Mendel University in Brno

Faculty of Agronomics
Department of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Engineering

Waste Management in Ghana

Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Author:
Ing. Tomáš Vítěz, Ph.D. Bc. Hana Shaibu

Brno 2012
DECLARATION

I hereby testify, that this diploma thesis with the title WASTE MANAGEMENT
IN GHANA was elaborated by myself and all literature and sources of information are
cited and listed in the chapter References at the end of this thesis.

This diploma thesis is a school work and can be used for commercial purposes only
with a consent of the thesis supervisor and the dean of Faculty of Agriculture, Mendel
University in Brno.

April 23, 2012

Signature:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank to the supervisor of my Diploma thesis, Ing. Tomáš Vítěz, Ph.D.
for his expert and methodical guidance, consultations, comments and valuable advices.
I would also like to thank to my husband Anyas Ibrahim Shaibu for his support and help
while gathering information, to Mr. Donkor for his time and valuable information,
as well as to Mr. Awantungo and to all who made this work possible.
 ABSTRACT

Shaibu, H. Waste Management in Ghana. Diploma Thesis. Brno, 2012.

This diploma thesis is aimed to give a comprehensive overview on municipal

solid waste management in Ghana, particularly in the city of Kumasi. The research is
intended to find out the major problems and constraints to effective municipal solid
waste management through SWOT analysis and to find ways and means to increase
the efficiency of solid waste management in Kumasi.
In Kumasi, it is the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly who is officially responsible
for effective municipal solid waste management. It was found out that even though
the authorities are well aware of the existing problems and the system has significantly
improved since 1990‘s, the situation is still inadequate since it is deeply connected
to economic, socio-cultural, technical, and political situation in Ghana. The main
obstacles to KMA effective dealing with municipal solid waste seems to be lack
of funding and attitudinal problems. However, lack of human resources, monitoring,
evaluation, research, development, road infrastructure, improper legislation and its
enforcement and poor management of KMA can not be left out. A variety of recom-
mendations for future effective and sustainable solid waste management in Kumasi are
made.

Key words
Municipal Solid Waste, Organic Waste, Sanitation, Ghana, Kumasi
 ABSTRAKT

Shaibu, H. Odpadové hospodářství Ghanské republiky. Diplomová práce. Brno,

2012.

Diplomová práce má za cíl poskytnout ucelený přehled o nakládání

s komunálním odpadem v Ghanské republice, konkrétně ve městě Kumasi, identifikovat
hlavní problémy, překážky a omezení k efektivnímu nakládání s odpady pomocí SWOT
analýzy, a najít cesty a způsoby vedoucí ke zefektivnění odpadového hospodářství
vybrané aglomerace.
V Kumasi je to magistrát, kdo je za nakládání s komunálním odpadem
zodpovědný. I přesto, že si jeho představitelé jsou dobře vědomi existujících problémů a
situace se od 90. let výrazně zlepšila, je stále nedostačující. Řešení je komplexní a sahá
až do oblasti ekonomické, sociálně-kulturní, technické a politcké situace v Ghaně.
Na úrovni vybrané aglomerace se jako hlavní problémy jeví nedostatek finančních
zdrojů a negativní přístup obyvatel k nakládání s odpady. Problémů, které nemohou být
opomenuty, je však daleko více. Patří mezi ně nedostatek lidských zdrojů, sběru a
hodnocení dat, nedostatečný výzkum a rozvoj v této oblasti, velmi špatná infrastruktura,
nedostatečně vyvinutá a nevymáhaná legislativa, a rovněž i špatný management
v oblasti odpadového hospodářství. Na základě těchto zjištění jsou navržena opatření
vedoucí ke zlepšení a zefektivnění systému nakládání s komunálním odpadem v obci.

Klíčová slova
Komunální odpad, biologicky rozložitelný odpad, sanitace, Ghana, Kumasi
OBSAH

1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 9
2 AIM ............................................................................................................ 11
3 THEORETICAL PART........................................................................... 12
3.1 Definitions.......................................................................................... 12
3.2 Review of Legislative ........................................................................ 16
3.2.1 Legislative Framework ................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Policies and Plans ........................................................................... 19
3.2.3 Other Instruments (Regulations, Guidelines and Standards).......... 23
4 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 24
4.1.1 Sources of Data............................................................................... 24
4.1.2 Instruments...................................................................................... 24
4.1.3 Data Analysis and Presentation ...................................................... 25
4.1.4 Limitations to the Study.................................................................. 25
5 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT GHANA ......................... 26
5.1 Geography ......................................................................................... 26
5.2 Socio-economic Characteristics ....................................................... 27
5.3 Political Situation.............................................................................. 28
5.4 Governance System........................................................................... 28
6 OVERVIEW OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN GHANA...... 30
6.1 Generation and Sources of Municipal Solid Waste ....................... 30
6.2 Solid Waste Collection and Transportation ................................... 31
6.3 Treatment and Disposal of Solid Waste.......................................... 33
6.4 Sorting and Recycling....................................................................... 34
6.5 Financing ........................................................................................... 35
6.6 Institutions Involved in Waste Management.................................. 38
7 KUMASI AS A CASE STUDY................................................................ 39
7.1 Description of the Study Area.......................................................... 39
7.1.1 Political Administration of Kumasi ................................................ 40
7.1.2 Economy ......................................................................................... 40
7.1.3 Conditions of the Built Environment.............................................. 41
7.1.4 Conditions of the Natural Environment.......................................... 42
7.1.5 Agricultural Land Use .................................................................... 42
 7.2 Solid Waste Management – Current State of Affairs.................... 43
7.2.1 Groups Involved in Solid Waste Management in Kumasi ............. 43
7.2.2 Generation and Sources of MSW ................................................... 44
7.2.3 Collection and Transportation ........................................................ 45
7.2.4 Treatment and Disposal .................................................................. 48
7.2.5 Waste Reduction, Reuse and Recycling ......................................... 52
7.2.6 Bye-law on Sanitation..................................................................... 53
7.2.7 Budget ............................................................................................. 53
7.3 SWOT Analysis ................................................................................. 54
7.3.1 Strengths ......................................................................................... 54
7.3.2 Weaknesses ..................................................................................... 54
7.3.3 Opportunities .................................................................................. 55
7.3.4 Threats ............................................................................................ 55
8 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENATIONS .............................................. 56
9 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 63
10 REFERENCES.......................................................................................... 65
11 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES AND FIGURES .................... 68
11.1 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms .............................................. 68
11.2 List of Tables ..................................................................................... 69
11.3 List of figures..................................................................................... 69
1 INTRODUCTION

Sustainable management of solid waste is a major challenge being faced

by municipal authorities across the world, both in the developed and the developing
countries. In developing countries the situation is even more serious due to high
increase in population and rapid urbanization which lead to an increase in environmen-
tal problems, especially contamination of soil and water, and poor sanitation conditions,
that have been the major cause of fatal diseases such as malaria, cholera, diarrhoea and
tuberculosis.
As in most parts of the developing world, Ghana’s cities grow by a rapid rate.
Between 1984 and 2002 the urban population increased from 32 % to 43.8 % (NESSAP,
2010). The accelerated growth of the urban population and the associated higher stan-
dards of living implies an increasing demand for public services. The densely populated
urban areas face the challenge of managing the growing waste volumes. In Ghana urban
sanitation is a responsibility of local governments for who the sustainable management
of waste is a major challenge. General waste management is vested in the Ministry
of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) which supervises the Metro-
politan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs). The MMDAs are responsible
for the collection and disposal of solid waste through their Waste Management Depart-
ments (WMDs) and are confronted with many problems. Among them are indiscrimina-
te disposals of solid waste such as unsanitary dumping or burning of waste, lack
of finance, low public awareness of environmental issues, bad people‘s attitude,
indiscriminate littering etc.
Kumasi, the second largest city of Ghana, is not an exception. The protection
of the environment and resources through environmentally sustainable waste manage-
ment in the metropolis is becoming increasingly important. This requires a sustainable
approach to waste management and integrated operations that will produce the most
efficient and best practicable option. This is a challenging task since it involves taking
into account the economic, technical, regulatory and environmental constraints and can
become more complex if social and political factors are also taken into account.
The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA) is the key institution in dealing
with the solid waste management, involving the private sector to ensure collection and
disposal of solid waste. The situation has improved in recent years, however is still
inadequate. Despite the effort of KMA in providing adequate sanitation services
9
in the city, the sector faces serious challenges. The road infrastructure continues to be
poor, volume of solid waste increases everyday, there is indiscriminate disposal of solid
waste everywhere, the technical capacity for solid waste management and planning is
low, and the financing is inadequate.

10
2 AIM

The thesis is aimed to give a comprehensive overview on municipal solid waste

management in Ghana, particularly in the city of Kumasi, to analyze the current situa-
tion in municipal solid waste management, to identify major problems and constraints
to effective municipal solid waste management and to give suggestions and recommen-
dations for future appropriate sustainable solid waste management practices in Kumasi.
Some people say the problem of waste management in Kumasi is cultural, others
say it is economic, yet others point in the direction of poor management, migrational
problems etc. but what really is a problem? As we are aware of the fact that the waste
management scenario in Kumasi is not a problem of ignorance of the magnitude
of the problem since the city authorities are well aware of it, the question that needs
to be answered is: Do the authorities really understand the problem? If so why is it
so difficult to find a solution?
The first part of the thesis explains the basic terms and gives an overview
of regulatory framework on municipal solid waste management (legislative, national
policies, plans, and other instruments). The practical part starts with background infor-
mation and an overview of municipal solid waste management in Ghana as it is impor-
tant to understand the overall situation and conditions. This part analyses the generation
and sources of municipal solid waste, treatment, disposal, sorting and recycling, as well
as ways of financing and institutions which are involved in waste management and their
responsibilities. The following part analysis the situation in Kumasi, beginning
with the background information on the place, analysing the current state of affairs, and
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats through SWOT analysis. The cur-
rent system is subsequently evaluated and the recommendations for future appropriate
sustainable municipal solid waste management practices in Kumasi are suggested.

