Center for Crop Diversification Crop Profile

CCD-CP-83

Truffles & Other Edible Mycorrhizal

Mushrooms
Cheryl Kaiser1 and Matt Ernst2
Introduction
The most highly prized gourmet mushrooms in the world
are edible mycorrhizal fungi. Included in this group are
truffles, chanterelles, matsutake, porcini (boletes), and
morels. All of these mushrooms have complex life cycles
that make them difficult to produce artificially. Despite
the risk and challenges, however, many have attempted
to cultivate these valuable culinary delicacies. To date,
only truffles are currently in widespread commercial
production; they will be the main focus of this profile.
The artificial production of other fungi in this group will
be discussed briefly.

Mycorrhizal Mushrooms
Mycorrhizal mushrooms differ from the more commonly Chanterelles
commercially produced saprotrophic types (such as Chanterelles
shiitake and button mushrooms) based on their food The golden chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) is the
source. Saprotrophic mushrooms live and feed on dead primary chanterelle species of commercial interest.
organic matter, whereas mycorrhizal mushrooms grow in This yellow to orange colored mushroom has a funnel-
a close, symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with shaped cap with ridges, instead of gills, on its underside.
the living roots of a tree. The mycorrhizae form a sheath In Eastern North America, California and the Pacific
or mantle of fungal tissue over the host’s fine rootlets. Northwest, chanterelles grow naturally in association
In so doing, this organism is in position to send out a with various softwood and hardwood trees. While their
network of fungal strands (hyphae) into the surrounding market value is not as great as truffles, chanterelles
soil, well beyond the zone that the plant’s roots could nevertheless can command a high price.
probe. These fungal strands absorb water and nutrients
that benefit the tree, and, in turn, the tree provides the Not only do chanterelles require a mycorrhizal
fungus with sugars and starches produced through relationship with a host tree, but they also have a unique
photosynthesis. Because these particular mycorrhizae interdependence on other microorganisms that grow
form on the outside (ecto) of the roots, they actively with the mushroom’s fungal
are technically called ectomycorrhizae. tissues. These additional symbiotic
This association is so critical to the relationships have further complicated
fungus that, with the exception of morels, attempts at artificial cultivation.
mycorrhizal mushrooms will generally Nevertheless, in 1997 the golden
not fruit in the absence of the host. www.uky.edu/CCD chanterelle was cultivated for the first time
1
Cheryl Kaiser is a former Extension Associate with the Center for Crop Diversification.
2
Matt Ernst is an independent contractor with the Center for Crop Diversification.
Cooperative Extension Service | Agriculture and Natural Resources | Family and Consumer Sciences | 4-H Youth Development | Community and Economic Development
in association with a potted Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) production. Attempts by others to duplicate the methods
in a greenhouse, the result of eight years of research. outlined in the patents have failed, indicating that
Subsequent efforts to build on this success to produce perhaps the instructions are incomplete or not sufficiently
commercial quantities have been unsuccessful. A major specific.
obstacle has been the high cost of the complicated and
labor-intensive production methods required. Kits consisting of morel spawn and instructions are
available for outdoor production. However, the kits
Matsutake are intended for the hobbyist and cannot be expected to
The most sought after of this type is the Japanese mat- produce commercial yields. While no known efficacy
sutake (Tricholoma matsutake), native to the red pine tests have been conducted, the kits are generally
forests of Japan. The American matsutake (T. magnive- considered to be unreliable. Nevertheless, it may be
lare) is found abun- possible to use a kit to successfully establish a small
dantly in the Pacific backyard patch that would yield morels at the same time
Northwest, where it is as a natural patch. Important keys to success include
harvested for commer- selecting the ideal location, site preparation, presence of
cial sales. A decline in conducive weather conditions, and protection from theft
natural harvests in Ja- and wild animals. If successful, these morels could be
pan has led to a greater harvested and sold at a local farmers market or dried for
demand for the Ameri- year round sales.
