Daniel Montaño Crivelli: Cultura de los Pueblos Anglófonos.

26/04/2020

Irish History: rebellion after rebellion

and the long-pursued independency
Introduction

Ireland, as you may know, is an Isle located in the east of Britain often referred to as the

Emerald Island (due to its abundant vegetation, and thus, greenish appearance). It has an

area of 84,421 square kilometres approximately and is one of the biggest Isles of Europe

(Nolan W. 2009).

In this text I shall provide the ten most important events of Irish history. At the end

of each paragraph you can find a little explanation of why I think that fact is key within

Irish history. Needless to say, Ireland has gone under many changes. We cannot explain all

of them because this work would end up being enormous. However, I will do my best effort

in order to approach the next ten points in detail and with the most important features. We

will start since the arrive of St. Patrick, and end at the stage known as the Troubles.

The St. Patrick’s arrival.

St. Patrick is the patron saint of Ireland and is celebrated on March 17th. He is officially

responsible for bringing Christianity to Ireland. Furthermore, he is a legendary person in

Irish folklore.

St. Patrick was born in Britain but when he was 16 years old, he was captured by

Irish raiders and carried to Ireland as a slave. When he was a slave he turned with fervour

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to his faith. After 6 years as a herdsman, he was able to escape from his master and returned

to Britain. In his text the Confessio he wrote that one day, he dreamt that someone called

Victoricus delivered him a letter titled The Voice of the Irish in which the Irish begged him

to return to Ireland. He did so, and during his journey through Irish soil, he converted Picts

and Anglo-Saxons into Christianity.

One legend about him, says that he drove the snakes of Ireland into the sea to drown

them. This is particularly interesting because there is geographical evidence that shows

snakes never habited Ireland. It is just too far from mainland Europe so snakes could never

reach the isle. Another legend says that he raised people from the dead, just like Jesus did.

There is an article on the

Encyclopaedia Britannica that signals:

“a 12-century hagiography places this

number at 33 men, some of whom are

said to have been deceased for many

years” (O'Raifeartaigh, T. 2019). Thus,

we can assume for sure that he revived

33 men. Well, maybe not, but who I

am to question legends
St. Patrick's Cathedral (Church of Ireland), Armagh city and district (historical
County Armagh), Northern Ireland.
This stage in Irish history is From:

very important because St. Patrick is a

symbol of Irish identity. I would say that the Catholic Church was a unifying element of

Ireland. In fact, St. Patrick provides a sense of Irishness nowadays. That fact would make

the relations with England harder to develop. In fact, when king Henry VIII cut relations

with the catholic church, Irish Catholics were not pleased to be reigned by Protestants.
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The plantations

Now, the plantations. The Irish plantations were confiscations of Irish’s lands to give it to

English settlers. Some attempts had success, others did not. This happened due to the

resistance of the Irish against the English dominance in the isle. Moreover, the tension had

religious connotations. The Irish were loyal to the Pope while the English had cut relations

with the Catholic Church. However, there are four Irish plantations historically

documented. I wondered how to approach them, and I have decided in order to approach

each of them in detail, I will consider each plantation as an event on its own. They are

separated by a considerable amount of time.

Plantation of Laois

The first plantation was the plantation of Laois in

1556 under the rule of Queen Mary I. This plantation

was planned because the O’ Moore and the O’

Connor families were causing troubles to the English.

Those families launched constant and fierce attacks

on the Pale. It is important to emphasize that the

Pale was a fortified region around Dublin controlled

totally by the English (As you can see in the image

on the right) King Henry VIII had proclaimed

The Pale (grey) in 1450 From:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pale).
himself king of Ireland, he just controlled little parts

of the island though. The fortresses were built in order to protect the zone from the

incursion of the Irish forces.

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Gradually, the English forces pushed the Irish back to the River Shannon and Queen

Mary I, ordered the construction of more forts on that new available land to keep the peace.