11
3 THEORETICAL PART

3.1 Definitions

Communal Collection – a system of collection in which individuals bring their

waste directly to a central point, from which it is collected (UNEP, 2005).
Controlled Dump – a planned landfill that incorporates to some extent some
of the features of a sanitary landfill: siting with respect to hydrogeological suitability,
grading, compaction in some cases, leachate control, partial gas management, regular
(not usually daily) cover, access control, basic record-keeping, and controlled waste
picking (UNEP, 2005).
Disposal – the final handling of solid waste that is not salvaged or recycled,
following collection, processing, or incineration. Disposal most often means placement
of wastes in a dump or a landfill (UNEP, 2005).
Dump Site – see Controlled Dump and Open Dump
Hazardous Waste – waste that is reactive, toxic, corrosive, or otherwise dange-
rous to living things and/or the environment. Many industrial by-products are hazardous
(UNEP, 2005).
Household Hazardous Waste – products used in residences, such as paints and
some cleaning compounds, that are toxic to living organisms and/or the environment
(UNEP, 2005).
Incineration – the process of burning solid waste under controlled conditions
to reduce its weight and volume, and often to produce energy (UNEP, 2005).
Informal Sector – the part of an economy that is characterized by private, usual-
ly small-scale, labor-intensive, largely unregulated, and unregistered manufacturing or
provision of services (UNEP, 2005).
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) – a comprehensive waste
prevention, recycling, composting, and disposal program. An effective ISWM system
considers how to prevent, recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most effectively
protect human health and the environment. ISWM involves evaluating local needs and
conditions, and then selecting and combining the most appropriate waste management
activities for those conditions. The major ISWM activities are waste prevention, recyc-
ling and composting, and combustion and disposal in properly designed, constructed,

12
and managed landfills. Each of these activities requires careful planning, financing,
collection, and transport. (USEPA, 2002)
Landfill Gasses – gases arising from the decomposition of organic wastes;
principally methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide. Such gases may cause
explosions at landfills (UNEP, 2005).
Landfilling – the final disposal of solid waste by placing it in a controlled
fashion in a place intended to be permanent. The term is applied to both controlled
dumps and sanitary landfills (UNEP, 2005).
Leachate – liquid (which may be partly produced by decomposition of organic
matter) that has seeped through a landfill or a compost pile and has accumulated
bacteria and other possibly harmful dissolved or suspended materials. If uncontrolled,
leachate can contaminate both groundwater and surface water (UNEP, 2005).
Market Waste – primarily organic waste, such as leaves, skins, and unsold
food, discarded at or near food markets (UNEP, 2005).
Materials Recovery – obtaining materials that can be reused or recycled
(UNEP, 2005).
Microenterprise – a synonym for small-scale enterprise: a business, often fami-
ly-based or a cooperative, that usually employs fewer than ten people and may operate
"informally" (UNEP, 2005).
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) – all solid waste generated in an area except
industrial and agricultural wastes. Sometimes includes construction and demolition
debris and other special wastes that may enter the municipal waste stream. Generally
excludes hazardous wastes except to the extent that they enter the municipal waste
stream. Sometimes defined to mean all solid wastes that a city authority accepts respon-
sibility for managing in some way (UNEP, 2005).
Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) – planning and implementati-
on of systems to handle MSW (UNEP, 2005).
Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) – may be used to refer to a range
of organizations from small community groups, through national organizations, to inter-
national ones. Frequently these are not-for-profit organizations (UNEP, 2005).
Open Dump – an unplanned "landfill" that incorporates few if any of the cha-
racteristics of a controlled landfill. There is typically no leachate control, no access
control, no cover, no management, and many waste pickers (UNEP, 2005).

13
 Organic Waste – technically, waste containing carbon, including paper, plas-
tics, wood, food wastes, and yard wastes. In practice in MSWM, the term is often used
in a more restricted sense to mean material that is more directly derived from plant or
animal sources, and which can generally be decomposed by microorganisms (UNEP,
2005).
Pathogen – an organism capable of causing disease (UNEP, 2005).
Privatization – a general term referring to a range of contracts and other agree-
ments that transfer the provision of some services or production from the public sector
to private firms or organizations (UNEP, 2005).
Refuse – a term often used interchangeably with solid waste (UNEP, 2005).
Resource Recovery – the extraction and utilization of materials and energy
from wastes (UNEP, 2005).
Reuse – the use of a product more than once in its original form, for the same or
a new purpose (UNEP, 2005).
Sanitary Landfill – an engineered method of disposing of solid waste on land,
in a manner that meets most of the standard specifications, including sound siting, ex-
tensive site preparation, proper leachate and gas management and monitoring, com-
paction, daily and final cover, complete access control, and record-keeping (UNEP,
2005).
Sanitation – Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services
for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause
of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is known to have a significant benefi-
cial impact on health both in households and across communities. The word sanitation
also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage
collection and wastewater disposal (WHO, 2012).
Scavenger – a person who picks out recyclables from mixed waste wherever it
may be temporarily accessible or disposed of (UNEP, 2005).
Source Separation – setting aside of compostable and recyclable materials from
the waste stream before they are collected with other MSW, to facilitate reuse, recyc-
ling, and composting (UNEP, 2005).
Tipping Fee – a fee for unloading or dumping waste at a landfill, transfer stati-
on, incinerator, or recycling facility (UNEP, 2005).

14
 Transfer Point – a designated point, often at the edge of a neighbourhood,
where small collection vehicles transfer waste to larger vehicles for transport to disposal
sites (UNEP, 2005).
Transfer Station – a major facility at which MSW from collection vehicles is
consolidated into loads that are transported by larger trucks or other means to more
distant final disposal facilities, typically landfills (UNEP, 2005).
Treatment of Waste – refers to the activities required to ensure that waste has
the least practicable impact on the environment. Different forms of solid waste treat-
ment are graded in the waste hierarchy. They include incineration, biological treatment,
chemical and physical treatment processes etc. (BILITEWSKI et al., 1994).
Waste hierarchy – the options for dealing with waste. Those towards the top
of the list are more desirable than those towards the bottom (WASTE WATCH, 2011).

Figure 1 Waste Management Hierarchy

Waste picker – see scavenger.

Waste-to-Energy – a process where solid waste materials (processed or raw) are
used to produce energy. Waste-to-energy plants include incinerators that produce steam
for district heating or industrial use, or that generate electricity. They also include facili-
ties that convert landfill gas to electricity (UNEP, 2005).

15
3.2 Review of Legislative

There had not been any comprehensive legislation on environment in Ghana

until the late 1990s. Although Ghana currently has no specific legislation on waste
management, there are laws, policies, guidelines and standards that guide
the management of wastes.
The most comprehensive environmental policy in Ghana is the National
Environmental Sanitation Policy (ESP) and National Environmental Sanitation Strategy
and Action Plan (NESSAP) brought out by the Ministry of Local Government and Rural
Development.

3.2.1 Legislative Framework

The Constitution of the republic of Ghana

The constitution, which came into force on 7th January 1993, is the supreme law
of Ghana and provides the basis from which all other laws are derived. Article 36 (9)
and Article 41 has a provision on the environment, which states that:
Article 36 (9):
„The State shall take appropriate measures needed to protect and safeguard
the national environment for posterity; and shall seek cooperation with other states and
bodies for purposes of protecting the wider international environment for mankind.“
Article 41:
„The exercise and enjoyment of rights and freedoms is inseparable from the per-
formance of duties and obligations, and accordingly, it shall be the duty of every citizen
- (k) to protect and safeguard the environment.“

Criminal Code, 1960 (Act 29) – The Criminal Code (amendment) Act, 2003
(Act 646)
The part of the Criminal Code which deals with waste and environment is
Chapter 8 – Public Nuisances, specifically it is Section 296 - Throwing Rubbish
in Street. According to this section, whoever does any of the following acts shall be
liable to a fine not exceeding 200,000 GHC namely:
(1) „In any town places, or causes of permits to be placed, any carrion, filth,
dirt, refuse, or rubbish, or any offensive or otherwise unwholesome matter,

16
on any street, yard, enclosure, or open space, except at such places as may be set apart
by the local authority or the health officer for that purpose.“
(18) „Being the occupier of any land or building situated in a town, does not
clear and keep free from all dirt, underbush, underwood, weeds, high grass, rubbish,
rags, broken bottles, refuse, and all offensive matter (filling up all holes with stones,
gravel, or other like materials), the streets or roads, at the front-back, and sides thereof,
with the drains, gutters, and channels thereon; and, if any such building is unoccupied,
the owner shall for this purpose be deemed the occupier: Provided that when there are
two lots of land contiguous to any street, road, drain, gutter, or channel, and facing
each other, the occupier of each lot shall be responsible for keeping clean only the half
of the street or road, and the drain, gutter, or channel nearest to his lot.“

Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462)

Under the Local Government Act are created District Assemblies which consti-
tute the highest political authority in each district, municipality and metropolis.
A District Assembly shall exercise political and administrative authority in the district,
provide guidance, give direction to, and supervise the other administrative authorities
in the district.
Among the functions of District Assembly are the following:
• a District Assembly is responsible for the overall development of the district
and shall ensure the preparation and submission through the regional
co-ordination council;
• shall formulate and execute plans, programmes and strategies for the effecti-
ve mobilisation of the resources necessary for the overall development
of the district;
• shall initiate programmes for the development of basic infrastructure and
provide municipal works and services in the district;
• is responsible for the development, improvement and management of human
settlements and the environment in the district.

Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994 (Act 490)

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) replaced the Environmental

Protection Council (EPC) set up in 1974, which was the first environmental manage-
ment authority in Ghana. The Agency has a corporate status and it is the lead agency
responsible for the broad concept of environmental protection in Ghana.
17
 Among EPA functions are:
• to advise the Minister on the formulation of policies on the environment;
• to co-ordinate the activities of bodies concerned with the technical or practi-
cal aspects of the environment and serve as a channel of communication
between those bodies and the Ministry;
• to secure the control and prevention of discharge of waste into the environ-
ment and the protection and improvement of the quality of the environment;
• to issue environmental permits and pollution abatement notices for control-
ling the volume, types, constituents and effects of waste discharges, emissi-
ons, deposits or any other source of pollutants and of substances which are
hazardous or potentially dangerous to the quality of the environment;
• to prescribe standards and guidelines relating to the pollution of air, water,
land and any other forms of environmental pollution including the discharge
of waste and the control of toxic substances;
• to ensure compliance with the laid down environmental impact assessment
procedures in the planning and execution of development projects, including
compliance in respect of existing projects;
• to act in liaison and co-operation with government agencies, District Assem-
blies and any other bodies and institutions to control pollution and generally
protect the environment;
• to promote studies, research, surveys and analyses for the improvement and
protection of the environment and the maintenance of sound ecological
systems in the Republic;
• to initiate and pursue formal and non-formal education programmes
for the creation of public awareness of the environment and its importance
to the economic and social life of the country;
• to promote effective planning in the management of the environment.

Pesticides Control and Management Act, 1996 (Act 528)

This law is derived from EPA Act (Act 490), Part 2, and deals with pesticide
registration, licensing and permitting procedures. No person shall import, export,
manufacture, distribute, advertise, sell or use any pesticide in Ghana unless the pesticide
has been registered by the EPA.

18
 Water Resources Commission Act, 1996 (Act 522)
The Water Resources Commission (WRC) was established by an Act of Parlia-
ment with the mandate to regulate and manage Ghana’s Water Resources and coordina-
te government policies in relation to them. The Act stipulates that ownership and control
of all water resources are vested in the President on behalf of the people, and clearly
defines the WRC as the overall body responsible for water resources management
in Ghana. The Commission, which provides a forum for integration and collaboration
of different interests, is composed of the major stakeholders involved in the water
sector.
The responsibilities of WRC, which are spelt out in Section 2 (2) of the Act, can
be categorized as:
• processing of water rights and permits;
• planning for water resources development and management with river basins
(catchments) as the natural units of planning;
• collating, storing and disseminating data and information on water resources
in Ghana;
• monitoring and assessing activities and programmes for the utilisation
and conservation of water resources.

Bye-laws
One of the most important provisions of the law is the power of District Assemb-
lies to make bye-laws for the purpose of the functions conferred under Act 462.