can matsutake. These
gilled mushrooms have umbrella-shaped caps that vary Porcini
in color from creamy white to rusty brown. At this point, Also known as the King Bolete, porcini mushrooms (Bo-
numerous attempts to cultivate the matsutake indoors letus edulis), are highly regarded as a gourmet mush-
and in the field have met with failure. room. The light brown to reddish brown cap is support-
ed on a thick,
Morels club-shaped
Known as “hickory chickens” in some parts of Kentucky, stipe (stem)
and also known as “dry land fish,” morels (Morchella sp.) that is rather
have a conical-shaped cap that is covered with ridges. large in com-
For many years, morels were thought to be exclusively parison to the
saprobes, feeding on dead and dying organic matter. cap. The un-
However, mycologists now believe that at least some derside of the
species have the ability to form cap is covered
mycorrhizal relationships with with pores in-
living trees. This could be one stead of gills.
of the reasons certain morels Porcinis grow symbiotically with conifers. While good
have been so notoriously infections of porcini mycorrhizae with a host were first
difficult to cultivate. Another established at least 20 years ago, this mushroom has de-
complication to cultivation fied cultivation.
is related to the formation of
sclerotia, structures that allow Truffles
morels to survive adverse These lumpy, irregularly shaped underground mush-
conditions. In the spring, rooms often resemble clods of dirt. While their appear-
these sclerotia form either ance may be unassuming, some species of truffles have
new mycelia or fungal fruiting structures. Mycelia form sold for hundreds or even thousands of dollars per pound.
readily; the difficulty lies in being able to force sclerotia The most highly valued truffles species are native to Eu-
to develop fruiting bodies instead. rope: the Périgord black truffle (Tuber melanosporum)
and the Italian white (T. magnatum) dominate the mar-
Despite the complexity of the morel life cycle, patented ket. Of lesser value is the Burgundy truffle (T. aestivum),
techniques for indoor morel production have been also native to Europe. Oregon white truffles (T. orego-
developed and are currently being used for commercial nense and T. gibbosum), which are native to the U.S.
Pacific Northwest The possibility of high returns has lured many to investing
and Canada, are in truffle production, but it can be a risky endeavor with
also gaining favor a high rate of failure. Land preparation can be costly and
in some markets. time-consuming. Producers should carefully weigh the
Pecan truffles (T. financial and production risks for truffles, realizing that
lyonii) grow in markets are highly volatile and dominated by experienced
association with producers. Exploring partnerships or apprenticeships
pecan trees in with existing producers could be one way to reduce risks
the southern U.S. associated with production.
Once discarded
by pecan farm- Production considerations
Black Périgord Truffle
ers, these truffles There are no established, tried and true methods for
show promise as a culinary commodity. truffle cultivation. Even successful truffle producers
may not be able to identify exactly why their truffière
Plantations of trees where truffles are cultivated, as well has thrived. Additionally, growers may not be willing to
as natural truffle forests, are known as truffières. The fol- share the secrets of their success (if they know what they
lowing information relates to establishing a truffière in are) because they want to protect their investment. Thus,
the United States. each new truffle venture can be viewed as an experiment,
which may or may not yield positive results.
Marketing
Truffles may be sold to fine restaurants, especially those The following summary is provided to give interested
specializing in French, Spanish, northern Italian and producers a general idea of what can be involved in
Greek cooking. Upscale hotels, celebrated chefs, and truffle production. Prospective growers need to get as
private kitchens may also purchase truffles. Additionally, much information as they can about all aspects of truffle
established truffle growers may purchase a quality production before beginning this high-risk enterprise.
product from other producers to help meet their supply
demands. Species selection
There are about 60 species of true truffles, but only
Production of a specialty crop harvested in the winter about a dozen of these are sought after for their culinary
(such as truffles) could be a way for farms to generate uses. Commercial growers have had the most success
off-season income by developing a holiday market, as cultivating black Périgord and Burgundy truffles. Other
well as a means of providing occasional income from a truffle species are either considered of inferior quality,
farm’s woodlots and forests. and therefore of lesser value, or they have yet to be
successfully cultivated on a large scale.
