Lectured by: Dr.

Ed Gonzales
Skin and its Appendages
Transcribed by: Gio Pineda

• The skin integument is the largest organ of the body in

terms of weight, accounting for about 15% of a person’s
body weight
o Thinnest in the eyelids
o Thickest over the soles of the feet
• Skin prevents harmful substances from entering the
body; prevents loss of body fluids
• Aids in the formation of sweat – regulation of body
temperature and excretion of waste materials and waste

products
• A sense organ receptive to touch, pain, pressure and • The junction of the epidermis and dermis is delineated
temp • The dermis is anchored to the underlying tissue by loose
• Cells also aid in the immune response of the body connective tissues referred to as hypodermis/
• Skin is the site for the production of vitamin D which subcutaneous tissue w/ numberous adipose cells
occurs when 7-dehydrocholesterol in epithelial cover
reacts with UV light
• Skin is a semi-permeable membrane – can absorb certain
substances from its surface
• In finger tips, the skin exhibit shallow grooves and ridges
whose patterns are unique in each person
• Associated to the skin are several structures collective
termed as appendages which have been derived from
the epidermis
o Nails, hair, cutaneous glands – sweat and
sebaceous gland

Layers of the Skin
Epidermis
• Histologically, the skin consists of (2) layers
o Epidermis – the more superficial layer derived from
• Epidermis referes to
the ectoderm
keratinized stratified
! Irregular conical invaginations called epidermal
squamous epithelium
ridges invade the dermis
• Completely renewed every 20-
o Dermis - derived from the mesoderm
30 days via keratinocytes – the
! Tissue elements from the dermis form irregular
principal cells of epidermis
conical projections called dermal papillae into
• Keratinocytes
the epidermis
o Cells that are specialized
to produce keratin – and
intermediate filament
that is also present but in
much lesser amounts in

other epithelial cells

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 o As differentiated keratinocytes grow older, they o The BM consists of a well-developed basal lamina
slowly get pushed toward the surface of the and is supported in its deep surface by the lamina
epithelium fibroreticularis
• Keratinocytes on Stratum Germinativum are bound on
their lateral surfaces to neighboring cells by desmosomes
and to the basal lamina by hemidesmosomes
• Keratinocytes divide actively hence many mitotic figures
are seen among the cells

• Types of Skin (2)

o Thick Skin - Covers the palms and soles
! From the deepest to most superficial layer
• Stratum Germinativum/ Stratum Basale
• Stratum Spinosum
• Stratum Granulosum
• Stratum Lucidum (clear layer)
• Stratum Corneum (horny cell layer)

o Thin Skin – covers the whole body except for the
sole and palms
! Thin skin does not have a stratum lucidum and
its stratum corneum is likewise much thinner
than its counterpart in thick skin

Stratum Spinosum (Prickle Cell Layer)

• Consists mainly of polyhedral keratinocytes that are
arranged into several layers
• Keratinocytes in Stratum Spinosum are tightly bound to
their neighbours by desmosomes
o Desmosomes appear like spines or hairs that are
protruding out of the cells
o These spines are often referred to as intercellular
Stratum Germinativum/ Stratum Basale bridges
o Keratinocytes have limited mitotic capacity
• Consists mainly of a single layer of tall cuboidal
keratinoytes that rest on a basement membrane

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Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

• 4 to 6 layers of flat, dead, anucleate keratinocytes that
form a light-staining relatively translucent and
discontinuous layer
Stratum Granulosum • Keratinocytes are devoid of organelles

• Bound to their neightrs by desmosomes
• Consists mainly of 3 to 5 layers of keratinocytes that are
more flattened than those in the stratum spinosum
o Keratinocutes contain the presence of numerous
dark, basophilic keratohyaline granules (granules do
not contain keratin)
• Stratum Granulosum contains membrane-bound lipid-
containing secretory granules in the cytoplasm called
lamellar granules
• Lamellar granules and desmosomes form an important
barrier against the entry or exit of substances to and
from the body
• Keratinocytes are already dead cells – not capable of
mitosis Stratum Corneum (Horny Cell Layer)