The land surrounding those forts would be given to loyal servants of the Crown as a

reward. Furthermore, Queen Mary hoped that the money raised by the future crops would

ease the cost of running the Pales and Ireland. However, they had conditions:

 They had to build stone houses.

 They had to set up towns and villages.
 They had to arm themselves for defence.
 They had to cultivate the land in the English Manner.
 They could not mix with or marry the Irish.
 They had to employ English servants. (Colaistee A. 2011).

The plantations were not successful. The Planters left the land due to the threat of the O’

Moore and O’ Connor families. Moreover, more money was spent in military protection

than the money raised by the planters.

I think the Plantation of Laois is important because later, Queen Elizabeth I, would

learn from the mistakes of her sister (Queen Mary I) and try to avoid them. We can say

even that the plantation of Laois was an introduction to subjugating the Irish to cooperate

with English expansion.

Plantation of Munster

In Munster, the Queen Elizabeth I practiced more severe methods. In 1586, the Earl of

Desmond started an uprising movement in the region of Munster against the English

Crown. Due to the religious status of Ireland and its potential to show England the power of

God, the rebellion could obtain troops directly from the Pope. Queen Elizabeth I did not

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send her troops into Munster until 1581 with the plan of initiating a plantation. The English

Army would refuse to a direct attack, they would lay waste to the whole Munster instead.

They did so, and by the destruction of farms, livestock, and crops they produced a terrible

famine. The outcome? 30,000 people (soldiers and civils) dead from starvation and the Earl

of Desmond captured, and then, executed.

When the English government had this land available, they divided them into 35

large territories. As in the previous plantations, they gave the land to the loyal servants of

the Crown. The conditions remained almost the same:

 To bring in English workers.

 To employ English farming methods.
 To maintain a part-time army to protect the Plantation.
 To build a defensive enclosure. (Colaistee, A. 2011)

The Plantation of Munster was not successful. The planters did not raise enough money to

pay for a part-time army. Moreover, the land was so damaged by the war and the famine

that could not be farmed properly. As a result, most of the Planters refused to stay and the

ones who did not leave rent out land to the Irish.

I think that in the Munster plantation possesses great important due to the aid from

the Vatican. In that moment, the Irish could perceive that the Pope supported the country.

In fact, they learned they could obtain allies from Europe.

Plantation of Ulster

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Probably the most successful plantation of all. A rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1594, it

was led by Hugh O’ Neill, and Hugh O’ Donnell. By that time, the English controlled most

part of Ireland. That fact caused dissatisfaction among

all Irish clans. Therefore, they unified and formed an

army to fight the English rule – again. In the

beginning, the Irish won several battles like the Battle

of the Yellow Fort, and the Battle of Clontibret. But

the victories would come to an end at the Battle of

Kinsale on Christmas. 1601. The Irish forces were not

alone. Spain sent soldiers to fight against the English. I

must emphasize that the rebellion in Ireland happened

at the same time as the Anglo-Spanish war. King

Route taken by the Spanish Armada. From:
Philip II of Spain was determined to invade England

due to the clash of religion: catholic Spain, and

protestant England. Thus, he sent three armadas to occupy the British Isles. One in 1588,

other in 1596, and another in 1597. Unfortunately, most of the Spanish ships failed. They

were smashed by aggressive storms and the numerous naval forces sank or wreck in the

rocky seas. The virtual magazine History points out that: “It was bad luck, bad tactics and

bad weather that defeated the Spanish Armada – not the derring-do displayed on the high

seas by Elizabeth’s intrepid sea dogs” (History, Co. 2013).The ships that successfully dealt

with the storms returned to Spain.

When Philip III became king of Spain, he could send military support to Ireland in

1601, this time the ships did arrive. An article on Wikipedia claims that 4000 men

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disembarked at Kinsale to help the Irish cause (Wikipedia Co. 2020). The fact that Spain

sent soldiers in aid is true (as mentioned in Dorney, J. 2017) however, the article on

Wikipedia, needs additional references to prove the number of 4000 men.

