample.

Spring 2011 29
 have markedly different strontium concentra-
Resistivity
tions, allowing them to be differentiated through
Moved Hydrocarbon Rxo
laboratory analysis, which was the standard prac-
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
Water tice before the availability of real-time pH mea-
Medium surements. In Well A, a water sample was
Moved Hydrocarbon Oil
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 collected by traditional methods and sent for
Water Dolomite Deep laboratory analysis; that sample provided a basis
Oil Calcite 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 for comparison with the results from the three
Formation Pressure, psi Pretest Mobility other wells.
Resistivity-Based Fluid Analysis Volumetric Analysis
50 % 0 100 % 0 4,430 4,530 0.1 mD/cP 1,000 Well C penetrated the main reservoir and sev-
eral thin zones believed to be untapped. At one
1.082 g/cm3 (water) station, a pH measurement was performed after
just a few liters of fluid had been pumped from
the formation. The fluid was expected to be rich
1.111 g/cm3 (water) in WBM filtrate, and indeed, it exhibited a down-
hole pH of 7.3. Samples of the WBM were col-
1.140 g/cm3 (water) lected for laboratory analysis at the surface.
Resistivity log analysis suggested this thin,
20-ft [6-m] layer had high mobile oil saturation
and could be a potential pay zone. Pressure tests
at three stations in the interval indicated low
mobility but were inconclusive on fluid density.
Downhole fluid analysis at the location with
the highest mobility detected tiny amounts of oil
flowing with water in the flowline. After about
280 L [74 galUS] of formation fluid had been
pumped through the tool, dye injection followed
by pH measurement yielded a pH of 5.1. From
previous experience with downhole measure-
ments in the field, interpreters concluded the
water was formation water, and samples were col-
lected. Subsequent laboratory analysis of the
> Contradictory interpretations in a potential oil-bearing zone. High predicted oil saturation (left, green
strontium concentration confirmed the interpre-
shading) near the top of this zone is in contrast to the pressure measurements (right), which exhibit a
gradient indicative of water (blue dots). Pink dots are measurements in low-mobility zones and were
tation that this sampling depth was in the oil-
excluded from the gradient calculation. In situ measurement of pH (not shown) supported an water transition zone.
interpretation of injection water breakthrough in this interval. Furthermore, the small fractional flow of oil
detected in the downhole fluid analysis implies
that the oil saturation is only slightly higher than
points with a standard deviation of 0.02 pH Water Assumptions the residual oil saturation, and that the sampling
units—well within the expected measurement Downhole water pH measurements have also depth is close to the OWC. This example demon-
accuracy. The discrepancy between the in situ been used to resolve formation evaluation chal- strates the benefits of downhole fluid analysis in
measurement and the value obtained by model- lenges in a Middle East carbonate field.25 In a characterization of complex limestone transi-
ing based on laboratory results may indicate a giant offshore field, Abu Dhabi Marine Operating tion zones, especially in thin intervals where
compromise in the integrity of the sample during Company (ADMA-OPCO) hoped to identify unde- pressure and resistivity log interpretations can
transfer from downhole conditions to the labora- pleted thin pay zones and track movement of the have uncertainties.
tory, emphasizing the benefit of the real-time oil/water contact (OWC) in the main reservoir. At the top of the main reservoir zone, fluid
measurement. The pH of the third sample from The main reservoir has undergone decades of content estimates—calculated using an
Well 2 is within 0.2 units of the simulated value, production with water injection, but some thin assumed value for formation water salinity—
which is a more acceptable match. zones have not been tapped yet, and they are indicated high oil saturation (above left).
These tests demonstrated the capability and appraisal targets. However, pressure measurements across the
accuracy of the real-time downhole pH measure- Most wells in the field, including the four interval suggested a formation fluid density
ment. The tool is able to take multiple measure- wells in this study, were drilled with WBM using equivalent to that of water, contradicting the
ments at each station to verify water purity seawater as the base. The WBM and formation interpretation of high oil saturation.
before sample collection. In addition, it can ana- water cannot be distinguished using resistivity, Downhole fluid analysis performed in the
lyze pH at any number of depths without acquir- but the formation water has low pH, from 5.0 to middle of this zone, after several hundred liters
ing samples. 5.6, compared with that of the WBM (greater of fluid had been pumped from the formation,
than 7.0). The WBM and formation water also

30 Oilfield Review
indicated only water in the tool flowline. Real- 100

time measurements of pH returned a value of

6.2—lower than that expected of WBM, but 6.4
higher than that of the anticipated formation 80
water. Because so much fluid had been pumped
from the formation before taking the pH mea-

WBM contamination, %
6.2
surement, WBM contamination of the water was 60
expected to be low. Fluid analysts suspected that

Hd
the fluid was not formation water, but water from
a nearby injection well. This interpretation was 6.0
40
corroborated by laboratory analysis of three
water samples collected at this depth.
The injection-water breakthrough had gone 20 Contamination 5.8
undetected during initial openhole logging pH
because the water had not been analyzed, and
default values of formation water salinity caused 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
the log interpretation to wrongly predict that the
Pumping time, 1,000 s
zone contained high volumes of mobile oil. The
true salinity of the water in this zone is about > Contamination monitoring in an ADCO well. As the tool pumped fluid from
the formation at X,X51 ft, the optical sensor detected a decrease in the
one-sixth that of the default formation water, dra-
fraction of blue-colored WBM with pumping time, indicating a reduction in
matically changing the interpretation. Correctly mud contamination of the formation water. Measurements of pH at four
identifying water origin by measuring its pH in times show a drop from 6.47 to 5.7 as the fluid in the flowline cleans up.
situ can have significant implications in terms of
completion and production planning to minimize
water production. in both the pH and in the optical density of the At the next sampling station, 10 ft [3 m]
tracer-doped mud (above). The pH dropped from above the first, the optical analyzer detected only
Whence the Water? 6.47 at high contamination to 5.7, which engi- water until pumping time reached 7,443 s. At that
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Operations neers interpreted as the pH of the nearly clean time, oil appeared in the flowline, and by 12,700 s,
(ADCO) used the downhole pH measurement in a formation water. the oil fraction had increased to 90% (below).
production well to delineate the oil/water con-
tact, characterize the oil-water transition zone
X,X41 ft
and identify the sources of water in various lay-
pH 100
ers.26 The low resistivity contrast between the Oil
6.5
WBM and the formation fluid precluded using

Oil %
pH

50
resistivity to track filtrate contamination. Instead, 6.0
ADCO selected two other methods for monitoring
X,X41 5.5 0
contamination: in situ pH and a colored tracer in 90% oil, 10% formation water 0 4 8 12
the WBM that allows quantitative estimates of Time, 1,000 s
Depth, ft

contamination before sample collection.

The first sampling station was at X,X51 ft, Oil/water contact
ontact
X,X??
near the bottom of the suspected oil-water transi-
X,X51
tion zone. This was confirmed by the optical ana- X,X51 ft
100% formation water
lyzer, which showed only water and no oil flowing pH 100
at this depth. Monitoring the pH and optical 6.5 Oil
Oil %

responses of the colored tracer during the

pH

50
6.0
cleanup phase showed a reduction in WBM con-
tamination with pumping time. The decrease in 5.5 0
contamination manifested as downward trends 4 6 8 10
Time, 1,000 s
25. Xian CG, Raghuraman B, Carnegie AJ, Goiran P-O and
Berrim A: “Downhole pH as a Novel Measurement Tool
in Carbonate Formation Evaluation and Reservoir > Constraining the oil/water contact. Measurements at two depths, X,X41 ft
Monitoring,” Petrophysics 49, no. 2 (April 2008): 159–171. and X,X51 ft, narrow the OWC to somewhere between them. At the deeper
26. Raghuraman B, Xian C, Carnegie A, Lecerf B, Stewart L, station, optical fluid analysis detected water only, and pH measurements
Gustavson G, Abdou MK, Hosani A, Dawoud A, Mahdi A indicated the presence of formation water. At the transition-zone station,
and Ruefer S: “Downhole pH Measurement for WBM 10 ft higher, optical fluid analysis detected water initially, but eventually oil
Contamination Monitoring and Transition Zone
Characterization,” paper SPE 95785, presented at the arrived and increased in volume fraction to 90%. The pH measurement at
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, this station showed the water to be a mixture of formation water and filtrate,
October 9–12, 2005. confirming the presence of mobile formation water. Therefore, the OWC is
constrained to the 10-ft interval between these two stations.

Spring 2011 31
 Without a pH measurement to characterize the
Zone Fluid Measurement Permeability Downhole pH Modeled pH type of water, there is no way to know if the water
1 Oil Oil sample High is WBM filtrate or formation water. The presence
2 Oil and water OWC delineation High of pure WBM filtrate implies the formation water
3 Water pH, water sample 1 mD to 10 mD 6.5 6.6 is immobile, while the presence of any formation
4 Water pH, water sample Less than 1 mD 7.3 7.8 water implies that formation water is mobile at
5 Water None Too tight to flow this depth.
6 Water pH, water sample Less than 1 mD 6 6.3 A pH measurement taken at 6,452 s, slightly
> Fluid sampling data. In a well drilled with OBM to facilitate water sampling, ADCO collected fluids before the arrival of the oil, gave a value of
from five of six carbonate zones. The water in Zone 4 is clearly different from that in the other 5.77, indicative of a WBM–formation water mix.
water-filled zones. The water from Zone 6 may be different from the water in Zone 3; these data were Optical measurement of the colored tracer con-
combined with those shown below and on the next page to determine the source of water produced firmed this interpretation. This implies that oil
from Zone 2.
and water are both mobile at this depth.
Therefore, the oil/water contact must be between
the two measurement stations, narrowing it to
between X,X41 and X,X51 ft.
In another ADCO example, a well was drilled
to determine the source of water appearing in
Na+K/1,000 Cl/1,000 nearby oil-producing wells. The new well, drilled
with OBM to simplify water sampling, penetrated
six limestone zones. The shallowest, Zone 1, con-
tained only oil; Zone 2 contained oil and water,
and the bottom four zones were water bearing.
Ca/100 Sulfate/10
ADCO wanted to know if the water produced
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 from the second layer was coming from the flank
meq of the reservoir through Zone 3, or from the
deeper zones.27
Oil producers Of the water zones, Zone 5 was too tight to
flow, but in the other three the formation tester
Mg/10 Carbonate/10
measured downhole pH and collected pressur-
ized samples for laboratory analysis.
The downhole pH measurements indicated
that the water in Zone 4 was significantly differ-
ent from that in the other zones, and modeling
based on laboratory findings confirmed this (above
Na+K/1,000 Cl/1,000 left). However, to identify which layer was supply-
ing water to the oil-producing zone required com-
parison with the produced water. There were no
pH measurements on the previously produced
water, but laboratory analysis on stock tank sam-
Ca/100 Sulfate/10 ples provided ion concentrations for the waters
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 from the existing producers, and these were com-
meq pared with concentrations from the waters sam-
pled in the new well.
Oil producers
Zone 2 Scientists used a graphical method called a
Zone 3 “Stiff diagram” to compare the compositions of
Zone 4 Mg/10 Carbonate/10
the various water sources.28 Each plot shows the
Zone 6
relative concentrations of anions and cations for
a particular water sample, scaled in milliequiva-
> Comparing water compositions. Stiff diagrams allow visual identification lents per liter (meq) (left).29 All samples of the
of similarities and differences between water samples. Concentrations of produced water showed a similar pattern.
cations are plotted to the left of the vertical axis, and concentrations of However, samples from the new well exhibited
anions are plotted to the right. Compositions of water samples from the
producing wells (top) are all similar, whereas compositions of samples from differences. The samples from Zones 2 and 3 had
the new well (bottom) show large variability. The waters from Zones 2 and 3 patterns resembling those of the produced water,
are similar to the produced water, but the compositions of samples from while Zones 4 and 6 contained waters with dis-
Zones 4 and 6 are different in most cations and anions. tinctly different compositions.

32 Oilfield Review
 Zone 2
Zone 4 2

δDSMOW
10 Zone 3
3
δ = R sample – 1 × 1,000
R standard Zone 4

Zone
4
Zone 6
–5 5
Zone 2 δ 18OSMOW 5
Zone 3
R sample = ratio of heavy to Zone 6
6
–10 light isotope in the sample
R standard = ratio of heavy to 0.7074 0.7076 0.7078 0.7080
87Sr/ 86Sr
light isotope in standard
mean ocean water (SMOW)

> Isotopic analysis of water samples from the new ADCO well. Many elements have isotopes, or atoms
with different atomic weights. The most common form of hydrogen (with one proton) has an atomic
weight of 1, and is written as 1H. A less common isotope, 2H, with one proton and one neutron, is
usually written as D, for deuterium. Similarly, oxygen has three isotopes, 16O, 17O and 18O. Isotopes have
similar chemical properties but different physical properties. For example, they “fractionate” during
evaporation and condensation, leaving water enriched in heavy isotopes. Comparing ratios of
hydrogen and oxygen isotopes is a common method to distinguish waters from different sources. In
the ADCO case, analysis shows that the water in Zone 4 is different from those in the other zones (left).
Comparison of strontium [Sr] isotope ratios (right) is another technique for highlighting differences
between water sources. Here, waters from Zones 4 and 6 are significantly different from those in
Zones 2 and 3.

Isotopic analysis corroborated the composi- ples at elevated pressure, allows operators to analyzed by ion chromatography. The third por-
tional information. A plot of hydrogen and oxygen bring live fluids to the surface and transport tion is kept untreated and is used to measure
isotope ratios for samples from the new well con- them intact to a laboratory. density, pH, conductivity, alkalinity (by titration)
firmed that the water from Zone 3 was similar to In the laboratory, the collected water samples and anions by ion chromatography.
that in Zone 2. Also, the waters from Zones 4 and are reconditioned to downhole temperature and For the most part, commercial laboratories
6 were quite different from each other and from pressure, encouraging any gases and solids that have not been equipped to directly analyze live
those of Zones 2 and 3 (above). Strontium isoto- have come out of solution to redissolve. The sam- water at reservoir conditions, but some are mak-
pic ratios were also different. ples are flashed—the sample bottles are opened ing advances in this direction. Schlumberger sci-
These analyses showed that Zone 3 is the and the fluids are exposed to surface pressure entists have developed a new laboratory technique
source of water produced in Zone 2—the oil- and temperature—before laboratory analysis. for measuring pH of live formation water samples
producing layer—allowing ADCO engineers to Laboratory specialists measure the gas/water at reservoir temperature and pressure.30 The sam-
conclude that water sweep is from the flanks of ratio (GWR) and perform gas chromatography to ple remains in the pressurized bottle in which it
the reservoir, and there is no water support from analyze the composition of the liberated gas. was brought to the surface. A heated jacket brings
Zones 4 and 6, below the reservoir. They also analyze ion composition, pH and low– the bottle to reservoir temperature. As the water
molecular weight organic acids in the water sample flows through a pressurized flowline—
Laboratory Measurements on Live Waters phase. A more rigorous process employed by which is similar to the tool flowline—it mixes
Traditional laboratory analysis is usually per- some operators involves partitioning the flashed with the same dye used in the downhole measure-
formed on “dead” or stock tank water, and this water sample into three parts. Acid is added to ment, and the fluid mixture passes through a
analysis may be useful for production surveil- one part of the sample to preserve cations, which spectrometer that analyzes the color.
lance. However, during the initial exploration are then analyzed by inductively coupled plasma Comparison of the laboratory pH measure-
and appraisal stages, when the operator builds (ICP). Sodium hydroxide is added to the second ment with the real-time in situ pH measure-
an understanding of the reservoir fluids and part to preserve organic acids, which are then ments made on the same formation water allows
uses that data for modeling water chemistry at 27. Carnegie AJG, Raghuraman B, Xian C, Stewart L, 29. An equivalent is the amount of a material that will react
reservoir and pipeline conditions, it is critical to Gustavson G, Abdou M, Al Hosani A, Dawoud A, with a mole of OH– or H+. A milliequivalent is an
El Mahdi A and Ruefer S: “Applications of Real Time equivalent/1,000.
work on representative live-water samples. Downhole pH Measurements,” paper IPTC 10883, 30. Mathews SG, Raghuraman B, Rosiere DW, Wei W,
Through downhole fluid analysis, specialists presented at the International Petroleum Technology Colacelli S and Rehman HA: “Laboratory Measurement
Conference, Doha, Qatar, November 21–23, 2005. of pH of Live Waters at High Temperatures and
are able to perform direct measurements on live
28. Stiff HA: “Interpretation of Chemical Water Analysis by Pressures,” paper SPE 121695, presented at the SPE
fluids—fluids that still contain dissolved gas— Means of Patterns,” Transactions of the American International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, The
at reservoir conditions. Furthermore, sample- Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers 192 (1951): Woodlands, Texas, USA, April 20–22, 2009.
376–378. [Also published as paper SPE 951376 and
collection technology, which has the ability to reprinted in Journal of Petroleum Technology 3, no. 10
monitor contamination and maintain water sam- (October 1951): 15–17.]