• Consists mainly of 15 to 20 rows of very flat
keratinocytes
• Superficial layer of Stratum Corneum is referred to as
stratum dysjunctum – contains dehydrated cells that are
continuously being shed or desquamated

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 o Langerhans cells are antigen presenting cells
(APCs) present in skin as well as in stratified
squamous epithelia (oral cavity, esophagus,
vagina)
o In the epidermis, langerhans cells are most
numerous in stratum spinosum
o With the use of gold chloride, the dendritic
nature of their processes become apparent and
they become distinguishable
o Langerhans cells contain rod-shaped, membrane-

bound granules called Birbeck granules or
Other Cell Types in the Epidermis vermiform granules
o Derived from the bone marrow
• Melanocytes
o Cells that are specialized to produce melanin
pigment
o Present in the pigment epithelium in the retina of
the eye, neurons in some regions of the brain
(substantia nigra and locus coeruleus
o Bound to the basal lamina by hemidesmosomes
o Can be distinguished with the aid of methods
such as the DOPA technique • Merkel Cells
! 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine o Least number among the cell types in the
o Melanocytes contain many electron-dense epidermis; most numerous in palms and soles
membrane-bound granules called melanosomes o Bound to neighboring keratinocytes by
! Melanin in melanosomes are formed via desmosomes
the AA Tyrosine o Cytoplasm is devoid of keratin
o A melanoxyte and the keratinocytes in supplies o Merkel cell + axon termination of a sensory
with melanin are collectively referred to as an neuron = merkel disc; a sensory mechanical
epidermal melanin unit receptor that responds to pressure or touch
o Skin color is a mixture of (3) pigments
! Carotene – yellowish hue
! Hemoglobin – red, oxygen carrying
pigment present in RBCs
! Melanin – gives skin its brown-black shade
o The difference in skin color is due to the amount
of melanin melanocytes produce
o Melanocytes are cells that arise in the neural

crest
Dermis (Corium)

• Much thicker than the epidermis
• Composed of connective tissue that forms (2) histologic
layers
o Papillary layer
! the more superficial of 2 layers
! Made of loose connective tissue and is well-
• Langerhans Cells demarcated from the epidermis by the
latter’s BM

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 ! The bulk of the connective tissue that Nerve Endings in Skin
comprises the papillary layer form conical
projections to the epidermis called dermal
• Skin receives stimuli hence it contains a variety of
papillae
sensory nerve endings
o Reticular layer
• Three groups of Nerve Endings
! Thicker than the papillary layer and is
o Simple nerve endings (Free nerve endings)
responsible for the toughness and strength
o Expanded-tip nerve endings (i.e. Merkel discs)
of the skin
o Encapsulated nerve endings
! Consists of dense irregular connective
! Ruffini corpuscles
tissue supplied with blood vessels
! End bulbs of Krause
! Embedded in the connective tissue of this
! Pacinian corpuscles
layer are sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
! Meissner’s corpuscles
and hair follicles
• Skin is also supplied with efferent nerve fibers
• Smooth muscle cells are also present
in this layer of the dermis
Appendages of the Skin
• Those associated with hair are called
arrector pilli muscles
! In the head and neck, connective tissue
bands in the reticular layer serve as
insertions of skeletal muscles that comprise
the muscle of facial expression
! The underface of the reticular layer merges
with the hypodermis

• Hair
o Filamentous, keratinized structure that covers
practically the whole body except the lips, palms,
soles, distal and dorsal parts of the fingers, prepuce
and glans of the penis, labia majora, clitoris and
nipple
o Hair that projects from the surface of the skin is
• Hypodermis
called shaft
o Loose connective tissue that binds the dermis of
o Part that is embedded in the skin is called root
the skin to the underlying tissue
o Hair follicle
o Not part of the skin
! Hair renewal - The epidermis is anchored on
o Hypodermis allows the skin to slide over the
the mitotic activity of the stratum
underlying structures
germinativum
o Contains numerous adipose cells except over the
! Scattered along hte cells of the hair matrix are
eyelids, penis, scrotum, nipple, and areola where
melanocytes, the cells responsible for the color
subcutaneous tissue is normally devoid of these
of the hair
cells
o In individuals who are over-nourished (lol), the
adipose cells in the hypodermis over certain
areas of the body (belly) are particularly
numerous and they form layers of adipose tissue
called panniculus adiposus