In 1603 the Irish rebels surrendered with the Treaty of Mellifont and four years

after, they left Ulster forever (in what is known as The Flight of the Earls). With the

rebellion stiffed, England started a massive plantation in Ulster, now under the command of

James I. The rules of the plantation changed, now there were 3 types of landowners:

 Undertakers - English or Scottish Gentleman to receive estates of between 400 and

800 hectares at the cost of €6.00 per year to the King. The Undertaker had to build a
Castle, Stone house or Bawn and they could only take English or Scottish tenants,
which they had to bring with them from Britain.
 Servitors – Civil Servants or army officers to receive estates of between 400 and
800 hectares at the cost of €10.00 per year to the King. The Servitor had to build a
Stone House or Bawn. They were allowed to take Irish tenants, and this meant they
had an easier time than the Undertakers.
 Deserving Irish – Irish men who had remained loyal to the Crown during the nine
years war to receive estates of 400 hectares at the cost of €12.70 per year to the
King. They were allowed to take Irish tenants also. (Colaistee, A. 2011).

This time, few Irish could rent out the land at least, instead of fighting for it. The outcomes

of the plantation was the growth of wealth for the new landowners due to the effective

farming and renting fee.

I think that this plantation was key because it stablished a clear division of Ireland:

catholic and protestant. This plantation was catastrophic for the Irish, almost all the land in

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Ulster was now under British or Scottish control. The size of the plantation rapidly resulted

in a protestant majority in Ulster that still today.

Cromwellian Plantation

When the Civil war occurred in 1641, Ireland was aimed to pursue a new liberation

movement. Native Irish took up arms against English landowners, the ones who had

confiscated their land. It is believed that nearly 4000 English/Scottish-protestants were

killed as a result of the violence. However, these figures were highly altered in England,

there, many people believed that almost a million of their fellow-citizens had been

murdered. Of course, the resentment against Irish increased.

This plantation was the most brutal of all the previous. When the Civil War ended

with the execution of Charles I in 1649 the New Model Army under the command of Oliver

Cromwell and Parliament re-conquered Ireland. Cromwell was responsible for massacring

whole towns in order to cause terror among the rebellion sympathisers. The Irish, horrified

by the bloody demonstrations of the now-republic power, surrendered, and by May 1650

the entire island was under British control.

Now, with the re-established order, the plantation started. Ana Colaistee writes:

“Parliament then ordered over 30,000 soldiers who had surrendered to be deported from

Ireland. Up to 50,000 widows and orphans were sold into slavery in the Caribbean and all

Priests were executed” (2011). Imagine the size of the land that 30,000 soldiers and 50,000

widows and orphans can inhabit or possess. It is not mentioned here, but we can assume

that the amount of confiscated land was huge. Land was given to 33,000 soldiers who,

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without the aim of becoming a farmer in Ireland, sold that land to their officers. The latter

rapidly possessed great portions of territory.

This event in Irish history is key. When the Irish rebels massacred the protestant

landowners in the violent beginning of the upheaval, the rivalry and hate was reinforced.

This will be important when we approach the troubles. On the other hand, Irish could

perceive the fact that, in England, the king was executed by his own Parliament. In my

opinion, they could see that power can be removed with the correct practices.

The act of Union

In 1798 a new Irish rebel movement started due to the ideology of the Society of United

Irishmen which was inspired by the French revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica E. 2019).

Prime minister William Pitt realized that the only way to end the Irish rebellions was to

unify the countries. Thus, he introduced a bill to Irish Parliament aimed to achieve the

unification of Ireland and Great Britain as one kingdom. However, the bill was refused due

to the repeal of the Penal Laws which forbade Catholics from becoming members of

parliament and other positions of power. The Protestant majority did not want Catholics

back in the political field. Actually, William Pitt had to rely on bribery and patronage in

order to persuade the people in Parliament (Mac’Donnchadha, P 2020).

