Fourth Semester Practical Allotments

SN Expt Faculty
General Experiments
1 Half Life BA
2 Cauchy Constant NA
3 Pyranometer RPR
4 Fourier Series & Transform GCK (Group A)
BG (Group B)
5 Damped Harmonic Oscillator MPG
6 Forbidden Gap RK (Group A)
OPN (Group B)
Electronics Experiments
1 OP-Amp NP
2 AM PT
3 D/A & A/D Converter SM
4 Pulse Amplifier SS
5 Microprocessor 1: (a) Hexadecimal addition HPL
of two 8-bit hexadecimal numbers (neglecting the
carry), (b) Decimal addition of two 8-bit decimal
numbers (the result should not be greater than 99),
(c) Addition of two 16-bit hexadecimal numbers
(neglecting the carry)
6 Microprocessor 2: (a) Addition of 8-bit IK
number series (neglecting the carry), (b) Separation
of hexadecimal number into two digits, (c)
Combination
of two hex nibbles to form one byte number.
7 Microprocessor 3: (a) Identification of odd AKJ
or even parity of given hex number, (b) Multiplication
by two, employing bit rotation, (c) Multiplication of
two 8-bit hex numbers without neglecting carry
 Date………………………….. Experiment no: 04
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO STUDY THE FOURIER SERIES AND TRANSFORM BY USING

OSCILLOSCOPE

Apparatus Required
a) Signal generator
b) Inductor, Capacitor , Resistor
c) Oscilloscope

Theory
Fourier series and the Fourier transform play a vital role in many areas of
engineering such as communications and signal processing. These representations
are among the most powerful and most common methods of analyzing and
understanding signals. A solid understanding of Fourier series and the Fourier
transform is critical to the design of filters and is beneficial in understanding of
many natural phenomena.

Fourier Analysis is the process of analysing some time-domain waveform to find its
spectrum. We also say that the time domain waveform is converted into a frequency
spectrum by means of the Fourier transform. This process is reversible: using the
inverse Fourier transform a spectrum may be converted back into a time-domain
waveform

Mathematically, a periodic signal x(t) may be represented by a Fourier series as

follows
 ∞
𝐴0
𝑆(𝑡) = + ∑ 𝐵𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜔𝑡)
2
𝑛=0

Where, 𝐴𝑛 and 𝐵𝑛 are coefficient of fourier series

𝐴𝑛 = 0 for antisymmetric wavefunction
𝐵𝑛 = 0 for symmetric wavefunction

a) for symmetric signal,

𝐵𝑛 = 0, we need to find 𝐴𝑛
𝐴0 2𝜋
𝑆(𝑡) = 2 𝑛=0 𝐴𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜔𝑡) with 𝜔 =
+ ∑∞ 2

𝑇 𝑇
Using the integration from − 2 and 2 we get
𝑇 𝑇 ∞
2 𝐴0 2
∫ 𝑆(𝑡)𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ [ + ∑ 𝐴𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜔𝑡)] 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 2
− − 𝑛=0
2 2

L.H.S =
𝑇 𝑇
2𝑉0 𝑉𝑇 𝑚𝜋𝑇1
2 0
∫ 𝑉0 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝜔 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜔𝑡]0 = 𝑚𝜋
𝑇 𝑆𝑖𝑛( 2
)
− 𝑇
2

R.H.S
𝑇 𝑇
=∫ 𝐴𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜔𝑡)𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝐴0 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2
𝑇
2
𝑇
− −
2 2
𝑇 𝑇
𝐴
= 2𝑛 ∫2𝑇[𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜔𝑡]𝑑𝑡 + ∫2𝑇 𝐴0 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
− −
2 2
𝑇
𝐴0 𝑇 𝐴𝑛
= + ∑𝑛=1 ∫2𝑇[𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔𝑡
2 2 −
2