Spring 2011 33
 uncertainties that can arise when flashed water
analysis is used as input to simulators and under-
score the importance of direct measurements on
live waters to constrain and tune the models.
In Well B, the zone of interest is a water-rich
interval beneath the oil target; it is considered to
be a potential source of water cut sometime in
the future life of the field. The pH of this water
may have sizeable impact on equipment design,
selection and costs.
Live-water pH measurements were performed
at the in situ temperature of 242°F [117°C] and
pressure of 19,542 psi [134.7 MPa], and then at
pressures down to 8,000 psi [55 MPa] to test the
sensitivity of the measurement to pressure (left).
6.3
Fluid analysts monitored the optical signal dur-
6.2
ing this change in pressure and did not detect
any solid precipitation from scale onset or gas
6.1
evolution that would have caused light scatter-
ing. This indicates that the water stayed as a sin-
pH

6.0
gle phase all the way from reservoir pressure
down to 8,000 psi. The ability to measure pH and
5.9 track scale onset with pressure and temperature
in this setup makes it a potentially powerful
5.8 method to collect data for tuning and improving
8,000 12,000 16,000 20,000
confidence in water chemistry simulator models.
Pressure, psi

> High-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) laboratory measurements of pH. Schlumberger scientists Other Fluid Measurements
performed pH measurements on live waters at reservoir pressure and temperature (19,542 psi and Downhole fluid analysis currently can quantify
242°F) and at a range of pressures down to 8,000 psi (bottom). The optical spectrum of the aqueous many fluid properties in situ, including pressure,
system was measured using probes connected to an HPHT scanning cell (top right). Optical signal
monitoring (top left) indicated that water stayed in single phase down to 8,000 psi with no scale onset. temperature, resistivity, density, composition,
The pH measurement is calibrated only to 10,000 psi: The scarcity of thermodynamic data in the gas/oil ratio, pH, fluorescence and optical den-
literature makes calibration difficult and uncertain at pressures greater than that. In this figure, sity. Although most of these fluid property mea-
calibration parameters for 10,000 psi are used for the data at pressures of 10,000 psi and greater, surements were originally designed with
which are indicated by a dashed line.
hydrocarbons in mind, several of them—in addi-
tion to pH—may be applied to analysis of forma-
tion water.
fluid analysts to validate the integrity of the surements of pH were made and samples were Recently, a downhole fluid density measure-
sample. A good match indicates the sample is collected at two depths. Laboratory measure- ment was tested as an alternative to pH for
still representative of the formation water. ments matched the downhole measurements to detecting WBM contamination and oil/water
Sample validation in this manner is an imple- within 0.08 pH units, giving Chevron chemists contacts. The InSitu Density sensor is a tiny
mentation of the “chain of custody” concept.31 confidence that the reconditioned live samples vibrating rod—a mechanical resonator—in the
The laboratory setup also allows chemists to were representative of formation water. tool flowline. The resonance frequency of the rod
measure the live-water pH as a function of tem- Comparison with predictions from two differ- decreases as the fluid density increases. The den-
perature and pressure and flag the onset of ent simulators indicated a good match (within sity measurement is useful when the pH of the
scale precipitation. These additional measure- 0.15 units) for one sample. For the second sam- WBM is similar to that of the formation water.
ments can be used to better constrain and tune ple, the discrepancies were larger, not just Another advantage is that density measurements
water-chemistry models. between predicted and measured values, but also may aid in fluid typing in cases that are problem-
Chevron tested this technique on formation between the two commercial models used for the atic for pressure-gradient interpretation of fluid
water samples from two Gulf of Mexico wells.32 In simulation (0.24 to 0.65 units). The reasons for contacts, such as thin beds, low-permeability for-
Well A, the zone of interest is a thick, permeable the differences in predicted values from the two mations and poor-condition wellbores.
water zone—a potential supply for injection simulators are due to the different thermody- The InSitu Density device has been used for
water—thousands of feet above the reservoir. The namic databases upon which they are based, as downhole water analysis in WBM-drilled wells off-
company wanted to assess the corrosion potential well as the different approaches to using the shore Vietnam, Norway and China.33 Applications
of the water and evaluate its compatibility with inputs in modeling. The differences highlight the include monitoring contamination cleanup before
the reservoir formation water. Downhole mea- collecting water samples, analyzing formation

34 Oilfield Review
 Formation Pressure, psi Formation Pressure, psi Formation Pressure, psi
2,200 3,200 2,200 3,200 Fluid 2,200 3,200 Fluid
Dry Test Lost Seal Dry Test Lost Seal Fraction Dry Test Lost Seal Fraction
Pretest Quality Pretest Quality Pretest Quality

Gamma Ray Gamma Ray Depth, Gamma Ray Depth,

0 gAPI 250 0 gAPI 250 m 0 gAPI 250 m

1.0124 g/cm3 (water) Sand A

1,600 1.0124 g/cm3 (water) Sand A

1,600

0.8859 g/cm3 (oil) Sand B

1,700

1.0195 g/cm3 (water) Sand C

1,800

0.8859 g/cm3 (oil)

1,900

Free-water level: 1,693.5 m Sand B

2,000 1,700

1.3545 g/cm3 (mud) 1.3545 g/cm3 (mud)

2,100
Sand D

0.7807 g/cm3 (oil) 0.8929 g/cm3 (oil) 0.7807 g/cm3 (oil)

1.0195 g/cm3 (water)
Sand C
2,200
Sand E

> Looking for fluid contacts. Fluid densities interpreted from gradients in shading in Depth Track). Measurements from the InSitu Density tool give
pressure measurements (left) in five sands indicated oil only in the deepest precise density values (gray shaded) for these fluids, values that can be
zone, Sand E (below 2,200 m). Pressure measurements (dots) are color- extended along pressure gradients. In an expanded view (right), gradient
coded based on quality: green is high and yellow is satisfactory. In Sand D, analysis helps interpreters understand reservoir architecture. The
around 2,100 m, the gradient suggests a fluid heavier than water, such as intersection of the water gradient in Sand C (lower blue line) with the oil
drilling mud. Optical characterization (middle, Depth Track) of the fluids gradient in Sand B (green line) identifies the free-water level in Sand B at
pumped from Sands A and C identified these intervals as water-prone 1,693.5 m. The nonintersection (dashed circle) of the water gradients
layers (blue shading in Depth Track); Sands B and D contain oil (green confirms the lack of communication between Sand B and Sand A.

water for future reinjection with seawater, evalu- dient indicative of oil. Only one pressure reading new measurements will find applications to for-
ating of reservoir vertical connectivity and assess- could be obtained from each of Sands A, B and C, mation water analysis, increasing the ability of
ing flow assurance in pipelines and flow streams so it was impossible to compute gradients in oil and gas companies to understand their reser-
to be tied back to processing equipment on a those zones. The gradient from the two pressures voirs, optimize completions, select materials and
main platform. measured in Sand D corresponded to the mud monitor water injection.
In an exploration example from offshore density, indicating whole-mud invasion. Optical Extending the array of downhole measure-
China, pressure pretests in five sands yielded analysis of fluids pumped from the five sands gave ments will likely force high-pressure, high-
inconclusive fluid-typing results in all but the additional but surprising information: Sands A temperature laboratory techniques to keep pace.
deepest zone, Sand E, which had a pressure gra- and C produced water, and Sands B and D pro- Currently, high-accuracy pH measurements can
duced oil. Real-time downhole fluid density mea- be made both in situ and at similar conditions in
31. Betancourt SS, Bracey J, Gustavson G, Mathews SG
and Mullins OC: “Chain of Custody for Samples of Live surements on these same fluids corroborated the the laboratory. In the future, additional analyses
Crude Oil Using Visible-Near-Infrared Spectroscopy,” optical and pressure analyses and helped deter- will extract even more information and value
Applied Spectroscopy 60, no. 12 (2006): 1482–1487.
32. Mathews et al, reference 30. mine the free-water level in Sand B (above). from formation water. —LS
33. Mas C, Ardilla M and Khong CK: “Downhole Fluid The number of fluid analysis measurements
Density for Water-Base Mud Formation-Water Sampling that can be made in situ is increasing. Current
with Wireline Formation Tester,” paper IPTC 13269,
presented at the International Petroleum Technology capabilities have been likened to having a down-
Conference, Doha, Qatar, December 7–9, 2009. hole fluids laboratory.34 Undoubtedly some of the
34. Creek et al, reference 18.

Spring 2011 35
 Zapping Rocks

Romulo Carmona By zapping a formation with microwave energy, dielectric logging tools can analyze
Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A.
Caracas, Venezuela freshwater environments and identify movable hydrocarbons. The measurements
made by these tools are especially useful in characterizing heavy-oil reservoirs. After
Eric Decoster
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil a long period of niche application, a new tool is breathing life into this technology.

Jim Hemingway This resurgence is aided by a recently developed dispersion technique that evaluates
Houston, Texas, USA carbonate rock texture and shale effects in sandstones.
Mehdi Hizem
Laurent Mossé
Tarek Rizk
Clamart, France Petroleum technologists enjoy finding new meth- Introduced to the oil and gas industry in the
ods to poke, prod and probe the Earth. One such late 1970s, dielectric logging did not find univer-
Dale Julander technique, dielectric logging, involves zapping a sal acceptance. Lack of acceptance of new tech-
Chevron U.S.A. Inc. formation with microwaves to determine rock and nologies is not unusual. Technologies often need
Bakersfield, California, USA fluid properties. Although not widely used within time to evolve, gain a level of appreciation by
the petrophysics community, dielectric informa- users and, finally, be assimilated. The first com-
Jeffrey Little tion answers a number of difficult interpretation mercial microwave oven, for example—a radi-
Bakersfield, California questions. The success of a recently introduced cally new technology at the time—was introduced
dielectric tool is generating considerable interest in 1947. It was taller than the average man and
Tom McDonald
because it provides information that isn’t readily weighed more than three times as much. Not sur-
Perth, Western Australia, Australia
available from standard logging suites. prising, domestic sales were nonexistent. But
Jonathan Mude
Petroleum Development Oman
Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Nikita Seleznev
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

Oilfield Review Spring 2011: 23, no. 1.

Copyright © 2011 Schlumberger.
Dielectric Pro, Dielectric Scanner, EPT, FMI, HRLA,
LithoDensity, MR Scanner, Platform Express, and
Rt Scanner are marks of Schlumberger.

1. Serra O: Well Logging Handbook. Paris: Editions

Technip, 2008.
2. Dispersion is the variation in dielectric permittivity and
conductivity when measured at different frequencies.
3. Serra, reference 1.
4. Named for James Clerk Maxwell, this set of partial
differential equations unifies the fundamentals of
electricity and magnetism. There are four basic
equations, but multiple iterations can be developed from
them. For a full derivation of the equations related to
electromagnetics and dielectric response: Serra,
reference 1.
5. Depending on the reference source, microwaves are
generally considered electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths from 1 m to 1 mm, which corresponds to a
frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz.

36 Oilfield Review
today, compact units that little resemble those analysis of carbonates, evaluation of formations Relative dielectric constant
Minerals, rocks, fluids
early industrial-grade models are standard equip- with variable- or low-salinity formation water and (relative to vacuum)
ment in kitchens around the world. heavy-oil applications. Anhydrite 6.35
Radically new technologies fall into different Gypsum 4.16
categories of acceptance. Some fully supplant Microwave Frequency Logging Petroleum 2.0 to 2.4
Gas 1.0
older technologies. Others supplement existing Three parameters define a rock electrically:
Sandstone 4.65
methods without replacing them. In the example magnetic permeability, electrical conductivity
Dolostone 6.8
of the microwave oven, although it may be possi- and dielectric permittivity.3 Reservoir rocks com-
Limestone 7.5 to 9.2
ble to prepare a complete multicourse meal with prise mostly nonmagnetic minerals, thus their
Shale 5 to 25
one, rarely is it the primary method of meal prepa- magnetic permeability is negligible. Because the Dry colloids 5.76
ration. However, as a means for reheating food, a rock matrix has little conductivity, the electrical Fresh water 78.3
microwave oven is usually a better option than conductivity of the formation, the inverse of Water 56 to 80
previous methods, such as a conventional oven. resistivity, is primarily a function of the fluids
> Dielectric constants for common minerals,
Clearly, it is a supplemental technology. that fill the pore network and the connectivity of
rocks and fluids.
Similarly, a dielectric tool is a supplemental the pores. Formation conductivity is generally
technology for the oil and gas industry. These measured with induction and laterolog devices
tools were originally developed to analyze forma- and is a crucial input, along with porosity, in
tions with freshwater, low-salinity water or where Archie’s water saturation equation. For most minerals and fluids found in reser-
water salinity was unknown. They respond pri- Dielectric permittivity is not a measurement voir rocks, with the important exception of water,
marily to the water in the pore network and mea- that is generally considered when evaluating reser- dielectric permittivity is quite low (above). For
sure water-filled porosity. From water-filled voir rocks. It is defined as the frequency-dependent water, the absolute dielectric permittivity, ε*,
porosity, resistivity-independent fluid saturations capacity of a medium to store energy from an comprises three terms: a real term related to
can be derived. Log analysts also combined applied field and is a function of the degree to which polarizability, a complex term related to conduc-
dielectric measurements with data from deeper- a material becomes polarized in the presence of tivity at a given frequency and a second complex
reading tools to identify zones with hydrocarbon an electric or electromagnetic field. A material’s term related to dipolar relaxation (below).
mobility, which is crucial information for evaluat- dielectric permittivity, ε, can be expressed as its Because of the large difference between matrix
ing heavy-oil reservoirs. dielectric constant, which is the permittivity nor- and water permittivities, a reservoir rock’s dielec-
Unfortunately, data quality for early- malized to the lossless environment of a vacuum. tric permittivity measured in the microwave range
generation tools was frequently compromised The dimensionless dielectric constant is not really a is primarily a function of the water filling the
by hole rugosity—a common condition in the constant because it is a function of the frequency pores.5 The permittivity values of oil and the
environments in which these tools offered the of the electromagnetic field. It is computed from matrix are similar, and as a result, the presence of
greatest benefit—and measurement accuracy dielectric data using Maxwell’s equations.4 hydrocarbons makes it impossible to invert for
was difficult to quantify. After sparking initial
interest within the petrophysics community,
dielectric tools never reached a level of universal Bulk water 25°C
acceptance for formation evaluation. The intro-
duction of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) εr Dipolar ε* = εr +i ωσε + i εx
tools in the 1990s virtually ended the use of 0
microwave-based dielectric tools, except in some σ Atomic Electronic
specialized applications.1 ω ε0
The recently introduced Dielectric Scanner
multifrequency dielectric dispersion service is εx
designed to overcome limitations of earlier tools.
It has the ability to measure water-filled porosity,
and, in conjunction with other porosity measure-
1.1 GHz 20 GHz Infrared Ultraviolet
ments, fluid saturations. Its collocated trans-
mitter-receiver arrays probe the formation at Frequency
multiple depths of investigation and offer > Dielectric permittivity plot for water. The absolute dielectric permittivity, ε*,
stand-alone oil mobility assessment in heavy-oil for bulk water comprises a combination of real and complex terms and is a
reservoirs. In addition, the tool offers a new function of the frequency of the electromagnetic field. The real component,
measurement—dielectric dispersion—with which εr (blue), is linear to about 1 GHz and then decreases as the frequency of
the electromagnetic field increases. The complex conductivity term (black)
petrophysicists can determine rock textural prop- depends on the frequency of the electromagnetic field, ω, and is normalized
erties and shale effects.2 for the permittivity of vacuum, ε0. The conductivity component decreases
This article presents the basic theory of as the frequency increases, especially across the frequency range used in
downhole dielectric tools. The second complex term, iεx (purple), is related
dielectric measurements applied to petrophysics,
to dipolar relaxation and peaks around 20 GHz. It has minimal effect on the
including a description of the new dielectric dis- total permittivity measured by downhole tools because they operate in a
persion technique. Case studies describe textural frequency range below about 1.1 GHz.

Spring 2011 37
 Phase shift Schlumberger introduced the first commer-
Transmitter Change in amplitude Receiver
cial downhole device capable of measuring
dielectric properties using microwaves, the EPT
electromagnetic propagation tool, in the late
1970s.6 It operated at a single frequency of
1.1 GHz and measured attenuation and phase
shift of waves traveling through the formation.
Mathematical inversions were then applied to
Transmitter-to-receiver spacing, r
the attenuation and phase shift to derive petro-
Frequency, ω Receiver voltage = ƒ (ω, ε, σ, r )
physical properties—including dielectric per-
ƒ –1

} {
Vacuum
Medium Amplitude change Α
ε Permittivity mittivity, conductivity and water-filled porosity
Phase shift
σ Conductivity (left). Petrophysicists determined fluid satura-
φ Water-filled porosity tions by comparing this water-filled porosity to
> Microwaves to petrophysics. The dielectric tool transmits an electromagnetic the total porosity.
wave (red sine wave) with a frequency ω into a formation where, as a result After the introduction of the EPT tool, other
of interactions with the fluids and minerals, its amplitude is attenuated and the service companies developed dielectric tools,
velocity of the wave changes. The velocity change corresponds to a measureable
phase shift. The change in amplitude, Α, and the phase shift of the wave (black each designed to operate at a company-chosen
sine wave) after it has passed through the media are measured at the receiver; frequency. Because of the frequency dependence
they are functions of the initial frequency, ω, dielectric permittivity of the media, of dielectric information, data recorded at differ-
ε, the conductivity of the media, σ, and the transmitter-to-receiver spacing, r. ent frequencies often yielded different results
The change in amplitude and phase shift are then inverted to output permittivity,
conductivity and water-filled porosity, φ. and comparing the results between wells could
be problematic. The differences can be attribut-
both water-filled porosity and total porosity using which its different constituents are mixed able to the measurement’s sensitivity to rock tex-
dielectric data alone. However, in conjunction with together. This factor is generally small when mea- ture, clay content and fluid salinity. These
an independent porosity measurement, dielectric sured at a frequency of about 1 GHz but domi- sensitivities, however, were not well understood.
data can quantify fluid saturations. nates the measurement at lower frequencies. For Water-filled porosity from the earliest tools
A second factor affecting a rock’s dielectric this reason, rock texture and shale content can was computed following the tpo method, which is
permittivity and conductivity is the manner in cause frequency-sensitive dispersion in both based on the propagation time of the electromag-
permittivity and conductivity measurements. netic waves as they passed through the rock
(below left). This calculation involved a simple
transform that resembles the Wyllie equation
tpo method tpo – tpma tpo = lossless traveltime used to compute sonic porosity. It requires knowl-
φEPT = tpma = traveltime through the matrix
tpwo – tpma tpwo = lossless traveltime through water edge of the water salinity and temperature to esti-
mate the propagation time in formation water.
Formations, however, consist of more than just
CTA method tpl = lossy traveltime (tool measurement)
tpma = traveltime through the matrix water. There are pore fluids—water, oil and gas—
tpw = lossy traveltime through water and minerals in the rock matrix. Relationships
tpl = φSxo tpw + φ (1– Sxo ) tph + (1– φ) tpma tph = lossy traveltime through hydrocarbon
between each of these constituents, as they exist
Α = φSxo Αw φ = porosity
Sxo = water saturation in the flushed zone in the formation, can alter the electromagnetic
Α = attenuation (tool measurement) waves. The tpo method was not adequate for com-
Αw = attenuation through water
puting water-filled porosity and, therefore, various
mixing laws have been proposed to account for the
CRI method ε* = dielectric permittivity interaction of the electromagnetic field with the
εm = permittivity of the matrix
εw* = permittivity of water various elements in the formation.7
ε* = (1 – φT) εm+ φT (Sw ε*w + (1 – Sw) εoil ) εoil = permittivity of hydrocarbon The complex time average (CTA) method, com-
Sw = water saturation
φT = total porosity
bining both phase-shift and attenuation measure-
ments, was an early technique for calculating
> Evolution of dielectric petrophysics. An early porosity transform for dielectric petrophysical properties of a mixture. Two inde-
tools, the tpo method (top), looks similar to the Wyllie equation used to compute pendent equations can be written, one for phase
porosity from acoustic data. The transfrom is valid only for lossless traveltime, shift and one for attenuation of the signal, to deter-
which is not representative of the downhole environment. The complex time
average (CTA) method (middle) provides water-filled porosity from attenuation, mine the volume of water in the pore network.
traveltime and water saturation in the flushed zone. It includes corrections for An alternate approach, the complex refrac-
losses, but is not as accurate as the complex refractive index (CRI) method tive index (CRI) method, is based on Maxwell’s
(bottom). The CRI method uses the dielectric permittivity, ε*, measured at
equations. Because of the time-dependent sinu-
downhole conditions. Matrix, hydrocarbon and water permittivities, used in the
equation, are also adjusted for downhole conditions. Water saturation is solved soidal nature of an electromagnetic field, the
for using a total porosity, φT, provided by another source, such as the crossplot time derivative of Maxwell’s equations can be
porosity from density and neutron tools. greatly simplified.8 It is reduced to two terms that