All in all, the act of union passed the Irish parliament in January 1800, and the

British parliament ratified it the same year. On January 1st, 1801, the kingdoms joined and

formed The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Although the Catholics had not

reached their long-pursued emancipation, they were enthusiastic. They would get their

human rights and fully-citizen status soon.

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The act of union now collocates Ireland as a Nation unified with England, Wales,

and the UK. The Emerald Isle was not a colony anymore. This is important because now

Ireland would be represented in both houses of parliament.

The Great Famine

The Great Famine was a period when a large portion of Irish population died from

starvation. It started in 1845 when the potato crop failed due to the spread of a

microorganism. The infection made potatoes inedible.

Up to one million people died and even more

people migrated to America and parts of Britain (like

Liverpool). The massive migration and starvation

caused a sharp decline in the population rate of Ireland

“Ireland’s population of almost 8.4 million in 1844 had

fallen to 6.6 million by 1851” (Mokyr, J. 2020).

There is controversy when dealing with the

Great Famine (or the Great Hunger). We can assume

that the event was caused by a natural factor: a fungus-

Population Fall in Ireland 1841 – 1850 From:

like microorganism that infected the potato crops and

made them fail. On the other hand, the policies applied

by the British government were ineffective and could worsen the problem. In an article of

History on the web, it is said that:

Complicating matters further, historians have since concluded, was that Ireland

continued to export large quantities of food, primarily to Great Britain, during the

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blight. In cases such as livestock and butter, research suggests that exports may

have actually increased during the Potato Famine.

In 1847 alone, records indicate that commodities such as peas, beans, rabbits, fish,

and honey continued to be exported from Ireland, even as the Great Hunger

ravaged the countryside (2019).

In fact, the British Government treated

Ireland as another colony. They kept

exporting grains and other resources

from the Isle while the farmers were

being tremendously affected by the

famine. When Anglo-Irish leaders in

Dublin demanded Queen Victoria and Victims of the Irish Potato Famine arriving in Liverpool, Eng.; illustration
in the Illustrated London News, July 6, 1850. From:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Famine-Irish-history
Parliament to act, they imported corn

from USA in order to relieve the effect

of the famine. However, that action did not make any significant difference. The corn had

lesser nutritional value than the potato, thus, the Irish were having nutritional deficiencies.

Most of the rural Irish were having troubles to feed themselves even before the

famine. Actually, the dependence on the potato was a result of the low standard of living. It

is said that the famine was predictable, but government showed little or no interest at all.

When the famine ended the concentration of landownership ended up in very few

hands. The crisis had finished, but little people possessed enormous chunks of territory. As

the smallholders desperately left the country, we can assume that their abandoned lands

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were claimed. That resulted in more land used for grazing cattle or other forms of livestock,

providing more animal meat and resources for exporting to Britain (Mokyr, J. 2019).

The independence movement

The most interesting feature of the independence of Ireland is that it could develop without

violence. In fact, Irish have never agreed with having British rule. Irish Nationalists in the

IPP (Irish Parliamentary Party) had been demanding some kind of self-governing. Knowing

this, in 1885 William Gladstone, prime minister of the United Kingdom, proposed the act

of Home Rule to Ireland. It would allow Irish people to have its own parliament and to

ratify new laws and agreements while still being part of the UK. Thus, it would provide

autonomy to the island. It is important to say that by this time, Ireland did not possess its

own Parliament, the Isle was administrated from London. However, Protestants – mostly in

Ulster – were against Home Rule. If Ireland now had its own legislative power, Protestants

would be a minority. They even had this slogan: “"Home Rule means Rome Rule" (BBC

Ed. 2019).

After some debates in Parliament, Home Rule was about to pass in 1914.

Unfortunately, that same year the World War I broke out. The ratification of the Home

Rule Act was postponed due to the conflict. Irish nationalists wanted independence and they

would not wait for it. They would fight for it instead. The rebellion started in 1916 in what

is known as the Easter Rising. A group of paramilitary forces took the General Post Office

in Dublin and declared Ireland an independent nation. All in all, the rebellion was stifled

within a week and some of the leaders were executed. That action of killing the leaders

increased the support on the nationalist movement throughout Ireland.

