50 HANDLING OF SOLIDS

paved surfaces, whereas tractors with caterpillar

treads are used over rough terrain. In rough ter
rain skids often replace trailers.
CHAPTER Tractors, which in themselves carry no load but
draw trailers or material on skids, are extremely

5 valuable general-purpose
in a large range of sizes.
machines and are available

Power shovels are widely used for handling large

quantities of solid materials with portable equip
ment. Open-pit mining, excavation, and the han
dling of open-air storage piles are examples. Steam
shovels are economical to operate, but, because of the
Fig. 46. Electric-storage-battery truck, fixed-platform type.
Handling of Solids (Yale and Towne Mfg. Co.)
extra man hours required to get up steam and other
disadvantages of the boiler, the gasoline and diesel-
In general, the gasoline trucks are better adapted power shovels have gained great favor. Electric
for longer hauls outdoors, whereas the electric trucks shovels are often used where ample electric power is
of materials deals with their 0.03. Loading and unloading time varies greatly
are ideal for short hauls indoors. available. Power shovels operate on a turntable
movement over relatively short distances with the material being handled but runs approxi
Trailers are frequently used in conjunction with and have a boom which may be raised or lowered.
HANDLING
x/±

such as from cargo ship and freight car to mately to min/100 lb of material. For distances
1

industrial trucks. The larger trailers are generally The material to be handled is picked up by a thrust
storage, from plant to plant, or from one piece of greater than about 200 ft, power trucks or tractor-
drawn by tractors. Rubber-tired tractors are em or drag motion, elevated with the boom, and rotated
apparatus to another, as distinct from the transporta drawn trucks are more efficient.
ployed for hauling across relatively smooth and to the point of discharge by the turntable. Discharge
tion of materials over relatively long distances such To lift loads weighing more than 100 to 150 lb,
as by ship, rail, or motor transport. various mechanical devices are employed to amplify
Unassisted manpower involving shoveling, push the force exerted by the workman. All these devices,
ing, carrying, and lifting is recommended for moving such as chain falls, pulley blocks, hand-power hoists,
solid materials short distances, usually not exceeding and jacks, are based on the lever principle. For ex
10 ft, and only when the quantity does not exceed ample, in raising a 1-ton load by means of a chain
4 or 5 tons. In exceptional cases, as in an emergency fall, man would pull about 50 lb and would pass
a

or when the operation is not repetitive, larger quan about 100 of chain through his hands per minute,
ft

tities may be so moved. elevating the load about fpm (80% eff.).
2

Under normal conditions a man can do work at The rates given apply to continuous work. It
is

the rate of about 1500 to 3000 ft-lb/min; for example, possible to double or triple the rate of work for short
an average 150-lb man can lift 20 lb on the end of a intervals they are followed by rest period of
if

shovel a distance of 5 ft within a radius of 5 ft at an equivalent length.

average continuous rate of 15 strokes per minute.
The handling rate varies considerably with indi
PORTABLE POWER-DRIVEN MACHINES
viduals, with the nature of the material being han
dled, and with the method of handling, but it always Electric-storage-battery trucks are available in var
decreases rapidly when the material must be lifted ious capacities, the most common being the 2-ton
higher than 3 to 5 ft or moved a distance greater than truck with speed of about to mph. The
a

5 to 10 ft. Lifting of more than 100 to 150 lb per general-purpose truck (Fig. 46) has fixed platform
a

man should be avoided as it may result in a strain on which the load carried. The lift-platform truck
is

or rupture. similar unit with platform that elevated by

is

is
a
a

Assisted manpower with wheelbarrows, two- wheeled power. It used primarily for handling material on
is

hand trucks, four-wheeled floor trucks, or carts is skids. Special types of trucks may be obtained, such
recommended when the radius of work is increased to as the crane truck, dump body truck, tiering or high-
100 to 200 ft. Depending on the device, an average lift trucks. Electric trucks will run about hr with
8

man can move 200 to 1000 lb across a horizontal sur out recharging or battery substitution. Ample charg
face at the average rate oi\Yi mph, or 130 fpm, ex ing facilities and battery storage must be provided.
cluding loading, unloading, and return. The rolling Gasoline-powered industrial trucks are similar to
coefficient of friction usually will be about 0.02 to the electric trucks but have speeds up to 15 mph.
 52 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
PERMANENT INSTALLATIONS FOR HANDLING SOLIDS 51