Market Outlook
The scarcity of truffles, once fairly available to the Site selection and site preparation
masses, has made them a rare and expensive delicacy. One of the major challenges of truffle production is
World War I, industrialization and a shrinking rural competition with native ectomycorrhizal fungi that can
population are often blamed for the loss of many displace the truffle fungus on the host roots. Proper site
European natural truffle habitats, as well as the decline selection and preparation are crucial steps to providing
in mass production. Although artificial truffle production truffles with a competitive advantage over these other
in Europe and other parts of the world has resurged since fungi.
the 1980s, truffle production has yet to rebound to the
peak levels of the past. The ideal site is open with a slight slope, has a southern
exposure, is free of trees and tree roots, and can be
Truffle orchards in the U.S. range in size from less than irrigated. If possible, avoid sites in or near forested areas
one-half acre to several acres with more than 12,000 that could support undesirable truffles or competing
inoculated trees. Large commercial truffières are located ectomycorrhizae. Trees of particular concern include
in North Carolina, Oregon, Virginia and Tennessee. In birch, beech, hazelnut, oaks, poplars, willows and
addition to selling truffles, many of the successful truffle conifers. Most fruit trees, maples and vineyards generally
producers also sell inoculated planting stock. do not support competing ectomycorrhizae, and thus
present less of a problem. Truffles may also follow infected roots should there be any question.
cultivated crops, flowering plants, grasses, and clover.
Host selection and planting
While various soil types are suitable, the soil must be European filberts (Corylus avellana), also known as
well-drained. European truffles prefer soils high in hazelnuts, are most commonly used as the host stock for
calcium with a pH of 7.5 to 8.3. Most Kentucky soils truffles in the United States. Various oak species may
will require applications of lime to raise the soil pH to the also be used, including holly leaved oak (Quercus ilex),
desired level prior to planting. This can be a slow process English oak (Q. robur, Q. pedunculata) and downy oak
and should be taken into consideration when planning (Q. pubescens). Oaks, which can take longer than filberts
the truffle plantation. Naturally occurring mycorrhizae for truffle formation, are often interplanted with filberts.
will generally be adapted to Kentucky’s acidic soils;
therefore, maintaining an alkaline soil pH helps favor Container-grown trees are planted along with the
the growth of the European truffle mycorrhizae. surrounding potting soil intact around the roots. Tree
density is much debated, with planting sizes ranging
In addition to liming, nutrient deficiencies should from 100 (or fewer) trees per acre to as many as 1,000
be corrected prior to planting. Land preparation also trees per acre.
involves removing large rocks, clearing out vegetation,
and plowing. Existing trees, along with their root The area around each tree should be maintained weed-
systems, must be removed and carted off at least one free during establishment. Various organic mulches
year in advance of planting. Pasture lands should be (such as straw or leaves), as well as polyethylene film,
mowed or grazed and then killed with an herbicide prior can be helpful in managing weeds and conserving soil
to plowing. Drip irrigation lines should be installed moisture. The repeated use of glyphosate herbicides is
before planting the truffle orchard. discouraged.
Inoculation of trees Maintenance
Broadcasting spawn or a slurry of truffle spores and
Trees should be irrigated as needed during establishment
mycorrhizae into the root zone of likely hosts is one
to provide the soil moisture necessary for both host and
inoculation technique. Experience with Oregon white
truffle growth. As the host trees grow, they may need
truffles in the Pacific Northwest has shown that this
to be thinned and pruned to permit light penetration to
method does increase truffle production in natural sites
the soil surface. Because the build-up of fallen leaves
where these mushrooms are already growing. While
and nuts tends to acidify the soil, this debris should be
this method is perhaps the least costly in terms of effort,
removed as necessary.
time and expense, it is also highly unpredictable in
establishing a new planting.
