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8.0 Introduction
Froth Flotation is a selective process that utilizes the difference in surface properties of the valuable minerals and the
unwanted gangue minerals. It can be used to achieve specific separations from complex ores such as lead-zinc, copper-zinc,
etc. In froth flotation adhesion is effected between gas bubbles and small particles in such way that the specific gravity of the
mineral-air associations is less than that of the pulp so that they rise in that pulp to the surface forming a froth. It uses
hydrophobic and aerophilic properties of minerals by attaching itself to air bubbles (unwettable) and then floating. Hydrophilic
minerals are made hydrophobic and aerophilic by use of collectors. Frothers help form stable froth while modifiers either
activate or depress action of collectors.

The theory of froth flotation is complex, involving three phases (solids, water, and froth) with many sub-processes and
interactions. In the flotation concentration of a mineral, the part of the mineral that is to be extracted passes into the froth
product becoming the float fraction; the other part remains in the pulp and stays in the unfloated fraction, which is later
removed from the machine. Adhesion to air in preference to water is a property peculiar to hydrocarbon groups of atoms, these
are part of the mineral itself or part of a coating on the mineral surface.

The principles of froth flotation are:

 The sulfide minerals are normally wetted by water, but they can be conditioned with reagents (collectors) which
cause them to become water repellent, leaving other minerals wetted.
 Collisions between small rising air bubbles and the now-water repellent copper minerals result in attachment of the
copper mineral particles to the bubbles.
 The particles of other minerals which are easily wetted by water do not stick to air bubbles and remain in
suspension in the body of the pulp.

When the valuable minerals are separated into the froth product, the process is called Direct Flotation, but when it is the
gangue which is drawn into the froth product, the process is then called Reverse Flotation. In froth flotation, air is blown
through a pulp containing flotation reagents. After treatment with reagents, differences in surface properties between the
minerals within the flotation pulp become apparent and for flotation to take place, an air bubble must be able to attach itself to
a particle and lift it to the water surface. See figure below;

Figure 1a Basic Principles of Flotation

Wills (1980) stated that the air bubble can only stick to the mineral particles if they can only displace water from the mineral
surface, and this can only happen if the mineral is to some extent water-repellent, or hydrophobic. The activity of a mineral
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surface in relation to flotation reagents in water depends on the forces that operate on that surface. The tensile forces lead to
the development of an angle between the mineral surface and bubble surface. Indicated in figure 1b ys/A, ys/W and yw/A are
the surface energies between solid- air, solid-water and water-air respectively, and ‘α’ is the contact angle between the
mineral surface and the bubble. The force required to break the particle-bubble interface is called the Work of Adhesion and
is equal to the work required to separate the solid-air interface and produce separate air- water and solid- water interface. It
can be seen that the greater the contact angle, the greater is the work of adhesion between particle and bubble and the more
resilient the system is to disruptive forces.

Figure 1b Contact Angle between the Bubble and the Particle in an Aqueous Media

The Contact Angle (α) is the angle between the bubble and the particle in the aqueous medium. The hydrophobicity of a
mineral therefore increases with the contact angle; minerals with a high contact angle are said to be aerophilic, i.e. they have
a higher affinity for air than for water. The terms hydrophobicity and floatability are often used interchangeably.
Hydrophobicity, however, refers to a thermodynamic characteristic, whereas floatability is a kinetic characteristic and
incorporates other particle properties affecting flotation.

8.1 Treatment of Sulphide Copper Ores

It is generally recognized that most sulphide minerals are readily floated. Some sulphide minerals can be floated without
collectors whereas others require addition of collectors. Several sulphide minerals generate a hydrophobic surface in an air
saturated pulp in the absence of added reagents. It has also been found that some minerals, although hydrophobic, will n ot
float owing to interferences from the “hydroxides” of metals derived from the ore itself. The difference in floatability of
sulphides is also shown in reaction with oxygen, collectors and regulators and in the optimum pH values for flotation.

8.1.1 Collectors Adsorption on Sulphide Minerals

In order to understand the effectiveness of these reagents in flotation, it is important to elucidate the adsorption phenomena
on sulphide mineral surfaces. Thiol collectors like xanthates adsorb on sulphur minerals via a mixed potential mechanism
involving anodic oxidation of collectors and cathodic reduction of oxygen. In flotation, the collector molecules approach the
mineral surface and are absorbed after it donates electrons to the mineral particle. These minerals migrate to an oxygen rich
point on the surface and react with oxygen to form OH - or H2O2. The anodic oxidation of xanthate involves xanthate
chemisorption, metal xanthate formation or catalytic oxidation to dixanthogen.