is by gravity and occurs when the scoop is inverted The angle of slide is the angle of minimum slope
or a gate at the back of the scoop is opened. Power measured from the horizontal at which any loose
shovels are generally used in conjunction with com solid material will flow. The angle of repose is the
mercial dump trucks but are often employed to load angle of maximum slope measured from the hori
The newer shovels have cater
railroad cars directly. zontal at which a heap of loose solid material will
pillar treads and can be moved from place to place stand without sliding, approximately 17 degrees for
under their own power. Power shovels are expensive wet clay earth, 27 degrees for anthracite coal, 31
and require skilled operators. Their purchase is degrees for fine sand, 35 degrees for bituminous coal,
warranted only when large quantities of bulk mate 39 degrees for dry earth, and 39 to 48 degrees for
rials are being handled at changing locations. A gravel.
local contractor can often supply this equipment for Vibrators may be used to keep gravity slides free
short periods or will contract to move a quantity of by giving the slide a vibration in the direction of
material. flow. The most common type is the magnetic vi
Gantry or bridge cranes (Fig. 47) are often used brator, operating on alternating current with the
for loading and unloading railroad cars or ships. same frequency of vibration as the current frequency.
These machines consist of two supporting towers The displacement of the slide is small, usually less
with a bridge between. A trolley moves back and than Y% in., but the frequency of vibration keeps the
Fig. 50. One section of a screw or helical conveyor. (Link-
forth across the bridge; the entire crane is on wheels slide in motion relative to the solid material because
Bell Co.)
and can be moved along a track. The trolley has a of the inertia of the solid.
grab bucket or lift. This type of equipment is widely If a heavy spring is employed with the magnetic
For handling abrasive materials, the fin may be
used in the Great Lakes area for handling ore and vibrator, the forces of the spring and magnet become
made of cast iron or tipped with a hard metal alloy
coal. Electrical drive is the general practice. A additive in one direction
and opposite in the other
Fig. 49. Mechanical feeder to provide uniform rate of feeding such as manganese steel. The trough may be made
skilled operator is required who generally rides in a direction, causing a slower motion of the slide in
solids from hopper. (Stephens- A damson Mfg. Co.) considerably larger than the fin so that the material
cab on one of the towers. In the larger and newer the direction of the smaller force or acceleration.
rubs on itself rather than on the trough, thereby
designs the operator's cab is placed in the trolley. The material on the slide tends to ride with it in are broken by the revolving cone and moved at a reducing wear on the trough. In selection of the
the direction of slower movement. With this ar uniform rate to the discharge opening by the feeder diameter of the conveyor, consideration must be
rangement, gravity may be overcome and a solid
PERMANENT INSTALLATIONS FOR fingers. given to the size of the lump, as shown in Table 12.
material may be conveyed up an incline (Fig. 48).
HANDLING SOLIDS
Mechanical Conveyors TABLE 12. MAXIMUM SIZE OF LUMPS FOR
Material that is being moved from one fixed loca
Mechanical conveyors may move materials by a VARIOUS DIAMETERS OF SCREW CONVEYORS >*
tion to another fixed location continuously or at
scraping action or by a carrying action. Another
frequent intervals usually can be more economically Conveyordiameter,in. 3 4 6 9 12 14 16 18 20 24
type of conveyor, the pneumatic, is described under Lumps 20 to 25 per cent
handled by some type of permanent installation. of total, in. H H Vt IH 2 2H 3 3 3H 3H
the handling of fluids.
When the material must pass through a series of All lumps,in. H H H ?411>ilH2 2 2H
Scrapers. Screw or helical flight conveyors (Fig.
gravity feed can often be used to advan
operations,
50) consist of a steel shaft having a spiral or helical
tage, the raw material being brought to the top of Screw conveyors are used to handle a wide range
fin fastened to the shaft and rotating in a trough
the building or structure by a conveyor or elevator of materials, such as grain, asphalt, crushed coal,
without touching the trough, so that the helical fin
and passing downward, operation by operation, until ashes, gravel, and sand. A special type, the ribbon
electric power
pushes the material along the trough. The shaft is
removed as product at the bottom. In ideal situa conveyor in which the center portion of the helical
Fig. 48. Diagrammatic representation of magnetic vibrator driven by a motor through gears or a chain. The
tions the only power requirement is for the original fin is absent, is suitable for sticky, gummy liquids,
feeding up an incline to right. The spring and electric magnet conveyors are made in sections from 8 to 12 ft in
elevation of the raw material. Loose material is such as molasses, hot tar, and sugar.
work together to give a fast return to the left and a slower length that may be joined together to obtain the
usually guided by means of a chute or slide. The The horsepower requirements of screw conveyors
movement to the right. desired length. The torsional stress developed in the
chutes may be straight or spiral. The angle of the and of all conveyors operating with a scraping action
shaft usually limits a single drive to about 100 ft.
slide with the horizontal must be sufficient to over Vibrators are often used to obtain uniform feed from may be estimated as the sum of the power to run the
Diameters vary from 3 to 24 in.
come the frictional resistance. The coefficient of a hopper having an adjustable gate at the bottom. equipment alone, the power to overcome the friction
Screw conveyors are compact, requiring little head
friction varies with different materials but is about A great advantage of the electric vibrator is that it of the material being moved, and the power to lift
room and no return mechanism. They are eco
0.3 to 0.6 for most dry solids on steel slides. Mate obtains motion of the slide without any mechanical the material any vertical height. For screw con
nomical in original cost and maintenance. The mate
rial often becomes wedged between the sides of the parts requiring lubrication, resulting in low main veyors the horsepower to run the equipment alone
rial is also mixed as it passes through the conveyor.
chute, creating additional resistance, so that an tenance costs. is essentially that required to overcome bearing and
This is often an advantage. The tendency to crush
angle of 45 degrees or steeper is desirable for the A mechanical feeder placed inside the tank oi * The
friable materials may or may not be an advantage. bibliography for this chapter appears on p. 64.
slide. hopper is illustrated in Fig. 49. Lumps of material
 54 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
FLIGHT CONVEYORS 53