After three to five years, some truffles form a brûle (a
A breakthrough in truffle cultivation occurred when “burned” area free of vegetation) underneath the trees;
techniques were developed to inoculate host roots this is an indication that truffle formation has begun;
in large numbers under controlled conditions in the however, it will still be a few more years before the
nursery. Once the roots become colonized by truffle truffles are mature. Opinion is divided as to the best course
mycorrhizae, trees are then planted into the truffière. A of maintenance once the brûle forms. The two primary
number of companies sell pre-inoculated trees; however, approaches are the Tanguy and Pallier methods. The low
it is important to select a reputable nursery that sells trees intensity Tanguy system basically allows nature to take
acclimated to the production region. The 2-year-old host its course by providing only minimal maintenance, such
stock should be sturdy, healthy and container-grown. as mowing for weed management. The more intensive
Be sure trees were inoculated at least six months to one Pallier method involves irrigating, light tillage twice a
year prior to purchase. A certificate or written guarantee year to control weeds and aerate the soil, fertilization,
stating that the roots are infected with the desired truffle and pruning trees to an inverted cone. While this more
species and are free of contaminants should accompany intensive management scheme is believed to produce
the purchase. It is also prudent to request information truffles sooner, there is a danger of damaging roots and
on the percent of roots infected with mycorrhizae. disrupting truffle production during the soil management
Independent labs are available to test for truffle DNA on operations.
Pest management identify the specific locations where mature truffles had
Disease and insect problems that affect the host will formed. Today trained dogs are the more popular choice.
depend on the species of tree planted. Both filberts and Because of their rather short shelf life, truffles should be
oaks can be affected by a long list of diseases, which marketed or used soon after digging.
include anthracnose, fungal cankers, leaf spots and
Armillaria root rot. When using filberts, select stock that Truffles are brushed clean for fresh market sales;
is immune or highly resistant to Eastern filbert blight, washing is only done just prior to use since water can
a disease that can cause devastating losses to this host. hasten decay. Truffles have been stored for the short term
Disease management strategies will include planting in uncooked rice or microporous containers. Bottling,
healthy, disease-free stock; removal and destruction of canning, freezing, vacuum sealing and processing
fallen foliage; and following good cultural practices. truffles have been used by various companies to preserve
Maintaining tree health is paramount to promoting truffle truffles for off-season sales. Most truffle oils actually do
formation. Some of the fungicides used to manage foliar not contain any truffles; they are made from synthesizing
diseases can have a negative impact on truffle formation some of the aromatic chemicals found in real truffles.
if the runoff seeps into the soil.
Labor requirements
Oak and hazelnut are the hosts to a number of insects. Because truffle production can vary between specific
For example, twig and stem galls, borers, leaf galls and geography and farm situations, it is difficult to estimate
tent caterpillars occur on oak. However, these and most hours required for production. Producers considering
other pests would not pose a serious threat to tree health. commercial production of truffles should realize that
time for establishing, producing and harvesting the crop
Young trees should be protected from browsing by deer will vary considerably.
and rabbits until the trees are large enough to withstand
the damage. Fencing can be erected to prevent livestock Economic considerations
and wildlife from wandering through the truffière. Initial investments include land preparation, purchase
of inoculated seedlings, and installation of an irrigation
Insect pests that can attack the truffles include truffle system. Additional start up costs can include mulch and
beetles, truffle flies and slugs. Bacteria entering through fencing around the perimeter of the planting. Harvest
insect feeding sites may result in rot. As truffles mature, costs could be significant and will include time spent
they emit a strong odor that may attract small animals locating and harvesting the truffles, as well as preparing
foraging for food. In addition to these potential problems, them for market.
human theft will be a major concern.
Prices of truffles are reported to peak at the Christmas
Harvest and storage season. Prices can also fluctuate wildly based on variety,
Truffles can mature anywhere from four to 12 years after supply and demand. Because of the volatile nature of a
planting inoculated trees. Harvest season for truffles is market for a specialty item such as truffles, economic
typically during the winter and early spring. Mounds of considerations should be developed based on a producer’s
soil with cracks radiating from the centers are indicative intended market. As with any crop, it is unwise to begin
of expanding truffles that will be ready for harvest a few production without a specific plan outlining where and
months later. At full production, yields can vary from 25 how the crop will be marketed.
pounds to more than 100 pounds per acre depending on
the host, weather conditions, age of planting, number of A detailed budget estimate for black truffle production
trees, and how well the truffière is managed. in Oregon’s Willamette Valley was published in 2001
as an undergraduate thesis at Oregon State University.