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! Hair is the product of (3) cell types that occupy
the central region of the hair matrix • Nail
• Medulla – absent in thin hair, occupies the o Consists of heavily keratinized epithelial cells the
core of the hair form protective plates called nail plates
• Cortex – surrounds the medulla and is the o The nail plate rests on a nail bed which consists of
thickest of the concentric layers of hair stratum spinosum and stratum germinativum of the
o When these cells differentiate, they underlying epidermis.
transform into fusiform cells that ! Cells of the nail bed do not contribute to nail
synthesize a large amount of keratin growth
filaments o Growth occurs at the nail matrix, the most proximal
o Receives a greater number of portion of the nail
melanosomes from melanocytes than o The proximal portion of the
the other cells in the hair matrix nail plate, the nail root, is
o In mature hair it contains packed, hidden in the nail groove. It
dead and keratinized cells that are extends from the lunula (white
loaded with melanosomes crescent shaped area in the
• Cuticle proximal portion)
o Thinnest of the three concentric layers ! At the lunula, the dorsal
of hair surface of the nail plate is
o When these cells differentiate, they covered by the eponychium (nail cuticle)
transform into flattened cells that ! Under the free end of the distal part of a nail is
synthesize a lot of keratin a thickened layer of the epidermis called
! Sheaths of Hair hyponichium
• Internal root sheath – surrounds the initial
segment of the hair
• External root sheath – envelops the
internal root sheath
! Nerves associated with hair
• Lanceolate endings – nerve endings that
are in contact with the hair bulbs which
resemble Meissner’s corpuscles

structurally
• Sebaceous glands
o Appendages of the hair hence, they are found in all
areas with hair
o Sebaceous glands are also found in skin areas w/o
hair such as the areola and nipple, labia minora and
clitoris, prepuce and glans penis, lips and corners of
the mouth

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 o Most numerous in face, forehead and scalp ! Secretory portion is embedded deep in the
o Sebaceous glands are simple branched alveolar dermis and hypodermis and consists of
glands and are also holocrine glands pseudostratified low columnar epithelium
o Secretory product of sebaceous glands is called ! Contains three types of cells: light, dark and
sebum myoepithelial cells
! Sweat glands are merocrine glands whose
primary function is to help regulate body
temperature via the production of a aclear
fluid called sweat

o Apocrine glands
! Found only in the axilla, around the anus,

areola of the breast and labia majora
• Sweat glands ! Coiled tubular glands
o simple, coiled, tubular gland ! The acini of apocrine sweat glands consists of
o duct - opens on sweat pore on skin surface cuboidal or low columnar cells, which like in
o sweat eccrine sweat glands have associated
! secretion of gland myoepithelial cells
! clear fluid ! Apocrine sweat glands only become active in
! do not contain cells or parts of cells puberty
! regulates body ! More recent findings have
temperature established that these glands are actually
o Eccrine (merocrine) merocrine glands
glands ! Secretion is more viscous than
! Most numerous in eccrine.
palms and soles ! It is sterile and odourless but
! Absent in margins of bacterial action on secretion produces an
the lips, concha of unpleasant odor.
the external ear,
nipple, labia minora,
and glans and
prepuce of the penis
! Simple coiled tubular
gland
! Duct is line with
stratified cuboidal
epithelium
! Opening in the skin surface is called the sweat
pore

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 o Modified Sweat glands
! glands of Moll
• in eyelids
• secretions
released into
follicles of
eyelashes
• usual site of sty
! ceruminous glands
• in external auditory canal
• cerumen = waxy secretion
! mammary glands
• secrete milk.

END OF TRANSCRIPTION

References:
• Powerpoint presentation
• Esteban and Gonzales’ Textbook of Histology

“When the toxicity of being in med school is really taking its
toll, think about the ones who did not make it to med school ..

The ones who were not luck to be there ...

You’re folks, who are scrounging up every centavo they have

to keep you there ..

Think about the future patients who will benefit from the hell
you’re going through ...

And think about the fact that you are aiming for the noblest
profession of all –

Noblest then, noblest, and noblest forever will be ...

-Anonymous

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