38 Oilfield Review
define the absolute dielectric permittivity, a Polarization
E=0 E
real-number permittivity term and a complex Type
frequency-dependent conductivity term.9 The Center of + and –
complex number term consists of the angular fre-
quency of the applied electromagnetic field and 8+ 8+
Electronic
a conductivity that can be expressed as a real
number. A single equation transforms the propa-
gation time and attenuation into physical quanti-
ties—permittivity and conductivity. Because Center of –
matrix minerals and hydrocarbons are poor con- Center of +
ductors and generally act as insulators, the con- + 8+
Orientational
ductivity signal is dominated by the water in the
region sensed by the tool—the flushed zone.
+
Solving for the dielectric conductivity provides
the conductivity of the fluids that fill the pores in
the near-wellbore region.
Mud filtrate from the invasion process enters
the flushed zone and alters the properties of the
fluids that were originally in place. This invasion Interfacial
is not uniform or easily quantified. Early methods
for computing dielectric properties, such as the
Oil
tpo method, assumed fixed values of fluid conduc- Matrix
tivity. Directly solving for the conductivity of the Water Salt ions
fluid in this region, which is possible with the CRI > Polarization mechanisms. Several mechanisms related to a material’s polarizability affect dielectric
method, provides more-accurate results for the measurements. For electronic polarization (top), balanced atomic structures may shift in the presence
water-filled porosity measurement. For this and of an electromagnetic field, E, but the effects are minimal. In contrast, water molecules exhibit
other reasons, the CRI method has become the orientational polarization (middle) because they are dipolar. In the initial state, these easily polarizable
water molecules are found as randomly oriented dipoles. When exposed to an electromagnetic field,
generally accepted technique for computing pet- they attempt to align with the direction of the field. Interfacial polarization for reservoir rocks (bottom)
rophysical properties from dielectric data.10 is influenced by the presence of charged clays, brine and oil in the pore network and the matrix
In addition, textural parameters of rocks, minerals. Minerals and elements in the rock that might not be polarizable in isolation often behave
which are difficult to quantify from the tools used differently in a mixture, exhibiting a larger permittivity value than any of the constituent components.
This phenomenon is an example of the Maxwell-Wagner effect.
in conventional logging suites, can be derived
from the dispersion of dielectric data made at mul-
tiple frequencies. At frequencies around 1 GHz, tex- information, petrophysicists can better evaluate mechanisms that can be related to petrophysical
tural parameters have limited effects on outputs carbonates using downhole data. Accurately char- properties: electronic polarization, molecular ori-
derived from the CRI method. An exception, how- acterizing texture in this rock type is important entation and interfacial polarization (above). To
ever, is high-salinity environments, which can because an estimated 60% of the world’s remain- understand how electromagnetic waves interact
enhance textural dispersion even with frequen- ing oil is found in carbonate reservoirs. with various media, consider a porcelain mug,
cies in the 1-GHz range. At lower frequencies, tex- filled with coffee and placed in a microwave oven.
tural effects significantly impact dielectric Dielectrics and Dipoles The mug is essentially unaffected by the micro-
permittivity measurements—this is especially Materials that become polarized when exposed to waves as they pass through it, but the coffee in the
true in carbonate reservoirs.11 Several dispersion a static electromagnetic field are referred to as mug heats rapidly. Accidently leaving a metal
models have been developed to account for the dielectrics.12 A material’s susceptibility to polar- spoon in the mug can be disastrous because of the
frequency-dependent phenomenon. ization is directly related to its dielectric permit- interaction of microwaves with good conductors
A dispersion analysis, discussed below, has tivity. There are three primary polarization such as metal.
been developed that uses multifrequency dielec-
6. A Russian dielectric tool predated the EPT tool by Logging: Advances in Technique and Interpretation,”
tric outputs to quantify the cementation expo- 10 years but had limited availability. paper SPE 9267, presented at the 55th SPE Annual
nent, m, which is one of two crucial texture-related 7. For more on the various mixing laws: Seleznev N, Boyd Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
A and Habashy T: “Dielectric Mixing Laws for Fully and September 21–24, 1980.
inputs in Archie’s water saturation equation. For Partially Saturated Carbonate Rocks,” Transactions of For a comparison of the CTA and CRI methods:
carbonates, values for these parameters are gen- the SPWLA 45th Annual Logging Symposium, Noordwijk, Cheruvier E and Suau J: “Applications of Micro-Wave
The Netherlands (June 6–9, 2004), paper CCC. Dielectric Measurements in Various Logging
erally derived from core data, which are then Environments,” Transactions of the SPWLA 27th
8. For assumptions made and the full derivation from
applied to offset wells. The method used for mea- Maxwell’s equations: Böttcher CJF and Bordewijk P: Annual Logging Symposium, Dallas (June 9–13, 1986),
Theory of Electric Polarization: Dielectrics in paper MMM.
suring these parameters from core is a lengthy
Time-Dependent Fields, vol 2, 2nd ed. New York City: 11. Kenyon WE: “Texture Effects on Megahertz Dielectric
and expensive process. With continuous outputs of Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company (1978): 10–19. Properties of Calcite Rock Samples,” Journal of Applied
m for Archie’s equation from dielectric dispersion 9. A third complex number can be ignored for downhole Physics 55, no. 8 (April 15, 1984): 3153–3159.
applications. 12. Melrose DB and McPhedran RC: Electromagnetic
10. The CRI method was proposed in Wharton RP, Hazen GA, Processes in Dispersive Media. Cambridge, England:
Rau RN and Best DL: “Electromagnetic Propagation Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Spring 2011 39
 These materials respond to electromagnetic In the absence of an electric field, individual contributing to current conduction increases. A
energy differently because of their atomic and water dipoles point in random directions, so the temperature increase has a similar effect on the
molecular properties and their intrinsic conductivi- net moment per unit volume is zero. However, solution properties: the solution conductivity will
ties. Rather than becoming polarized when struck when an electric field is applied, in addition to increase, and the solution permittivity will
by microwaves, metal objects, such as the spoon, electronic polarization of the oxygen and hydro- decrease due to the stronger effect of the thermal
may experience an induced current. This is because gen atoms, the field tends to orient the individual dipole disorientation.
there are free electrons in the metal that move dipoles, resulting in a net positive moment per As the electromagnetic wave passes through
when it is exposed to the electromagnetic field. unit volume. This effect is called orientational various media, it is altered by interaction with
Resistance to current flow can generate extreme polarization. The collisions of the molecules in the media. The amplitude and the velocity of the
heat and the induced current may arc if a conduc- their thermal motion disorient the molecules and wave decrease as a function of the amount of
tive path is unavailable. Because they are electrical limit the net dipole moment per unit volume. energy imparted, and the phase of the wave
conductors, most metals have a dielectric permittiv- Thus the magnitude of the orientational polariza- shifts. For materials with low dielectric constant
ity that can be a negative value. For this reason, tion is a result of the type of polar molecule and values, such as the coffee mug or rock matrix,
metals are not generally classed as dielectrics. its temperature. there are minimal effects on the returning elec-
The porcelain mug, on the other hand, is nom- Orientation of polar molecules under the tromagnetic wave. In contrast, water’s high
inally affected by the electromagnetic field, and influence of an applied field is not instantaneous. dielectric constant causes a large effect.
it becomes only slightly polarized. The origin of It requires a finite time due to the molecular As early as the 1950s, petrophysicists experi-
its polarization lies in the electronic clouds moment of inertia and, as a result, there is resis- menting with microwaves recognized that the
surrounding the nuclei of the atoms. When the tance to realignment as the field reverses direc- dielectric permittivity measurement from satu-
electric field is applied, the electrons’ trajecto- tion. If the frequency of the applied field is rated core samples was controlled primarily by
ries shift. This phenomenon is called the elec- sufficiently high, for instance in the microwave the amount of water in the pores and could be
tronic polarization. The resulting dielectric range, the polar molecules do not have enough directly related to water-filled porosity. However,
constant, in the range from 5 to 7, is similar to time to orient along the field direction and the to compute the water fraction of a rock sample
that of reservoir rocks.13 contribution of orientational polarization is from dielectric measurements, the relationships
The coffee, or more specifically, the water diminished. The water molecules’ resistance to between the dielectric properties of the constitu-
portion of the coffee, exhibits an entirely different the rapidly changing polarity can be expressed as ents that comprise the core sample must be
behavior in the presence of the electromagnetic heat. This phenomenon is referred to as dipolar known. Mixing laws were established under
field. Water molecules—composed of two hydro- relaxation loss. controlled laboratory conditions to model the
gen atoms and one oxygen atom—are asymmetri- A dielectric phenomenon of saltwater, or effects of these relationships.
cal: the centers of their positive and negative brine, is that with increasing salinity, the conduc- In the laboratory, dielectric properties can be
charges do not coincide. This asymmetry results tivity of a solution increases but the permittivity measured by different methods employing vari-
in a permanent dipole moment for water mole- of the solution decreases. Adding salt to a solu- ous sample sizes and shapes. The measurement
cules. Because of its much greater susceptibility tion increases the number of water molecules technique depends on the frequency of interest.
to polarization, water’s dielectric constant is nonrotationally bound to the NaCl molecules, For instance, the capacitive technique is
around 80—an order of magnitude higher than thereby decreasing the orientational polariza- typically employed for frequencies up to several
that of porcelain. tion. At the same time, the concentration of ions MHz. The material is placed between the plates
of a capacitor, and from the measurements of the
capacitance the dielectric constant can be calcu-
30% Water, 70% Matrix 10% Water, 20% Oil, 70% Matrix lated. This model works well if the wavelength is
much longer than the space between the conduc-
tor plates.
At high frequencies, it is difficult to measure the
total voltage and current at the device ports.
Sw = 100% Sw = 33%
Because of the impedance of the probes and the dif-
φ Total = 30% φ Total = 30% ficulty of placing the probe at the desired position,
φ Dielectric = 30% φ Dielectric = 10% one cannot simply connect a voltmeter or a current
probe and get accurate measurements. For frequen-
cies in the GHz region, scientists developed tech-
niques such as a transmission line or a microwave
resonator. Transmission line methods are widely
> Saturation from dielectric measurements. Petrophysicists generally use Archie’s water saturation
utilized because they allow for broadband measure-
equation, which requires inputs for porosity and resistivity. The dielectric method requires no
resistivity. The simplified relationship shown here demonstrates how this is carried out. The dielectric ments. The spanned bandwidth is limited, on the
porosity is a measurement of the water-filled portion of the porosity. When all the pore space is low end, by decreasing sensitivity to the sample’s
filled with water (left), the porosity from the dielectric tool, φDielectric, matches the total porosity dielectric constant with increasing wavelength. The
measurement, φTotal, which must come from another source such as density-neutron crossplot
maximum measurement frequency depends on the
porosity. Because their dielectric properties are similar, hydrocarbons are indistinguishable
from the matrix for dielectric measurements. Thus, decreases in the porosity as measured by the type of the transmission line, the forward model and
dielectric tool that are not mirrored by the total porosity relate directly to increases in the volume of the limitations of the acquisition system.
hydrocarbons (right).

40 Oilfield Review
 Quantifying water-filled porosity from dielec-
50 Carbonate 1
tric measurements is important because the ratio
Carbonate 2
of the water-filled porosity to the total porosity 45 CRI method
represents the water saturation (previous page).
40
The dielectric permittivity measurement can
determine water saturation independent of a 35

Permittivity
resistivity measurement—a critical and necessary EPT tool
30 operating
input for Archie’s water saturation equation.14 frequency
Both freshwater and hydrocarbons have high 25

resistivity values. Typical oilfield brines found in 20

reservoir rocks have low resistivity. Archie’s
15
equation is based on the assumption that a
contrast exists between the resistivity of 10
10 2 10 3
hydrocarbon-bearing formations and those filled
Frequency, MHz
with brine. It does not provide accurate satura-
> Dispersion in carbonates. Scientists found that, because of differences
tion results in reservoirs with freshwater, low-
in rock texture, otherwise similar carbonates can have very different
salinity water or where the salinity of the dielectric responses, especially at lower frequencies. Laboratory-
formation water is unknown. In these environ- measured values of permittivity of two different carbonate samples with
ments, the large contrast between the dielectric similar porosity, permeability and saturating fluids are shown along with
permittivity of hydrocarbons and water, regard- permittivity computed using the CRI method (black). The permittivity of
Carbonate 2 (red) is similar to the results from the CRI method, but the
less of brine salinity, makes for an ideal satura- permittivity of Carbonate 1 (green) is different. Neither sample provided an
tion measurement. exact match—except around 1 GHz, which corresponds to the EPT tool’s
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) tools operating frequency (red dashed line). Because other factors were equal,
this frequency-related dispersion is associated with the different textures of
are also able to detect hydrocarbons in freshwa-
the carbonate samples.
ter environments by measuring the diffusion of
the fluids.15 Because they do not rely on the
resistivity of the fluids in the pore spaces to
determine saturations, dielectric and NMR tools tions. The results do not depend on the hydro- porosity and compute hydrocarbon volume. Using
are often the primary means for quantifying carbon type or the pore network. a newly developed measurement technique that
hydrocarbon volumes in freshwater environ- Dielectric and NMR tools have a shallow relies on dielectric dispersion, the tools are also
ments or where the formation-water salinity is depth of investigation, which prevents them from able to determine rock properties. This has been
unknown. The dielectric tool measurement, fully supplanting traditional triple-combo logging shown to be especially useful in carbonates but
however, must be combined with porosity from suites. Whereas resistivity tools measure up to a also provides insight for evaluating shaly sands.
another source to provide hydrocarbon satura- few meters into the formation, the nature of NMR
and dielectric measurements limits them to the Dispersion
13. Virtual Institute of Applied Science Encyclopedia:
“Dielectric Constant,” http://www.vias.org/ first few centimeters from the wellbore wall: the Because biological and sedimentological factors
encyclopedia/phys_dielectric_const.htm flushed zone, where the virgin fluid has been can produce a complicated pore network, car-
(accessed February 11, 2011).
14. Poley JPh, Nooteboom JJ and de Waal PJ: “Use of invaded by mud-filtrate. bonates have a much more complex structure
V.H.F. Dielectric Measurements for Borehole Formation However, the shallow nature of the dielectric than siliciclastic rocks.16 The pore network may
Analysis,” The Log Analyst 19, no. 3 (May–June, 1978):
8–30. measurement provides important information also be chemically altered through postdeposi-
15. Akkurt R, Bachman HN, Minh CC, Flaum C, LaVigne J, about oil mobility. Comparing the saturation tional diagenesis.17 This makes evaluation of pet-
Leveridge R, Carmona R, Crary S, Decoster E, Heaton N, derived from dielectric measurements corre- rophysical properties of carbonates challenging—
Hurlimann MD, Looyestijn WJ, Mardon D and White J:
“Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Comes Out of Its Shell,” sponding to the flushed zone with that of the especially permeability and fluid saturations,
Oilfield Review 20, no. 4 (Winter 2008/2009): 4–23. virgin zone can help quantify the volume of oil which are not directly measured but derived from
16. For more on carbonate reservoir analysis:
Al-Marzouqi MI, Budebes S, Sultan E, Bush I, Griffiths R, flushed by water-base mud filtrate. This oil is combinations of measurements using an appro-
Gzara KBM, Ramamoorthy R, Husser A, Jeha Z, movable and can be produced using primary priate model.
Roth J, Montaron B, Narhari SR, Singh SK and
Poirer-Coutansais X: “Resolving Carbonate Complexity,” production means; however, zones with oil that Schlumberger researchers found that dielec-
Oilfield Review 22, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 40–55. is not flushed generally require other methods, tric properties computed with a frequency of
17. Ali SA, Clark WJ, Moore WR and Dribus JR: such as steam injection, water or CO2 floods or 1 GHz using the CRI technique were accurate for
“Diagenesis and Reservoir Quality,” Oilfield Review 22,
no. 2 (Summer 2010): 14–27. any of a multitude of enhanced oil recovery tech- carbonate rock samples saturated with oil-brine
18. For more on the derivation of models used for textural niques to flush the oil from the rock. Ultimately, mixtures (above). However, factors other than
inversion: Stroud D, Milton GW and De BR: “Analytical
Model for the Dielectric Response of Brine-Saturated these data are best described as information mineralogy and water content affect permittivity
Rocks,” Petrophysical Review B 34, no. 8 (October 15, that, when combined with other logging results, at lower frequencies.18 Permittivity dispersion
1986): 5145–5153.
aides the petrophysicist in accurately character- measurements on two carbonate rocks with simi-
Baker PL, Kenyon WE and Kester JM: “EPT
Interpretation Using a Textural Model,” Transactions of izing the reservoir. lar porosity, mineralogy and water saturation high-
the SPWLA 26th Annual Logging Symposium, Dallas Dielectric tools, however, offer petrophysi- lighted this frequency-dependent textural differ-
(June 17–20, 1985), paper DD.
Kenyon, reference 11. cists more than the ability to quantify water-filled ence. The observation of frequency dependence

Spring 2011 41
 φ = 15.6% 0.051 ohm.m φ = 15.6%
60 10 0
0.211 ohm.m
50
1.010 ohm.m
4.890 ohm.m
Dried

Conductivity, S/m
40
Permittivity

30 10 -1

20

10

1 10 -2
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 1 10 2 10 3
Frequency, MHz Frequency, MHz
> Effects of fluid salinity on dielectric measurements. Cores were saturated with four different brines ranging in resistivity from 4.890 to 0.051 ohm.m.
Permittivity (left) and conductivity (right) were computed for a frequency range of 10 MHz to 10 GHz. The permittivity measurements converged around
1 GHz. For comparison, a baseline permittivity measurement was made on a dried core sample (blue). The core saturated with the highest salinity brine
(green) displayed the highest dispersion and was the only one that did not converge at 1 GHz. Dielectric conductivity on the other hand, did not converge
but increased with frequency for all four samples, demonstrating the dispersive effects of fluid salinity.