The horsepower required to drive flight conveyors occupy only a portion of the entire cross-sectional
TABLE 13. APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM CAPACITIES
OF HORIZONTAL SPIRAL OR SCREW CONVEYORS • may be estimated: area of the duct. The duct is kept filled or partially
filled with material. The movement of the nights
a(T)(L) + b(W)(L)(S) + 10L
■
hp = conveys the material in the duct because the friction
Light Nonabrasive Heavy Nonabra Heavy Abrasive
1000
Material, e.g., sive Material, Material, e.g., between the particles of the material is greater than
Grain e.g.,Coal Ash
Diameter in which hp = total horsepower at conveyor shaft. the friction between the particles and the smooth
ot Screw,
in.
T = material handled (tons/hr). walls of the conveyor duct. It is used primarily for
Maxi
Capacity,
Maxi
mum
Capacity,
Maxi
mum
Capacity,
mum
L = length of conveyor from center to handling finely divided or powdered material such
cu ft/hr cu ft/hr cu ft/hr
Rpm Rpm Rpm center of sprocket (ft). as flour, cement, clay, and loose material such as
W = total weight (lb) of chain and flights sand, coal, grain, and breakfast foods. One of its
3 74 250 37 125 per foot of distance between cen major advantages is its ability to elevate vertically
4 171 220 86 110 46 90
5 304 210 150 105 85 85
ters (both runs). Usually about (Fig. 54) as well as to convey horizontally. The
6 500 200 255 100 135 80 equal to 7,max/4. See Table 1GA. closed duct may also be important.
7 820 190 410 95 200 75
8 1180 180 590 90 300 75 S = speed (fpm). Slat or drag conveyors (Fig. 55) consist of one or two
9 1600 175 780 85 400 70 a = constant for material (Table 14). chains to which are attached cross bars, usually of
10 2050 160 1030 80 516 65
12 3300 150 1660 75 820 60 b = constant for conveyor (Table 14). wood, which drag on a flat-bottom trough. They are
14 4000 140 2000 70 1200 55
16 7000 130 3400 65 1630 50
18 9000 120 4500 60 2100 45 TABLE 14. POWER CONSTANTS FOR FLIGHT CONVEYORS1
20 12000 115 5800 55 2860 46

Fig. 51. Flight conveyor with flights supported on the trough. Inclination with Horizontal 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
(Link-Belt Co.)
gear friction and is proportionally small. For hori
zontal movement the total horsepower may be esti Anthracite 0.343 0.42 0.50 0.586 0.66 0.73 0.79 0.85 0.90 0.945
to 30 degrees. The conveyors are widely used for
mated as follows.2
loose material that is nonabrasive, such as grain,
a Bituminous 0.60 0.69 0.76 0.83 0.88 0.95 1.02 1.08 1.13 1.15
Horsepower food waste, garbage, and coal, but they are not suit
able for friable abrasive material, such as clinkers, Ashes 0.54 0.62 0.72 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.97 1.03 1.06 1.10
(Coefficient) (Capacity, lb/min) (Length, ft) gravel, or crushed ore.
33,000 Flights and chain supported on blocks
which slide directly on the track 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.029 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.025 0.023 0.020
where coefficient = 4.0 for ashes. b
= 2.5 for coal. Flights supported by 3J^-in. rollers 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

= 1.3 for grain.

Flight conveyors consist of one or two endless chains Redler conveyors (Fig. 53) are a special type of used for conveying loose material such as chips, saw-
passing through a trough or set of guides (Fig. 51). flight conveyor for dry and loose material. The dust and refuse.
The chains have plates of wood or steel called flights Fia. 52. Sectional diagram of two-chain roller-supported
conveyor (Fig. 53) consists of a metal duct which The simplest form of the drag conveyor is the drag
attached at regular intervals. The flights are shaped flight conveyor. may be circular, rectangular, or square, through chain, consisting of simply one or more endless chains
to fit the trough. The chains pull the flights and the which a chain passes carrying flights. The flights running in a trough, generally of wood. No flights
material along the trough and pass over sprockets at Capacities of flight conveyors may be estimated
the end of the run, one of the sprockets acting as the from the following formula.1 (80% eff.).
drive. Various designs are used. Some flights scrape
BDSpb
on the trough bottom Some with two
(Fig.
51). T =