3.2.2 Policies and Plans

Environmental Sanitation Policy (revised 2009)

The policy was prepared by MLGRD to establish basic principles and objectives
for better environmental management, and to specify the institutional roles and respon-
sibilities. The principal components of environmental sanitation include:
• Collection and sanitary disposal of wastes (solid waste, liquid waste, excreta,
industrial waste, health-care and other hazardous wastes);
• Stormwater drainage;
• Cleansing of thoroughfares, markets and other public spaces;
• Control of pests and vectors of disease;
• Food hygiene;
19
 • Environmental sanitation education;
• Inspection and enforcement of sanitary regulations;
• Disposal of the dead;
• Control of rearing and straying of animals;
• Monitoring the observance of environmental standards.
The Revised Environmental Sanitation Policy is a review to address limitations
of the old policy published in 1999. The first part presents the current situation of envi-
ronmental sanitation in Ghana, the goal and policy principles. The overall goal of ESP is
to develop a clear and nationally accepted vision of environmental sanitation in Ghana.
The broad policy principles are as following:
• The principle of environmental sanitation services as a public good;
• The principle of environmental sanitation services as and economic good;
• The polluter-pays-principle;
• The principle of cost recovery to ensure value-for-money ensuring economy,
effectiveness and efficiency;
• The principle of subsidiarity in order to ensure participatory decision-making
at the lowest appropriate level in society;
• The principle of improving equity and gender sensitivity;
• The principle of recognizing indigenous knowledge, diversity of religious
and cultural practices;
• The recautionary principle that seeks to minimise activities that have
the potential to negatively affect the integrity of all environmental resources;
• The principle of community participation and social intermediation.
The Second part is a core of the new policy and identifies the main challenges
and constraints of the sector and draws objectives as well as actions and measures,
to meet the challenges while adhering to basic principles. In order to provide a clear
basis for achieving the overall goal of the sector, the policy provides strategic elements
under seven policy focus areas, as follows:
• Capacity development;
• Information education and communication;
• Legislation and regulation;
• Sustainable financing and cost recovery;
• Levels of service;

20
 • Research and development;
• Monitoring and evaluation.
Part three deals with implementation arrangements including household and
communal level responsibilities, responsibilities and roles of institutions and broad
specifications.
The ESP was adopted to provide a framework for the implementation
of the National Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Action Plan.

National Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Action Plan

The NESSAP is a first attempt at translating the measures of the objectives
of the Revised ESP (2009) into strategies and planned activities. The ESP (2009)
defines the implementation roles of key stakeholders. The NESSAP is to guide all sector
actors – Ministries, Departments and Agencies, Metropolitan, Municipal and District
Assemblies, Private Sector, Development Partners, NGOs, Traditional Authorities and
the media – to achieve incremental improvements over the long-term planning horizon,
2008 – 2025.
Chapter 1 – Background and Introduction gives a brief overview of the develo-
pment context in which environmental sanitation is seen as an important component
in the overall human development agenda. It also presents the framework for preparing
the NESSAP, including the fact that it is based on proposed measures and action
of the ESP (2009).
The framework is made of:
• Raising awareness for change in sanitation-behaviour and attitudes towards
all wastes encompassing advocacy at the highest political levels, effectively
implementing policies, and enhancing environmental sanitation education
and enforcement management;
• Pursuing a phased programme for incremental improvements in all aspects
of environmental sanitation services targeting the reduction of wastes
for final disposal;
• Ensuring effective coordination of, and collaboration among, sector stake-
holders for country-wide adoption of policies, plans and programmes.
In line with the definition of the components of environmental sanitation
in the ESP (2009), the NESSAP strategies and action plans cover:
• Solid Waste Management;

21
 • Excreta (Liquid Waste) Management;
• Storm-water Drainage and Sullage Conveyance;
• Environmental Sanitation Education and Enforcement Management;
• Health-care and Special Industrial Wastes.
The policy focus areas are exactly the same as those of ESP (2009).
The second chapter – National Profile contains a summary of geographical
information about Ghana, socio-economic data and key environmental issues and how
these relate to the state of environmental sanitation. Presented is also the institutional
context of environmental sanitation covering the main sector Ministries, Department
and Agencies and how they relate to MMDAs, especially the issue of decentralized
departments and how they fit in the operationalised Local Government Service.
Chapter 3 – Current State of Environmental Sanitation presents an overview
of situational analysis and is derived from many sources. It treats all the key
components of environmental sanitation defined in ESP (2009): solid waste, faecal
liquid waste, stormwater drainage and sullage conveyance, environmental sanitation
education and enforcement management, health-care and special industrial wastes.
The chapter concludes with discussions of environment and health impacts,
gender, poverty and governance sensitiveness and how they are influenced by impro-
ving environmental sanitation services, and importantly, the financial administration
framework and how these affect MMDAs and funding allocations to the sector.
Chapter 4 – National Objectives and Strategies is the core of NESSAP. In this
chapter are provided the measures, strategies and action plans proposed for meeting
the objectives under the main focus areas of the ESP (2009). It deals with the main
national-level strategies including those on institutional restructuring that affect capacity
development, identified as the main challenge facing the sector.
The chapter ends with a discussion on the link between the NESSAP and District
Environmental Sanitation and Strategy Action Plan (DESSAP) prepared by MMDAs. It
is expected that MMDAs implement their DESSAPs which will provide the critical
„bottom-up“ feedback needed for updating the NESSAP.
In Chapter 5 – Requirements for Improving Services and Infrastructure are
discussed proposals for incremental options to be implemented over the periods
2010-2015, 2016-2020, 2021-2025. The first period is formulated to achieve the imme-

22
diate, short-term and some aspects of medium-term strategies of the NESSAP by 2015,
which is the target year of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
In this chapter is also presented further categorisation of the focus areas and
components into „enabling elements“ and „levels of service“, which correspond
to „software“ and „hardware“ measures respectively. The options for the above catego-
ries are also covered, as well as model for translating policy objectives to measures and
then to implementation packages. Introduced is also the concept of Incremental Service
Improvement Options. The chapter ends with requirements for improving enabling
elements and levels of service.
Chapter 6 presents the Implementation Plan. It covers implementation packages
for enabling elements and levels of service and corresponding time-lines. The cost
of the four implementation packages over the first phase is shown in Table 1. This
chapter also discusses the institutional arrangements for implementing the NESSAP
based on relevant regulations (e.g. Local Government Act, 1993 – Act 462).
The chapter concludes with result based monitoring and evaluation indicators of the key
activities under the focus areas of the NESSAP.

Table 1 NESSAP Implementation Packages (2010 - 2015)

Item Implementation Package (Programme) Estimated cost [GHC]

1 Institutional Development and Capacity Enhancement 15,141,120
2 Community Participation and Public Awarness 133,660,075
3 Local Services Improvement Programme 1,098,239,376
4 Research, Performance Monitoring and Governance 70,620,516
Total 1,317,661,087

3.2.3 Other Instruments (Regulations, Guidelines and Standards)

• Environmental Assessment Regulations, 1996 (LI 1652)

• National Building Regulations, 1996 (LI 1630)
• National Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1998
• Ghana Landfill Guidelines, 2002
• Manual for the Preparation of District Waste Manag. Plans in Ghana, 2002
• Guidelines for the Management of Health-care and Veterinary Waste, 2002
• Handbook for the Preparation of District Level Environmental Sanitation
Strategies and Action Plans (DESSAPs)

23
4 METHODOLOGY

While selecting a city for a case study, study visits were made to waste
management departments of various MMDAs in Ghana, particularly to WMD/AMA,
WMD/KMA, WMD of Offinso Municipal Assembly, WMD of Asuogyaman Municpal
Assembly. The city of Kumasi was chosen as a case study primarily because of the ac-
cess to information and data on municipal waste management. In most parts of Ghana
the information and data availability is very low. The information for Kumasi appeared
to be more readily available than for other towns and cities. The visits to WMDs
of various MMDAs also gave a good overview to the author of how is the MSW
managed in different parts of Ghana.

4.1.1 Sources of Data

Primary data was obtained from Waste Management Department of KMA and
Dompoase Landfill Site. The secondary sources of general information about solid
waste mangement technologies function and applicability in tropical, developing coun-
tries were sought for in international, as well as in Ghanaian literature. Most informati-
on was obtained from published sources, including books and published articles both
on the internet and in journals. For more specific knowledge regarding Ghana and
Kumasi however, much grey literature had to be employed. Master and Bachelor thesis
from KNUST and other universities, reports from conferences, technical reports,
government publications, and the KMA and Ghana Statistical Service have been ap-
plied. When possible they were combined with each other and/or the observations
of the author from the field.

4.1.2 Instruments

Questionnaires were administered together with personal interviews with

managers and/or operators of the WMD/KMA, Dompoase Landfill Site, the Kumasi
branch of Zoomlion Ghana Ltd, and operators at communal collection points. These
were intended to find out the level of MSW generation, collection, transportation,
disposal, separation, recycling, sources of operational funds, and the problems confron-
ting their work, as well as to collect the data. The data collected here was on waste
stream information including waste type and composition, collection, volume generated

24
versus collected, disposal methods and volume disposed at Dompoase sanitary landfill
site. The information gathering was further supplemented by author‘s observing
of the environment and peoples behaviour and attitude towards waste management
issues while visiting various parts of Kumasi, and interviewing local people.

4.1.3 Data Analysis and Presentation

In the analysis of the data, qualitative approach is employed. The data collected
in Ghana are compared with information obtained from literature. The data are integra-
ted and harmonized comprehensively to allow for a clear pattern of analysis and
for easy understanding. Quantitative data are categorized in tables and processed.
A SWOT analysis is used since it is one of the most powerful tools in the strategic
planning process. It considers the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, and
look at ways and means of converting the threats into opportunities, and off-setting
the weaknesses against the strengths. Finally, the results are summarized and used
to derive possible strategies and recommendations for future development of MSW
in Kumasi.

4.1.4 Limitations to the Study

This thesis is limited to municipal solid waste management in Kumasi. It gives

an overview of MSWM at national level since it is important to understand the overall
situation and conditions, but the core of the thesis is focused on MSWM in Kumasi. It is
limited to the generation and sources of municipal solid waste, treatment, disposal,
sorting and recycling, ways of financing and institutions involved and their responsibili-
ties. The outcome is a SWOT analysis which presents the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats to Kumasi MSWM, and author’s recommendations and
suggestions how to improve and make the MSWM in Kumasi more effective.
There has not been consistent collection and collation of data on waste manage-
ment in Ghana, since the monitoring and evaluation is currently underdeveloped.
The available data on waste management in Kumasi have been limited to MSW
collection and disposal at Dompoase landfill site.
The author’s access to the available data was limited to the data obtained during
the field study in 2010. There was no possibility to reach the latest data from abroad.

25
5 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT GHANA

5.1 Geography

Ghana is located in West Africa

between longitudes 3° 15‘ W and
1° 12‘ E, and above the equator
on latitudes 4° 44‘ N and 11° 15‘ N
(ROOSBROECK, AMLALO, 2006).
It shares boundary with Cote
d’Ivoire to the west, Togo to the East,
Burkina Faso to the North and the Gulf
of Guinea delimits the southern extent
of the country.
The total area of the country is
238,539 km2, of which approximately
Figure 2 Map of Ghana (CIA, 2011)
230,000 km2 are land and 8,500 km2 are
water (DAZÉ, 2007). The Black and White Volta rivers enter Ghana from Burkina Faso
and lead to the largest man-made lake by surface area in the world, Volta lake.
Akosombo hydro power plant build on Volta lake is the main source of electricity
in Ghana. There are many lagoons along the coast which serve important ecological and
hydrological functions. Groundwater aquifers underlie almost the entire geographical
area of Ghana. The occurrence and distribution of ground water is dependent
on the geology and other such factors as topography and climate. Quality of groundwa-
ter is generally good except for some cases of localized pollution with high levels
of iron and fluoride as well as high mineralization in some coastal aquifers (NESSAP,
2010).
The climate is tropical - warm and comparatively dry along southeast coast, hot
and humid in southwest and hot and dry in north (CIA, 2011).
Major environmental concerns include land degradation, coastal erosion, polluti-
on of rivers and lagoons, deforestation, desertification and waste management
(NESSAP, 2010).

