Application of Artificial Intelligence

Unit 1 and 6.

1 Problem Solving:-

This is the first application area of AI research., the objective of this particular area of research is
how to implement the procedures on AI systems to solve the problems like Human Beings.

2 :- Game Playing:-

Much of early research in state space search was done using common board games such as
checkers, chess and 8 puzzle. Most games are played using a well defined set of rules. This
makes it easy to generate the search space and frees the researcher from many of the ambiguities
and complexities inherent in less structured problems. The board Configurations used in playing
these games are easily represented in computer, requiring none of complex formalisms. For
solving large and complex AI problems it requires lots of techniques like Heuristics. We
commonly used the term intelligence seems to reside in the heuristics used by Human beings to
solve the problems.

3 :- Theorem Proving:-

Theorem proving is another application area of AI research., ie. To prove Boolean Algebra
theorems as a humans we first try to prove Lemma., i.e it tell us whether the Theorem is having
feasible solution or not. If the theorem having feasible solution we will try to prove it otherwise
discard it., In the same way whether the AI system will react to prove Lemma before trying to
attempting to prove a theorem., is the focus of this application area of research.

4 Natural Language Processing:-

The majority of activities performed by humans are done through language, whether

communicated directly or reported using natural language. As technology is increasingly making
the methods and platforms on which we communicate ever more accessible, there is an even
greater need to understand the languages we use to communicate. By combining the power
of artificial intelligence, computational linguistics and computer science, Natural Language
Processing (NLP) helps machines “read” text  by simulating the human ability to understand
language.

The main goal of this problem is we can ask the question to the computer in our mother tongue
the computer can receive that particular language and the system gave the response with in the
same language. The effective use of a Computer has involved the use off a Programming
Language of a set of Commands that we must use to Communicate with the Computer. The goal
of natural language processing is to enable people and language such as English, rather than in a
computer language.
It can be divided in to Two sub fields.

Natural Language Understanding: This investigates methods of allowing the Computer to

improve instructions given in ordinary English so that Computers can understand people more
easily. NLU or Natural Language Understanding tries to understand the meaning of given text.
The nature and structure of each word inside text must be understood for NLU. For understanding
structure, NLU tries to resolve following ambiguity present in natural language:

 Lexical Ambiguity — Words have multiple meanings

 Syntactic Ambiguity — Sentence having multiple parse trees.

 Semantic Ambiguity — Sentence having multiple meanings
 Anaphoric Ambiguity — Phrase or word which is previously mentioned but has a
different meaning.
 Discourse Integration: The meaning of Individual sentence is depends on previous
sentence. 

Ex: Bill had a red balloon. 

       John wanted it. 
 Pragmatic Analysis:  Means Understanding the text & dialogues. 
 It derives Knowledge from external commonsense information. 
Ex:  Do you know what time it is? 
It does not mean the speaker asking you the time!!!
We should understand what to do?

Next, the meaning of each word is understood by using lexicons (vocabulary) and set of
grammatical rules.

However, there are certain different words having similar meaning (synonyms) and words having
more than one meaning (polysemy).

Natural Language Generation: This aims to have Computers produce ordinary English

language so that people an understand Computers more easily.
It is the process of automatically producing text from structured data in a readable format with
meaningful phrases and sentences. The problem of natural language generation is hard to deal
with. It is subset of NLP

Natural language generation divided into three proposed stages:-

1. Text Planning — Ordering of the basic content in structured data is done.
2. Sentence Planning — The sentences are combined from structured data to represent the flow of
information.
3. Realization — Grammatically correct sentences are produced finally to represent text.
4.. Perception:-

The process of perception is usually involves that the set of operations i.e. Touching , Smelling
Listening , Tasting , and Eating. These Perceptual activities incorporation into Intelligent
Computer System is concerned with the areas of Natural language Understanding & Processing
and Computer Vision mainly. The are two major Challenges in the application area of
Perception.

1. Speech Reorganization

2. Pattern Reorganization

¨Speech Reorganization:-

The main goal of this problem is how the Computer System can recognize our Speeches. (Next
process is to understand those Speeches and process them i.e. Encoding & Decoding i.e
producing the result in the same language.) Its one is very difficult; Speech Reorganization can
be described in two ways.