chains support the flights by the chains or rollers or 6000

where T =
tons/hr.
by arms riding on a guide track
(Fig. 52). One type
B = width of flight (in.).
has a pair of rollers on each flight and a single con
D = depth of flight
(in.).
necting chain at the center. Either or both the bot
<S = speed of conveyor (fpm).
tom and upper run may be used in handling material ;
P6 = bulk density of material handled (Ib/cu
however, it is most common to employ the lower run.
ft).
Speeds of 100 fpm are common, but the speed may
vary from 25 to 200 fpm. This expression applies to horizontal conveyors DISCHARGEPOINT TAKE-UP
SLIDEGATE CLOSED SECTIONS
Flight conveyors may be used on inclines up to 45 and to conveyors inclined to an angle not exceeding
Fio. 53. Phantom drawing of closed-circuit Redler conveyor. (Stephetis-Adamson Mfg. Co.)
degrees, but preferably the incline should be limited the angle of repose for the material handled.
 CARRIERS 55 56 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
or slats are needed, with the chain is
as contact This spacing varies from about 5 ft for narrow belts Unloading the conveyor offers more of a problem
sufficient to move the material. They are primarily down to 3 ft for the widest belts. The return idlers unless the load is discharged by gravity where the
for the handling of ashes and similar material. The are cylindrical rollers, spaced at greater intervals belt passes around the head pulley. If discharge at
than those carrying the loaded belt. The idlers may an intermediate point is required, one of three
be equipped with "antifriction" (ball or roller) bear methods may be followed.
ings or ordinary bushed bearings. Power require 1. The simplest method is to arrange the support
ments are considerably lower for antifriction bear ing idlers horizontally so that the belt runs flat, and
ings, but original costs are higher. to install a scraper at an angle of 45 degrees across
the belt, at the point of discharge. The bad features
of this method are increased belt wear and the
tendency of the load to spill over the sides of the
belt before the scraper is reached.
The belt may be run over groups of idlers set
2.
Fig. 55. Drag conveyor for hot cement clinker using cast steel obliquely to tip the belt so that the load spills over
drag chain. (Chain Bell Co.) the edge of the belt. This does not deliver the load
at one definite spot but the method does have some
Carriers. Belt conveyors, as the name suggests, applications.
consist of belts, suitably supported
endless and
driven, which carry or transport solids from place
to place. Belts are made of canvas, reinforced rubber
or balata, and strip steel. Strip steel is also em
ployed for conveying materials through furnaces.
Belt conveyors are adapted to wide varieties and
quantities of materials, require relatively low power, Fig. 57. Empty belt conveyor, showing supporting and guid
and can transport solids for long distances. The ing idler pulleys. (Link-Belt Co.)
initial costs are usually higher than for other types
of conveyors, but this is not the deciding factor in Belt conveyors may be driven from any point,
practice. although the head or discharge end is the best from
the standpoint of stress conditions in the belt. The
driving power may be applied through a simple
bare steel pulley, a rubber lagged pulley, or a tandem
/Belt
drive consisting of two pulleys connected to the
motors through reducing gears.
Changes in loading, temperature, and humidity
affect the length of the belt, and some provision must
be made for keeping the belt from sagging and be Fig. 58. Gravity take-up pulley for belt conveyor. (Slephens-
coming loose on the driving pulleys. The simplest Adamson Mfg. Co.)
form of such "take-up" consists in mounting the
shaft of the head or tail pulley in a bearing block 3. The "tripper" shown in Fig. 59 is the most
which may be moved back and forth. A so-called positive means of unloading at intermediate points.
ACCESSDOOR
gravity take-up is shown in Fig. 58. This take-up The tripper runs on rails which are installed along
Fig. 54. Phantom drawing of Redler elevator. (Slephens-
consists of a pulley mounted in a framework which each side of the belt. It is equipped with two pulleys
Adamson Mfg. Co.)
is free to slide up and down between I-beam guides. over which the belt runs. The lower pulley is placed
depth of material conveyed depends on whether the Fig. 56. Loaded belt conveyor. (Chain Bell Co.) The pulley and its framework are supported by the below and behind the upper pulley so that the belt
material is fine or lumpy. The capacities when mate belt between two return idlers. Weights are fas is doubled back, allowing the load to fall over the
rial is being carried to a depth of 4 in. at a speed of The loaded belt (Fig. 56) is carried on groups of tened to the framework to control belt tensions as upper pulley into a chute which may deliver the
30 linear fpm vary from 400 to 800 cu ft of material small idling rollers (Fig. 57), so arranged that the required. With very long conveyors it is often load all on one side of the belt or on both sides. The
per hour for chains of 46 to 54 in. in width. The belt forms a trough. The width of the belt varies necessary to remove sections of the belt and replace tripper may be placed at any desired unloading
capacities are directly proportional to the speed, but from 14 to 60 in., and the number of idlers varies them as the seasons change. point, or it may be constructed so that it will move