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Many people inspired by the Easter Rising (politicians included) formed a new

political party, called Sinn Féin – in Irish it means we ourselves. Their aim was to cut all

political ties between Ireland and the UK. Ireland would become a Republic completely

separate from the UK. This idea won popularity, and in the elections of December 1918

Sinn Féin achieved a clear electoral superiority compared with the IPP which pursued

Home Rule.

In 1919, the Sinn Féin politicians did not go to London to represent Ireland in the

British houses of Parliament, instead they gathered in Dublin and stablished Dáil Éireann, a

new government. They proclaimed Ireland as independent, with its own Parliament in

Dublin. That same day two police officers of the Royal

Irish Constabulary (RIC), the police supported by the

British government and Irish unionists, were killed by

some members of the Irish Republican Army (IRA)

acting on their own will. This caused a wave of

A Black and Tan in Dublin, smoking and carrying a
violence and the Independence War started. Lewis gun, February 1921. From:

The IRA launched a guerrilla war against the

British-supported RIC. The British government, aimed to reinforce the RIC forces,

recruited soldiers from Britain and Ireland. These soldiers would be referred to as Black

and Tans due to the colour of the improvised uniform they wore. The Black and Tans

gained a reputation for their brutality, they often attacked civilians. Additionally, some of

them fought in the World War.

In 1920, the republican forces had gained most of the city councils, British authority

was collapsed in the southern and western parts of Ireland. Nevertheless, the violence was

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at the highest point. On November 21st, 1920, Bloody Sunday, IRA members launched an

operation to assassinate a team of British Intelligence agents working and living in Dublin.

They went to a several addresses and massacred fifteen officers. Later, on that same day,

RIC members launched an attack on civilians as a respond. They opened fire on the crowd

at a football match in Croke park, murdering to 14 civilians and brutally wounding about

sixty (Dolan, A 2006).

The war came to an end in May 1921. Ireland was partitioned and both sides agreed

to a ceasefire. After the negotiations, on December 1921 the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed.

In fact, the Irish independence has great importance. The southern part of Ireland would

become a free state – the Irish Free Sate, while the Ulster part would remain within the UK.

On the other hand, the treaty was considered as a step backwards for most nationalists. It

provided Ireland with the same degree of independence as the members of the British

Commonwealth (Australia, Canada, etc.). The Irish TD’s or MP’s would have to swear

allegiance to the British monarch. For those reasons, the civil war broke out (Dorney, J.

2012).

Civil War

As I mentioned before, the Irish Civil War was a conflict that resulted from the discomfort

of nationalist. They regarded the Anglo-Irish Treaty as a threat. When the treaty was

ratified by the Dáil (Republican Parliament), the president of the republic, Eamon de

Valera, resigned in protest. The outcomes? The nationalist movement split. On one side,

there was Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith which together commanded the pro-treaty

IRA forces, on the other, Eamon de Valera and the anti-Treaty IRA forces.

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In April 1922, the anti-treaty soldiers occupied the Four Courts, a strategic position,

it was the center of the courts system in Dublin. Michael Collins managed to prevent the

conflict by making a deal with Eamon de Valera and the anti-Treaty IRA. However, when

the British monarch was included in the Free State’s constitution, the agreement failed.

Anti-Treaty forces totally disagree with it.

The Civil War broke out in June 1922 when the pro-Treaty forces opened fire on the

Four Courts – occupied by anti-Treaty IRA. Michael Collins was supported by the British,

who facilitated munitions and military resources. Consequentially, the IRA officers and

units around Ireland polarized. In the south, for example, the anti-Treaty faction was the

strongest.

Both sides had arguments. The pro-Treaty movement argued that the Dáil had voted

in favor of the Treaty and, thus, they were supporting the Irish will. On the other hand, the

anti-Treaty faction declared that the Treaty was forced by the British under threat of re-

occupation. No one could choose freely if they were threatened. Therefore, the Treaty did

not represent the true Irish independence.