26
5.2 Socio-economic Characteristics

The total population is estimated 24.8 million in 2011, with an annual growth
rate of 1.8 (CIA, 2011). English is the official language, but there are 9 major national
languages, the most widely spoken Akan, Ewe, Mole-Dabani and Ga. According
to WIREDU (2000) there are 46 documented local languages while many other sources
speak about higher number of languages. E.g. LEWIS (2009) says that the number
of individual languages listed for Ghana is 79.
Ethnicaly, the largest group is the Akan (45.3 %), with other major groups inclu-
ding the Mole-Dagbon (15.2 %), Ewe (11.7 %), Ga-Dangme (7.3 %), Guan (4 %) and
Gurma (3.6 %). Christianity is the predominant religion (68.8 %), followed by Islam
(15.9 %) and traditional belief (8.5 %) (CIA, 2011).
As shown in Table 2, literacy is 57.9 % (2000 census), life expectancy at birth is
61 years, fertility rate is 3.5 births per woman (CIA, 2011). Ghana ranks 130 out of 169
countries on the Human Development Index (HDI) with HDI 0.467 in 2010 (UNDP,
2010).
Ghana has experiencing increase in the level of urbanization, however, apart
from Greater Accra and Ashanti regions, the rest of the country remains predominantly
rural. The overal urban population is 51 % (CIA, 2011).

Table 2 Socio-economic characteristics (CIA, 2010; UNDP, 2010)

Socio characteristics
Population [million] 24.8
annual growth rate 1.8
literacy rate [%] 57.9
life expectancy at birth 61.0
fertility rate (births per woman) 3.5
HDI 0.467

Economic characteristics
GDP per capita (2011) 3,100 USD
Services 50.7 %
Agriculture 28.3 %
Industry 21.0 %

Ghana’s GDP per capita was 3,100 USD in 2011. The GDP is made up of servi-
ces (50.7 %), agriculture (28.3 %) and industry (21.0 %) (CIA, 2011). Major agricultu-

27
ral products include cocoa, coconuts, pineapples, cashews, pepper, rice, cassava,
peanuts, corn, shea nuts, bananas, timber. The industrial sector comprises mining,
lumbering, light manufacturing, aluminium smelting, food processing, cement, textile
manufacturing, small commercial ship building, fishing, tourism. The country exports
cocoa, gold, timber, tuna, bauxite, aluminium, manganese ore, diamonds, horticulture
and imports capital equipment, petroleum, foodstuffs, manufactured goods, chemicals.
(CIA, 2011) The currency is Ghanaian Cedi (GHC).

5.3 Political Situation

In 1957 Ghana became the first sub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain
its independence from a colonial power, in this instance Britain. Ghana’s post-
independence history has been characterized by long periods of military rule. With
the exception of the First Republic under Kwame Nkrumah (1960-1966), Ghana
endured a long series of coups before Jerry Rawlings took power in 1981 and banned
political parties. In the late 1980s, after nearly one decade of quasi-military rule under
the Provisional National Defence Council, strong internal and external pressures
on the government led to the promulgation of a liberal constitution in 1992 and
the inauguration of a multiparty party democracy (ABDULAI, 2009). Rawlings won
presidential elections in 1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally prevented from run-
ning for a third term in 2000. John Kufuor succeeded him and was re-elected in 2004.
John Atta Mills took over as head of state in early 2009.
Ghana has enjoyed relative political stability for nearly two decades, including
two peaceful transitions of power between the two major parties – the National
Democratic Congress (NDC) and New Patriotic Party (NPP) – in the course of the last
five multiparty elections. The 2008 presidential election was so close that it led
to a run-off election between the top two vote-getters, but the parties accepted
the Election Commission’s final decision without a struggle or political upheaval.

5.4 Governance System

The country achieved independence in 1957 and underwent a peaceful transition

to democracy. As shown in Figure 3, the country is divided into 10 administrative units
or regions, each headed by a regional minister appointed by the president. The principal
units of the regions are the District Assemblies, which constitute the Local Government.
28
Currently there are 170 MMDAs which include 6 Metropolitan (Accra, Kumasi,
Tamale, Cape Coast, Tema, Sekondi-Takoradi) and 24 Municipal Assemblies. Between
the district assemblies and the central government are the Regional Coordinating
Councils. (NESSAP, 2010).
The MMDAs are categorised by a number of socio-economic and demographic
features:
• Metropolitan Assemblies (are based on areas with at least population
of 250,000);
• Municipal Assemblies (urban areas with at least population of 95,000);
• District Assemblies (with at least population of 75,000). (ACT 462)

Figure 3 Regions and Districts of Ghana

29
6 OVERVIEW OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN GHANA

Poor solid waste management with its immediate and visible impact remains one
of the major challenges to Ghana. Most of the concern for waste management in Ghana
is with the urban areas than the rural areas. Urban areas produce a variety of waste.
The predominant waste is domestic solid waste, industrial waste and construction waste.
These wastes are sent to a few dump sites, but majority end up in drains, streams and
open places.

6.1 Generation and Sources of Municipal Solid Waste

Ghana’s five largest cities (Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi, Tamale and

Tema) account for about 19 % of the total population and their residents generate
an estimated 3,200 tonnes of solid waste per day. It is estimated that 80 % (NESSAP,
2010) of this waste is collected. There are 105 other urban localities each with populati-
on above 15,000 with environmental sanitation challenges within their core areas simi-
lar to those of the large cities. These other urban localities comprising 34 % of the total
population also generate about 5,000 tonnes each day. It is estimated that the general
waste daily generation rate for metropolitan and municipal areas is 0.75 kg/capita and
0.45 kg/capita for other towns. (NESSAP, 2010).
An estimation of proportion of solid waste from major sources is shown
in Figure 4. The average composition of solid waste is than indicated in Figure 5.

markets, lorry parks, public areas

5% 3%
8%
households
39%
15%
schools, colleges, universities, barracs

hotels, restaurants, chop bars, drinking bars

airports, harbours and others

30% factories, construction and mining industries

Figure 4 Estimation of primary sources of solid waste in Ghana (NESSAP, 2010)

30
 organics
2% 4%
4% 3% inerts and residues
8%
paper and cardboard
plastics and rubber
textiles
8%
60% metals
11% glass
miscellaneous

Figure 5 The average composition of solid waste in Ghana (NESSAP, 2010)

The long term trend is a decrease in organic waste and an increase in plastics,
paper, textile, metals and miscellaneous. This trend is expected to continue due
to economical development of the country and improving living standards of people.
As mentioned above, majority of solid waste is generated in urban areas.
For rural areas is typical that they are inhabitated with low income population,
the infrastructure is usually bad and majority of the households rely on farming. Thus
the access to commercial and sophisticated products containing undegradable materials
such as plastic etc. is limited, and the small they have is being largely reused. The orga-
nic waste which is biodegradable and is disposed by traditional methods prevails
in these areas so currently the waste management in Ghana is focused primarily
on urban areas. However the situation is gradually changing with improving living
standards of population and economic development of the country, so it is necessary
to include these areas into long term plans.

6.2 Solid Waste Collection and Transportation

Most major cities have an organised municipal waste collection system, which
was privatised mostly during 1990’s. There are a number of companies in Ghana
collecting and transporting domestic-type solid waste. The largest is Zoomlion Ghana
Limited which has a large number of collection vehicles ranging from tricycles made
especially for high density communities to 40 m3 container trucks and compacting waste
collection trucks. The collection methods are:
• door-to-door collection,
• communal collection.

31
 Door-to-door collection is mostly used in low density areas with high-income
households, while central containers usually serve to high density areas with low-
income households.
However majority of all refuse generated is not collected and disposed
of in a proper manner. The rate of collection is higher in major cities and more develo-
ped regions than in small towns and rural areas in less developed regions.
According to the 2000 Housing and Population Census 4.8 % of households
from national average have their waste collected directly from their dwellings, 57.6 %
use various household containers for storage and send it to designated public dumps
including communal container stations or sanitary sites. It is reported that 7.9 % burn
their household refuse, 3.9 % of households bury their refuse and 25.9 % dump
at unspecified locations including vacant lots, drains, embankment of water courses,
rivers, lakes and wetlands (see Figure 6).

collected buried
5% 4% other
1%
burned
8%

dumped public dump

elsewhere 57%
25%

Figure 6 Coverage of Refuse Collection and Disposal in Ghana (data collected by Census, 2000)
(NESSAP, 2010)

According to the baseline data collected by MMDAs in 2008 2.2 % of house-

holds have house-to-house collection and 4.1 % use communal containers. Close
to 76 % of households still rely on improper waste collection and disposal methods.
(NESSAP, 2010) Figure 7 shows the different collection and disposal methods.

32
 house-to-
house
public dumps collection
3% 2% crude /
buried other indiscriminat
4% 12% e dumping
58%
communal
container
4%

burned
17%

Figure 7 Coverage of Refuse Collection and Disposal in Ghana (data collected by MMDAs, 2008)

The garbage is usually transported by road from source straight to disposal

facilities, mostly dump or landfill, which are usually not far from source of waste.
Transfer stations are used in cities and equipped with containers where individuals bring
their waste and/or where tricycles are emptied. The collection and disposal of solid
waste is done by public and private waste management companies.

6.3 Treatment and Disposal of Solid Waste

Waste management treatment and disposal infrastructure is currently underdeve-

loped in Ghana and the poor disposals of refuse remain a challenge for all MMDAs.
ESP (1999) recommends sanitary landfills for Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies
as one of the most cost-effective methods of solid waste disposal. Controlled dumping
with cover than represents the most basic method of solid waste disposal to meet
minimum requirements, and is recommended for all other district assemblies. However,
there are only two engineered landfill sites, in Kumasi and Tamale, both built
with external donor support (AGYEPONG, 2011; NESSAP, 2010). Accra has no
engineered landfill and refuse is disposed in abandoned quarries (NESSAP, 2010).
There are three engineered landfill sites under construction, in Sekondi-Takoradi,
in Tema (AGYEPONG, 2011), and at Kwabenya (AMA), however the projects were
stopped for various reasons (TGL, 2009). The most common method of disposal
in Ghana are open dumps without leachate or gas management systems. In most cases,

33
they are located on the perimeter of the city, within easy reach of vehicles and collection
crews. The ecological or public health is hardly ever considered.
Small scale incineration is used for health care and other hazardous or noxious
wastes only (e.g. dead animals). This method is not suitable for municipal solid waste
due to its composition (60 % organic) and lack of human and capital resources
to support this technology.
Generally conditions in Ghana are very conductive for composting in terms
of the waste composition and weather conditions. However composting has never
flourished as an option for waste treatment and disposal. Based on local experience,
most local authorities feel that the running costs of composting plants are excessive and
unjustifiable. The only large composting plant was built with external donor support
in Accra and commissioned in the early 1980s. During its early years of operation
the plant was useful in helping reduce the volume of waste. However high maintenance
costs adversely affected its sustainability. In the last few years most of the mechanical
components have been decommissioned and the plant currently operates only
for demonstration purposes (MENSAH, LARBI, 2005).
Other methods such as biogas plants, anaerobic fermentation, gas recovery etc.
can be also found in Ghana, but are not significant components of Ghanaian MSWM
practice as they are in they exploratory stages.