8.2 Recovery Methods for Oxidized Minerals

The separation of the general class of oxygen containing minerals has often not been as efficient as required from selectivity
and recovery view point. Oxidized copper minerals are commonly formed by the weathering of copper sulphide minerals
exposed by erosion and exist either as independent oxide deposit or oxidized zones of sulphide deposits. They are formed
from the degradation of original sulphide deposits and exist as carbonates, oxides, silicates, sulphates and phosphates. They
are not only found as independent deposits, but more often in sulphide ore bodies as a mixture with sulphide minerals. High
oxide level may occur in plants that were not specifically designed for the recovery of oxides. The resulting problems are no t
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easily alleviated and once the copper has been lost to the tailing, it is difficult to recover unless leaching is used. The
problems associated with treatment of copper oxide ores are as follows;

 Oxidized copper ores are often very lean in copper content and contain little valuable species other than copper.
 Oxygen atoms exist in oxidized materials as anions of hydroxide; carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, and silicate
thereby render the surfaces of these minerals hydrophilic and create difficulties in flotation.
 Slimes and soluble salts are commonly associated with oxidized ore.

8.2.1 Direct Flotation of Oxides with Xanthates

Flotation with sulphydryl collectors is mostly adopted with the sulphidisation of oxide minerals. Direct flotation of oxides
without sulphidisation is possible to some extent especially with minerals like malachite. However, xanthates are not in direct
flotation of oxidized ores for several reasons. Malachite (hydroxyl copper carbonate) gives Cu 2+ ions in solution giving rise to
hydrophobic copper xanthate which is not absorbed on the mineral surface. Hydrophobicity can only be imparted to the
mineral surface if the precipitation of copper xanthate results from the reaction of copper. During flotation of copper oxide
minerals, the bulk of xanthate is consumed in the reaction with copper ions in solution and little with copper on the mineral
surface.

Another reason for the inability of xanthates to react with surfaces of oxides is the presence of strong hydration sheath on the
surface of minerals. The more firmly the water molecules are attached to the mineral surface, the more difficult collector
attachment becomes. A mineral’s ability to react with a collector and absorb it is closely related to the nature of unsaturated
bonds on mineral surfaces that result from severance of atomic bonds on the mineral structure during size reduction. In
oxygen containing minerals, the portion ionic bonding in crystal lattice is considerably stronger than that of sulphide mineral
which leads to a formation of a stronger hydration sheath as a result of a more active interaction between mineral surface
and water dipoles. Hence it is easier to render the surface of, for example chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2) hydrophobic by treating it
with appropriate reagents than it is to treat malachite, Cu 2(CO3)(OH)2 which is perceptibly more difficult to float than
chalcopyrite, all other conditions being equal.

8.3 Flotation Reagents

Flotation is not concerned with altering the chemical nature of the particles involved but with modifying their surfaces. To
achieve these conditions, it is necessary to use the numerous chemical compounds known as flotation reagents.

8.3.1 Collectors
Collectors are organic compounds, which act selectively on the surfaces of certain mineral particles rendering them
hydrophobic (or aerophilic) and facilitating bubble attachment. Most minerals are not water-repellent in their natural state and
for flotation to be effective, collector reagents must be added to the pulp. An ideal collector should have the following
characteristics;
 Powerful
 Selective
 Promote fast flotation rate
 Cheap
 Minimal environmental impact (including make-up)
 Easy to prepare (solution rather than an emulsion).

Most mineral surfaces are hydrophilic. When a collector is added, it displaces the hydration from the mineral surface and
makes the mineral surface water hating or hydrophobic. Under these conditions, the stability of the hydration sheath which
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prevents mineral- bubble attachment is reduced to such levels necessary for mineral -bubble attachment. A characteristic of
most collectors is a complex molecule composition, asymmetrical in structure consists of two which differ in their properties,
one is polar the other is non-polar. The non-polar part of the molecule is hydrocarbon radical which gives particularly no
reaction with water dipoles and has pronounced water repellant properties. This is due to the presence of the hydrocarbon
radical of extremely weak lateral residual van der Waals forces within the hydrocarbon chains (e.g. the –c-c bond between
the carbon atoms). In contrast of the non-polar part of the molecule, the polar part has the property of reacting with water.
Compounds that have clearly distinguishable polar and non-polar parts of their molecules are called heteropolar compounds,
and a considerable number of collectors and frothers come in this category.