50 0.50
for dielectric properties led the scientists to
Laboratory0.45
0measurement
45 develop a dielectric dispersion model to character-
Textural model
0.40 ize rock texture.
40 Researchers also experimented with permit-
tivity and dielectric conductivity of siliciclastic
Conductivity, S/m

0.30
Permittivity

core samples saturated with brines of different

30 salinity.19 Although the permittivity of a dry sam-
0.20 ple is constant over a wide range of frequencies,
the permittivity values of the brine-soaked
20 samples change with salinity, converging at fre-
0.10
quencies around 1 GHz (above). The dielectric
conductivities, however, are not linear, and the
10 0 effect of the brine on the value of the conductiv-
106 107 108 109 106 107 108 109
Frequency, Hz Frequency, Hz ity increases with the frequency of the applied
electromagnetic field. Therefore, any variation in
50 0.50
the dielectric permittivity with applied frequency
Laboratory0.45
0measurement
45 must be related to either textural properties or
CRI method0.40 fluid salinity.
40 Over the years, various models have been
developed to quantify dispersion. The textural
Conductivity, S/m

0.30
Permittivity

model utilizes geometric elements—platy

30 grains—to account for differences in textural
0.20 parameters. To validate the models, scientists
acquired experimental dielectric permittivity
20 and conductivity data using a wide range of fre-
0.10
quencies for rocks with several distinct textures.
They then used the dispersion model to fit their
10 0 measurements. This inversion technique gener-
106 107 108 109 106 107 108 109
Frequency, Hz Frequency, Hz ated results for dielectric permittivity and con-
> Model comparison. Permittivity and conductivity (blue) from laboratory core measurements for a ductivity that more closely matched core
carbonate sample were compared to values computed using the CRI method (bottom, black) and the measurements than with the traditional CRI
new dispersion textural model (top, red). The CRI method matches core-derived properties at 1 GHz; technique (left).
however, there is little agreement between the carbonate samples and the CRI method at lower
frequencies, especially for conductivity. The textural model almost perfectly matches the core data.
The example shown is one of several carbonate cores tested; all tested cores showed similar results.
(Adapted from Seleznev et al, reference 19.)

42 Oilfield Review
 The textural method can be used to derive the 4.0
cementation exponent, m, used in Archie’s water
saturation equation. Cementation data computed 3.5

Computed m from textural model

using the textural model compared favorably
with cementation exponents independently mea- 3.0

sured from carbonate cores. Laboratory data

were successfully modeled across a wide range of 2.5

m-values from 1.7 to 2.9 (right). This technique

2.0
has been used to explain carbonate texture–
related resistivity variations that result in mis-
1.5
leading saturation estimates (below right).
Dispersion effects are not limited to carbon-
1.0
ate analysis; they can also be applied to shaly- 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
sand evaluation. However, the dispersion models Laboratory measured m from cores
for shales are different from the one used for car- > Cementation exponent for Archie’s water saturation equation. The
bonate analysis because the clays, which make cementation exponent, m, can be measured from core data, but it is a
up the shale, induce specific dispersion behaviors. time-consuming process. The textural model, developed from dielectric
dispersion analysis, was used to solve for m in a number of carbonate core
samples. The crossplot of the values from both methods demonstrates close
Shaly Sands agreement over a wide range. The default value of 2 for Archie’s equation
Quantifying shaliness has been limited to corre- would not be appropriate for most of these samples for which the value
lations with gamma ray, sonic, neutron capture ranges from 1.7 to 2.9. (Adapted from Seleznev et al, reference 19.)
spectroscopy or differences in neutron and den-
sity porosity logs. The results are not a direct
measurement but are based on empirical infer-
ences. The dielectric dispersion model directly
Resistivity
quantifies shale effects such as those seen in Oil
m Dielectric Deep
laminated sand-shale sequences.20 This is espe- Saturation,
1.0 3.5 Corrected m 1 ohm.m 1,000
cially useful in freshwater shaly sands where the
Gamma Ray Dielectric Shallow Dielectric Porosity
measured resistivity is determined in large part 0 % 100
0 gAPI 100 1 ohm.m 1,000 50 % 0
Lithology

by the clay content. But applications of dielectric Saturation,

Depth, Salinity Caliper m=2 Deep Induction Total Porosity
data for shaliness are not limited to just fresh- m 0 ppk 50 6 in. 16 0 % 100 1 ohm.m 1,000 50 % 0
water. Because the dispersive response of a clay’s
19. Seleznev N, Habashy T, Boyd A and Hizem M: X,750
“Formation Properties Derived from a Multi-Frequency
Dielectric Measurement,” Transactions of the SPWLA
47th Annual Logging Symposium, Veracruz, Mexico X,760
(June 4–7, 2006), paper VVV.
20. Laminated sands are characterized by intervals of
stacked, thin sand and shale layers. The presence X ,770
X,770
of the shale laminae results in lower bulk resistivity
measurements and can mask the presence of
hydrocarbons. Laminae thickness is generally below the
resolution threshold of conventional logging tools. X,780

X,790

X,800

X,810

X,820

> Validating the dispersion model. Because of textural effects, computing Archie’s water saturation
in carbonates using traditional techniques can yield incorrect results. In this example, the deep
induction resistivity data (Track 5, red) are higher from X,764 to X,778 m (blue-shaded zone) than above
or below. Water saturation computed using Archie’s equation (Track 3, red) with a fixed cementation
exponent, m = 2, indicates the possible presence of oil (green shading) in this interval. The porosity
from the dielectric tool (Track 6, blue) overlays the total porosity (black), which implies that there are
no hydrocarbons. The dispersion-derived value for m (Track 2, blue) varies from 1.9 to 2.6 across this
interval. Water saturation computed using this corrected m-value in Archie’s equation results in 100%
water saturation (Track 3, black), which is more in line with expectations.

Spring 2011 43
 dielectric properties directly relates to the phys-
Smectite-water mixture ics controlling its conductivity, the dispersion
400
Kaolinite-water mixture technique yields accurate clay estimation (left).21
Ottawa sand–water mixture As demonstrated with carbonates, the rela-
tive permittivity computed from the CRI model
300 may not match core-derived data at frequencies
Real permittivity, εr

lower than 1 GHz. This dispersive behavior is also

seen in shaly sands and sand-shale sequences but
200
for different reasons. For these rocks, it corre-
lates with the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) of
the minerals in the formation, which relates to
Δ εr both the electrochemical polarization, also
100 referred to as a double-layer effect, and to
Maxwell-Wagner interfacial polarization. Both
effects are present, and electrochemical effects
0
dominate at lower salinity while interfacial polar-
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 ization dominates at high salinities.
Frequency, MHz The CEC is the quantity of cations (positively
> Interfacial polarization. Mixtures of sand and clay exhibit dispersive charged ions) that a clay mineral can accommo-
dielectric permittivity behavior depending on the clay type. The real date on its negatively charged surface. Clays are
permittivity measured in a smectite-water mix has a large frequency aluminosilicates that have had some of their
dependence—compare the real permittivity at 10 MHz with that at 1
GHz. For a kaolinite-water mixture, the effects are present, though less aluminum and silicon ions replaced by elements
pronounced. There is little dispersion in the sand-water mixture. Because with a different valence, or charge. The presence
of the larger volume of bound water associated with smectite than with of ions from clays enhances electrochemical
kaolinite, there is an associated decrease in permittivity with increased interfacial polarization.22
frequency. This correlation between dispersion and shale content and type
can be used to compute the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and quantify Nonconductive elements found in the forma-
shale effects from dielectric data. tion, when mixed together, may exhibit dielectric
conductivity that would not be present when
these elements are in isolation. This is due to the
Oil
geometric Maxwell-Wagner phenomenon, which
Sw Hydrocarbon
Archie is related to charge accumulation at the interface
Horizontal Resistivity Dielectric Porosity between brine and rock or brine and oil. Between
0 % 100
1 ohm.m 1,000 50 % 0 these charged surfaces, the brine forms macro-
Lithology

Sw
Depth, FMI Image Dielectric Vertical Resistivity Crossplot Porosity scopic dipoles, which give rise to frequency-
ft 0 % 100 1 ohm.m 1,000 50 % 0 dependent macroscopic polarizations. When
exposed to a low-frequency electromagnetic
field, the dipoles reach equilibrium before the
field changes direction. When exposed to a high-
frequency field, the dipoles cannot follow the
1,350 rapidly changing field, resulting in energy dissi-
pation, increased electrical conductivity and
reduced dielectric permittivity.23
In the Dielectric Scanner tool’s frequency
range (20 MHz to 1 GHz), both electrochemical
1,360 and geometric (Maxwell-Wagner) polarization
mechanisms contribute to the overall dielectric
dispersion measured in clay-containing forma-
tions. The electrochemical response decreases
21. Myers MT: “A Saturation Interpretation Model for
the Dielectric Constant of Shaly Sands,” paper 9118,
> High-resolution hydrocarbon saturation. Differences in horizontal and vertical resistivities (Track 4) presented at the Fifth Annual Society of Core
from a triaxial induction device, such as the Rt Scanner tool, can help interpreters identify anisotropy. Analysts Conference, San Antonio, Texas, USA,
However the laminations in the FMI fullbore formation microimager data (Track 1) are finer than the August 20–21, 1991.
resolution of the induction tool or the density-neutron tools, as shown in the crossplot porosity (Track 22. Seleznev et al, reference 19.
5, black). This can result in an excessively high net-pay calculation. The vertical resolution of the 23. Toumelin E and Torres-Verdín C: “Pore-Scale Simulation
saturation measurement from the Dielectric Scanner tool (Track 2, black) can be as small as 2.5 cm. The of KHz-GHz Electromagnetic Dispersion of Rocks: Effects
of Rock Morphology, Pore Connectivity, and Electrical
resolution difference is highlighted by comparing the Archie water saturation (Track 2, red) with the Double Layers,” Transactions of the SPWLA 50th Annual
dielectric saturation (black). Incorporating dielectric data into the analysis results in a more accurate Logging Symposium, The Woodlands, Texas, USA
sand count and reserves estimate. (June 21–24, 2009), paper RRR.

44 Oilfield Review
 with increasing brine salinity. Maxwell-Wagner directly rather than estimating it from clay type
effects increase with increasing brine salinity. and volume is a simpler and more robust means
For a given brine salinity, an increase in the of determining water saturation in shaly sands.
rock’s clay content causes an increase in its CEC An added benefit of the dielectric measure-
value and an increase in its dielectric dispersion ment is the ability to directly measure shale con-
due to both the electrochemical and Maxwell- tent and saturation at high resolution. Although
Wagner mechanisms simultaneously. techniques have been developed for measuring
The relative importance of each mechanism is anisotropy with resistivity devices such as the Rt
influenced by the brine salinity. For example, Scanner triaxial induction tool, this measure-
measurements of a vacuum-dried sample show no ment does not have the vertical resolution of the
frequency dependence, but in sedimentary rocks, dielectric tool. Nuclear porosity devices can pro-
dielectric permittivity will increase with increased vide inputs for high-resolution saturation mea-
surface area and CEC. By relating dispersion from surements, but the vertical resolution of these
shale effects to the CEC, petrophysicists can data is limited by physics and detector spacing.
quantify the shale content of reservoir rocks. The dielectric measurement provides water-filled
Attempts to determine clay volume as well as porosity at resolutions in the 2.5-cm [1-in.] range.
clay type are motivated by the need for a CEC The dielectric information allows petrophysicists
input to water saturation equations. CEC deter- to more accurately calculate reserves and esti-
mines the effect of the clay on resistivity mea- mate production than they currently can with
surement as well as the bound water volume that resistivity and porosity from other sources,
needs to be excluded from the total porosity mea- including new technology such as triaxial induc-
surement so that water saturation and oil volume tion tools (previous page, bottom).
can be properly determined. Measuring CEC The ability to measure shaliness and shale
effects is crucial in characterizing anisotropic
freshwater shaly-sand reservoirs. Interpreters
identify the presence of hydrocarbons in anisotro-
Caliper pic reservoirs by observing the difference between
arm horizontal and vertical resistivities, such as those
R XA

from the Rt Scanner tool. However, use of this

M
4

ud
R XA

technique is not effective in freshwater environ-

ca
ke
3
R XA

Articulated ments because of the lack of contrast between the

pr
ob
2

pad
R XA

resistivity of freshwater, shale laminations and oil.

e
1

Log analysts can, however, determine high-resolu-

TA

tion anisotropy using the transverse and longitudi-

TB

nal measurements from the Dielectric Scanner

tool. From these data, shale effects and oil satura-
R XB
1

tion can be quantified.

R XB
2
R XB
3

The Dielectric Scanner Tool

R XB

Measurements from electromagnetic devices

4

that operate at frequencies in the kHz range,

such as an induction tool, are better known than
> The Dielectric Scanner tool. This recently introduced tool incorporates several
dielectric measurements acquired at very high
features to improve data acquisition and provide greater measurement accuracy.
Unlike previous generation tools that used fixed pads, the Dielectric Scanner tool frequencies. Lower-frequency measurements are
uses the caliper arm to push the articulated pad against the formation. The pad’s dominated by the conductivity of the formation,
curvature also helps improve contact with the borehole wall. The transmitters but as the frequency increases, dielectric effects
(TA and TB) and antenna sets (RXA1 to RXA4 and RXB1 to RXB4) operate at discrete begin to appear and then predominate. Very high-
frequencies from 20 MHz to 1 GHz. Transmitters and antennas are collocated cross-
dipoles and can operate simultaneously in transverse (red arrow) and in longitudinal frequency measurements offer the ability to eval-
(blue arrow) polarization modes. Two open electric dipoles (open-ended coaxial- uate conductivity and permittivity simultaneously.
cable probes) measure mudcake properties and provide quality control. For more- In addition, obtaining information about texture
accurate fluid property input, the tool measures both temperature and pressure at
and shaliness using dielectric dispersion requires
the point of measurement. Borehole compensation is used to eliminate unbalanced
transmitter-receiver pairs. For each measurement cycle, 72 attenuation and 72 phase a high-quality measurement acquired at multiple
measurements are made for each of the four frequencies. Depth of investigation is frequencies. The Dielectric Scanner tool was
2.5 cm to 10.2 cm [1 in. to 4 in.] depending on transmitter-to-receiver spacing and developed to provide a full dataset necessary for
formation fluid properties.
these applications (left).

Spring 2011 45
 Longitudinal Transverse The tool has a fully articulated pad to position
the transmitters and receivers against the bore-
hole wall. The pad shape is cylindrical and the
E
antennas are designed to be perfect magnetic
H
dipoles. Each of the two transmitters and eight
receivers can operate with longitudinal or trans-
E H verse polarization.24 The measurement is per-
formed at four discrete frequencies from 20 MHz
to approximately 1 GHz. Each measurement cycle
Longitudinal Transverse
sensed region sensed region includes 72 transmitter-receiver amplitudes and
72 phase measurements. Multiple transmitter-
receiver pairs allow for borehole compensation,
and a quality-control algorithm can extract
unbalanced pairs and eliminate them from the
computation. Depth of investigation (DOI)—
Combined
sensed region a function of the transmitter-receiver spacing,
operating frequency and formation properties—
varies from 2.5 cm to 10.2 cm [1 in. to 4 in.].
A 2.5-cm vertical resolution is achieved.
Electric dipoles on the pad face provide two
modes of operation. In propagation mode, they
make the shallowest transverse measurement
> Tool operational modes. Dielectric tools generate electromagnetic waves and create a field and are used to estimate mud properties. In
whose electric components (E) and magnetic components (H) are perpendicular to one another. reflection mode, they measure the dielectric
The polarization of the wave determines the direction of the created fields. Longitudinal (left) and properties of the material directly in front of the
transverse (right) polarization modes correspond to measurements in horizontal and vertical planes pad: mud or mudcake.
with respect to the tool. Each mode generates a specific field orientation and shaped sensed region
(insets). The colored bands represent multiple depths of investigation, which are functions of the Because the tool acquires data in both
transmitter-receiver spacing and formation properties. The sensed regions of the two modes overlap longitudinal and transverse polarizations, high-
(bottom middle); differences in the measurements from the two orientations help identify anisotropy. resolution anisotropy effects can be quantified.
Longitudinal polarization probes the permittivity
and conductivity in a plane that is orthogonal to
F0 F1 F2 F3 the tool axis (above left). Transverse polarization
R1 Interfacial polarization probes both horizontal and vertical permittivity
and conductivity.
Molecular orientation
Mudcake

R2 Temperature and pressure measurements are

Invaded zone

Electronic polarization
also needed for compensation in the dielectric
R3 models. Under downhole conditions, pressure
105 10 6 107 10 8 109 10 10 has an appreciable effect on the dielectric prop-
Frequency, Hz erties of water.25 The temperature, salinity and
Transition zone

Structural investigation: multiple polarizations

R4 Textural investigation: multiple frequencies

pressure dependencies should all be included in
gs

a dielectric model to produce accurate interpre-

cin
pa

tation of the logs at downhole conditions.

es
Virgin zone

ipl

Formation homogeneity
Temperature is measured with the integrated
ult
:m

mud sensor and a dedicated sensor is used to

on
ati
tig

measure hydrostatic pressure.

es
inv

Anisotropy The tool investigates three main areas: radial

l
dia

information, geologic structure information and

Ra

matrix texture (left). The data from the various

transmitter-receiver pairs at all frequencies are
inverted to output permittivities and conductivities
> Dimensions of dielectric measurements. With its four operating frequencies (F0 to F3) and four pairs
for several layers: the mudcake, the near flushed
of transmitter-receiver spacings (R1 to R4), the Dielectric Scanner tool has three investigation ranges:
textural, radial and structural. The operating frequencies were chosen to exploit interfacial, molecular zone and the far flushed zone. Petrophysical proper-
and electronic polarization mechanisms, which are related to textural and shale effects. The radial ties can be computed using the CRI model for each
investigation is facilitated by four pairs of transmitter-receiver spacings that model the near-wellbore of the four frequencies. Dispersion processing with
region, which includes mudcake and invaded zones, and, depending on the depth of invasion, may
extend into the transition and virgin zones. Structural investigation is made possible by polarization
orientation. Measuring in the horizontal and vertical planes allows identification of formation
anisotropy at high resolution.