1. Discrete Speech Reorganization

Means People can interact with the Computer in their mother tongue. In such interaction whether
they can insert time gap in between the two words or two sentences (In this type of Speech
Reorganization the computer takes some time for searching the database).

2. Continues Speech Reorganization

Means when we interact with the computer in our mother tongue we can not insert the time gap
in between the two words or sentences , i.e. we can talk continuously with the Computer (For
this purpose we can increase speed of the computer).
¨Pattern Reorganization: -

 this the computer can identify the real world objects with the help of “Camera”. Its one is also
very difficult , because

- To identify the regular shape objects, we can see that object from any angle; we can imagine
the actual shape of the object (means to picturise which part is light fallen) through this we can
identify the total structure of that particular object.

-To identify the irregular shape things, we can see that particular thing from any angle; through
this we cannot imagine the actual structure. With help of that we can attach the Camera to the
computer and picturise certain part of the light fallen image with the help of that whether the AI
system can recognize the actual structure of the image or not? It is some what difficult compare
to the regular shape things, till now the research is going on. This is related the application area
of Computer Vision.

A Pattern is a quantitative or structured description of an object or some other entity of interest

of an Image. Pattern is found an arrangement of descriptors. Pattern recognition is the research
area that studies the operation and design of systems that recognize patterns in data. It encloses
the discriminate analysis, feature extraction, error estimation, cluster analysis, and parsing
(sometimes called syntactical pattern recognition). Important application areas are image
analysis, character recognition, speech recognition and analysis, man and machine diagnostics,
person identification and industrial inspection.

Closely Related Areas Pattern Recognition

Artificial Intelligence

Expert systems and machine learning

Neural Networks

Computer Vision

Cognition

Perception

Image Processing

6. Image Processing:-

Where as in pattern reorganization we can catch the image of real world things with the help of
Camera. The goal of Image Processing is to identify the relations between the parts of image.

It is a simple task to attach a Camera to a computer so that the computer can receive visual
images. People generally use Vision as their primary means of sensing their environment. We
generally see more than we here. i.e. how can we provide such perceptual facilities touch, smell,
taste, listen, and eat to the AI System. The goal of Computer Vision research is to give
computers this powerful facility for understanding their surroundings. Currently, one of the
primary uses of Computer Vision is in the area of Robotics.

Ex: - We can take a Satellite image to identify the roots and forests; we can make digitize all the
image and place on the disk. With the help of particular scale to convert the image in to dots
form, later we can identify that particular image at any time. Its one is time consuming process.
With the help of “ image processing” how to reduce the time to process an image till now the AI
research will be continuously going on.
In Image Processing the process of image recognition can be broken into the following
main stages.

· Image capture

· Edge detection

· Segmentation

· Recognition and Analysis.

Image capturing can be performed by a simple Camera, which converts light signals from a scale
of electrical signals., i.e., done by human visual system. We obtained these light signals in a set
of 0’s and 1’s. Each pixel takes on one of a number of possible values often from 0 to 255. Color
images are broken down in the same way, but with varying colors instead of gray scales. When a
computer receives an image from sensor in form of set of pixels. These pixels are integrated to
give the computer an understanding of what it is perceiving.

An image has been obtained, is to determine where the edges are in the image, the very first
stage of analysis is called edge detection. Objects in the real world are almost all have solid
edges of one kind or another, detecting those images is first step in the process of determining
which objects are present in a scene.

Once the edges have been detected, in an image, this information can be used to Segment the
image, into homogeneous areas. There are other methods available for segmenting an image,
apart from using edge detection, like threshold method. This method involves finding the color
of each pixel in an image and considering adjacent pixels to be in the same area as long as their
color is similar enough.

A similar method for segmenting images is splitting and merging. Splitting involves taking an
area that is not homogeneous and splitting it into two or more smaller areas, each of which is
homogeneous. Merging involves taking two areas that are the same as each other, and adjacent to
each other and combining them together into a large area. This provides a sophisticated
interactive approach to segmenting an image.