6.4 Sorting and Recycling

Waste sorting and recycling is largely the domain of the informal sector.
The activity is focused on components of economic and/or social value and occurs
at several levels:
• Household level;
• Scavenging at dumps and landfills.
At the household level in low-income areas, materials recovery includes
the reuse of plastic bags, bottles, paper, cardboard, and cans for domestic purposes.
The rate of reuse of these types of materials is high and they enter the formal waste
collection system only when they are no longer fit for domestic use. In high-income
areas, recovery is carried out by domestic servants and/or wardens. Rather then reusing
the materials directly, they sell them to intermediaries or commercial centres that pay

34
for these materials. The extent to which these transactions occur depends on the availa-
bility of local marketable end uses for the materials.
Scavengers provide informal collection services recovering the materials
at dumps and landfills. At landfill sites, they might be organised with a permit to opera-
te at the landfill. In other cases, they might be individuals seeking to recover items
for personal or commercial use. Some of these individuals may also collect the materials
from shops, especially plastics. Figure 8 shows a scavenger’s storage place for plastics
at Bola beach in Accra. Once in time the processors come with truck to buy it.
The extent of commercial recycling depends on the presence of industrial or
other end uses for these materials. Basic facilities exist for plastics, glass and metals
recycling. Such industries may be found in some of the major cities, but they are largely
absent in smaller cities and in the rural areas. There are no official statistics about
the overall rate of waste reduction or materials recovery.

Figure 8 Informal collection of plastics, Bola beach, Accra (Source: author, 2010)

6.5 Financing
Under the Local Government Act of 1993 the responsibility for all urban
infrastructure services has been transferred to the assemblies under a decentralized
system. The expenditures and revenue of MMDAs accounts for a small part of total
35
public expenditures. In 2007 the MMDA expenditure accounted for 5.6 % of total
public expenditures and 1.7 % of GDP (the total public expenditure was Gh¢ 4.25 billi-
on and total MMDA expenditure Gh¢ 0.24 billion). The MMDA revenue in the same
year accounted for 5.4 % of total public revenue and 1.6 % of GDP (the total public
revenue was GHC 4.25 billion and total MMDA revenue GHC 0.23 billion) (NESSAP,
2010).
The MMDAs are financed from three main sources:
• Internally Generated Funds (IGF) are the traditional own-source revenues
collected by MMDAs and include: basic rates, special rates, property rates,
fees, licenses, trading services, royalties, mineral development fund, invest-
ments income and other sources. These are listed under the Sixth Schedule
of Section 86 of the Local Government Act of 1993.
• Transfers from Central Government consist of: transfers for salaries,
District Assemblies Common Fund (DACF), transfers from highly indebted
poor countries (HIPC), debt relief and various donor funds. DACF is
the largest funding source for the MMDAs. It is specified by Article 252
of the 1992 Constitution and it is to receive an annual financial allocation
by Parliament of not less than 5 % of the total revenues of Ghana. HIPC
initiative fund was introduced in 2002 and is for specific projects that are
expected to impact on poverty reduction. The HIPC uses different allocation
criteria, planning and budgeting guidelines and reporting system from
DACF.
• Donor Funding of environmental sanitation in Ghana is very significant,
comprising 20 % in 2008 (NESSAP, 2010). The main foreign donors include
the World Bank, UNICEF, the EU, the Danish International Development
Agency, Agence Française de Développement, the Nordic Development
Fund and others. The main donor-financed program in the sector is
the Urban Environmental Sanitation Programme (UESP) (NESSAP, 2010;
WB, 2006) which was initiated by the Government of Ghana for the impro-
vement of the living conditions of urban areas in Ghana involving selected
towns in Ghana. The first UESP started in 1996 and was closed by the end
of 2003, the second UESP was approved in 2004 and extended twice,
the current closing date is May 31, 2012. The objective of UESP-II is

36
 to improve urban living conditions in regard to environmental health,
sanitation, drainage, vehicular access, and solid waste management
in a sustainable fashion, with special emphasis on the poor. The programme
involves five largest towns in Ghana: Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi,
Tamale and Tema, and is financed by the World Bank, Nordic Development
Fund and Agence Française de Développement (WB, 2006).

In 2008 the main sources of revenue/allocations to MMDAs were DACF which

contributed by 43 %, followed by donor inflow 20 % and IGF 19 %. The central gover-
nment and HIPC transfers represented 9 % each (NESSAP, 2010).

HIPC
central government 9%
9% DACF
43%

IGF
19%

donors
20%

Figure 9 Main sources of revenue/allocations to MMDAs in 2008 (NESSAP, 2010)

Under the Local Government Act of 1993 the responsibility for all urban
infrastructure services has been transferred to the assemblies under a decentralized
system, but adequate transfer of resources from MLGRD and institutional strengthening
is lagging behind. The MMDA’s overall capacity to deliver services is weak due
to limited fiscal decentralization as well as poor internal revenue generation of most
MMDA’s (WB, 2006: pp. 163). The assemblies regulate user charges for such services
as collecting refuse and emptying septic tanks, but they are generally kept below cost
to make them affordable as most services are for low-income beneficiaries. Consequent-
ly, the low cost recovery and overall low financing base of the MMDAs make it
difficult for them not only to operate and maintain the existing systems, but also carry
out their own infrastructure investments. However several examples show that efforts
such as public education on refuse collection and waste management generally underta-
ken by several MMDAs in the past to strengthen internal revenue collection have
37
yielded positive results. Such examples can be found for instance in Tema, Takoradi
(WB, 2006: pp. 166) and Akosombo.

6.6 Institutions Involved in Waste Management

Waste management practises in Ghana are quided by the Environmental

Sanitation Policy of 1999 which was revised in 2009. This document spells out the roles
and responsibilities of various stakeholders including the private sector, households and
communities.
While regulatory authority is vested in EPA, general solid waste management is
the responsibility of the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, which
supervises the decentralized Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies.
The MMDAs are responsible for the collection and final disposal of solid waste through
their Waste Management Departments and their Environmental Health and Sanitation
Departments. Industrial waste is the responsibility of the industry generating those
wastes.

38
7 KUMASI AS A CASE STUDY

7.1 Description of the Study Area

Kumasi is the capital of the Ashanti region of Ghana, and is located between
longitudes 1° 35‘ W and 1° 30‘ E, and above the equator on latitudes 6° 35‘ N and
6° 40‘ N. It is Ghana‘s second largest city, with an estimated population of 1.6 million
people (KMA, 2011) and it has one of the biggest markets in West Africa, which draws
many more daily. During daytime the population can almost double due to commuters
(BURRI, MARTIUS, 2011). The city is about 270 km north of the national capital,
Accra, with an area of about 254 square kilometres. The unique centrality of the city
as a traversing point from all parts of the country makes it a special place to migrate to.
The city is rapidly growing with an annual growth rate of 5.47 %. (KMA, 2006)
Migration accounts for much of Kumasi’s growth in recent years, and there is
a significant migrant community. The Kumasi Metropolitan Area shares boundaries
with Kwabre East District to the north, Atwima District to the west, Ejisu-Juaben
Municipal to the east and Bosomtwe to the south.

Figure 10 Kumasi map (Source: Google maps, acessed 2012-03-01)

39
7.1.1 Political Administration of Kumasi

The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly constitutes the highest political authority

in the metropolis. It is composed of 87 members, from who 70 % are elected, and 30 %
members are appointed by the state. The assembly guides, directs and supervises all
other administrative authority in the city. It is divided into 10 Administrative
Sub-Metro Council Areas, namely: Asawasi, Asokwa, Bantama, Kwaadaso, Manhyia,
Nhyiayeso, Oforikrom, Suame, Subin, and Tafo Sub-Metro. It has 24 Town Councils
and 419 Unit Committees. The KMA reports to the Ashanti Regional Coordination
Council.
In the performance of its functions, the Assembly works through the Executive
Committee and Sub-Committees of the Executive Committee. These are:
• Finance and Administration,
• Revenue Mobilization,
• Education,
• Development Planning,
• Justice and Security,
• Works,
• Social Services,
• Environment,
• Complaints and Public Relations.
The sub-committees are deliberative in function and submit the results of their
deliberations to the Executive Committee for action and steps to be taken.

7.1.2 Economy

The business in Kumasi is made up of the formal and the informal sectors.
The formal sector is characterized by businesses with corporate ownership, large-scale
operation, capital-intensive and the use of sophisticated technology and the good access
to infrastructure and land. The informal sector structure of Kumasi is “a confusing maze
of thousands of tiny workshops and enterprises producing everything under the sun,
with a complicated distribution and communication network at their disposal” (KMA,
2006). Kumasi’s informal sector contributes a lot to the total economy of the city.
The major sectors of the economy are following:

40
 Services, trade and commerce account for about 71 %. Commercial activity is
centred on wholesaling and retailing and consist of an integrated system of markets
at Adum Central Business Area and Kumasi Central Market with linkages to the satelli-
te markets. It also includes banking, insurance, transportation, hotels, restaurants and
traditional caterers and other tourist sites found in the city.
Manufacturing and Industry, which account for about 24 % are made up
of manufacturing (breweries, beverages) and wood processing (plywood, boards). Most
of the industries are located in the Asokwa-Ahinsan-Kaase industrial area, the hub
of large-scale formal industries. There is vehicular parts production and service
industry located at Suame Magazine which is the second largest industrial area
in the metropolis. The Informal production sector consists mainly of woodworking
industries, petty commodity production (carving, weaving and pottery), and constructi-
on industry. However, there is a decline in industry due to high cost of production
resulting from high energy cost and cheap imports.
Primary production sector is made up of urban agriculture and quarrying/sand
winning and accounts for 5 % only. The agricultural sector, which is made up
of farming, aquaculture, horticulture etc. is limited to production of staple crops
including maize, plantain, cocoyam, cassava, vegetables and nursery of industrial crops
mainly oil palm, citrus fruits. There is also specialization in the distribution of food
crops which are brought in from other parts of the country.

7.1.3 Conditions of the Built Environment

It is estimated that 48 % of the Metropolis are urban, 46 % peri-urban and 6 %

rural areas (KMA, 2006), confirming the fast rate of urbanization. In terms of housing
types the city has been categorized into high-income area, government area, indigenous
areas and tenement area. Sometimes is also divided into 1st, 2nd and 3rd class residential
areas, depending on the income of the household.
The high rate of population growth coupled with the high migrant numbers and
has outstripped the rate of infrastructure development and service provision. Most
of the facilities have exceeded their carrying capacities. Lands in the newly developing
suburbs have not been serviced, hence estate development precedes the provision
of water, telephone facilities and electricity. It is estimated that about 24 % of all resi-
dential structures are uncompleted and demand exceeds supply capabilities.

41
 Kumasi has a total of 846 km of road network but much of it remains unpaved
(KMA, 2006). The city has been experiencing both human and vehicular traffic conges-
tion in recent years, particularly in the Central Business District. Over 90 %
of the traffic is made of taxis, private cars and mini-buses. As a result of the dominance
of the distributive trade in the city’s economy the Central Business District and all
the principal streets have been taken over by hawkers. The erection of wooden structu-
res including kiosks and metal containers along the streets and on any available space is
a common sight.

7.1.4 Conditions of the Natural Environment

The Kumasi Metropolis lies within the plateau of the South-West physical
region which ranges between 250-300 metres above sea level. The temperature varies
from 21 to 34 °C, and the rainfall from 36 to 549 mm/month. The average humidity is
about 84 % at 9:00 GMT and 60 % at 15:00 GMT. The city is drained by a number
of rivers and streams, which include the Subin, Wiwi, Sisai, Owabi, Aboabo, Nsuben
among others. However, as a result of the effects of the urban sprawl and population
growth, the natural environment has been altered. Estate developers have encroached
upon the green reserves. In addition to this, the water bodies have been greatly polluted
from human activity (including indiscriminate waste dumping) to the extent that some
are near extinction. Even the few patches of greens along the waterways have been
cleared for agricultural purposes leading to siltation. Some developers have built along
and across watercourses resulting in occasional flooding in some areas, especially
during the rainy season with occasional cholera outbreak. In summary, the environment
of Kumasi has been characterised with solid and liquid waste, land degradation, surface
water and ground water pollution as a result of human activity for several years.