For n = m
𝑇
𝐴0 𝑇 𝐴𝑛
= + ∫2𝑇 𝑑𝑡𝛿𝑚𝑛
2 2 −
2

𝐴0 𝑇 𝐴𝑚 𝑇
= +
2 2

Comparing LHS and RHS

𝑉0 𝑇 𝑇1 𝐴𝑚 𝑇
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑇 ) =
𝑚𝜋 𝑇 2
For, 𝐴0 i.e n = 0
𝑉0 𝑇 𝑇𝑐 𝐴0 𝑇
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝜋 ) =
𝑚→0 𝑚𝜋 𝑇 2
𝑉0 𝑇 𝜋𝑇1 𝐴0 𝑇
× =
𝜋 𝑇 2
𝐴0 𝑇
= 𝑉0 𝑇1
2
2𝑉0 𝑇1
𝐴0 =
𝑇
𝐴𝑛 𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝑇
And, 2
0
= ∑𝑚 𝛿𝑛𝑚 𝑚𝜋 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝜋 𝑇1 )
𝑉0 𝑇 𝑛𝜋𝑇1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑛𝜋 𝑇

𝑉0 𝑛𝜋𝑇1
𝐴𝑛 = 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑛𝜋 𝑇

Here,
𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 =
2
𝑇
2𝑉0 ×
For n = 0, 𝐴0 = (𝑇)
2
= 𝑉0
2𝑉0 𝜋 𝑇
n = 1, 𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑇 × 2) = (2𝑉0 )/𝜋
1𝜋
2𝑉0 2𝜋 𝑇
n = 2, 𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛( 𝑇 × 2) = 0
2𝜋
2𝑉0 3𝜋 𝑇 2𝑉
n = 3, 𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑇 × 2) = − 3 𝜋0
3𝜋
2𝑇
b) For rectangular waves with 𝑇1 = 2𝑇2 = 3
2𝑉0 2𝑇 4
For n = 0, 𝐴0 = × = 3 𝑉0
𝑇 3
2𝑉0 𝜋 2𝑇 √3
n = 1, 𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑇 × )= 𝑉
1𝜋 3 𝜋 0
2𝑉0 2𝜋 2𝑇 √3
n = 2, 𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑇 × ) = − 2𝜋 𝑉0
2𝜋 3
2𝑉0 3𝜋 2𝑇 2𝑉
n = 3, 𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑇 × ) = − 3 𝜋0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋) = 0
3𝜋 3

If ′ 𝑉0 ′ is output voltage , 𝑉𝑠 is input voltage, then

Voltage gain (𝛼) = 𝑉0 /𝑉𝑠
Let, the antiresonance frequency far of LCR parallel and ‘n’ be no. of order then
𝑓𝑎𝑟
𝑓𝑠 =
𝑛
𝑉0
Now, 𝐴𝑛 is calculated as 𝐴𝑛 = 2

OBSERVATION:
For voltage gain,
𝑉𝑠 = ( 6.82 × 2)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = (13.6 ± 0.4)𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑉0 = ( 4.6 × 0.5)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = (2.3 ± 0.1)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑉0
Voltage gain (𝛼) = = 0.169 ± 0.009
𝑉𝑠

For symmetric square wave of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = ( 5.0 ± 0.4)Volt

𝑽𝟎 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓)
Mode Frequency 𝑽𝟎 (𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅)( 𝑷 − 𝑷) (𝑽𝟎 )𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅
=
𝜶

0.57
n = 1, 1st harmonic 11369.63 Hz (1.15 ± 0.1)𝑣 = (3.37 ± 0.1)𝑣
0.169

N=2, 2nd harmonic 5681.82 Hz 0V 0V

N = 3 , 3rd harmonic 3787.88 Hz 0.4 ± 0.02) 𝑉 (1.18 ± 0.02)𝑉

For theoretical value

Mode Amplitude

2𝑉0 5
N = 1, 1st harmonic 𝐴1 = = 2 × = (3.18 ± 0.1)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝜋 𝜋

N = 2, 2nd harmonic 𝐴2 = 0

2𝑉0 2 × 5
N = 3, 3rd harmonic 𝐴3 = = = (1.00 ± 0.1 )𝑣
3𝜋 3𝜋

Result
The amplitude by theoretical and experimental can be tabulated as
 Modes Theoritical ( volt ) Experimental ( volt )
N = 1, 1st harmonic (3.18 ± 0.4)𝑣 3.37 ± 0.1 ) 𝑣

N = 2, 2nd harmonic 0v 0v
N = 3, 3rd harmonic (1.06 ± 0.4)𝑣 (1.18 ± 0.02)𝑣

Discussion:
The voltage from theoretical and experimental study is fround to be almost same