speeds should not exceed 30 fpm for abrasive mate correspondingly. The idlers must be spaced so that Belt conveyors may be loaded by any type of back distributing the load evenly in a
and forth,
rials. there will be no sagging of the belt between them. feeding device already described. long storage bin. The use of a tripper increases the
 58 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
BELT CONVEYORS 57
TABLE 15. MAXIMUM LUMP SIZE AND SPEEDS TABLE 16.4. APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS
FOR CONVEYOR BELTS OF CONVEYORS
Flight conveyors
Maximum
Maximum Belt Speeds,fpm
4 X 10 to 6 X 18 0.5 lb/in. of width per running foot
Lump Cross- 8 X 18 to 10 X 24 1.0 lb/in. of width per running foot
Size.in. Sec Nor
Belt Belt conveyors 1.0 lb/in. of width per running foot
tional mal
Width,
Area of Speed, Free-
in. Average Abrasive Actual dimensions and weights are available in manufacturers'
Uni With Load, fpm Flowing
Mate Mate catalogues.
form 90% aq ft Mate
rial t rial t
Site Finea rial*
Power requirements for trippers may be computed
14 2 3 0.11 200 400 300 250 as follows.
16 m 4 0.14 200 500 300 250
hp = YS + ZT
18 3 5 0.18 250 500 400 300

20 35i 0 0.22 300 600 400 300 where S = belt speed (fpm).
24 8 0.33 300 600 500 350
30
4'A
6 11 0.53 350 700 500 350
T = peak capacity
(tons/hr).

36 8 IS 0.78 400 800 600 400 Y and Z are constants from following table.3
42 10 18 1.09 400 800 600 400
48 12 21 1.46 400 800 600 400 Con. Widthof Belt,in.
stant 14 16 18 20 24 30 36 42 48 54
54 14 24 1.90 450 800 600 400
Y 0.00200.00200.00260.00290.00340.00470.00600.00690.00820.0100
60 16 28 2.40 450 800 600 400
Z 0.00350.00350.00350.00400.00400.00500.00500.00550.00600.0070

» Free-flowing includ2s such materials is grain and fine-sizedanthracite

coal.
An interesting modification of the belt conveyor
t Average includes such materials as coal, crushed stone, sand, and is the zipper conveyor which is essentially a belt con
fineore.
X Abrasive includes such materialsas coke, screenedlump coal, gravel
veyor with the edges zipped together to form an
and coarseore. endless tube (Fig. 60). In operation the tube is
* FOR closed after being loaded and is zipped open at the
TABLE 16. MAXIMUM CAPACITIES
CONVEYOR BELTS point of discharge, remaining open until the loading
point is reached. Because the tube is flexible and

Maximum Capacity with Materials of completely encloses the material, it may travel
Cu Yd/ Various Bulk Densities, tons/hrat 100 fpm around corners at any angle and in any plane.
Fig. 59. Belt conveyor tripper that may be self-propelled and reversed along tripper track for distributing discharged material. Belt
Hr at Apron conveyors are similar to belt conveyors in
(Stephens- Adamaon Mfg. Co.) Width,
100 that solid materials are carried in a moving trough,
in.
Fpm 25 50 75 100 150)
power required to drive the conveyor, but this is 4. Total (sum of 1, 2, and 3): but the trough is formed of articulating sections of
Lb/Ft' Lb/Ft3 Lb/Ft3 Lb/Ft3 Lb/Ft3
offset by the convenience and flexibility of the unit wood or metal instead of a continuous flexible belt.
F(L + F(L —
+ L0)T T AZ
in unloading the belt. hP =
—
L0)(0.03WS)
1 r- Apron conveyors are frequently employed when the
are indicated in Tables 990 990 990 14 23.6 8 16 24 32 48 material to be conveyed is lumpy, abrasive, hot, or
Capacities of belt conveyors
16 31.1 10 21 31 42 63
15 and 16 on p. 58. F(L + L0)(T + 0.0WS) + T AZ otherwise injurious to flexible belts. Their weight
18 39.6 13 27 40 54 81
Power requirements for belt conveyors involve a restricts apron conveyors to relatively short hauls
990
number of variables and may be estimated by means 20 49.3 16 33 49 66 99 and much lower speeds, but they are capable of
where hp = horsepower required. carrying much heavier loads than belt conveyors.
of empirical formulas such as the following. 24 72.4 24 49 73 98 147
1. For empty belt conveyor (minimum value):
F = friction factor, 0.05 for plain bearings, 30 116.7 39 79 118 158 237 The only discharge point is at the head end of the
0.03 for antifriction bearings, depend conveyor.
F(L + L0)(0.03WS) ing upon installation maintenance. 36 173.3 57 115 172 230 345
hp = Apron conveyors may appear in several types of
990 L = length of conveyor between terminal 42 242.2 82 165 247 330 495
but the usual form, shown in Fig. 61,
construction,
48 324.4 110 220 330 440 660
For material conveyed hori pulleys (ft). consists of two endless strands of roller chain which
2. (excluding belt)
zontally: L0 = 100 for plain bearings, 150 for anti 54 422.2 142 285 427 570 855 are connected by double-beaded steel pans. The
F(L + L0)T friction bearings. 60 533.3 180 360 540 720 1080
idea of the beading is to maintain a continuous
hp
990 <S — speed of belt (fpm).
trough to prevent leakage in transit, and to prevent
T = material
(tons/hr). * Operating capacities of flat belt conveyors are taken at
material from being wedged between the
3. For elevating material (excluding belt which aprons
AZ = increase in elevation of material
(ft). one-half of those listed. Capacities of inclined conveyors are
balances itself) : when the load is being discharged at the head end
W = mass (lb) of moving parts including belt 5 to 10 per cent less than listed. For material weights and
speeds other than shown above, use direct proportion for of the conveyor. The beading also prevents mate
T AZ , and idlers per foot of distance between
hp = — (negative when travel is downward) tonnage calculations. rial from slipping backward when the conveyor is
990 centers of terminal pulleys (both runs).
 60 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
In the centrifugal-discharge type (Fig. 63), the
buckets are bolted through the back onto a single
strand of chain or belt. The buckets are loaded by
material flowing through a chute into the buckets or
by scooping up the load under the foot wheel. The
load is thrown out of the buckets by centrifugal
force as the buckets pass over the head or upper
wheel. In the positive-discharge type (Fig. 64), the
buckets are carried on two strands of chain which
are snubbed under the head wheels and afford a more
positive discharge. Continuous-discharge elevators
(Fig. 65) are built with the buckets so close together
that each bucket discharges by gravity, with the
load flowing over the front of the preceding bucket
Fig. 62. Peck carrier and elevator showing the operation at into the discharge chute. Continuous-discharge
the tripper or point of discharge. bucket elevators operate at much slower speeds than
(Link-Bell Co.)
the centrifugal-discharge types. Centrifugal-dis
Bucket elevators are used when the only direction charge types are well adapted to light materials such
of travel required is vertical. Three common types of as grains, ashes, etc. Heavier and more abrasive
bucket elevators are illustrated in Figs. 63, 64, and materials must be handled in the continuous-dis
65. charge types of elevators.