8.3.1.1 Types of Collectors

8.3.1.1.1 Xanthates
Xanthate collectors were introduced in 1925 and are still widely used especially for easy-to- treat ores where selectivity is not
an issue. There are many types, but the widely used include among others; Potassium Amyl Xanthate (PAX), Potassium/
Sodium Isobutyl Xanthate (PIBX)/ (SIBX), Potassium/ Sodium Ethyl Xanthate (KEX)/ (SEX), Sodium Isopropyl Xanthate
(SIPX) and Dithiophosphates includes Thiocarbamates, Xanthogen Formates, Thionocarbamates and Thiocarbanilide.
Collectors are usually supplied in the powder or pellet forms and are readily soluble in water and would be made up to any
strength for convenience in dosing. Xanthate solutions have relatively poor long-term stability and therefore are supplied in
liquid form only when the manufacturing plant is in close proximity to the use location. Xanthates are available in a range of
carbon chain length generally from C 2 to C5. The collection power generally increases with increase in chain length but the
selectivity decreases. Xanthates are relatively unstable at low pH and therefore are not suitable for flotation in acid circuits.

8.3.1.1.2 Cationic Collectors

A characteristics property of cation collectors is that the cation in the water-repellant agent consisting of a hydrocarbon
radical and a solidophil group chemically bound to it. The principal of solidophil group in most cation collectors is nitrogen as
amino group constituents. The anions of cation collectors are usually halides or more rarely a hydroxyl, which take no active
part in the reaction with minerals. In contrast to anion type of collectors which are characterized by strong attachment to the
mineral surface, cation collectors can readily be desorbed by reducing their concentration in the pulp. Examples include;
Ba2+, Ca2+, Cu+, Pb2+, Zn2+, Ag+.

8.3.1.1.3 Anionic Collectors

These collectors are now of the greatest practical importance. The xanthate is among the most highly selective and effective
collectors in sulfide mineral flotation. Other anion collectors with bivalent sulfur in the solidophil group, for example the
dithiophosphates are also important in sulfide flotation. The dithiophosphates differ from the xanthate in that they have
pentavalent phosphorous in the solidophil group composition instead of tetravalent carbon. These collectors have hydrogen
or sodium as cations. Dithiosphates and to an even greater degree xanthates attach themselves very firmly to sulfide mineral
surfaces ion. E.g. SiO32-, PO43-, CN-, CO32-, S2-.

8.3.2 Frothers
The frothers help maintain a reasonably stable froth. Having reached the surface, the air bubbles can only continue to
support the mineral particles if they can form a stable froth, otherwise they will burst and drop the mineral particles. The last
part of flotation is creation of strong but short-lived froth when the bubbles reach the surface of the pulp. The froth prevents
bursting of the bubbles and release of the Cu mineral particles back into the pulp. E.g. Pine oil, Alcohols, Polyoxyparafins,
Cresylic Acid.

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8.3.3 Regulators/ Modifiers

The main purpose of this type of reagent is to control the effect of collectors on mineral particles so that the selectivity of the
flotation process is increased. They either activate or depress mineral attachment to air bubbles and are also used to control
the pH of the system. In the presence of the regulatory agent, the collector activates basically only those minerals which are
required to pass into the froth. In some cases, the regulating agent acts directly on the surface of a definite mineral facilitating
the subsequent interaction of this mineral and the collector and thus improving the results of flotation (activation). In other
cases, the regulatory agent has the reverse effect, producing adverse conditions for the mineral activation of the collector
and thus leading to relatively poor result of flotation (depression).

8.3.4 Activating Agents

These are chemicals that are used to permit flotation of a mineral that is difficult or impossible to float with only the use of a
collector and a frother. The commonly used activating agents include the following:
a) pH modifiers: These include lime CaO, Soda ash Na2CO3, Caustic soda NaOH, Acid H2SO4, HCl. These can be
considered modifiers because for mineral/reagent combination, there is a critical pH above which flotation will occur.
Generally, because of the cost and availability, lime is the chosen pH modifier except in the flotation of pyrite,
particularly gold bearing pyrite and to a lesser extent in galena flotation where soda is the first choice.
b) Hydrogen sulphide has been used to precipitate copper in solution and allow recovery by flotation. It will depress gold
and silver, and Copper-Iron mineral.