7.1.5 Agricultural Land Use

Most of the soil in Kumasi is a very rich type of soil which has made it possible
for a lot of foodstuff to be grown in the periphery. However, agriculture in the metropo-
lis has seen a dramatic change in the last two decades due to rapid urbanization. It has
been estimated that about 80 % of the arable lands have been displaced by the con-
struction of houses and other physical infrastructure, as the demand for residential,
industrial and commercial land uses has become much greater than that of agricultural

42
land use. One of the biggest challenges for KMA is the continuous indiscriminate use
of pesticides, insecticides and contaminated water on vegetables which is a threat
to human health. Also inadequate source of water hinders the production of vegetables
throughout the year. Vegetable growers depend mainly of rainfall, rivers and streams.

7.2 Solid Waste Management – Current State of Affairs

7.2.1 Groups Involved in Solid Waste Management in Kumasi

The key actors of the SWM system in Kumasi can be grouped according to their
function as follows:
System Managers – In Kumasi, the SWM is organised by the Waste Manage-
ment Department, which is part of the KMA, and was created by the Local Government
Act of 1993. The WMD manages following sections:
• Solid Waste Section,
• Liquid Waste Section,
• Street Swepping and Drains Cleansing,
• Human Waste Section,
• Waste Disposal (DONKOR, 2010).
The WMD of KMA is autonomous in several dimensions. It sets its own organi-
zational policies and goals and changes them as necessary to provide guidance and
direction in achieving the objectives of the department. The policy goal and mission
statement of the department are however in accordance with the National Environmen-
tal Sanitation Policy. The WMD also prepares annual capital and operating budgets
consonant with its needs and available revenues but subject to the budgeting
arrangements of the MLGRD. It always obtains approval for budgets. However, there is
budgetary limitation.
The mission of the department states that:
„Its (WMD) mission is to keep the city clean and healthy by the provision and
delivery of effective and efficient waste collection services and programmes, and
environmentally acceptable disposal. In doing all these, the WMD will effectively colla-
borate with other Ministries, Departments and Agencies, the Private Sector and Civil
Society, including the Traditional Authorities. The services shall be delivered,
at an affordable cost to all sections of the communities and without any adverse impact

43
to the environment, thereby creating an enable environment for development and heal-
thy living.“
System Operators are companies making profit from the system. They include
the MSW collection companies, namely: Zoomlion Ghana Ltd., Meskworld Co. Ltd.,
SAK-M Co. Ltd., Waste Group Co. Ltd., Kumasi Waste Management Limited, and
ABC Co. Ltd., and the operator of the sanitary landfill site.
Sources of revenue of the system are people benefiting from the services,
currently the households and some institutions (e.g. police, army).
External Supporters of the system are institutions who provide external funds
for the financial support of the system (Government of Ghana, donors such as World
Bank and others).

7.2.2 Generation and Sources of MSW

The major sources of MSW are markets, lorry parks, public areas and
households. Other sources include institutions such as schools, colleges, universities,
barracks, restaurants, hotels, and others.
Figure 11 shows the average composition of solid waste in Kumasi in the year
2010. The share of organic material (40 %) is lower than the national average (60 %).
The second largest share is inert material (21 %) and plastics (20 %), which are quite
high comparing to national average (11 and 8 % respectively).

2% 2% 1% organic
7%
7% inerts
40% plastics
paper and cardboard
textiles
metals
20%
wood
glass
21%

Figure 11 The average composition of solid waste in Kumasi in 2010 (BURRI, MARTIUS, 2011)

44
7.2.3 Collection and Transportation

Solid waste collection services are delivered by private contractors under

ten Contract Lots based on the ten Sub-Metro Areas (Figure 12). Table 3 contains a list
of the private service providers, assigned to the various Sub-Metro Areas. Apart
from Zoomlion, which handles roughly 25 % of the waste, the private contractors are
small companies which operate only a few trucks (BURRI, MARTIUS, 2011).

Table 3 Collection service providers in various Sub-Metro Areas (KMA, 2011)

Sub-Metro Contractor
Subin Zoomlion Ghana Ltd.
Asawasi Zoomlion Ghana Ltd.
Tafo Zoomlion Ghana Ltd.
Bantama Meskworld Co. Ltd.
Manhyia Meskworld Co. Ltd.
Asokwa SAK-M Co. Ltd.
Kwadaso Waste Group Co. Ltd.
Nhyiaeso Kumasi Waste Management Limited
Oforikrom ABC Co. Ltd.
Suame Anthoco Co. Ltd.

Figure 12 Sub-Metro Areas of Kumasi (MoFA, 2011)

45
 The volume of MSW collected has increased from 220,896 10^3 kg in 2005
to 371,560 10^3 kg in 2008 (DONKOR, 2010). There are no official data on the MSW
volume generated, but it is estimated that 81 to 86 % of the total volume generated is
collected (BURRI, MARTIUS, 2011; FREIKU, 2011) which means that about 73,400
10^3 kg remained uncollected in 2008 (Table 4) and was disposed indiscriminately,
especially in watercourses (Figure 13), drainage channels and also as animal feed and
through burning (Figure 14).

Table 4 MSW Collection, 2005-2008 (DONKOR, 2010)

year total MSW generated* total MSW collected total MSW uncollected*
[10^3 kg] [10^3 kg] [10^3 kg]
2005 264,546 220,896 43,650
2006 395,387 330,148 65,239
2007 374,655 312,837 61,818
2008 444,982 371,560 73,422
* the number is calculated from the total volume of waste collected considering the fact
that approximately 83.5 % of total volume of waste generated is collected

Figure 13 An example of indiscriminate waste dumping, Aboabo river basin, Kumasi (Source:
author, 2010)

46
Figure 14 An example of indiscriminate waste dumping, Kumasi (Source: author, 2010)

Three types of collection are employed in Kumasi (Figure 15):

improved
communal
door-to-door
1%
20%

communal
79%

Figure 15 Collection methods of MSW in Kumasi

Communal collection covers approximately 80 % of Kumasi (DONKOR,

2010). There is 124 communal collection points, which are operated from 4 a.m.
to 8 p.m. (10 p.m.) by two shifts. These points are equiped with open metal containers
(skips) where individuals bring their waste for collection. The collection fee is
GHC 0.2 per head load. They also serve as transfer stations for improved communal
collection. When the skips are full, they are transported and emptied at a final disposal
site by skip loading trucks.

47
Figure 16 Communal Collection Points (Source: author, 2010)

Door-to-door collection system was introduced in 2002 in Bantama district

(BURRI, MARTIUS, 2011) and covers about 20 % of Kumasi (DONKOR, 2010).
The system attracts a fee of GHC 5 per 1st Class, GHC 4 for 2nd Class and GHC 3 for 3rd
Class residential areas (DONKOR, 2010; KMA, 2011). The rates are charged per bin
per month. The bins are emptied twice a week and the waste is transported straight
to a disposal facility.
Improved communal collection currently covers about 1 % of the city, mainly
areas with poor accessibility. The household bins are emptied into manual or motorized
tricycles introduced by Zoomlion Ghana Ltd. which are then emptied into central conta-
iners placed at approved strategic sanitary sites. These are taken to be emptied at a final
disposal site after they are filled up.

Figure 17 Tricycle (Source: author, 2010)

7.2.4 Treatment and Disposal

Majority of MSW generated in Kumasi is disposed at an engineered landfill site

at Oti village, near Dompoase, a southern suburb of Kumasi. The facility has been
operational since February 2004 and is expected to receive waste until 2020. The land
acquired for the facility is 40,470 square metres and currently one third is in use. It is

48
operated and managed by J. Stanley-Owusu Group, which is a group of companies
involved in solid and liquid waste management. The owner of Dompoase landfill site is
KMA. The project was financed mostly by the World Bank.
The landfill site has concrete lined basins, covered with a semi-permeable cloth
and gravel, which is appropriate to gather the leachate from decomposing waste.
The leachate is treated in a neighbouring faecal sludge treatment plant (Figure 19).
Vertical columns throughout the landfill capture gases produced under the surface and
vent them to the atmosphere (Figure 18). The placed refuse is compacted, covering is
not done regularly. A weighbridge is available and attached to a control room
(Figure 20) where the refuse should be weighed and inspected before being accepted
into the landfill. In reality the weighbridge is out of servis and the amount of waste is
being estimated. A maintenance bay and offices are also at the site. Heavy-duty
equipment are available for spreading of waste, compaction and covering. Grading and
gravelling of access roads are other vital activities at the landfill site.

Figure 18 Dompoase landfill site (Source: author, 2010)

49
Figure 19 Dompoase landfill site - faecal sludge and leachate treatment (Source: author, 2010)

Figure 20 Dompoase landfill site - Control room (Source: author, 2010)

Table 5 shows the volume of waste collected and disposed in Kumasi. Even
though there is an engineered landfill in Kumasi, large amount of MSW is disposed
by unsanitary landfilling. There are no official data on the volume of waste treated or
disposed by different means than at Dompoase landfill site, however it is generally
known that most of the waste which is not disposed at Dompoase landfill site is
disposed by unsanitary landfilling since the treatment of MSW in Kumasi is very low.
Table 5 shows a high decrease in the volume of MSW disposed at Dompoase landfill
site in the year 2007 by almost 150,000 10^3 kg due to the need of KMA to fill in a val-
ley in a suburb of Kumasi where the MSW was directed.

50
Table 5 The volume of MSW collected and disposed in Kumasi (DONKOR, 2010; AWANTUNGO,
2010)

total MSW MSW disposed MSW disposed

year
collected at Dompoase landfill by different means*
[10^3 kg] [10^3 kg] [%] of total [10^3 kg] [%] of total
2005 220,896 167,815 76 53,081 24
2006 330,148 287,365 87 42,783 13
2007 312,837 139,948 45 172,889 55
2008 371,560 212,197 57 159,363 43
* mostly by unsanitary landfilling

MSW treatment methods such as waste to energy, anaerobic fermentation,

incineration, etc. have so far remained at exploratory stages (AGYEPONG, 2011). That
is mainly due to the fact that most of these methods are capital and technology intensi-
ve, thus not suitable for Ghana. There is a need to research and develop low-cost, low-
tech and labor intensive methods of waste treatment, especially organic waste treatment
since it is the major component of MSW in Kumasi. As a suitable method according
to the facts stated above seems to be composting, however also not being highly
patronized nowadays. A small-scale pilot co-composting plant at Buobai, 15 km East
of city centre of Kumasi (co-composting refers to having to input materials: organic
solid waste and faecal sludge) was built in 2002. The plant was in operation since
February 2002 to December 2009 and was financed by foreign donors (Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, France; National Centre of Competence in Research, Switzerland;
and KEZO, Switzerland). The plant is currently not operational because the research
funds for this project are currently depleted and KMA has not taken the pilot plant over.
Whether a full-scale co-composting plant will be built or not depends on KMA. Even
though the results from the pilot project are generally positive (compost quality is
within an acceptable range, labor intensive operation, sustainability etc.), KMA does not
consider it a high priority (one problem is that the reference point for composting
in Ghana is still the failed large scale Teshi plant in Accra) (OLUFUNKE, DOULAYE,
2009)

51
7.2.5 Waste Reduction, Reuse and Recycling

Reduction, reuse and recycling of waste does not appear in the mission
of WMD. It is largely a domain of informal sector. Waste reuse at the household level
begins with the use of plastics, bottles, paper, cardboards, cans and other usable materi-
als for domestic purposes. These materials are disposed of only when they are no longer
of any use to their owners. In high income areas, recovery is mainly done by domestic
servants who sell the materials to middlemen to supplement their incomes.
Scavenging is undertaken at communal container sites and mainly at dumping
and landfill sites. At the communal container sites valuable items such as plastic contai-
ners etc. are removed by the operator of the site (Figure 21) and resold. At Dompoase
sanitary landfill site the scavengers are after obtaining a permit given protection mask
and gloves, and are allowed to separate waste straight from the site. They sort materials
such as metals (copper, aluminium, others) and plastics (HDPE, LDPE) from incoming
trucks (Figure 22). The scavengers are not charged. Most of these materials are send
to Tema, the industrial city of Ghana, to be processed.
There are no official data on the quantity of waste sorted or recycled, but it is
es-timated that the amount is very low (AWANTUNGO, 2010).