46 Oilfield Review
 CRI Method Dispersion Model

φT, ε matrix, temperature and pressure φT, ε matrix, temperature and pressure

Dispersion model
Dielectric model Water model
Water model

ε r, SH, F0, σDielectric, SH, F0 SW, SH

ε r, SH, F1, σDielectric, SH, F1 σwater, SH
εr, SH, F3 S W, SH
ε r, SH, F2, σDielectric, SH, F2 Dielectric constant SH
σwater, SH Inversion
σ Dielectric Inversion ε r, SH, F3, σDielectric, SH, F3 Textural parameters
Dielectric constant SH Parameter uncertainty
Input uncertainty Parameter uncertainty Input uncertainty

Shallow invaded zone Deep invaded zone Shallow invaded zone Deep invaded zone

εSH, F3 ε SH, F0, σSH, F0 ε Deep, F0, σ Deep, F0

ε SH, F1, σSH, F1 ε Deep, F1, σ Deep, F1
Mudacake

Mudacake
σSH, F3
S W, SH ε SH, F2, σSH, F2 ε Deep, F2, σ Deep, F2
σwater, SH ε SH, F3, σSH, F3 ε Deep, F3, σ Deep, F3

> The CRI method versus the dispersion textural model. The Dielectric control, the measurement uncertainty of the inputs can be computed and
Scanner tool has four operating frequencies and multiple transmitter- applied to the outputs as well. Inputs for the dispersion model (right) are
receiver spacings. For the CRI method (left), the inputs consist of total similar but permittivity and conductivity at multiple frequencies are required
porosity, φT, matrix permittivity, εmatrix, temperature and pressure. The for processing. Outputs include water saturation, conductivity, dielectric
inversion takes the real permittivity measurement and the dielectric constant and textural parameters. The data can be inverted for different
conductivity and outputs water saturation, water conductivity and dielectric depths of investigation, which are functions of transmitter-receiver spacing
constant for any combination of frequency and transmitter-receiver and formation properties. (Adapted from Seleznev et al, reference 19.)
spacing. Shown is the shallow (SH) measurement. For reference and quality

inputs from multiple frequencies can be performed Research to Reservoir Because the dielectric tool measures the
at different DOIs (above). Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) tested the water-filled portion of the porosity, the difference
To facilitate integration of dielectric data Dielectric Scanner tool in several wells. PDO between density-neutron crossplot porosity and
with other logging tool data, engineers have objectives included evaluating laminated sand- dielectric porosity is the residual oil saturation.
developed the Dielectric Pro dielectric disper- shale sequences, heavy-oil carbonates, shaly In this case, the difference was large, clearly
sion interpretation software. Full data process- sands and ultrahigh-salinity carbonates.26 For one
24. Longitudinal and transverse acquisition compare to
ing and interpretation are available using of the test wells, the objectives were to quantify endfire and broadside modes from the older generation
porosity, resistivity and saturation analysis from the volume of residual oil—oil that has not been EPT tools, which are modes that required completely
separate sets of hardware.
conventional tools. Conductivity and permittiv- flushed by invading mud filtrate—independent of 25. Heger K, Uematsu M and Franck EU: “The Static
ity at multiple frequencies can be computed. resistivity measurements and to integrate dielec- Dielectric Constant of Water at High Pressures and
Temperatures to 500 MPa and 550°C,” Berichte der
Crossplots of the data provide insight into dis- tric data with a full suite of openhole logging Bunsengesellschaft für physikalische Chemie 84, no. 8
persion for both textural analysis and shaliness. tools. PDO evaluated the tool’s ability to detect oil (August 1980): 758–762.
Various interpretation models are incorporated mobility and provide textural information in this 26. Mude J, Arora S, McDonald T and Edwards J:
”Wireline Dielectric Measurements Make a Comeback:
into the workflows and provide alternative test. The selected well was in a carbonate reser- Applications in Oman for a New Generation Dielectric
methods of analyzing the data. Radial process- voir. The mud filtrate salinity was approximately Log Measurement,” Transactions of the SPWLA 51st
Annual Logging Symposium, Perth, Western Australia,
ing can derive variations in formation conduc- 180,000 parts per million (ppm) NaCl. Australia (June 19–23, 2010), paper GG.
tivity and permittivity for anisotropy analysis.
But, the real test of dielectric logging comes
from downhole applications.

Spring 2011 47
 Dispersion
indicating the presence of considerable unmoved
Resistivity hydrocarbon (left). This quantification of resid-
Residual Oil Effects
Saturation Lithology Array Laterolog ual oil, independent of the resistivity measure-

Conductivity
Permittivity
Oil Illite 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 ment, met PDO’s first objective of the test.
Difference Calcite Invaded Zone Porosity To achieve the second objective, analysts com-
Archie Dolomite 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 Hydrocarbon puted the dielectric textural output for use in
Saturation Water F3– F2–
Caliper Dielectric Scanner Total Porosity F2 F3 Archie’s water saturation equation. The dispersion
100 % 0
Oil Invaded Zone
6 in. 16 50 % 0 analysis indicated that the cementation exponent,
Dielectric Bound Water 0.2 F2– F1–
Archie Inputs, Scanner ohm.m 2,000
Dielectric Scanner F1 F2 m, varied from 1.5 to 2.5 across the interval in
Depth, m =n Saturation Porosity HRLA True Water-Filled Porosity question. PDO attributed the variability of m to
F0– F0–
m 0 3.5 100 % 0 100 % 0 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 50 % 0 F1 F1 textural and facies differences in the carbonate.
The use of a more accurate m-parameter resulted
in more precise hydrocarbon saturation determi-
nation. General practice is to use a constant value
for m, which, based on these findings, would yield
inaccurate results.
Next, the dielectric data were integrated in an
analysis and compared to water saturation com-
X10
puted from inputs that are typical for the field. In
the upper section, where a high Archie saturation
parameter, or n-value, is commonly used, there is
good agreement between the two methods. This
fixed value for n was obtained from a nearby field
and is appropriate for oil-wet rocks (next page).
Across a transition from an oil to a water zone,
there is a difference between the output using
X20 this constant n-value and from that derived from
dielectric measurements. This is most likely
because the rock is less oil-wet in this zone than
the oil-bearing zone. Rather than using the high
n-value used in the upper section to compute
water saturation with Archie’s equation, log ana-
lysts learned that they should use a lower value.

X30 Saturation Solution

Shallow, heavy-oil reservoirs, which include some
of the few areas where dielectric tools are in use
today, can be found in a number of regions around
the globe. Canada, the USA, Mexico, Indonesia
and Venezuela are among a number of places
with vast heavy-oil reserves.27 In California, USA,
heavy-oil production has been underway since
X40 the 1890s. Most of this heavy oil is found at depths
of less than 3,000 ft [1,000 m].
These shallow heavy-oil reservoirs are beset
with interpretation difficulties associated with
freshwater. Interpretation is further complicated
> Middle East carbonate test. Log analysts incorporated Dielectric Scanner data with those from because many of the reservoirs have been under
a LithoDensity–Array Porosity–HRLA logging suite. The porosity analysis (Track 5) includes total steam- or waterflood for more than 50 years.28 The
porosity (black) and dielectric porosity (blue). The difference between the porosities (green shading)
represents residual hydrocarbons. The dielectric conductivity, converted to resistivity (Track 4, blue), fluids encountered by newly drilled wells in these
was presented alongside the HRLA resistivities (red and black) and the shallow resistivity from the reservoirs may little resemble those originally in
LithoDensity tool (green). Water saturation was computed from the dielectric data (Track 2, black) place, or may change drastically across seemingly
and Archie’s equation (red), which was corrected for variations in the m-exponent (Track 1, blue) homogeneous reservoir sections because of dif-
derived from the dielectric data. Dispersion effects can be visualized by comparing the permittivity
and conductivity differences computed from pairs of frequencies (Track 6). The difference between ferences in operational histories.
frequency responses is color coded (cyan, blue and red).

48 Oilfield Review
 water salinity is unknown because of the altera-
Density
Array Neutron Porosity tions caused by injection of fluids for enhanced
Caliper Rxo HRLA Tool Porosity oil recovery.
0 % 40
6 in. 16 0.02 ohm.m 2,000 45 % -15 Obtaining quality data from wells in California
Dielectric Archie Water Dielectric Water
Gamma Ray Rt HRLA Tool Bulk Density Porosity Saturation Saturation heavy-oil reservoirs has been problematic. In
Depth,
m many reservoirs, the sand grains are held
0 gAPI 60 0.02 ohm.m 2,000 1.95 g/cm3 2.95 0 % 40 100 % 0 100 % 0
together by the viscous oil originally in place.
Depleted zones often exhibit rugose wellbores
because they become unstable after some of the
oil is removed. The mandrel design of the EPT
pad often resulted in measurements that were
compromised by borehole rugosity. The articu-
lated pad of the Dielectric Scanner tool was
designed to improve contact with the borehole
wall when the hole is in less than ideal condition.
X25 Interpretation of EPT measurements is also
influenced by changes in downhole conditions
created by steamflooding. The temperature
profile of steamflooded wells does not follow a
typical linear gradient, which is assumed for
interpretation of dielectric measurements.
Because the EPT tool lacks an external tempera-
ture sensor, it cannot correct the raw data for
temperature, thus introducing errors in the mea-
X50 surement. To overcome this limitation and pro-
vide additional environmental corrections, the
Dielectric Scanner tool incorporates pressure,
temperature and mudcake sensors in its articu-
lated pad.
Chevron U.S.A. Inc. tested the Dielectric
Scanner tool in its heavy-oil steamflood opera-
tion in the Cymric field, located in the south-
west margin of the San Joaquin Valley,
X75
California. One of the main producing intervals
is the Tulare Formation, which is Pliocene to
> Improved water saturation computation. In this Middle East carbonate, standard inputs were used Pleistocene in age and mostly poorly consoli-
to compute water saturation (Track 5). A constant n-value, obtained from offset core data, was used dated fluvio-deltaic sandstone deposits bounded
in Archie’s water saturation equation. Water saturation was also computed from dielectric data by shales. Producing sands are at depths from
(Track 6). There is good agreement in the upper interval (light-green shaded zone), confirming the 50 ft to 1,600 ft [15 m to 490 m]. Average poros-
n-value. The dielectric water saturation in the lower interval (light-blue shaded zone), which includes
a zone that transitions from oil to water, is lower—indicating more oil—than that using the n-value ity is 34%, permeability is 2,000 to 3,000 mD and
appropriate for the upper interval. Results such as these can affect oil-reserve estimates, which oil saturation averages 55% to 65%. The oil is
impact equipment requirements and field development. 9 to 14 API gravity. Production commenced in
the early 1900s and steamflooding was first
introduced in the 1970s. Water saturation calcu-
lations from resistivity data are challenging at
Beginning in the mid-1980s, petrophysical reservoirs, where there is little invasion from Cymric because of alterations in the original
analysis of shallow, heavy-oil reservoirs in drilling mud filtrate and where the oil is virtually formation water salinity caused by years of
California often included the EPT tool to esti- immobile, is that the information reflects that of steam injection.
mate hydrocarbons in place, and the use of the the virgin zone. Whereas the EPT tool was ini- Chevron ran a Platform Express triple-combo
tool became routine in the 1990s. The tool mea- tially developed to analyze reservoirs where the logging suite along with the Dielectric Scanner
sured flushed-zone water-filled porosity. An formation water was known to be fresh, today tool in the Cymric well. The logging suite included
added benefit of using dielectric tools in these dielectric tools are also used where formation an EPT tool so the company could compare leg-
acy measurements with those from the new tool.
27. Alboudwarej H, Felix J, Taylor S, Badry R, Bremner C, 28. Little JD, Julander DR, Knauer LC, Aultman JT and
Brough B, Skeates C, Baker A, Palmer D, Pattison K, Hemingway JL: “Dielectric Dispersion Measurements in Sidewall cores were taken throughout the pro-
Beshry M, Krawchuk P, Brown G, Calvo R, Cañas California Heavy Oil Reservoirs,” Transactions of the ducing interval.
Triana JA, Hathcock R, Koerner K, Hughes T, Kundu D, SPWLA 51st Annual Logging Symposium, Perth, Western
López de Cárdenas J and West C: “Highlighting Heavy Australia, Australia (June 19–23, 2010), paper D.
Oil,” Oilfield Review 18, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 34–53.

Spring 2011 49
 The Platform Express flushed-zone resistiv-
Caliper Water
ity measurement appeared to indicate the pres-
8.5 in. 18.5 ence of mudcake. Mudcake builds up as filtrate
Clay
Resistivity displaces oil and pushes fluids deeper into the
Standoff
Carbonate Residual Residual formation, which makes it an indicator of per-
2-ft Array Induction
Density Resistivity Deep Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon
Standoff Residual Irreducible meability and oil mobility. But, in heavy-oil res-
0.5 ohm.m 5,000 Hydrocarbon Water Volume Total Porosity Total Porosity
Resistivity ervoirs, it is possible to use the multiple depths
Standoff Invaded Zone Hydrocarbon
50 % 0 50 % 0
Resistivity Core of investigation from the Dielectric Scanner tool
2.5 in. 0 Water Saturation Dielectric Scanner Dielectric Scanner
0.5 ohm.m 5,000 Water-Filled Porosity Water-Filled Porosity to look for evidence of mobile oil. If all four
Density 0 % 100 Quartz
Standoff Dielectric 50 % 0 50 % 0 depths of investigation deliver the same water-
Invaded Zone Dielectric Scanner Dielectric Scanner filled porosity, evidence of oil mobility is lack-
2.5 in. 0 Core Porosity EPT Porosity
Resistivity Water Saturation Water Saturation
Depth, ft 0.5 ohm.m 5,000 0 % 100 100 % 0 50 % 0 50 % 0
ing. If they differ, then the data suggest oil
mobility in the reservoir—a potential comple-
tion target.
The porosity measurement from the EPT tool
should overlay the Dielectric Scanner porosity,
and this was the case in most of the intervals.
600
However, in the two rugose sections, the EPT tool
sensed higher water-filled porosity, which
equated to 23 saturation units lower than the
Dielectric Scanner results. If this difference was
not from oil mobility, it could have been attrib-
uted to preferential water or steam breakthrough.
800 Data from the Dielectric Scanner tool did not
indicate invasion or oil mobility.
Based on the caliper reading, the borehole at
the zones in question was enlarged. Unconsoli-
dated sands, such as in this well, may slough off
and mud solids have a tendency to build up along
the borehole wall. Hole instability and rugosity
caused the conflicting results, not mudcake from
> Overcoming rugosity. The articulated pad of the Dielectric Scanner tool, which follows the contours invasion or the presence of formation water.
of the borehole, compensates for hole rugosity and washouts. The EPT tool is a mandrel device, These zones could have been misinterpreted
meaning the pad is fixed in place; Chevron wanted to compare data from the two tools in their Cymric as containing movable hydrocarbons due to vis-
heavy-oil well. After logging the well, engineers observed an apparent mudcake (Depth Track, cosity variations in the oil column, having lower
light-blue shaded zone) in the zone from 780 ft to 820 ft from the LithoDensity tool’s microlog sensor
(olive gray shading). Mudcake, if present, can indicate permeability and moved oil. The water-filled oil saturations or experiencing early water break-
porosity from the EPT tool (Track 5, red) from 810 ft to 820 ft was higher than it was in other intervals through. The error in water saturation, which
such as from 540 ft to 605 ft. This could indicate filtrate replacing original oil, and the engineers might equates to 23% less hydrocarbon in place, might
have assumed primary production was possible in this zone. However, the improved design of the have caused an operator to bypass both potential
Dielectric Scanner pad overcame hole rugosity effects and the water-filled porosity (Tracks 4 and 5,
blue) showed no increase across this interval. The log response from the LithoDensity tool indicating pay zones. Increased confidence in the dielectric
mudcake was attributed to refilling of a slumping formation with circulated cuttings. measurements helped Chevron make informed
completion decisions.

The well intersected the oil/water contact at zone immediately around the wellbore, fluid satu- Moved Oil
a depth of 830 ft [253 m] (above). Below that rations obtained from both methods are gener- Venezuela’s Orinoco Belt contains the largest
depth, the dielectric porosity closely matched ally equivalent to saturations in the virgin zone deposit of heavy-oil reserves in the world. The
the crossplot porosity from the LithoDensity pho- for this field. operator, PDVSA, found that the region had a
toelectric density and neutron porosity tools, The Dielectric Scanner tool’s articulated pad complex depositional setting where thick homo-
which indicated the formation is filled predomi- helps compensate for hole rugosity and washouts. geneous intervals could rapidly transform into
nantly with water. The EPT tool is a mandrel device, meaning the thin, discontinuous layers. The complex geology
The sidewall cores were analyzed for porosity, pad is fixed on the tool body. A comparison was was further complicated by significant differ-
permeability and fluid saturation. Log-derived made between the two devices in the Cymric ences in sand quality, which made log interpreta-
water saturations from the shallow-reading heavy-oil well. The caliper curve indicated rugos- tion more difficult.
dielectric tool matched the saturations from the ity and washouts and the articulated pad handled Early water production convinced engineers
sidewall cores. Although sidewall samples and the borehole irregularities better than the man- of the need for greater understanding of the res-
dielectric log measurements represent the flushed drel design did. ervoir. The identification and elimination of
zones with high water production potential were

50 Oilfield Review
crucial for proper development of the region.
Permittivity, F1 Conductivity, F1
Formation resistivity is often used to identify
Longitudinal Polarization Transverse Polarization Longitudinal Polarization Transverse Polarization
water-producing zones, but engineers discovered
0
that this method was not reliable because of sand No invasion No invasion
quality variability, the presence of freshwater 5 0.1 in.
and previously flushed layers that contained sig-
10
nificant quantities of immovable residual oil in
conjunction with movable water.
15 1 ft
This environment is ideal for incorporating