8.3.5 Depressants
8.3.5.1 Inorganic Depressants
These assist in the separation of minerals when the floatability of two or more minerals is too similar for a particular collector
to effect a separation. Besides lime, the other most used depressants include: sodium cyanide, zinc sulphate, chromic acid
and calcium sulphites.

8.3.5.2 Organic Depressants

Organic depressants are large molecules usually with a molecular weight. The mechanism of their depressant action is not
clear, though Lovell (1982) thought that these are depressants because they contain a large number of hydrated polar
groups. A curious extreme depressant is a xanthate prepared by reacting sugar with caustic and carbon disulphide; it has not
been found a practically useful as it depresses everything.

8.4 Flotation Stages

Rougher Stage: Operation by which the mineral is first floated. The main consideration during roughing is to recover the values
as much as possible. It only makes a rough rejection of the gangue since its main objective is a good recovery.

Scavenger stage: Intended to supplement recovery of values especially of coarser mineral values. This is usually done in the
same machines as roughing. Scavenging can be done on rougher or cleaner tailings but usually on rougher tailings. The
concentrate grade is significantly reduced and often times returned to the head of the rougher stage.

Cleaning Stage: The objective is to improve the grade of concentrate originating either from the roughers or scavengers. This is
achieved by refloating the rougher or primary concentrate. During cleaning, differential drainage of gangue minerals to the
underflow stream take place to produce an enriched concentrate which most often times constitute the final concentrate.

Re-cleaner stage: If the grade of the cleaner concentrate is still not sufficient for smelting, roasting or some other final concentrate
is cleaned again in the re-cleaner stage.

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Scalping: If the first separation process to which the ore is subjected produces a final concentrate, the stage is referred to as the
scalping stage.

8.4.1 Choice of the flowsheet

The choice of the flowsheet is based primarily on prevailing economic conditions and the nature of ore, particularly the
dissemination of mineral values in the ore and the rate of flotation i.e. whether the minerals are fast floating or slow floating.
However, possible flow sheets as indicated below can be used.

a) Rougher- Scavenger Flow - This is best suited to economic conditions in which the grade of the concentrate is less important
than the recovery particularly so if the material is slow floating.
b) Rougher- Cleaner flow this is used when the grade of the concentrate is important. Ideal for fast floating materials.
c) Rougher- Cleaner- Recleaner flow for further improved grade.

8.5 Control of Flotation Circuits

Control of flotation circuits is directed towards maintaining the optimum balance between concentrate grade and metal recovery.
Instrumentation in the form of density gauges, flow meters, and On-stream analyzers has facilitated this. The factors involving
control are Physical constraints and operating variables. Physical constraint includes the pulp density, froth depth and circuit
arrangement. Once these are established for a particular set up, these are not frequently changed as part of the control
philosophy. For example, if it is experimentally established that a circuit will operate with 40 % solids pulp density instead of 35 %
solids and three cleaning stages instead of two are installed, this arrangement will remain undisturbed as long as the nature of
the ore does not change significantly, or a different material is not fed to the circuit. On the other hand, variables such as air flow,
reagent additions and to a lesser extent tonnage throughput are operating variables and may be changed at regular intervals to
achieve a set objective.

Regardless of the circuit configuration used, good flotation results can only be achieved if the previous grinding step is well
controlled. Most Sulphide flotation plants use either a rougher/scavenger/cleaner closed-circuit arrangement or an open rougher
circuit followed by a closed circuit. Rougher circuits are primarily concerned with achieving recovery, while cleaning circuits are
concerned with concentrate grade. The relationship between the loads in the rougher and cleaner circuits is as crucial to control
as the reagent addition rates.

8.5.1 Factors Affecting Flotation

8.5.1.1 The Effects of Particle Size on Flotation

Literature show that the extent to which a mineral can be floated depends on the particle size. Coarse particles are poorly
floated as air bubbles may not lift them due to their heavy weight. Slimes also give poor flotation results as they easily
flocculate and oxidize due to their large surface area to mass ratio. This is because slimes easily float allowing flotation of
unwanted gangue particles. Particles of average size are separated most completely and rapidly into the concentrate and
require the minimum reagent consumption for flotation.