Mature truffles are at the peak of ripeness for a limited The detailed but hypothetical production budgets
period and must be harvested in a timely manner. Because indicated that, in 2001 dollars, a producer would have
the truffles form 6 inches below ground, it is necessary accumulated establishment costs of about $35,000 per
to use some type of detection system to determine where acre before beginning to generate positive returns. About
the ripe truffles are located. Fortunately, mature truffles half these costs were for the purchase of trees plus the
give off a strong, telltale odor that can be sensed by some irrigation and electricity required for establishing the
animals. Historically pigs (truffle hogs) were used to trees; a substantial portion of the estimated establishment
expense was interest expense. The estimated annual • Growing Morels: Information and Tips (Mushroom-
profit to the producer for a fully producing orchard was Appreciation) http://www.mushroom-appreciation.
$9,678 per acre annually. This amount was realized com/growing-morels.html
only after the third or fourth year of production, which • Growing Truffles (Duckett Truffieres, Canada, no
was estimated at 10 years after establishment. The cost year) http://www.ducketttruffieres.com/growing_
for orchard establishment in Oregon, as of 2015/16, has truffles.htm
reportedly declined somewhat from that estimate. Likely • Morchella-The Morel Mushrooms (Mushroom-
establishment costs would be similar to perennial tree Appreciation) http://www.mushroom-appreciation.
fruit, between $15,000 and $20,000 per acre. com/morchella.html
• Morel Life Cycle (University of Wisconsin)
Selected Resources http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/morel.html
Internet resources • Mushroom Cultivation and Marketing (ATTRA,
• Black truffle economics: Evaluating the costs 2004) https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/
and returns of establishing and producing Tuber summary.php?pub=77
melanosporum in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. • North American Truffle Growers Association
Heather E. Alvis graduate thesis (Oregon State http://www.trufflegrowers.com
University, 2001) • Truffle Cultivation (New World Truffières, Inc., no
http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/ year) http://www.truffletree.com/cultivation/
handle/1957/7314/Alvis_Hea.pdf?sequence=1
• Burgundy Black Truffle Cultivation in an Books in print
Agroforestry Practice (University of Missouri, 2012) • Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Paul
http://extension.missouri.edu/explorepdf/agguides/ Stamets. 3rd ed. 2000. Ten Speed Press: Berkley. 574
agroforestry/af1015.pdf pp.
• Different Ways of Growing Morel Mushrooms • Taming the Truffle: The History, Lore, and Science
(Mushroom-Appreciation) http://www.mushroom- of the Ultimate Mushroom. Ian R. Hall, Gordon T.
appreciation.com/growing-morel-mushrooms.html Brown, and Alessandra Zambonelli. 2007. Timber
• Diversity, Ecology, and Conservation of Truffle Press: Portland, Oregon. 304 pp.
Fungi in Forests of the Pacific Northwest (USDA Forest
Service, 2009) 3 MB file Note: The inclusion of a commercial website as a
http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr772.pdf resource does not represent an endorsement of the
• Ecology and Management of Commercially company or its products by the University of Kentucky.
Harvested Chanterelle Mushrooms (USDA FS, 2003)
1.81 MB file Suggested Citation:
http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/gtr576.pdf Kaiser, C. and M. Ernst. (2016). Truffles & Other Edible
• Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested Mycorrhizal Mushrooms. CCD-CP-83. Lexington, KY: Center
From the Forests of Western North America (USDA for Crop Diversification, University of Kentucky College of
FS, 2007) 1.48 MB file http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/ Agriculture, Food and Environment. Available: http://www.uky.
edu/ccd/sites/www.uky.edu.ccd/files/truffles.pdf
publications/gtr710/pnw_gtr710a.pdf

Reviewed by Ellen Crocker, UK Forestry Post-Doctoral Scholar

Photos courtesy of Public Domain (chantarelle, porcini, truffle); Jason Hollinger (morel); and Tomomarusan
(matusutake). Source: Wikimedia Commons December 2016
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