Fio. 60. Drawing indicating the construction and operation of zipper enclosed-belt conveyor-elevator. (Stephens- Adamson
Mfg. Co.)

inclined. The bead with the larger radius is located

on the leading side of the apron or pan and rotates
about the bead with the smaller radius, which is
located on the rear edge of the apron just ahead.
The curvature of the beads is concentric with the
line of articulation of the chain joints. Otherwise it
would be impossible for the larger bead to rotate
smoothly around the smaller bead on the adjacent
pan.
Fig. 63. Drawing illus Fig. 64. Drawing illus Fig. 65. Drawing illustrating
The contours of the aprons may be varied until
trating a centrifugal-dis trating the "positive- the continuous-discharge buck
they become a continuousseries of buckets pivotally charge bucket elevator. discharge" bucket ele et elevator. Buckets are
supported between two endless chains. This is a The buckets are suitably vator. The buckets are mounted close to one another
very flexible type of conveyor and is known as the spaced on a chain or belt "end-hung" between two to form a continuous row of
which is driven with suf strands of chain and are buckets. High capacity is ob
Peck carrier (Fig. 62). The buckets maintain their
ficient speed to discharge inverted as they pass tained by the large number of
carrying position by gravity and so may convey the buckets over the over the head sprockets buckets and not by speed.
material horizontally, vertically, and again hori head wheel by centrifu and behind the idler These elevators may be in
zontally, or in any desired path in the same vertical gal force. It may be wheels, thereby effec clined as well as vertical, and
used for almost any ma tively discharging mate they operate satisfactorily at
plane. The buckets may be readily discharged at
terial that is discharged rials not well handled by 45 or more degrees from the
any point by the tripping device indicated, causing centrifugal discharge ele horizontal. Belt
freely from the buckets. (Chain Co.)
FlO. 61. Apron conveyor viewed from point of discharge. each bucket to turn through 90 degrees and dump (Chain Bell Co.) vators. (Chain Belt Co.)

(Chain Belt Co.) its load.

 WEIGHT DETERMINATION 61 62 HANDLING OF SOLIDS

The capacities of apron, pan, and bucket con WEIGHT DETERMINATION

veyors and bucket elevators vary from a few tons
The control of material it flows through a plant
as
up to about 150 tons/hr for materials having a
is essential for accounting,for interplant records, or
density of 50 lb/cu ft. The capacity varies approxi
for control of the operation or process. Measuring
mately directly with the density of the load.
weight is an important method. In the selection of
The power required for driving these apron and
weighing equipment not only must the process or
bucket conveyors may be estimated by the expres
method of manufacture be considered, but various
sion 3
outside agencies, laws, and regulations must fre
(Gross turning effort) (Speed, fpm)
hp = — quently be consulted.
33,000
A scale is a device which measures the force of
The resistance to turning Rt in pounds at the pitch gravity on an unknown mass by balancing a known
radius of the head or driving sprockets may be force against the unknown force. Except in small
calculated : scales the various elements of the scale reduce the
For bucket elevators applied force, so that a relatively small balancing

Rt = ML + C force may be applied.