8.5.1.2 The Effect of Temperature on Flotation

Temperature does not greatly affect reactions between collector and minerals. However, a rise in temperature improves
performance and makes reduced collector consumption if reagents used are not readily soluble in water or collectors have a
slow reaction with minerals.

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8.5.1.3 Water Quality

Water quality can have a substantial effect on flotation. Soluble salts can cause undesired activation or depression of various
minerals, thus, significantly affecting froth structure and froth consumption as well as the consumption of other reagents.
Salts of magnesium, iron and copper are particularly troublesome. The use of process water from the plant flotation circuit
more closely simulate the actual plant conditions.

8.5.1.4 Pulp Density

Pulp density is a significant factor influencing flotation. High pulp densities inhibit air dispersion and good bubble formation,
thereby adversely affecting recoveries. Cleaner flotation is normally conducted at a lower pulp density compared to rougher
flotation. Lower pulp density tends to produce higher concentrate grades by promoting better froth drainage but give poor
recovery. Higher pulp densities are usually accepted with increasing specific gravity of the ore solids.

8.5.1.5 Conditioning Time and Points of Reagent Addition

The conditioning time and points of reagents addition usually have a large influence on flotation, particularly under plant
operating conditions. The effect of collector stage addition and the use of different collectors at various points in the proposed
circuit are evaluated. The addition point of frothers, activators and depressants can vary widely depending on the mineral
associations, water quality and type of collector being evaluated. Optimum points of addition become more apparent after
conducting some tests and evaluating the plant performance. pH - The usual practice is to float at natural pH or in an alkaline
circuit adjusted with lime. Alkalinity is generally maintained in the pH range of 8 to 11 in the rougher circuit and as high as
12.0 in the cleaner circuit. The use of a lime circuit is practically universal in the flotation of copper ores. In some cases, the
use of sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide or ammonia may have an advantage. The pH adjustments are best made in the
grinding mill with minor adjustments in the flotation cell.

8.6 Flotation Column

8.6.1 Principle of Operation of a Column

Flotation columns use air spargers to introduce air at the bottom of a tall column while introducing slurry above. The column
operates on a counter current principle where the feed flows downward and the air bubble flow upward to the froth phase.
Conditioned ore is introduced at the midpoint (feed point), air is blown through the diffuser (bubbler) at the base and wash water
is fed in at the top. Concentrate overflows the top of the column and tailing discharge from the bottom. There are two distinct
zones in the column. The flotation section is the portion between the feed point and the bubblers (recovery zone) while the
cleaning section is between the feed point and the overflow. Each section has its own distinct counter current flow. In the
recovery zone there is a down flowing of ore particles and the rising air bubbles. The flow system existing in the cleaning zone is
comprised of the rising mineral – laden froth and down flowing wash water. The addition of wash water at the top causes the
column underflow to be slightly higher in volume than the feed. This volume imbalance is called a bias. It is made up by wash
water inserted at the top column. Part of this wash water travels down the column to exit with the underflow. The remainder of the
wash water overflows with the loaded bubbles.

In flotation columns, as in conventional flotation cells, hydrophobic mineral particles attach to rising bubbles and are removed as
a concentrate from the cell overflow while the hydrophilic particles pass through the process without attaching to a bubble and are
removed with the cell underflow. Unlike conventional flotation machines, columns do not use mechanical agitation to suspend
particles and disperse air making them more energy efficient and less costly to maintain.

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Figure 2 Flotation column cell

8.6.1.1 Cleaning in the froth Bed

Conventional flotation devices are designed in such a manner that slurry containing gangue and values must be kept in
suspension by air or by impellers. The end result is that separation takes place in the froth bed. The froth bed consists of air, pulp
liquor, collected mineral and a certain amount of uncollected but entrapped mineral. The turbulence of the pulp induced by the
rise in it of air bubbles brings suspended particles of all kinds (floatable and non-floatable) into the lower part of the froth bed. As
the flotation bubble carrying its mineralized load arrives at the froth bed interface, it is surrounded by a relatively large wall of
slurry containing unfloatable particles. In moving upward into the froth bed and because of the bubble’s velocity, a tail of gangue
is literally pulled up in its wake thus causing entrainment of gangue in the froth bed. This effect is of course, less pronounced with
the coarsest particles, which are always settling out at a faster rate.