Once again, Ireland was a battlefield. As a result of the guerrilla war, Michael

Collins was killed in an ambush in Cork, and several anti-Treaty sympathizers were

executed by the National Army. Bombarding, destruction of property, imprisonments, and

execution became everyday features again. In April 1923, the Civil War ended, there was a

ceasefire. However, both sides never negotiated a formal end to the war.

The Civil War left a great polarization and bitterness in the Irish political parties. It

is believed that about 1,500 – 2,000 people were killed by the war (Dorney, J. 2012). This

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is important because the political frame of Ireland is defined here. In the future, the agenda

of the political parties would be to remove or reformate the objectionable features of the

Treaty.

The troubles/The Good Friday

Agreement

The Troubles was a period of great violence in Northern Ireland. In the war of

Independence, Ireland was divided into two territories. The North, where people identified

themselves as British and were still part of the UK, and the South, where the republican

movement took over. Since the Plantation of Ulster in 1594, the major religious group are

the Protestants. Therefore, the policies were aimed to benefit the Protestant population.

During the end of the 20th century, Catholics were struggling to obtain jobs, shelter

and other basic human rights. The Catholics had not reached their emancipation and wanted

to join the southern republic, they were referred to as Nationalists or Republicans. The

Protestants were loyal to the British crown and wanted to retain their privileges, they were

referred to as Loyalists or Unionists. The discrimination based on religion and tension

among the population increased. From the 1970’s to the 1990’s there was a lot of fighting

between paramilitary forces from both sides. There were even characteristics of a Civil

War.

Due to the increasing violence, British forces were sent to try to control the

situation. The Nationalists perceived the British incursion as a threat to the possible

formation of a republic. Therefore, several Republican armed groups, and the IRA came

into conflict with the British and Loyalist troops.

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There was a second Bloody Sunday. On January 30th, 1972, British troops opened

fire against unarmed civilians during a peaceful demonstration, 14 people were killed, and

other 14 were injured (BBC Ed. April 10th, 2018). Of course, the Nationalist military

groups carried out bloody movements as well. On August 15th, 1998, they concealed a

bomb in a car in Omagh and made it explode. The outcome? 28 people died and 200 were

injured. That event is known as the Omagh Bombing and is considered to be terrorism

although it was carried out by IRA members (Sullivan, C. 2019). The curious thing is that

by that moment the agreement with Northern-Irish and British government had been signed

already.

In 1990, the IRA announced that they would cease the fire. That fact initiated the

prosses of negotiation. In 1998, the Good Friday agreement was signed in Belfast. Now,

Northern Ireland would be governed by both Unionist and Loyalists. There were three

strands in the deal:

The first strand provided for the creation of the Northern Ireland Assembly, which

would be an elected assembly responsible for most local matters. The second was

an institutional arrangement for cross-border cooperation on a range of issues

between the governments of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The third called for

continued consultation between the British and Irish governments (Encyclopaedia

Britannica Ed. 2020).

However, due to the Omagh Bombing the creation of the Northern Ireland Assembly was

delayed, and the measures did not relieve Northern Ireland’s problems and violence

entirely.

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All in all, the assembly has been removed and restored over this century due to

allegations of espionage and increasing tensions among politicians. The last time the

Assembly collapsed was in 2017 and has not been restored yet (BBC Ed. 2018).

Conclusion

This work took me several days to finish due to the investigation I have done. I should

recognize, however, that this text lacks the information about the Brexit and the period of

the Anglo-Norman arrival and the Celtic Period. There is important information in those

stages but due to my actual situation – and the fact that I am running out of time to send

other assignments – I did not mention it. By this moment, I do not know if I included too

much information, I tried to keep it as simple as I could without losing detail, but the Irish

History is so complex that it deserves some degree of extensive study. I made my best

effort to approach each point in detail.

References
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From: https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/14118775
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Colaistee, Ana (2011) History Revision: The plantations. Saved from:

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