Simulated depth, ft
dielectric propagation measurements with stan- 20
dard logging suites, but operators were reluctant
to use the tools because of frequent adverse bore- 25
hole conditions, complicated mud-filtrate inva-
sion effects and complex interpretation issues. 30
PDVSA recognized the design differences of the
35
new Dielectric Scanner tool and actively partici-
pated in the field testing of the device.29
40
Early in the testing process, engineers Fully invaded Fully invaded
observed that filtrate invasion from the water- 45
base mud could complicate interpretation of
dielectric data. In the heavy-oil reservoirs of the Permittivity, F3 Conductivity, F3
Orinoco Belt, invasion is usually shallow, on the Longitudinal Polarization Transverse Polarization Longitudinal Polarization Transverse Polarization
order of a few inches. Engineers modeled the 0
No invasion No invasion
invasion response of the dielectric tool by
5
creating synthetic logs with typical well charac-
teristics: 35% porosity sandstone with simulated 10
virgin to fully flushed conditions. Inputs for the
simulation included 5 porosity units (pu) of 15
Simulated depth, ft

irreducible water-filled porosity in the virgin

zone compared to 15 pu of water-filled porosity in 20

the fully-flushed zone.30 Mud-filtrate salinity for

25
the simulation was 5,000 ppm.
The CRI model, used to compute the tool
30
response, was applied to the four frequencies
available from the Dielectric Scanner tool along 35
with nine separate transmitter-receiver spacings.
The simulation provided 36 apparent dielectric 40
permittivities and 36 apparent conductivity mea- Fully invaded Fully invaded
45
surements and generated a step-profile with
increments that were approximately 1 ft long by > Modeling dielectric response. PDVSA’s Orinoco Belt has complex lithology and difficult interpretation
0.1 in. deep [30 cm by 0.25 cm]. issues. PDVSA and Schlumberger tested the Dielectric Scanner tool by first modeling the response
to invasion in conditions anticipated in Orinoco wells. A total of 36 sets of attenuation–phase shift
Analysis of the synthetic logs generated for
measurements using nine spacings and four frequencies (F0 to F3) were used in the study. For the
one of the lower frequencies showed that when analysis, each 1 ft [30 cm] of log interval represented 0.1 in. [0.25 cm] of invasion (inset). For simplicity,
there was no invasion, the apparent permittivity synthetic apparent dielectric permittivity and conductivities are shown for frequency F1 (top) and for
and conductivity were the same as those of the F3 (bottom). There are two sets of permittivity and conductivity curves: longitudinal polarization (left set)
and transverse polarization (right set). The modeled responses are for the longest spacing (red curves)
virgin zone. As filtrate pushed deeper into the
to the shortest spacing (blue curves). For frequency F1 (top left), when the invasion depth is zero, shown
formation, the deepest DOI values approached at the top of each log, permittivity curves read the deep zone value (dashed black line). As the simulated
those of the shallowest reading. For the highest invasion pushes into the formation and filtrate replaces oil, the permittivity curves from the longitudinal
frequency, the situation was extremely complex. polarization eventually converge to the fully flushed reading, shown at the bottom of the log; however,
the transverse data do not converge and only the shortest spacing data approach the flushed zone
Apparent permittivities and conductivities lost value. For the highest frequency, F3 (bottom left), the permittivity from both longitudinal and transverse
linearity and DOI was not uniform (right). polarizations initially read the deep zone value and, as the simulated invasion pushes deeper, the
29. Mosse L, Carmona R, Decoster E, Faivre O and Hizem M:
transverse measurements converge on the flushed zone value while the longitudinal permittivities exhibit
“Dielectric Dispersion Logging in Heavy Oil: A Case an oscillatory response. Regardless of the direction of polarization, conductivity data behave better for
Study from the Orinoco Belt,” Transactions of the F1 frequency (top right). At the outset, longitudinal and transverse data reflect the value of no invasion
SPWLA 50th Annual Logging Symposium, The and converge at the flushed value at the bottom of the log. This is not the case for conductivity data from
Woodlands, Texas (June 21–24, 2009), paper AAA. F3 (bottom right), where oscillatory responses are seen for both polarizations. These results do not lend
30. In this simulation, 5 pu of water represents a water themselves to quicklook analysis; however, a response model was created from this analysis to correct
saturation of 14%. After the formation is flushed by 15 pu
data from Orinoco wells. (Adapted from Mosse et al, reference 29.)
of filtrate, this represents a water saturation of 43%.

Spring 2011 51
 8-in. Invaded Zone Resistivity Although the caliper log indicated significant
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 borehole rugosity, the pad of the Dielectric
Array Laterolog Resistivity Residual Oil
Resistivity Moved Oil
Scanner tool maintained good contact with the
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
Residual Oil Standoff formation. The dielectric data resolved the
Invaded Zone Resistivity Water
Moved Oil 1 in. 0
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 Dielectric Scanner Shallow uncertainty associated with the deeper reservoir
Dielectric Density Water-Filled Porosity
Scanner Deep Standoff Dielectric Scanner Shallow Resistivity section (left). In contrast to the NMR data indi-
Water Saturation 50 % 0
1 in. 0 0.2 ohm.m 2,000
Dielectric Scanner Deep cating little oil mobility across two intervals, a
0 % 100
Caliper Dielectric Scanner Deep Resistivity Water-Filled Porosity T1 Distribution
Dielectric total 150 ft [45 m] of low-resistivity pay with
8 in. 18 Dielectric Scanner 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 50 % 0
Scanner Shallow Lithology Mudcake significant movable oil was indicated. PDVSA
Depth, SP Water Saturation Thickness HRLA True Resistivity Total Porosity T1 Cutoff
ft –100 mV 0 0 % 100 1 in. 0 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 50 % 0 0.5 ms 5,000
included this new information in their produc-
tion plan and reserves calculations. The inter-
X,450
pretation based on dielectric data was later
confirmed from sidewall core samples.
X,500 Because water production is such a major con-
cern in the Orinoco Belt development program, it
X,550 was important to identify and avoid water-produc-
tive zones. The dielectric measurement not only
X,600 revealed the zones that contained movable oil, but
was helpful in also identifying zones where only
X,650
water was mobile. Resistivity and spontaneous
potential (SP) techniques, commonly used to iden-
X,700
tify such zones, require some contrast between the
resistivities of the filtrate and formation water. In
X,750
this case, there was no contrast and it would not
X,800 have been possible to confirm water and oil mobility
> Applying the model. Armed with the information from the dielectric modeling exercise, PDVSA without integration of the dielectric data.
logged an Orinoco Belt well with Platform Express–HRLA, MR Scanner and Dielectric Scanner The analysis was further confirmed by sam-
tools. Conventional methods of interpretation relied on differences in shallow and deep resistivity pling the various intervals. From the deepest
measurements to indicate oil mobility. These data (Track 5) are not conclusive, even when dielectric interval, only water was produced. Oil and water
resistivities from different depths of investigation (red and blue curves) are included in the analysis.
NMR data (Track 7) show a bimodal distribution, indicative of possible oil mobility, across much of came from the transition zone. From both the low-
the upper interval but not below X,650 ft. The differences between NMR data at the two blue-shaded and high-resistivity intervals, oil was produced.
zones are significant. The lower interval could be interpreted as containing nonmovable oil. Data from This matched the interpretation from the dielec-
the Dielectric Scanner tool indicated a distinct difference between the deep and shallow porosity tric measurements. PDVSA reservoir engineers
measurements (Track 6), corresponding to the moved oil (gold shading). The interpretation suggests a
total of 150 ft [46 m] of low-resistivity movable oil. This was later confirmed with production tests after were able to determine the best intervals for both
casing was in place. (Adapted from Mosse et al, reference 29.) production and additional field development.

Final Analysis
Lessons learned from the simulation were laterolog array tool and an MR Scanner expert Dielectric measurements from downhole tools
applied to permittivity and conductivity data magnetic resonance service. In other wells in the have been available to petrophysicists since the
acquired in an Orinoco well. These results closely region, geologists had observed high resistivity in early 1980s. Recognized benefits from the infor-
resembled the simulated logs, providing a petro- the oil-bearing interval, but resistivity values mation were overshadowed by measurement
physical inversion scheme that could be applied deeper in the interval were not as high. This well complexity and tool limitations.
to the well data. Based on these results, PDVSA encountered similar intervals exhibiting high The introduction of the Dielectric Scanner tool
used the Dielectric Scanner tool on other wells. and low resistivity. has combined better tool design with new process-
The results from one well in particular Conventional interpretation of oil mobility ing techniques. The dielectric information provides
showed the benefit of using the dielectric mea- relied on comparing deep and shallow resistivity clear benefits for carbonate reservoir interpreta-
surement in conjunction with other logging tools. measurements. In this case the results were tion, shaly-sand analysis, heavy-oil reservoir evalua-
An appraisal well was drilled in an area that was inconclusive because of similarities in the forma- tion and any formation where the water is fresh or
first explored in the 1980s and had relatively poor tion water and filtrate salinities. In the high- the water salinity is unknown.
well control. PDVSA expected to encounter thick resistivity upper interval, the NMR log showed a Sometimes it takes a while for a technology to
reservoir sections with low resistivity. Based on bimodal distribution with a strong oil signature. evolve and find its niche. Just as not every kitchen
previous experience, such intervals were often With increasing depth, the apparent porosity and in the world has or needs a microwave oven, not
interpreted as having heavy residual oil flushed the resistivity were reduced, and the NMR data every oil well interpretation requires dielectric
with movable water. Log analysts expected these appeared to indicate no movable oil. Log analysts data. But in certain situations, and for the right
zones to produce mainly water. called on the Dielectric Scanner data to validate environments, zapping a formation with micro-
The logging program included a Platform this interpretation. waves may offer just that extra bit of information
Express suite with an HRLA high-resolution the log analyst needs. —TS

52 Oilfield Review
 Contributors

Medhat Abdou is Vice President of Development for safety management development coordinator and asset Paal Kibsgaard is Chief Operating Officer of
the Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations manager. Most recently he has served Shell International Schlumberger Limited. Prior to his most recent posi-
Bab field development in Abu Dhabi, UAE. He has sev- E&P as global underbalanced drilling/managed pressure tion as president of Reservoir Characterization, he
eral publications in the areas of reservoir management drilling (UBD/MPD) implementation manager, with a held a variety of global management positions includ-
and reservoir simulation. His current interests include focus on global tight gas well technology. Dave is cur- ing vice president of Engineering, Manufacturing and
enhanced oil recovery and field development of large rently UBD/MPD Projects and Technology Engineer and Sustaining; vice president of Personnel for Schlumberger
heterogeneous reservoirs. Medhat holds a BS degree in member of the Shell global UBD/MPD team. He holds a Limited; and president of Schlumberger Drilling &
petroleum engineering from Tripoli University in Libya. BS degree in chemical engineering from Southern Measurements. Earlier in his Schlumberger career, he
Alexander P. Albert, based in Houston, is the Alberta Institute of Technology, Calgary. was a GeoMarket* manager for the Caspian region
Schlumberger North America Midstream and Paul Francis is Business Development Manager, after holding various field positions in technical sales
Industrial Business Development Manager. Before Eastern Hemisphere for @balance, a Schlumberger and customer support. A petroleum engineer with a
assuming his current post, he was product champion company. Prior to his current post, he held numerous master’s degree from the Norwegian Institute of
of next-generation nuclear measurements for the positions with Shell in the Netherlands and Oman. He Technology, Paal began his career in 1992 working for
Schlumberger Wireline segment. He has held a variety also worked as a hydrometallurgist for Anglo-American ExxonMobil. He joined Schlumberger in 1997.
of positions in operations, management and marketing Research Laboratories in Johannesburg, South Africa. Daniel L. Lanier is the Vice President of Geosciences
throughout the US. Alex joined Schlumberger in 1998 An SPE Distinguished Lecturer in managed pressure for Geoscience Earth and Marine Services (GEMS),
as a wireline field engineer after receiving a BS degree drilling for 2011/2012, he earned a BSc degree in min- Inc., a Forum Energy Technologies Company based in
in mechanical engineering from Bucknell University, eral technology engineering and a PhD degree in col- Houston. Before his current role, he served as project
Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, USA. loid and surface science, both from Imperial College, manager and director of operations, specializing in
Romulo Carmona is a Consulting Petrophysicist, for- London. Paul is the author of numerous technical identifying and characterizing marine geohazards.
merly with Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA) from papers and articles. Daniel, who joined GEMS in 2001, is a graduate of
1982 to 2001. Before his retirement from PDVSA, he Jim Hemingway, based in Houston, is a Petrophysics Texas A&M University, College Station.
served in a number of capacities related to geology, Advisor with Schlumberger. He began his career in 1980 as Jeffrey Little is Principal Petrophysicist and
petrophysics and reservoir engineering. He has pub- a field engineer, has held various log analyst and engineer- Department Head at Schlumberger Petrophysics Data
lished numerous papers on the geology of Venezuela as ing positions and has authored many papers on pulsed neu- and Consulting services in Bakersfield, California. He
well as petrophysical field studies on the heavy-oil tron logging and log interpretation. In 1997, he joined the has 29 years of industry experience, starting as a field
reservoirs in the Orinoco Belt. He obtained a BS degree Formation Evaluation department at the Schlumberger engineer. He has worked in various field assignments
in geological engineering from the Universidad Central Sugar Land Product Center, Texas, USA, working on the including California land and offshore operations,
de Venezuela, Caracas, where he was a professor from RSTPro* tool and three-phase holdup interpretation tech- deep desert operations in Syria and as high pressure
1992 to 1995. He also taught at the Universidad niques. In 2001, as new technology advisor, he moved to and temperature specialist in the North Sea. Jeffrey
Nacional Experimental De Los Llanos Ezequiel Zamora, Paris to teach new technology applications for formation has been working in log interpretation and application
Barinas, Venezuela, from 1978 to 1992. Romulo is associ- evaluation. In 2005, he became nuclear technology advisor. development since 1995. He earned his BS degree in
ated with the Colegio de Ingenieros de Venezuela, the Jim received a BS degree in chemistry from Emporia State physics from Colorado State University, Durango, USA.
Geologists Association of Venezuela and the SPWLA. University, Kansas, USA, and a BS degree in chemical engi- S. George Mathews is the Schlumberger Oilphase-DBR*
Andrew Carnegie is a Reservoir Engineering Advisor neering from Texas A&M University, College Station. Laboratory Manager in Houston, where his responsibil-
for Woodside Petroleum in Perth, Western Australia, Mehdi Hizem, located at the Schlumberger Riboud ities include business development and management
Australia. Previously he worked for Schlumberger for Product Center (SRPC) in Clamart, France, has been of the Fluids and Flow Assurance Laboratory. Previous
20 years and INTERA for four years. He holds BSc and the Dielectric Scanner Project Manager since 2004. to his current position and while at the Oilphase DBR
PhD degrees, both in applied mathematics, from the He began at SRPC in 1996, where he was assigned to laboratory, he developed a method for measuring pH of
University of London. the production services platform. He then moved to live formation water. He began his Schlumberger
Eric Decoster, based in Rio de Janeiro, is Petrophysics Houston to work at the Integrated Products Center career in 2001 as a senior project engineer specializing
Advisor for Schlumberger Latin America, where he where he worked on developing wireline downhole in testing operations. Before that, he was an assistant
oversees new technology applications and integration. tractor technology. He returned to SRPC in 2002, manager for design and projects at Gharda Chemicals
His career with Schlumberger spans 32 years, begin- where he was in charge of wireless telemetry for down- Limited in Mumbai. George received a bachelor’s
ning as a wireline field engineer in the Middle East. hole testing and managed the Platform Express* 150 degree in chemical engineering from the National
Over the last 20 years, he has held various positions in project. Mehdi obtained a master’s degree in engineer- Institute of Technology in Durgapur, West Bengal,
marketing and interpretation in the Middle East and ing from École Centrale de Paris. India, and an MBA degree from Jamnalal Bajaj
Latin America. In 1997, he became principal petro- Dale Julander is a Senior Staff Petrophysicist at Institute of Management Studies in Mumbai.
physicist for the government of Venezuela, focusing on Chevron U.S.A. Inc. based in Bakersfield, California, Kevin McCarthy is a Geochemist with Schlumberger
the development of interpretation techniques and new USA. He started his career in 1982 as a geophysicist for Testing Services in Houston. He joined Schlumberger
technology, including nuclear magnetic resonance and Chevron in California working in the exploration in 2008 at the Heavy Oil Regional Technology Center in
spectroscopy. In Venezuela, he carried out the initial department and in seismic processing before transfer- Calgary. Before that, he held a variety of positions in
field test of the Dielectric Scanner* prototype. He has ring to development geology in 1988. In the late 1980s other fields. He was a research assistant at Tufts
published several papers on the tool’s applications for and 1990s, he worked on several onshore and offshore University in Medford, Massachusetts, USA, where he
reservoir characterization. Eric received an engineer- projects focused on exploiting opportunities in the analyzed aqueous and soil samples in support of the
ing degree from the École Centrale de Paris, and a Monterey Shales and various Plio-Miocene sandstone US National Aeronautics and Space Administration
master’s of engineering degree from the University of reservoirs in California. He serves as the Supervisor of Phoenix Mars Mission. He was a hydrologist consulting
Wisconsin, Madison, specializing in flow through the formation evaluation staff for the San Joaquin on water-management issues in Sarasota County,
porous media. He currently serves as Director of the Valley Business Unit for Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Dale has a Florida, USA. At Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
SPWLA for Latin American. BS degree in geology from the University of Puget in Massachusetts, he researched deep sea hydrothermal
Dave Elliott began his career with Shell International Sound, Tacoma, Washington, USA, and an MS degree in vents as a scientist diver in the manned submersible
Exploration and Production B.V. as a well test supervisor geophysics from the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, ALVIN. Kevin has a master’s degree in geochemistry
in 1977. Since then he has held positions as plant, pro- USA. He received the A.I. Levorsen Memorial Award in with a special focus on hydrogeology from the University
duction and completion engineer, well test team leader, 2004 for coauthoring the best paper at the Pacific of South Florida in Tampa, and a bachelor’s degree in
Section AAPG 79th Annual Meeting. geology from Salem State College in Massachusetts.