8.6.1.2 Flotation Section or Recovery Zone

It is worth noting that there is no agitation to keep solids in suspension in the column. In the column, the lack of agitation means
the settling solids are meeting a constant stream of upward moving bubbles. They meet head on over the entire length of the
flotation section. Every bubble and particle spend its whole time productively in the flotation section. This compares favorably with
the above-mentioned fact that only a small fraction of the residence time of a particle in a cell is productive. The vertical
configuration of the column is such that the cleaning section is above the flotation section. If a collected particle detaches from the
air bubble above the interface, there is 100 % o the flotation section available for reattachment. In contrast, in the horizontal
arrangement of the standard cells should a collected particle drop out of the draining froth bed only 40 % of the total retention
time is available for collection once more.

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Example Calculations:

A copper ore initially contains 2.09 % Cu. After carrying out a froth flotation separation, the products are as shown in Table 1.
Using this data, calculate:

a) Ratio of concentration
b) % Metal Recovery
c) % Metal Loss
d) % Weight Recovery, or % Yield
e) Enrichment Ratio

Table 1: Grade/recovery performance of a hypothetical copper ore flotation process.

a) From Table 1, the Ratio of Concentration can be calculated as F/C = 100/10 = 10. If only assays are available, the ratio
of concentration equals (20 – 0.1)/(2.09 – 0.1) = 10
So, for each 10 tons of feed, the plant would produce 1 ton of concentrate.

b) Using the example data from Table 1, the % Cu recovery calculated from weights and assays
is:
% Cu Recovery = [(10 x 20)/(2.09 x 100)] x 100 = 95.7 %

The calculation using assays alone is;

% Cu Recovery = 100(20/2.09) x (2.09 – 0.1)/(20 – 0.1) = 95.7%

This means that 95.7 % of the copper present in the ore was recovered in the concentrate, while the rest was lost in the
tailings.

c) The % Cu Loss can be calculated by subtracting the % Cu Recovery from 100 %:

% Cu Loss = 100 – 95.7 = 4.3%

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This means that 4.3 % of the copper present in the ore was lost in the tailings.

d) The % Weight Recovery is equal to the % Weight of the concentrate in Table 1. It can also be calculated from the assay
values given in the table, as follows:

% Weight Recovery = 100 x (2.09 - 0.1) x (20 – 0.1) = 10 %

(e) The Enrichment Ratio is calculated by dividing the concentrate assay in Table 1 by the feed assay:

Enrichment Ratio = 20.0/2.09 = 9.57

This tells us that the concentrate has 9.57 times the copper concentration of the feed.

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Exercise due on 23.04.2020 at 17:00 (Send via [email protected] or [email protected] )

1. The following data have been collected from a series of batch flotation test designed to simulate flotation circuit of a
Molybdenum concentrator. Calculate recovery of each stage and plot recovery against concentrate grade for all process
steps. How does the curves drawn compare with the conventional recovery-grade curves?

Flotation Feed weight Assays (wt%)

stage
% of initial feed Feed (f) Concentrate (c) Tails (t)

Rougher 100 0.79 8.10 0.04

1st Cleaner 9.3 8.10 35.42 0.49

2nd Cleaner 2.0 35.42 46.33 9.33

3rd Cleaner 1.4 46.33 49.99 32.90

4th Cleaner 1.1 49.99 51.50 44.10

2. A batch flotation test of a copper ore of grade 0.24 % Cu is given below. Calculate the flotation rate constant, assuming
first order kinetics.

Time, t (s) Conc. Mass (g) Assay (%)

20 24.9 2.47
40 15.0 1.93
60 13.2 1.80
120 35.2 1.34
300 63.3 0.16

Feed mass (g) 1036.8

Cell volume (litres) 3

3. A laboratory flotation test on a copper sulphide ore gave the following results:

Time (s) Mass (g) Assay (% Cu)

20 30.8 2.98
40 33.7 1.69
60 26.0 0.98
120 50 0.83
200 22.6 0.45
Tail 768.2 0.08

a) Calculate the concentration, Ct, remaining in the 3 litre cell after time t.
b) Determine the rate constant.
c) If a bank of continuous cells has the same rate constant, how many cells would be required to achieve a recovery of
85 % if the cell size is 16 m3 and the feed is 1344 m3/h.
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