Figure 21 Separated plastics from MSW at a communal collection point at Sepe Tinpom (Source:
author, 2010)

52
Figure 22 Scavenging at Dompoase landfill site (Source: author, 2010)

7.2.6 Bye-law on Sanitation

The KMA by-law on sanitation was enacted in 1995 and obliges every individu-
al to clean the streets around his/her (business) premises and the immediate surrounding
drains and gutters, prohibits the disposal of waste on any street, yard, premises, enclosu-
re or open space, where the KMA has set aside a place for the disposal of waste, and
gives power to KMA to organise communal labour.

7.2.7 Budget

The WMD/KMA maintains a yearly balance between expenditures and reve-

nues. Revenues are drawn from two sources, from government subventions, and
internally generated funds through levies (AMOAH, 2010).
According to Mr. Donkor (2010) the budgetary expenditures for MSW collecti-
on and disposal in the years 2005, 2006 and 2007 were approximately 7 million GHC.
Collection and disposal accounted for 50 % each. After establishing the pay-as-you-
dump principle in the year 2008, the expenditures decreased by 40 %. The goal
of WMD is to increase the pay-as-you-dump system to 100 %.

53
7.3 SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis is one of the most powerful tools in the strategic planning
process. It is applied to identify the positive and negative factors, as well as internal and
external factors that might have an impact on successful MSWM in Kumasi. It is inten-
ded to maximize both strengths and opportunities, minimize the external threats, trans-
forms the identified weaknesses into strengths and to take an advantage of opportunities
along with minimizing both internal weaknesses and external threats.

7.3.1 Strengths

• The power to make the rules for strict implementation of proper MSWM
(via bye-law).
• Decentralized MSWM system which leads to higher effectiveness.
• Private sector participation, leading to higher effectiveness due to open com-
petition.
• Informal sector involvement to support MSWM.
• Clearly defined roles and responsibilities in MSWM.
• Availability of an engineered landfill site.
• Experience in planning and implementation.

7.3.2 Weaknesses

• Inadequate revenue mobilization to finance waste management service costs

(KMA, 2006).
• Poor implementation of regulatory framework, inadequate by-laws and lack
of enforcement of available ones (ZOOMLION, 2010; KMA, 2006).
• Disposal by landfilling (often unsanitary) as a major SWM method, which is
the least favoured option in solid waste management hierarchy pyramid. Lack
of stress for more favoured options such as prevention, reduction, recycling
and recovery of waste.
• Lack of waste segregation at source of its generation.
• Unsufficient MSW collection.
• Unavailability of waste bins, especially in Central Business Area.
• Lack of recyclers, lack of investors.
• Insufficient data for planning (ZOOMLION, 2010).
54
 • Poor monitoring.
• Poor infrastructure, particularly road networks and waste collection points,
mostly in new settlements (KMA, 2006), high traffic in Central Business
District leading to frequent traffic jams.

7.3.3 Opportunities

• Secured supply of waste.

• Increase of business opportunities – job, revenue and profit creation.
• Decreasing health risks, improving health conditions – decrease of expendi-
tures in these areas.
• Existing regulatory framework (e.g. Environmental Sanitation Policy).
• More attention to environmental problems in recent years in Ghana and
worldwide.
• Increasing public awareness on environmental problems.
• Access to information from abroad due to rapid globalization.
• Donor funding.

7.3.4 Threats

• Lack of effective environmental health education and service promotion stra-

tegy (KMA, 2006), lack of environmental awareness, education and attitudes
among the society.
• Bad attitude of residents and low level of sanitation and hygienic practices
among the population which leads to indiscriminate disposal of household
waste and littering (ZOOMLION, 2010; KMA, 2006).
• Low willingness to pay for collection and disposal of MSW, especially
in low-income areas (ZOOMLION, 2010).
• Capacity of human resources – there is practically no institution in Ghana
that offers training in waste management (ZOOMLION, 2010).
• Lack of comprehensive legislative and its enforcement.
• Weak research support – neither the universities in Ghana nor the public sec-
tor undertake research in the area of waste management (ZOOMLION, 2010)
• Rapid urbanization and increase in economic and human activity.
• Inadequate funding.

55
8 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENATIONS

At the beginning of this thesis, we put up the question: Why does municipal
waste handling in Kumasi continue to be a problem? This chapter attempts to summari-
ze our findings to this research question and suggests recommendations which should
lead to improvement of effective and sustainable MSWM in Kumasi.
Sanitation is currently a widely discussed issue in Ghana. Ghana authorities are
well aware of the existing problems but the situation is more complex than one may
think. There is no simple solution to the situation since the problem is deeply connected
to economic, socio-cultural, technical and political situation in Ghana.
The MSWM in Kumasi has significantly improved since 1990’s. The decentrali-
zation and private sector participation has helped to the improvement a lot since they
have led to higher effectiveness. The study found out that even though poor manage-
ment of MSW in Kumasi cannot be ruled out, funding and attitudinal problems are
the main obstacles to the municipal solid waste management process of Kumasi.
For better clarity the following part is divided into areas which need to be
improved. Each of the sections describes the findings and suggests recommendations,
however in reality everything relates to everything and the solutions can not be separa-
ted from each other.

Financing
Regularity and reliability are a fundamental aspect of environmental sanitation
services. Services which are affordable and are consistently provided will almost always
yield better results than more expensive services provided irregularly. It is therefore
essential that levels of services are economically appropriate and that mechanisms
for funding them are sustainable. Thus, selection of such mechanisms is very important.
In Kumasi as well as in other parts of Ghana, lack of sources to finance waste
management service costs is one of the major constraints to effective MSWM.
The government can not afford to fully subsidize the waste management system and
the KMA charges for such services are kept below costs to make them affordable
as most services are for low-income beneficiaries. Nevertheless, estabilishing the pay-
as-you-dump system in 2008 significantly reduced the expenditures on the system.
The KMA is planning to further increase the direct cost recovery from users to up

56
to 100 % of total costs. However, these charges should be applied only where it is
possible to charge a full commercial price covering all operating and capital costs
for MSWM services, otherwise it may lead to illegal dumping of waste. Where full
direct cost recovery is not applicable, tariffs should be set at levels that will not discou-
rage the use of the services, and the shortfall shall be subsidized by the KMA from other
revenues of the Assembly. The KMA shall actively pursue the establishment of systems
that will generate sustainable revenue to cover the costs of MSWM system. Among
options to be considered are direct levies on producers of pollutants (especially non-
biodegradable pollutants such as plastics), the inclusion the MSWM costs in other fees,
rates or charges levied by the KMA, the use of a reasonable proportion of the KMA’s
share of the DACF to subsidize the cost of MSWM services.
Since all economic development activities have direct impacts on the state
of environmental sanitation, mechanisms should be developed to source funds from all
sectors of the economy. Mechanisms which can not or can not be efficiently developed
and managed at district level, should be developed and managed at the national level.
Such mechanisms include for instance levies on producers and importers of pollutants
(especially plastics).
Kumasi has one big advantage over most of the ghanaian cities, which is
the donor capital investment in a form of an engineered landfill site that has helped
to the KMA to asure safe disposal of MSW till the year 2020. However, an environmen-
taly suitable and sustainable means of reduction of the total volume of waste disposed
should be found to extend the lifespan of the landfill to extend the time for a need
of a new capital investment. Such means are further described in chapter „MSWM
methods“ below.

Public education
The change of people‘s attitude and behaviour is central to achieving sustainable
progress in environmental sanitation. Therefore, environmental sanitation education,
effective communication and dissemination of information must become an integral
elements of all environmental sanitation activities. Critical is also to rise awareness and
participatory engagement of all stakeholders to ensure informed-decision making
on policies, plans and programmes.
Proposals to achieve the above include promoting awareness of the benefits
of improved environmental sanitation, and promoting awareness of the important roles

57
of households, communities and the private sector in environmental sanitation service.
Currently a communal labor is organized by KMA every first Saturday in a month
to promote environmental sanitation through communal participation.
It is also necessary to implement environmental education into the primary edu-
cation curriculum to achieve and sustain good long term results in this area. As a perfect
example serves Akosombo town, where the attitude and behavior of people towards
waste management and sanitation has turned to positive. The Assembly has been paying
attention to environmental sanitation education at a primary level for some years now
and the result is that nowadays one can hardly ever seen indiscriminate littering and
disposal of waste in the town (of course effective waste management and it’s financing
partly from Akosombo Hydro Power Plant located in a town is an integral part of their
success). Currently, Akosombo is said to be the cleanest town in Ghana.

Legislation and Regulation

To ensure effective and sustainable MSWM in Kumasi, the KMA must review
its sanitation bye-law since the current one has loopholes and does not go far enough. It
is also essential to develop mechanisms for it’s enforcement. Without it it would be
difficult (if not impossible) to achieve any good results in environmental sanitation.

Methods of MSWM
The MSWM has significantly improved since 1990’s, however is still inadequa-
te. The volume of waste has been increasing and its composition changing from raw
materials (organic and inert waste) to increase in processed materials (plastics, papers,
textile, metals and glass).
Currently, as in most of the developing countries, waste reduction occurs natu-
rally in certain areas as a matter of normal practice because of the high value placed
on material resources by the people, as well as other factors. Waste reduction that could
be achieved by legislation and other tools is thus not, at present, a high priority
in Ghana. However, more attention should be payed to waste prevention. People should
be educated about the impact of usage of disposable materials and motivated to use
reusable ones where it does not have any negative implications. The most visible exam-
ple is a usage of black plastic bags which line the streets of almost every town of Ghana.
Even though public health has benefited from plastic packaging that reduces contami-
nation of foods, it is often used unnecessarily to pack every can or bottle which does not

58
usually spend more than a few seconds or minutes in the bag. There have already been
some attempts to ban usage of these plastic bags but yet unsuccessful.
Considering the current waste management status, source separation should be
a key priority. Waste should be sorted at source as much as possible to encourage com-
posting since big portion of the MSW is organic and also to reduce the amount of waste
requiring disposal. Plastics should be also sorted at source since they contribute by 20 %
to MSW and can be easily separated and recycled. Metals are being separated by infor-
mal sector thanks to its economic value and send to Tema, the industrial city of Ghana.
Other materials such as paper and cardboard, metals, glass and textiles are not signifi-
cant components of waste stream for now. Due to lack of development of manufacturing
capacity in Ghana, waste reduction in this sector is not as important as it is in industria-
lized countries. Nevertheless, Ghana need to be alert to the growth of wasteful practices
that may result from modern industrial processes and new modes of consumption. Thus,
further research in processing facilities and markets available for these types of waste
will be necessary as well as their potential support (legislation implementing and incen-
tives) from national or local level.
Composting is the key activity to reduce the amount of waste being disposed
since it is a low-cost, low-tech and labor intensive method of waste treatment, and orga-
nic waste is a major component of MSW in Kumasi. It should be done in a small-scale
either by individuals who will receive the necessary information and support or
at a community level. Centralizing the composting plant into one large-scale one would
increase the transportation costs of both waste and final product, and take it far from
people. As education on waste management methods and effects is one of the key
challeneges to effective and sustainable MSWM in Kumasi, it is expected that the com-
posting will be more successful if the communities are involved. To achieve good
results, the used composting method must be labor-intensive with a minimum use of
capital and technology. This is valid for all waste management methods used in Ghana
since all previous capital and technology-intensive attempts has failed. The final product
(compost) should be preferentially used locally by farmers, households or for public
places such as parks etc. The price should be kept low enough to encourage the use
of the compost. Part of the costs of composting should be included in a total fee which
is charged for collection and disposal of waste.