Spring 2011 53
Tom McDonald is currently Schlumberger Author of many patents and technical papers, Michael Alberta Institute of Technology, Edmonton, Alberta,
Petrophysics Domain Champion for West Australia, is a recipient of the 2005 and 2006 Performed by Canada, and a BSc degree in petroleum engineering
based in Perth, Western Australia. He started his Schlumberger Gold Medals and a member of the from the University of Alberta, Edmonton. He is the
career with Schlumberger in 1981 as a wireline engi- focused probe development team that received the author of numerous IADC and SPE technical papers.
neer in Midland, Texas. After a number of positions in 2006 Hart Meritorious Award for Engineering Excellence. Nikita Seleznev is a Senior Research Scientist at
the western US, in 1990 he began working as a petro- He is also a 2010/2011 SPWLA Distinguished Lecturer. Schlumberger-Doll Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
physics log analyst in Oman and has performed similar Michael earned a BEng degree (Hons) in electronics USA. He conducts research in dielectric and resistiv-
work in a number of other locations, including the engineering from the University of Tasmania, Australia. ity logging tools and techniques as well as petrophysics
UAE, Yemen, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia Brian L. Perilloux serves as Vice President, Gulf Coast of conventional and unconventional reservoirs. He has
and Angola. Tom obtained a bachelor’s degree in geo- Region, for Williams Midstream Services, LLC. He has been developing interpretation products that directly
logical engineering from the University of Idaho, previously served as director of Offshore Engineering measure water volume and rock textural information
Moscow, USA, and an associate’s degree in geophysics & Construction for Williams and worked in the engi- for the Dielectric Scanner tool. He also contributed to
from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, USA. neering consulting sector prior to joining Williams. His the development of the Carbonate Advisor* petro-
Julio Montilva is Staff Drilling Engineer with Shell 26 years of experience include managerial and techni- physics and productivity analysis program. He joined
Exploration and Production Company (SEPCo) in cal project development of many domestic and inter- Schlumberger in 1998 as a wireline field engineer.
Houston. He began his career as an engineer with national offshore and onshore facilities. A registered Nikita received his PhD degree in petrophysics from
Lagoven, a division of PDVSA, in Venezuela in 1997. In Professional Engineer in Louisiana, USA, Brian the Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands.
2002, he joined Shell Venezuela where he rose to the obtained a BS degree in mechanical engineering from Jaye Shelton began his oil industry career as a
position of head of well engineering before joining the University of New Orleans. cementer in 1974 with Halliburton Services before
SEPCo in 2007. Julio received a BS degree in chemical Bhavani Raghuraman is Center Manager at the moving to district manager for Grant Oil Tool Company
engineering from the Universidad de Los Andes, Schlumberger Princeton Technology Center, in New in 1977. He joined Smith Services when that company
Mérida, Venezuela, and a master’s degree in industrial Jersey, USA. The Center specializes in the design and bought Grant. Jaye is currently an Engineer Technical
projects management from the Universidad Rafael manufacture of nuclear detectors and generators. Before Service Advisor III with Smith Services, a
Belloso Chacín, Maracaibo, Venezuela. He has authored taking her current position, she coordinated fluid and Schlumberger company. He earned a BS degree in
numerous International Association of Drilling core analysis related to product development projects agricultural sciences and business from Texas Tech
Contractors (IADC), SPE and American Association of for Testing and was, previous to that, a scientific advi- University in Lubbock and is a member of the SPE, the
Drilling Engineers (AADE) technical papers. sor in the novel sensors program at Schlumberger-Doll API and the IADC Managed Pressure Drilling
Laurent Mossé is a Physicist with Schlumberger at Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Bhavani Underbalanced Drilling subcommittee and work group
SRPC in Clamart, France, and leads the interpretation began her Schlumberger career at Schlumberger-Doll that developed the API 16 RCD Specification for Drill
and physics team of the Dielectric Scanner project. Research in Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA. Among her Through Equipment—Rotating Control Devices.
He began his career with Schlumberger in 2002, first several projects there, she developed the downhole pH Andrew Strong, based in Southampton, Hampshire,
working as a nuclear physicist for gamma-density tools measurement using optical spectroscopy, and then England, is the Global Product Manager, Sensing
and developing extended temperature and borehole managed the downhole fluid analysis program for sen- Systems for Teledyne Technologies Inc. Previously he
corrections and cased-hole formation density algo- sor development on wireline, drilling and production was domain champion, distributed measurements,
rithms. In 2004, he joined the Dielectric Scanner logging platforms. She received BS and PhD degrees in with the Schlumberger Subsea segment. He is a
physics and interpretation team, which he now leads. chemical engineering from Mumbai University Chartered Engineer and Fellow of The Institution of
Laurent obtained a master’s degree in engineering Institute of Chemical Technology. Engineering and Technology and has 25 years of expe-
from École Supérieure d'Électricité (Supélec), Gif-sur- Don Reitsma is Vice President of Engineering and rience in optical fiber technology. He has been
Yvette, France, and a PhD degree in physics from the Technology for @balance, a Schlumberger company. involved in both telecom and sensing and has pub-
Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission Prior positions include European manager of the lished a number of papers and patents in these fields.
(CEA), France. Before joining Schlumberger, Laurent underbalanced drilling global implementation team Andrew has a BSc (Hons) in physics with physical
worked for two years at the European Organization for for Shell International E&P and senior applications electronics from the University of Bath, England.
Nuclear Research (CERN), Geneva, Switzerland. engineer for Schlumberger. He has held engineering Wei Wei, has been a Geochemist with Chevron for four
Jonathan Mude is a Petrophysicist with Petroleum posts in Yemen, Canada, China and Malaysia. Don has years; she is based in Houston. Wei received a bache-
Development Oman (PDO), in Muscat, Oman, where served as chair of the IADC Managed Pressure Drilling lor’s degree in chemistry from Beijing University,
he works with the maturation team in the Exploration and Underbalanced Drilling Operations Committee China, and a PhD degree in earth sciences from
Directorate. He began his career in the oil and gas and cochaired the SPE Managed Pressure Drilling Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of
industry in 1995 as a log analyst in Nigeria with Underbalanced Operations Technical Interest Group. California, San Diego.
GeoQuest, a Schlumberger company. He moved to He obtained an MSc degree in petroleum engineering
Total Nigeria (formerly ELF) in 1998 and worked as a from the University of New South Wales, Sydney. ChengGang Xian, based in Shenzhen, China, is a
petrophysicist, focusing primarily on drilling, logging, Principal Reservoir Engineer and Reservoir Domain
Tarek Rizk is the Wireline Product Champion for Champion for Schlumberger, providing technical sup-
database management and contract management. He Dielectric Scanner and Geology projects, located at
worked for Shell Nigeria as an operations petrophysi- port for all reservoir engineering–related wireline log-
SRPC, Clamart, France. He is responsible for product ging activities in China. He began his Schlumberger
cist from 2001 to 2008, and then moved to PDO. development, field introductions and deployment of
Jonathan holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering career in 2001 at the Beijing Geosciences Center,
new wireline projects. He joined Schlumberger in 2000 working on reservoir simulation. He has also held posi-
from the University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. as a wireline field engineer; during his career he held tions as a reservoir engineer in the UAE and Libya.
Michael O'Keefe is Senior Reservoir Domain several positions in both the Middle East and Asia. Prior to joining Schlumberger, he worked at the
Champion for Schlumberger in London. Previously, he Tarek earned his BS degree in electrical engineering Petroleum Economic and Information Center of the
was the product champion for downhole fluid analysis, from the University of Alexandria, Egypt. China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) in
based in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. He joined Vincent Roes, based in Calgary, is Well Engineering Beijing. ChengGang obtained a doctorate degree in
Schlumberger in 1990 as a wireline field engineer in Team Leader for Talisman Energy in Kurdistan. Prior reservoir engineering from the China University of
Austria. Since then, he has had assignments in Norway to his current position, he was well engineer manager Petroleum in Beijing.
and Saudi Arabia as a production logging engineer, for BG International Limited in Calgary. He has
senior reservoir engineer and field-test coordinator. An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
worked around the world including assignments with
Shell in the Netherlands, the US, Argentina and Oman
and with Esso Resources in Canada. Vincent holds a
diploma in exploration technology from the Northern

54 Oilfield Review
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s)NTRODUCTION Metaphysics God, he replied “The Creator, if He veyance and data transmission
s3OURCESOF'EOTHERMAL(EAT Paul Davies and exists, has an inordinate fondness for systems provides engineers and
%ARTHASA(EAT%NGINE Niels Henrik Gregersen (eds) beetles.” The collection by Davies and petrophysicists with a variety of
Cambridge University Press Gregersen suggests, in line with my
s4HERMODYNAMICSAND options. This article reviews several
32 Avenue of the Americas own views, that we could go deeper
'EOTHERMAL3YSTEMS New York, New York 10013 USA conveyance systems, including a
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s3UBSURFACE&LUID&LOWˆ4HE 2010. 398 pages. US$ 30.00 recently introduced logging platform,
might just turn out to be a Creator
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This book is a collection of articles from present everywhere we look, and if include wireless and memory options.
s%XPLORINGFOR'EOTHERMAL3YSTEMS scientists, philosophers and theologians you want to know more about this
s2ESOURCE!SSESSMENTS who discuss quantum, biological and novel take on reality, then I highly Environmental effectiveness. The
s$RILLING digital information in a quest to under- recommend Davies and Gregersen’s oil and gas industry has made great
stand nature. Going beyond mass and erudite and entertaining collection.
s'ENERATING0OWER5SING strides in environmental stewardship.
energy as the primary currency of
'EOTHERMAL2ESOURCES nature, the authors also examine 6EDRAL6h!N)NORDINATE&ONDNESSFOR"ITSv Technological solutions in all phases
s,OW4EMPERATURE'EOTHERMAL physical and biological approaches to PHYSICSWORLDCOM*ANUARY HTTP of the E&P cycle decrease emissions
2ESOURCES'ROUND3OURCE information, including its philosophical, PHYSICSWORLDCOMCWSARTICLEINDEPTH and waste and help protect land
(EAT0UMPS ACCESSED-ARCH  and marine animals and plants. This
theological and ethical implications.
s$IRECT5SEOF'EOTHERMAL2ESOURCES article examines advances in green
#ONTENTS technologies in the E&P industry.
s5SEOF'EOTHERMAL2ESOURCES
%NVIRONMENTAL#ONSIDERATIONS s)NTRODUCTION$OES)NFORMATION
-ATTER
s5SEOF'EOTHERMAL2ESOURCES
%CONOMIC#ONSIDERATIONS s(ISTORYFrom Matter to
Materialism . . . and (Almost) Back;
s4HE'EOTHERMAL%NERGY&UTURE Unsolved Dilemmas: The Concept of
0OSSIBILITIESAND)SSUES Matter in the History of Philosophy
s2EFERENCES)NDEX and in Contemporary Physics

Spring 2011 55
The Climate Fix: What Scientists Street-Fighting Mathematics: The Evolutionary World: How Hidden Costs of Energy:
and Politicians Won’t Tell You The Art of Educated Adaptation Explains Everything Unpriced Consequences of
About Global Warming Guessing and Opportunistic from Seashells to Civilization Energy Production and Use
Roger Pielke, Jr. Problem Solving Geerat J. Vermeij The National Research Council
Basic Books Sanjoy Mahajan Thomas Dunne Books, an imprint of Committee on Health, Environmental,
387 Park Avenue South The MIT Press St. Martin’s Press and Other External Costs and Benefits
New York, New York 10016 USA 55 Hayward Street 175 Fifth Avenue of Energy Production and Consumption
2010. 276 pages. US$ 26.00 Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142 USA New York, New York 10010 USA The National Academies Press
ISBN: 978-0-465-02052-2 2010. 152 pages. US$ 25.00 2010. 336 pages. US$ 27.99 500 Fifth Street NW
)3".     )3".     Washington, DC 20001 USA
In this book, the author examines the 2010. 473 pages. US$ 47.00
intersection of politics and the science Mahajan suggests that in problem In this exploration of evolutionary )3".    
of climate change. Pielke argues that solving, as in street fighting, rules can theory, Vermeij presents the way a
when environmental and economic cause paralysis; he describes and changing world has shaped our species This book describes the effects of
objectives are in opposition, economics demonstrates tools for educated and our cultures. His discussion of energy production and use—such as
always wins. As a precondition for both guessing and problem solving for natural selection and human behavior damage from air pollution from electric-
to succeed, climate policy must be disciplines from mathematics to looks at evolution as a concept that ity generation, motor vehicle transpor-
made compatible with economic growth management. Originally a short explains and connects a multitude of tation and heat generation—as hidden
because energy growth is inevitable. He course taught by the author at the seemingly unconnected facts and costs in energy market prices. It also
focuses on policy adaptation to climate Massachusetts Institute of Technology phenomena. The author writes that considers other effects arising from
change and calls for a broad-based (MIT) in Cambridge, Street-Fighting having an understanding of how evolu- climate change, air pollutants such as
world climate policy. Mathematics is intended to give readers tionary theory has had a bearing on mercury and risks to national security.
the mathematical tools to solve life’s worldwide economic systems, disaster This analysis suggests that major
Contents: partly defined problems. preparedness and community develop- initiatives to further reduce emissions,
s$INNER4ABLE#LIMATE3CIENCEFOR ment will help us learn how such systems improve energy efficiency or shift to a
#OMMONSENSE#LIMATE0OLICY Contents: work and what challenges lie ahead. cleaner electricity generating mix could
reduce the damages of external effects.
s7HAT7E+NOWFOR3UREBUT s$IMENSIONS
Contents:
*UST!INT3O s%ASY#ASES Contents:
s4HE%VOLUTIONARY7AYOF+NOWING
s$ECARBONIZATIONOFTHE'LOBAL s,UMPING s)NTRODUCTION
%CONOMY s$ECIPHERING.ATURES#ODEBOOK
s0ICTORIAL0ROOFS s%NERGYFOR%LECTRICITY
s$ECARBONIZATION0OLICIES!ROUND s/N)MPERFECTION
s4AKING/UTTHE"IG0ART s%NERGYFOR4RANSPORTATION
THE7ORLD s4AMING5NPREDICTABILITY
s!NALOGY s%NERGYFOR(EAT
s4ECHNOLOGICAL&IXESAND"ACKSTOPS s4HE%VOLUTIONOF/RDER
s"IBLIOGRAPHY)NDEX s#LIMATE#HANGE
s(OW#LIMATE0OLICY7ENT/FF s4HE#OMPLEXITYOF,IFEANDTHE/RIGIN
#OURSEANDTHE&IRST3TEPS"ACKIN Bottom line: This is a very cre- OF-EANING s)NFRASTRUCTUREAND3ECURITY
THE2IGHT$IRECTION ative book. It contains an eclectic set s4HE3ECRETSOF'RASS)NTERDEPENDENCE s/VERALL#ONCLUSIONSAND
s$ISASTERS$EATHAND$ESTRUCTION of topics . . . [and] is replete with ANDITS$ISCONTENTS 2ECOMMENDATIONS
s4HE0OLITICIZATIONOF#LIMATE3CIENCE tricks, short cuts, and thought-provok- s.ATURES(OUSING-ARKETOR7HY s2EFERENCES!BBREVIATIONS#OMMON
ing questions. . . . [M]y working .OTHING(APPENSIN)SOLATION 5NITSAND#ONVERSIONS
s/BLIQUITY)NNOVATIONANDA0RAGMATIC definition of an applied mathemati-
&UTUREFOR#LIMATE0OLICY cian is someone who is comfortable s$ISPATCHESFROMA7ARMER7ORLD s!PPENDICES
s.OTES)NDEX working on the interface between s4HE3EARCHFOR3OURCESAND3INKS
This report summarizes the
mathematical rigor and physical s)NVADERS)NCUMBENTSANDA#HANGING
Pielke . . . provides a road map on findings of prestigious panels of
intuition, moving back and forth as OFTHE'UARD
the intersection of politics and science experts in energy, health, economics,
required, frequently corrugating that
by dissecting the debate and provid- interface with nonlinear distur- s4HE!RROWOF4IMEANDTHE3TRUGGLE and the environment, but it fails in its
ing diagnoses. The author explains in bance[.] This book is a fine example FOR,IFE mission to inform, due to the complex-
nine engaging chapters certain steps s(ISTORYANDTHE(UMAN&UTURE ity of the issue and the large uncer-
of such a philosophy and would be an
to be taken, such as expanding energy tainties in many of the parameters
excellent supplement in standard (and s3UGGESTED&URTHER2EADING.OTES
access while increasing energy and variables considered. As might be
still necessary) ‘mathematical meth- )NDEX
security through technological inno- expected, this is a tough read. . . .
ods of physics’ and ‘methods of
vation. Pielke summarizes by saying applied mathematics’ courses. A transcendent view of evolution
that removing politicization and fear Probably a must for those deeply
!DAM*American Journal of PhysicsNO as adaptation, not only accounting for involved in the economics of energy
factors will ultimately lead to a path the origin of species but as the force
of decarbonziation that benefits .OVEMBER n delivery and policy; all other readers
that can explain the accumulation of will be disappointed by the lack of
society and the world as whole. knowledge, economies and civiliza-
Highly recommended. accessibility and concrete information
tion itself. . . . an exhilarating narra- on this incredibly important topic.
(UNTER*(ChoiceNO tive that will surely invite debate. Recommended.
&EBRUARY  4ALLACK0Kirkus Reviews!UGUST  2ANSOM"ChoiceNO*ANUARY 
HTTPWWWKIRKUSREVIEWSCOMBOOK REVIEWS
NON lCTIONGEERAT VERMEIJEVOLUTIONARY WORLD
ACCESSED*ANUARY 