If the balancing force is supplied by the force of
For horizontal apron and bucket conveyors gravity on any mass, such as a weighbeam or pendu

Rt = 2(M + W)(LRf) lum weights connected to a dial, any change in the

gravitational field has a similar and proportional
For inclined apron and bucket conveyors

Rt = L(M + W)[{Rf cos a) + sin a] + WL[(eos aRj) — sin a]

where M = mass (lb) of material conveyed per foot Fig. 65a. Cutaway view of typical railroad track scale. Four-section scale, consisting of four sets of main levers. The load
effect on the unknown weight and the balancing
of conveyor or elevator. is delivered to the indicator by the transverse lever extending out at the right of the picture. (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.)
weight, and the scale correctly measures the un
W = mass (lb) of chain and aprons or buckets
known mass in any gravitational field. If the bal
per foot (both runs).
ancing force is supplied by a spring, the scale does element. Various types of conveyors are frequently built into the walls of the scale pit, or they may be
L = length of conveyor or elevator from
placed directly on the load members. horizontal
not measure the unknown mass but the force of members between the weighbridge and
head shaft to foot shaft (ft).
gravity on the unknown mass which varies with the the walls of the scale pit.
local acceleration of gravity. Load-Bearing Members Pivots and bearings of hardened tool steel are used
Rf = (rolling friction) = x
Generally scales and other weighing devices are The load-bearing members generally consist of in most scales to carry the load, as they are prac
x = 0.33 for metal on metal, not
composed of three essential parts; the load-receiving several interconnected levers. In simple systems tically the only parts of the lever system that are
greased. element, the load-bearing members, and the indicat only two levers may be required to carry the load subject to wear or damage. They are frequently
= 0.20 for metal on metal, greased. and reduce the balancing force required. In heavy- inspected and must be continuously protected from
ing element. The indicator may be a weighbeam, a
D = diameter of chain roller (in.). dial, or an automatic recorder. The selection of the duty railroad scales there may be as many as thirteen corrosion. In scales that are subjected to heavy
d = diameter of bushing or pin upon device on the application, the or more levers (Fig. 65a). The load from the weigh usage they must be replaced or resharpened period
indicating depends
which roller turns. bridge is transmitted through links to the main levers, ically. Flexure plates are frequently used in place
operating personnel, and the cost of the installa
a = angle of inclination of conveyor or ele tion. which reduce and transmit the load to the end ex of the more conventional pivots or knife edges. They
vator (degrees). tension levers, which in turn transmit the load to the consist of relatively thin plates of metal restrained

Load- Receiving Element transverse lever and finally to the indicating device. in a vertical position so that they are subjected to
C = force (lb) required to drag the buckets
of a centrifugal discharge elevator The connection between the weighbridge and the nearly pure compression. The slight amount of
When an object is weighed it is usually necessary
through the material being loaded. lever system is important for accurate weighing. angular movement is provided by the elasticity of
to support the weight on an independent element
It need not be included in computa Only the vertical components of the load must be the metal. Flexure plates are generally found in the
entirely supported by the load-bearing members.
tions when the elevator is loaded by a delivered to the levers. Any horizontal forces due largest types of scales but are also used in laboratory
In nearly all large scales this independent element
feeding device. Even when used its to impact, temperature, or similar factors must be and small capacity scales.
consists of a weighbridge supporting various super
value must be estimated. eliminated. This is generally accomplished by sus
structures such as railroad tracks, a platform for Indicating Elements
pension links, or by balls or rollers between the
The turning resistance Rt calculated in this man trucks, a hopper, bin, or tank permanently built on
bridge and the lever system. It is also necessary to The indicating element includes the method of
ner should be increased 10 per cent for friction of the weighbridge. On smaller scales the load-receiv
restrain the weighbridge from excessive violent dis applying a calibrated force to balance the applied
head and foot shafts, and 15 per cent for each pair ing element may be a small platform or pan, or the
placement. Various "checking" systems are used load and must indicate by visual or other means the
of gear reductions to obtain the gross turning effort. object may be hung directly on the load-bearing
to limit horizontal motion. These may be bumpers magnitude of the balancing force.
 WEIGHT DETERMINATION 63 64 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
In pendulum dials the load is balanced by elevat batch controllers. More often special automatic PROBLEMS
ing one or more pendulum weights. Although rather controllers govern the entire process.
1. A pile of crude sulfur must be moved from one plant
complex in design pendulum dials are generally accu Packaging and bagging scales are specialized forms to another by dump truck. Trucks carrying 5 tons each can
rate and dependable if properly installed and main of batch controllers, generally incorporated as inte make one round trip every hour, exclusive of loading time.
tained. Spring-operated dials are simpler in design gral portions of other machinery. The cost of trucking is estimated at $4.00/hr for the truck
and maintenance, but not so accurate unless springs and driver. A construction company will load the sulfur
Counting scales for counting large quantities of
with a power shovel at $0.40/cu yd and guarantee loading at
are compensated for temperature changes. They are small objects have ratio beams that allow rapid deter
15 tons/hr but with a minimum charge of $150. The trucks
also subject to error because of changes in gravita mination of count when the identical objects are used may be loaded by hand labor at a cost of $1.30/ hr per laborer.
tional force with changes in location. as counterbalancing weights. (a) What is the maximum volume of the pile for which
Automatic recorders may be separate units or asso Electronic scales that eliminate levers are becoming hand loading would be most economical?