59
 The collection is insufficient since 15 to 20 % of waste generated remains uncol-
lected. This is partly due to bad behavior and attitude of people, lack of knowledge,
powerty, bad access to waste due to poor infrastructure, and lack of collection points
which results in long distances the individuals must carry their waste. All these factors
contribute to a fact that some waste is still being burned, buried in pits or dumped
illegally. Thus in terms of collection system, the number of collection points must be
increased and the containers must be emptied regularly. Also more waste bins must be
provided (including their regular collection), especially in Central Business District,
to prevent the indiscriminate littering. The financial sources which are currently used
for street sweeping can be than partly transfered to the collection of these bins. There is
also necessity to secure the communal collection points since they are not fenced and
after closing hours anybody can dispose his/hers waste without being charged.
In terms of charges for waste collection, treatment and disposal, further research
should be done to find out if it will be more effective to apply indirect charges as the di-
rect charges may discourage people from proper way of disposing their waste. This is
especially in poor areas and where there are alternatives and no controls for disposing
of wastes, such as by throwing them into open spaces. In some locations worldwide,
charges for waste are linked to other public services that people are willing to pay for,
such as water or electricity. Including waste charges in water and (if present) sewer
charges allows some cost recovery. Studies have shown that water and electrical energy
consumption are rough indicators of waste generation (UNEP, 2005). However, the sys-
tem would have to be adjusted to local conditions since not all households pay water
and electricity bills (e.g. some households use their own well, some do not have electri-
city etc.). Generally, charges and fees can also be used as incentives to encourage “good
behaviour” and to discourage “bad behaviour”. For example, the price of disposal can
be increased and the cost of materials recovery subsidised to give people incentives
to source separate. In some instances, fines can be used to discourage illegal dumping.
Even if KMA has and engineered landfill site, large portion of waste is still
being disposed at unsanitary landfills in various parts of Kumasi to reduce the transpor-
tation costs and prolong the lifespan of the Dompoase landfill. This practice should be
rather substituted by setting the small-scale local community composting plants and
increase in waste sorting to prolong the lifespan of the Dompoase landfill and to avoid
healh implications from unsanitary disposal of waste. It is advisable to move from open

60
dumping to sanitary landfilling in a phased manner. Landfilling should be restricted
to non-biodegradable, inert waste and other waste that are not suitable either for recyc-
ling or for biological processing.

Road Infrastructure
Currently the acess to waste in some areas is very problematic due to bad quality
of access roads. Especially when it rains the trucks may not be able to collect the waste
for even some days. The WMD should cooperate with other departments such as Town
and Country Planning Department, Urban Roads Department, Estate Department and
Planning Department, to ensure good and easy access to waste containers. The coope-
ration is extremely important in newly developing places since there is space for ad-
justment.

Human Resources
Currently, there is practically no institiution in Ghana that offers training
in waste management (ZOOMLION, 2010). At the national level, government must
ensure appropriately qualified staff to all stakeholders, including sanitary engineers,
environmental health technologists, planners etc. by creating appropriate institutions
for their training, education and qualification.

Monitoring and Evaluation

To manage MSW effectively and provide continuous improvement in respon-
ding to emerging challenges in the sector, a framework for monitoring and evaluation
must be developed at all levels within the sector.
Research and Development
Currently, neither the universities in Ghana nor the public sector undertake
research in the area of waste management. An effective framework for capturing and
reporting of sector statistics and performance to users must be developed. The research
and studies in appropriate technologies should be supported at university and/or public
level, including alternative technology options for improving services especially to low-
income urban areas, and the support of local private sector entrepreneurs and artisanal
entities to produce machines, equipment and tools appropriate for local use. To respond
effectively to increasing waste volumes and changing waste streams due to growing
economy and varying life-styles, research and studies in volumes and types of waste
should be supported as well as handling and alternative uses of existing and changing
composition of waste streams.
61
 Integration of MSWM
To make the MSWM system in Kumasi more efficient, it must be integrated. All
aspects of waste management (technical and non-technical) should be analyzed together
since they are in fact interrelated and developments in one area frequently affect practi-
ces or activities in another area. Physicall handling of waste and recoverable materials,
including separation, collection, composting and landfilling must be integrated together
with setting policies, developing and enforcing regulations, planning and evaluating
MSWM activities by system designers, users, and other stakeholders, using waste
characterization studies to adjust systems to the types of waste generated, marketing
recovered materials to brokers or to end-users for industrial, commercial, or small scale
manufacturing purposes, establishing training programs for MSWM workers, carrying
out public information and education programs, identifying financial mechanisms and
cost recovery systems, establishing prices for services and creating incentives, mana-
ging public sector administrative and operations units, and incorporating private sector
businesses, including informal sector collectors, processors, and entrepreneurs.

62
9 CONCLUSION

Efficient MSWM is a precondition for good health and for success in the fight
against poverty, hunger, and also increase in productivity. It is also central to human
rights and the personal dignity of every human being. Environmental sanitation is a pub-
lic good and improper waste disposal by one individual affects all community members.
Mosquitoes that breed in one place may bite people in another. Contamination of food-
stuffs will affect all who consume them, not just the seller. Ensuring good sanitation is
therefore the responsibility of all citizens, communities, private sector enterprises,
NGOs and institutions of Government. All these actors have an essential part to play
in maintaining a high standard of environmental sanitation, so that domestic and
commercial activities have no prejudicial effect on the health or the living and working
environment of others.
The municipal solid waste management system in Kumasi has significantly
improved since 1990‘s due to mainly decentralization and privatization, however is still
inadequate. The city authorities are well aware of the problems and constraints confron-
ting the MSWM in the town, nevertheless the solution is complex since it is deeply
connected to economic, socio-cultural, technical and political situation in Ghana.
The study has found out that even though poor management of municipal solid waste
in Kumasi can not be ruled out, funding and attitudinal problems are the main obstacles
to municipal solid waste management process of Kumasi. However, lack of human
resources, monitoring, evaluation, research, development, poor road infrastructure, rapid
urbanization, and improper legislation and its enforcement can not be left out.
The recommendations based on the findings from the analysis include integrati-
on of MSWM system, to move from open dumping to sanitary landfilling in a phased
manner to reduce health and environmental implications, to extend the time when future
capital investment in a form of another engineered landfill site will be needed by source
separation, particularly of organic waste and plastics since they have the highest share
on the composition of MSW in Kumasi. The most suitable method for organic waste
treatment seems to be small-scale community composting since it is low-cost, low-tech
and labor intensive method, the climate conditions in Ghana are favourable, and it will
lead to more involvement of communities as well as individuals. To rise public aware-

63
ness and education on waste management and sanitation generally must be an integral
part of MSWM in Kumasi since lack of environmental awareness and bad attitude
of people lead to indiscriminate disposal of household waste and littering. Another
recommendations suggest to review the KMA sanitation bye-law since the current one
has loopholes and does not go far enough, and to develop mechanisms for it’s enforce-
ment, the cooperation of WMD of KMA with other departments especially in terms
of planning infrastructure and new settlements, provision of human resources (at natio-
nal level), and improving monitoring, evaluation, research and development in the field.
Some financial mechanisms and MSWM methods for effective dealing with MSW are
also suggested. The MSWM in Ghana should be based on low-cost, low-tech and labor
intensive methods since all previous capital and technology-intensive attempts have
failed. All the suggested solutions are interrelated and one can not be separated from
each other. Whilst environmental education is not in itself sufficient to ensure impro-
vements in environmental sanitation, neither is the provision of sanitary infrastructure
and services unless they are properly used.

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CIA (2011). The World Factbook: Country Data Sheed – Ghana. [online] Central
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11 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES AND FIGURES

11.1 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

CIA Central Inteligence Agency

DACF District Assemblies Common Fund
DESSAP District Environmental Sanitation and Strategy Action Plan
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPC Environmental Protection Council
ESP Environmental Sanitation Policy
EU European Union
HIPC Highly Indebted Poor Countries
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
IGF Internally Generated Fund
ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management
KMA Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly
KNUST Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies
MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NESSAP National Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Action Plan
SWOT Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
UESP Urban Environmental Sanitation Programme
UN United Nations
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
WB World Bank
WMD Waste Management Department
WRC Water Resources Commission
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11.2 List of Tables

Table 1 NESSAP Implementation Packages (2010 - 2015) ........................................... 23

Table 2 Socio-economic characteristics ......................................................................... 27
Table 3 Collection service providers in various Sub-Metro Areas ................................ 45
Table 4 MSW Collection, 2005-2008 ............................................................................ 46
Table 5 The volume of MSW collected and disposed in Kumasi .................................. 51

11.3 List of figures

Figure 1 Waste Management Hierarchy ......................................................................... 15

Figure 3 Regions and Districts of Ghana........................................................................ 29
Figure 4 Estimation of primary sources of solid waste in Ghana ................................... 30
Figure 5 The average composition of solid waste in Ghana .......................................... 31
Figure 6 Coverage of Refuse Collection and Disposal in Ghana .................................. 32
Figure 7 Coverage of Refuse Collection and Disposal in Ghana .................................. 33
Figure 8 Informal collection of plastics, Bola beach, Accra .......................................... 35
Figure 9 Main sources of revenue/allocations to MMDAs in 2008 ............................... 37
Figure 10 Kumasi map ................................................................................................... 39
Figure 11 The average composition of solid waste in Kumasi in 2010.......................... 44
Figure 12 Sub-Metro Areas of Kumasi .......................................................................... 45
Figure 13 An example of indiscriminate waste dumping, Aboabo river basin, Kumasi 46
Figure 14 An example of indiscriminate waste dumping, Kumasi ................................ 47
Figure 15 Collection methods of MSW in Kumasi ........................................................ 47
Figure 16 Communal Collection Points ......................................................................... 48
Figure 17 Tricycle .......................................................................................................... 48
Figure 18 Dompoase landfill site ................................................................................... 49
Figure 19 Dompoase landfill site - faecal sludge and leachate treatment ...................... 50
Figure 20 Dompoase landfill site - Control room .......................................................... 50
Figure 21 Separated plastics from MSW at a communal collection point ..................... 52
Figure 22 Scavenging at Dompoase landfill site ........................................................... 53

69