7. Expert system:- Expert means the person who had complete knowledge in particular field, ie
is called as an expert. The main aim of this problem is with the help of experts, to load their
tricks on to the compute and make available those tricks to the other users. The expert can solve
the problems with in the time.

The goal of this problem is how to load the tricks and ideas of an expert on to the computer, till
now the research will be going on.
8. Computer Vision:- It is a simple task to attach a camera to a computer so that the computer
can receive visual images. People generally use vision as their primary means of sensing their
environment. We generally see more than we here, feel, smell, or taste.

The goal of computer vision research is to give computers this powerful facility for
understanding their surroundings. Currently, one of the primary uses of computer vision is in the
area of Robotics.

9. Robotics:-

Robotics is one field within artificial intelligence. It involves mechanical, usually computer-
controlled, devices to perform tasks that require extreme precision or tedious or hazardous work
by people. Traditional Robotics uses Artificial Intelligence planning techniques to program robot
behaviors and works toward robots as technical devices that have to be developed and controlled
by a human engineer. The Autonomous Robotics approach suggests that robots could develop
and control themselves autonomously. These robots are able to adapt to both uncertain and
incomplete information in constantly changing environments. This is possible by imitating the
learning process of a single natural organism or through Evolutionary Robotics, which is to
apply selective reproduction on populations of robots. It lets a simulated evolution process
develop adaptive robots. 

The artificial intelligence concept of the "expert system" is highly developed. This describes
robot programmers ability to anticipate situations and provide the robot with a set of "if-then"
rules. For example, if encountering a stairwell, stop and retreat. The more sophisticated concept
is to give the robot the ability to "learn" from experience. A neural network brain equipped onto
a robot will allow the robot to sample its world at random. Basically, the robot would be given
some life-style goals, and, as it experimented, the actions resulting in success would be
reinforced in the brain. This results in the robot devising its own rules. This is appealing to
researchers and the community as it parallels human learning in lots of ways. 

Artificial intelligence dramatically reduces or eliminates the risk to humans in many

applications. Powerful artificial intelligence software helps to fully develop the high-precision
machine capabilities of robots, often freeing them from direct human control and vastly
improving their productivity. When a robot interacts with a richly populated and variable world,
it uses it senses to gather data and then compare the sensate inputs with expectations that are
imbedded in its world model. Therefore the effectiveness of the robot is limited by the accuracy
to which its programming models the real world.

10. Intelligent Computer – Assisted Instruction:-

Computer - Assisted Instruction (CAI) has been used in bringing the power of the computer to
bear on the educational process. Now AI methods are being applied to the development of
intelligent computerized “ Tutors” that shape their teaching techniques to fit the leaning patterns
of individual students.
11. Automatic Programming:- Programming is the process of telling the computer exactly
what we want to do . the goal of automatic programming is to create special programs that act as
intelligent “Tools” to assist programmers and expedite each phase of the programming process.
The ultimate aim of automatic programming is a computer system that could develop programs
by itself, in response to an in according with the specifications of the program developer.

12. Planning and Decision Support system:- When we have a goal, either we rely on luck and
providence to achieve that goal or we design and implement a plan. The realization of a complex
goal may require to construction of a formal and detailed plan. Intelligent planning programs are
designed to provide active assistance in the planning process and are expected to the particularly
helpful to managers with decision making responsibilities.

13. Neural Architecture:-

People or more intelligent than Computers,. But AI researchers are trying how make Computers
Intelligent. Humans are better at interpreting noisy input, such as recognizing a face in a
darkened room from an odd angle. Even where human may not be able to solve some problem,
we generally can make a reasonable guess as to its solution. Neural architectures, because they
capture knowledge in a large no. of units. Neural architectures are robust because knowledge is
distributed somewhat uniformly around the network.

Neural architectures also provide a natural model for parallelism, because each neuron is an
independent unit. This showdown searching the data base a massively parallel architecture like
the human brain would not suffer from this problem.

14. Heuristic Classification:-

The term Heuristic means to Find & Discover., find the problem and discover the solution. For
solving complex AI problems it’s requires lots of knowledge and some represented mechanisms
in form of Heuristic Search Techniques., i.e referred to known as Heuristic Classification.