56 Oilfield Review
 understanding. Thus, an up-to-date s#HRONOSTRATIGRAPHYAND#ORRELATION Contents:
basic reference book is mandatory. An Assessment of the Current s4HE0ATHSTO'REATNESSLights,
Here, Gudmestad, . . . Zolotukhin . . . Status of”Global Eustasy”: The Camera, Action; The Quantum
and Jarlsby . . . introduce essential Concept of the Global Cycle Chart; Universe; A New Way of Thinking;
critical topics simply and exception- Time in Sequence Stratigraphy; Alice in Quantumland; Endings
ally lucidly. . . . The text is straight- Chronostratigraphy, Correlation, and and Beginnings; Loss of Innocence;
forward and enhanced by excellent Modern Tests for Global Eustasy Path to Greatness; From Here to
interpretive drawings. Select refer- s&UTURE$IRECTIONS Infinity; Splitting an Atom; Through
ences follow each chapter. This is a Glass Darkly
an indispensable resource for both s2EFERENCES!UTHOR)NDEX
students and industry professionals 3UBJECT)NDEX s4HE2ESTOFTHE5NIVERSEMatter of
including scientists, engineers, the Heart and the Heart of Matter;
economists, lawyers, environmental- This in-depth discussion of Rearranging the Universe; Hiding in
ists, and politicians. Highly stratigraphic sequences requires the the Mirror; Distractions and Delights;
Petroleum Resources with reader to have a strong background Twisting the Tail of the Cosmos; From
Emphasis on Offshore Fields recommended.
in geology, preferably with experience Top to Bottom; Truth, Beauty, and
O.T. Gudmestad, A.B. Zolotukhin 'ROSE4,4ChoiceNO in stratigraphy and sedimentation Freedom
and E.T. Jarlsby &EBRUARY  and some knowledge of petroleum
WIT Press s%PILOGUE#HARACTER)S$ESTINY
geology. . . . [I]t was the work of
Ashurst Lodge Peter Vail, working with Exxon in s3OURCES)NDEX
Ashurst, Southampton the 1960s–70s that revolutionized
SO40 7AA England sequence stratigraphy as the domi- ‘Richard Feynman was a legend
2010. 269 pages. US$ 198.00 nant paradigm in the science of for a whole generation of scientists,
ISBN: 978-1-84564-478-9 stratigraphy. In this new edition . . . long before anyone in the public knew
Miall . . . examines in detail the who he was,’ writes Krauss in this
This book presents lessons learned from results of Vail and his followers, engaging biography. . . . Feynman’s
mature Norwegian offshore projects. showing where he agrees with those work has had an impact on almost
The authors take an interdisciplinary results and where he feels that the every aspect of modern science today,
approach in exploring the petroleum Vail/Exxon model has gone too far in from nanotechnology to particle
industry’s upstream side, from locating extrapolating from these results. . . . physics, semi-conductors and high-
resources offshore to their conversion A must-read book for those actively temperature superconductors. . . . In
to petroleum products. Gudmestad, involved in stratigraphy. Highly the author’s view, he was arguably the
Zolotukhin and Jarlsby emphasize the recommended. most important scientist in the latter
careful handling of natural resources, half of the 20th century, comparable
safe and environmentally friendly The Geology of Stratigraphic $IMMICK#7ChoiceNO to Einstein in influence, although his
development practices, adherence to Sequences, Second Edition *ANUARY n genius was not to achieve fundamen-
ethical business practices and attention Andrew D. Miall tally new results but to look at ‘old
to social responsibility. Springer-Verlag GmbH things from a new viewpoint.’ Krauss
Heidelberger Platz 3 explains the complicated scientific
Contents: 14197 Berlin, Germany material in a clear, lively style that
2010. 337 pages. US$ 99.00 would have earned Feynman’s
s4HE'EOLOGYOF0ETROLEUM2ESOURCES
)3".     approval. A worthy addition to the
s2ESERVOIRAND0RODUCTION%NGINEERING Feynman shelf and a welcome follow-
s$RILLING7ELL$ESIGNAND7ELL This second edition, which stresses a up to the standard-bearer, James
#OMPLETION deductive approach to geology, situates Gleick’s 'ENIUS (1992).
stratigraphic sequences within the
s&LOW!SSURANCE Kirkus Reviews: h1UANTUM-AN2ICHARD
broader context of geologic processes
s0ROCESSING2EQUIREMENTSIN/ILAND &EYNMANS,IFEIN3CIENCEv*ANUARY
and attempts to answer the question:
'AS0RODUCTION HTTPWWWKIRKUSREVIEWSCOMBOOK REVIEWS
Why do sequences form? The book
NON lCTIONLAWRENCE M KRAUSSQUANTUM MAN
s(YDROCARBON/FFTAKE is intended for students of geology
ACCESSED-ARCH 
and professional geologists involved
s/VERALL&IELD$ESIGNAND3UPPORT
in hydrology and coal, gas and
&ACILITIES Quantum Man: Richard
petroleum geology.
s4HE0ROJECT$EVELOPMENT0ROCESS Feynman’s Life in Science
Contents: Lawrence M. Krauss
s$ECOMMISSIONING
W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
s3AFETY-ANAGEMENT s4HE%MERGENCEOF-ODERN#ONCEPTS 500 Fifth Avenue
Historical and Methodological New York, New York 10110 USA
s%NVIRONMENTAL-ANAGEMENT
Background, The Basic Sequence 2011. 350 pages. US$ 24.95
s,ICENSINGAND&ISCAL2EGIMES Model, Other Methods for the )3".    
s4HE%CONOMICSOF0ETROLEUM Stratigraphic Analysis of Cycles of
/PERATIONSAND)NVESTMENTS Base-Level Change The author presents a new look at
s2ESPONSIBILITIESTO3OCIETYAND s4HE3TRATIGRAPHIC&RAMEWORKThe Richard Feynman, the physicist who
"USINESS%THICS Major Types of Stratigraphic Cycle, changed the way scientists thought
Cycles with Episodicities of Tens to about quantum mechanics. Krauss, a
The ‘upstream’ side of the petro- Hundreds of Millions of Years, Cycles physicist himself, describes how the
leum industry worldwide is so com- with Million-Year Episodicities, Nobel Prize–winning physicist scruti-
plex and challenging that workers and Cycles with Episodicities of Less nized everything from different points
decision makers comprise interdisci- Than One Million Years of view before coming to his own
plinary project teams requiring an s-ECHANISMSSummary of Sequence- conclusions. The author traces
unusual breadth of knowledge and Generating Mechanisms, Long-Term Feynman’s life and scientific career
Eustasy and Epeirogeny, Tectonic from his early days at the Manhattan
Mechanisms, Orbital Forcing Project to his rise as physics legend.

Spring 2011 57
 s2OTARY0ERCUSSIONAND!UGER$RILLING calculate risk. The author weaves these
%ARTH-ATERIALSprovides a
s$IAMOND$RILLING ideas with the work of other early
relatively balanced treatment of all
mathematicians, offering insights into
major topics involving the various s3ATELLITE)MAGERY how these basic concepts impact our
components of the earth. The book
s'EOPHYSICALAND modern world.
also emphasizes the various roles of
'EOCHEMICAL-ETHODS
earth materials as resources, hazards,
s'EOGRAPHICAL)NFORMATION3YSTEMSAND Contents:
and human health influences and their
impact on the general global environ- %XPLORATION$ATABASES s-ONDAY!UGUST
ment and economy. The well-illus- s!PPENDIX!.OTESONTHE5SEOF s!0ROBLEM7ORTHYOF'REAT-INDS
trated text includes numerous, mostly 'RAPHICAL3CALE,OGGING s/NTHE3HOULDERSOFA'IANT
appropriate, photos/figures/sketches,
s!PPENDIX"/RIENTED$RILL#ORE s!-ANOF3LIGHT"UILD
although color coding commonly is
4ECHNIQUESAND0ROCEDURES
not clearly defined, and some figures s4HE'REAT!MATEUR
Earth Materials are mislabeled. . . . This work should s!PPENDIX##ALCULATING3TRIKE
AND$IPFROM-ULTIPLE$IAMOND s4ERRIBLE#ONFUSIONS
Kevin Hefferan and John O’Brien fill an important niche for lower- to
Wiley-Blackwell intermediate-level earth and/or $RILL(OLES s/UTOFTHE'AMING2OOM
111 River Street environmental science courses. s!PPENDIX$(OWTO5SEA3TEREO.ET s)NTOTHE%VERYDAY7ORLD
Hoboken, New Jersey 07030 USA Includes an extensive, up-to-date TO#ONVERT)NTERNAL#ORE!NGLESTO s4HE#HANCEOF9OUR,IFE
2010. 624 pages. US$ 99.95 reference list, a relatively thorough 'EOGRAPHIC#OORDINATES
ISBN: 978-1-4443-3460-9 index, and a companion web site. s4HE-EASUREOF/UR)GNORANCE
s!PPENDIX%0RACTICAL
Recommended. s4HE+EY,ETTERFROM0ASCALTO&ERMAT
&IELD4ECHNIQUES
Encompassing the study of minerals -C#ALLUM-%ChoiceNO s)NDEX
and rocks as well as soil and water, this s!PPENDIX&3UGGESTED
*ANUARY 
textbook is designed for a combined &URTHER2EADING
Prior to the development of
mineralogy and petrology course. Its s!CRONYMSAND!BBREVIATIONS)NDEX statistics in the late seventeenth and
comprehensive framework is intended eighteenth centuries, even rationalists
to serve not just students, but environ- Marjoribanks wrote this slim but were convinced that no human could
mental scientists and engineering thoroughly informative volume . . . as speculate on the future. Devlin . . .
geologists as well. The book covers a ‘practical field manual for geolo- shows us how that belief was trans-
mineralogy, sedimentary petrology, gists engaged in mineral exploration.’ formed through the . . . critical letter
igneous petrology and metamorphic . . . The 10-chapter book begins with a from Pascal to Fermat in which he
petrology. general discussion of exploration and discusses ‘the problem of points’—
geological mapping in mineral that is, how to determine the probable
Contents: exploration. . . . This new edition outcome of a game of chance—as a
s%ARTH-ATERIALSANDTHE'EOSPHERE includes three more chapters than the framework for a history of probability
1997 edition, an expanded appendix theory and risk management, fields
s!TOMS%LEMENTS"ONDSAND
section, and ample references. which now dominate our social,
#OORDINATION0OLYHEDRA
Recommended. political and financial lives. . . . This
s!TOMIC3UBSTITUTION0HASE$IAGRAMS informative book is a lively, quick
0ETERS7#ChoiceNO*ANUARY 
AND)SOTOPES Geological Methods in Mineral read for anyone who wonders about
s#RYSTALLOGRAPHY Exploration and Mining, the science of predicting what’s next
s-INERAL0ROPERTIESAND Second Edition and how deeply it affects our lives.
2OCK &ORMING-INERALS Roger Marjoribanks
Publishers Weeklyh.ONlCTION2EVIEWv
Springer-Verlag GmbH
s/PTICAL)DENTIlCATIONOF-INERALS Heidelberger Platz 3 3EPTEMBER HTTPWWWPUBLISHERS
WEEKLYCOM    ACCESSED
s#LASSIlCATIONOF)GNEOUS2OCKS 14197 Berlin, Germany
-ARCH 
s-AGMAAND)NTRUSIVE3TRUCTURES 2010. 238 pages. US$ 129.00
)3".    
s6OLCANIC&EATURESAND,ANDFORMS
s)GNEOUS2OCK!SSOCIATIONS This step-by-step guide to searching for
s4HE3EDIMENTARY#YCLE%ROSION metallic deposits describes fundamen-
4RANSPORTATION$EPOSITIONAND tal geologic field techniques used for
3EDIMENTARY3TRUCTURES the collection, storage and presentation
of geological data and their use in
s7EATHERING3EDIMENT0RODUCTION locating ore. Marjoribanks includes
AND3OILS descriptions and examples from various The Unfinished Game: Pascal,
s$ETRITAL3EDIMENTSAND projects on which he has worked. The Fermat, and the Seventeenth-
3EDIMENTARY2OCKS author emphasizes traditional skills and Century Letter that Made the
s"IOCHEMICAL3EDIMENTARY2OCKS shows how they can be effectively World Modern
combined with modern technological Keith Devlin
s-ETAMORPHISM approaches. Basic Books, a member of
s-ETAMORPHISM3TRESS$EFORMATION The Perseus Books Group
AND3TRUCTURES Contents: 387 Park Avenue South
s4EXTUREAND#LASSIlCATIONOF s0ROSPECTINGANDTHE New York, New York 10016 USA
-ETAMORPHIC2OCKS %XPLORATION0ROCESS 2010. 208 pages. US$ 15.95
s'EOLOGICAL-APPINGIN%XPLORATION )3".    
s-ETAMORPHIC:ONES&ACIESAND
&ACIES3ERIES s-INE-APPING The author delves into the mathemati-
s-INERAL2ESOURCESAND(AZARDS s4RENCHINGAND5NDERGROUND cal breakthrough that Blaise Pascal and
s2EFERENCES)NDEX0ERIODIC4ABLE $EVELOPMENT Pierre de Fermat developed in the
,ISTOF%LEMENTS s$RILLING!'ENERAL$ISCUSSION mid-1600s: what is now known as
THE)MPORTANCEOF$RILLING probability theory. Devlin starts with a
1654 letter Pascal wrote to Fermat that
explains how he discovered how to

58 Oilfield Review
DEFINING LOGGING (continued from page 60)

Geomechanical Geologic Geologic

Measurements Resistivity Porosity Lithology Mineralogy Saturation Pore geometry Permeability Fluid properties properties structure bedding
Electrical resistivity
Laterolog
Induction
Microlaterolog
Spontaneous potential
Electromagnetic propagation
Nuclear
Gamma ray density
Neutron porosity
Natural radioactivity
Induced gamma ray spectrometry
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Acoustic
Dipmeter and imaging
Formation testing and sampling
Rock sampling
Fluids sampling
Fluids pressure testing
Seismic

Measurement provides direct information about the reservoir property. Measurement is influenced by or is sensitive to the reservoir property.
Measurement contributes to understanding the reservoir property.

> Logging measurements used to determine reservoir properties. Some tools provide a direct measurement of a reservoir property (blue) and some provide
partial information that is combined with other measurements to determine the property (green). In addition, tools are often sensitive to a property, even
though they do not provide a measurement of that property (brown).

resource is present to economically justify completing and producing the based on the rock type, and the average of the two, a density-neutron log, can
well. Logging indicates the basic parameters of porosity (fluid-filled por- be a good measure of porosity. In the presence of gas, the two detection methods
tion of the rock); the water, oil and gas saturations and the vertical extent separate in a distinctive manner that is recognized as a gas indicator. Some
of a productive hydrocarbon zone, or net pay (above). Logging tools are contemporary tools use a pulsed neutron generator, which can generate neu-
calibrated to properly determine these and other quantities from the res- trons only while power is applied.
ervoir so companies can calculate accurate reserve values. Most logging The chemical makeup of minerals in a formation can be determined
tools designed for formation evaluation are based on electric, nuclear or with a neutron source that uses elemental capture spectrometry. This infor-
acoustic measurements. mation helps geologists determine the rock composition.

Electric Logging Acoustic Logging

Oil and gas are more resistive than the salty water that fills most deeply The speed at which sound travels through rock depends on its mineral com-
buried rocks. Engineers created two types of electric sondes; both of them position and porosity. An acoustic or sonic logging tool transmits a sound
measure that difference. One type, a laterolog, measures formation resistiv- pulse into the formation and a receiver on another part of the tool detects the
ity by creating an electric circuit. Current flows from a tool electrode transmitted pulse. The travel distance of the pulse is known, so its travel time
through the formation and back to another electrode. The other design uses provides a sound velocity that is proprotional to a porosity measurement.
induction coils to measure conductivity, the inverse of resistivity. This has The mechanical properties of a solid affect properties of sound waves
similar physics to an electric transformer: A tool coil induces a current loop passing through it. Some sonic tools measure these changes to quantify
in the formation that is measured by a pickup coil on the tool. An extensive those mechanical properties.
zone filled with hydrocarbon is apparent on an electric log typically as more
resistive than an adjacent water-filled zone. A Multitude of Measurements
Geoscientists and engineers have access to a wide variety of logging tools
Detecting Radiation that provide much more than the basic information described above.
Quartz and carbonates, which compose the most common hydrocarbon reser- Nuclear magnetic resonance tools obtain information about pore sizes and
voirs, have little or no intrinsic radioactivity. Shales, which often act as seals fluids in situ. Imaging logs can provide a high-resolution and 360° view of
above reservoirs, include several naturally occurring radioactive components. various formation properties at the wellbore wall. Other tools can bring rock
Most logging strings include a gamma ray sonde to detect this radiation and or fluid samples to surface or measure properties of fluids as they flow into
discriminate geologic layers. A characteristic pattern on the gamma ray log the wellbore. And at a larger scale, measurements made with a source in
often repeats in logs for wells throughout a given area. Geologists correlate one well and a receiver in another indicate formation and fluid properties
these patterns from well to well to map geologic layers across the field. between them.
Some logging tools use chemical sources that generate radioactive particles. Well logging requires robust technology because of harsh well conditions
The particles interact with the surrounding formation, and detectors on the and cutting-edge technology because of complex reservoir properties.
sonde pick up the resulting signals. Gamma radiation is absorbed proportionally Scientists use sophisticated methods to design new tools and evaluate the data
to the density of the formation. Other radioactive particles—neutrons—are they collect. Most hydrocarbon discoveries today are in remote areas and often
absorbed proportionally to the amount of hydrogen. Measurements from both of are difficult to produce. These resources—and the people to find, evaluate and
these types of logs can be converted to porosity values. Each has a variability produce them—are vital to fulfill the growing energy needs of the world.

Spring 2011 59
DEFINING LOGGING The first in a series of articles introducing basic concepts of the E&P industry

Discovering the Secrets of the Earth

Mark A. Andersen
Executive Editor

Oil and gas reservoirs lie deep beneath the Earth’s surface. Geologists and
engineers cannot examine the rock formations in situ, so tools called sondes
go there for them. Specialists lower these tools into a wellbore and obtain
measurements of subsurface properties. The data are displayed as a series of
measurements covering a depth range in a display called a well log. Often,
several tools are run simultaneously as a logging string, and the combination
of results is more informative than each individual measurement (right).

The Dawn of an Era

The first well log was obtained in 1927 in Pechelbronn field in Alsace,
France. The tool, invented by Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger, measured
electrical resistance of the earth. Engineers recorded a data point each
meter as they retrieved the sonde, suspended from a cable, from the bore-
hole. Their data log of resistivity changes identified the location of oil.
Today, geologists depend on sets of well logs to map properties of subsur-
face formations (below). By comparing logs from many wells in a field,
geologists and engineers can develop effective and efficient hydrocarbon
production plans.

Neutron Porosity
45 % –15
Gamma Ray Depth, Resistivity Bulk Density
0 gAPI 150 ft 0.2 ohm.m 20 1.90 g/cm3 2.90
7,000
Shale

> Assembling a logging tool on a rig floor. One logging operator holds a
Gas
logging tool in place (left) while another assembles a connection (right).
7,100 The upper part of the tool is suspended from the rig derrick (not shown,
Hydrocarbon
above the men). The operators will connect that to the lower section of the
tool, seen protruding above the rig floor between the men. That part of the
Sand Oil tool is suspended in the wellbore, held in place at the rig floor by the flat
metal C-clamp. Most logging tools have a small diameter but can be the
height of an average one-story building. The combination of several sondes
7,200 in one toolstring can be many stories tall.
Brine Brine

Shale Types of Logs

7,300 Immediately after a well is drilled, the formations are exposed to the well-
> Basic log. A common combination of logging measurements includes bore. This is an opportune time to determine the properties of the rocks
gamma ray, resistivity, and neutron and density porosity combined on one using openhole logging tools. In some cases, particularly in wells with com-
toolstring. The gamma ray response (Track 1) distinguishes the low gamma plex trajectories, companies include logging tools as part of the drilling tool
ray value of sand from the high value of shale. The next column, called the assembly. This approach is referred to as logging while drilling, or LWD.
depth track, indicates the location of the sonde in feet (or meters) below a
surface marker. Within the sand formation, the resistivity (Track 2) is high
Drillers typically stabilize formations by cementing metal casing in the
where hydrocarbons are present and low where brines are present. Both well. The metal of the casing interferes with many logging measurements,
neutron porosity and bulk density (Track 3) provide measures of porosity, but over the past 30 years the industry has dramatically improved its ability
when properly scaled. Within a hydrocarbon zone, a wide separation of the to measure formation properties and even locate bypassed oil behind casing
two curves in the way shown here indicates the presence of gas.
using cased-hole logs. In addition, many cased-hole tools measure fluid flow
rates and other production parameters in the wellbore or examine the
integrity of the metal casing and its cement.
Oilfield Review Spring 2011: 23, no. 1.
The first objective of logging in an exploration area is to locate hydrocar-
Copyright © 2011 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Austin Boyd, Rio de Janeiro; Michel Claverie,
bons in a well. Next, the operating company wants to determine if enough
Clamart, France; Martin Isaacs, Sugar Land, Texas, USA; and Tony Smithson, Northport, (continued on page 59)
Alabama, USA.

60 Oilfield Review