ciated with either a dial or weighbeam. They are increasingly important in special weighing applica (6) What is the estimated cost to move 10 tons, 100 tons,
1000 tons, by the more economical method?
used on railroad scales to allow weighing of the cars tions such as large tanks and bins. The load-bearing
as they roll across the scale without stopping. Belt element consists of a calibrated member with strain 2. How many man hours are required to load a freight
car with 40 tons of product packaged in 100-lb bags if the
conveyor scales (Fig. 656) continuously integrate the gages or other sensitive devices attached. The load
product must be transported 100 yd by a hand truck which
weight of material on the conveyor with the speed of is measured by the deflection of the column as the carries 3 bags per trip?
travel of the belt. These are widely used in mines, load is applied. The deflection is measured elec
3. One hundred tons/hr of anthracite coal are to be moved
power plants, or in industrial plants where large trically and through the use of servos is indicated
horizontally a distance of 100 ft. Select a conveyor of each
quantities of bulk material are handled on belts. by a dial or automatic recorder. of the three classes listed, and calculate the power required
Conveyor scales are the only strictly continuous Hydraulic scales also form an increasingly im to operate the system. Choose the smallest conveyor that
operation in weighing. portant type in which the levers of a conventional will do the job.
A utomatic batch controllers are of great importance scale are replaced by a hydraulic system that bal (a) Screw conveyor.

in the process industries wherever rates of production (b) Flight conveyor,

ances the applied load. The force or weight is indi
(f) Belt conveyor.
are high. They may be used to proportion solids cated by a dial or recorder. Hydraulic scales have
Fig. 656. Belt-conveyor scale. A section of belt is supported 4. For the conditions of problem 3, specify the type of
(Fig. 65c), liquids, or combinations of both. Special been useful in small compact crane scales, where the
by the lever system, and the weight is continuously integrated conveyor and its size that will require the minimum power.
indicators on conventional dial or beam scales, such load on the hook of a crane must be determined. The
with belt speed. (Merrick Scale Mfg. Co.)
as photoelectric devices, may be used to operate accurate dead-weight tester for measuring high pres 5. A belt conveyor is required to deliver crushed limestone
sure and calibrating pressure gages is a form of having a bulk density of 75 lb/cu ft at the rate of 200 tons/hr.
The weighbeam consists of a calibrated bar with a The conveyor is to be 200 ft between centers of pulleys with
poise. The poise is positioned along the hydraulic scale.
movable a rise of 25 ft. The largest lumps are 4 in. and constitute
beam until the load on the lever system is balanced. 15% of the total. The conveyor will discharge over the end.
The position of the poise may then be converted
BIBLIOGRAPHY For a belt speed of 200 fpm, what is the minimum width of
belt that can be used? Calculate the horsepower for the drive
into the amount of load on the scale. The weigh 1. Chain Belt Co., Catalog 445 (1945), Milwaukee.
motor.
beam is the basis of most indicating elements, and in 2. Hawley, R. S., Materials Handling and Factory Trans

itself is widelyused for scales of all sizes. It is fre portation, Ulrich's Book Store, Ann Arbor (1941). 6. What is the capacity of a flight conveyor of 12 by 24 in.
3. Link-Belt Co., Catalog 800, Chicago. travelingat 100 fpm and handling the crushed limestone of
quently associated with other indicating devices,
problem 5.
being used for tare compensation, or as a stand-by
7. A screw conveyor is to be installed to convey 800 bushels
unit in case of failure of the other indicator.
of wheat per hour over a distance of 80 ft. Determine the
Dials may be used on all types of lever systems. size (diameter), speed (revolutions per minute) and horse
They are easy to read, require no manipulation on power requirements for the installation.
the part of the operator, and indicate the result
rapidly. However, they seldom have more than 1000
graduations around the periphery which limits the
readability of dials to Mono of their total capacity.
This limitation is overcome using the dial to indicate
only that part of the weight over the weight balanced
by drop weights applied to the lever system. For
example, a 5000-lb dial with a minimum graduation
of 5 lb may be used for loads in excess of 5000 lb. An
added weight balancing 5000 lb is added to the beam, Fig. 65c. Typical batching units. Two different materials
and the range of the dial becomes 5000 to 10,000 lb are proportioned by weight in the weigh hoppers. (Streeter-
Amet Co.)
without sacrificing readability.