Precautions:
a) Make the proper correction of CKL.
b) We should at first acquire anti-resonance freq. to carry out experiment with
square wave.
Date………………………….. Experiment no: 04
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO STUDY THE HALF LIFE OF GIVEN RADIOACTIVE

SUBSTANCE

Apparatus Required

Radioactive Substances
GM Counter

Theory

Most radioactive processes can only happen once for a given radioactive
nucleus, changing the nucleus into another state (possibly a different
radioactive state and possibly even a different element) in the process.
This means that for a given sample of radioactive material, the original
radioactive substance is constantly being depleted. Since the rate of
these decay events is directly proportional to the number of radioactive
nuclei present, the decay is governed by the differential equation:
dN(t)
 N(t) , (1)
dt
where N(t) is the number of nuclei of the original substance at time t,
and the decay constant, is positive because the amount of the substance
is decreasing. The 
solution to this equation is an exponential, namely,

N(t)  N o e  ‘t or N(t)  N o e t  , (2)

where No is the number of nuclei at time t = 0s. Note that for any
system which decays or grows exponentially (not just radioactive
nuclei), these equations imply that the rate of decay must also decay
exponentially with the same decay constant, i.e.,
 N0  t 
For half life, N  t   , t =t1/2 then
2
N0 t   t 1
 N 0e 2
2
t 1
e 2 2
Taking log on both sides
t 1  ln 2
2

ln 2
t1 
2 

Now,  is obtained as,

ln N  ln N 0  t
y  mx  c
Thus    m

Where ‘m’ can be found from least square fit,

 y  m x  nc
 xy  m x  c x
2

m x  nc   y
m x   x.c   xy
2

m   
x y  n xy
  x   n x
2 2

c 
x xy   y  x 2

  x   n x
2 2

OBSERVATION TABLE

Background Reading

Cumulative
S.N Count per 10 sec (B’) Average( B)
Count (c)
 1. 14 14
2. 36 12
3. 71 35
4. 83 12
5. 91 08
6. 120 29
7 15 15
8 35 20
9 49 14
18.39
10 57 8
11 90 33
12 109 19
13 10 10
14 28 18
15 43 15
16 59 16
17 77 18
18 102 25
′
∑𝐵 = 331

So, the background count is found to be

∑𝐵′ 331
𝐵= = = 18.38
𝑁 18

For 1st Sample:

Time
Count per 𝑵
S.No (x) 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒏𝑵 𝒙𝟐 xy
10 sec (N) = 𝑵′ − 𝑩
Sec
1 10 71 52.61 3.96 100 39.60000
2 20 59 40.61 3.70 400 74.00000
3 30 71 52.61 3.96 900 118.80000
4 40 44 25.61 3.24 1600 129.60000
5 50 59 40.61 3.70 2500 185.00000
6 60 38 19.61 2.98 3600 178.80000
 7 70 51 32.61 3.48 4900 243.60000
8 80 60 41.61 3.73 6400 298.40000
9 90 55 36.61 3.60 8100 324.00000
10 100 64 45.61 3.82 10000 382.00000
11 110 61 42.61 3.75 12100 412.50000
12 120 68 49.61 3.90 14400 468.00000
13 130 54 35.61 3.57 16900 464.10000
14 140 47 28.61 3.35 19600 469.00000
15 150 35 16.61 2.81 22500 421.50000
16 160 20 16.11 0.48 25600 76.80000
17 170 53 34.61 3.54 28900 601.80000
18 180 32 13.61 2.61 32400 469.80000
2 ∑𝑥𝑦
∑𝑥
∑𝑥 = 1710 ∑𝑦 = 60.21
= 210900 = 5359.832

m  
x y  n xy
=
  
2
x  n x 2

1716 × 60.21 − 18 × 5359.832

= −0.0074
(1710)2 − 18 × 5359.832

c 
x xy   y  x 2

=
  x   n x
2 2

5359.832 + 0.0674 × 210900

= 4.0515
1710
𝑙𝑛2 𝑙𝑛2
∴Equation is 𝑦 = −0.0074𝑥 + 4.0515 amd 𝑡1 = = = 93.22seconds
2 𝐴 0.6074

For 2nd Sample

Time
Count per 𝑵
S.No (x) 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒏𝑵 𝒙𝟐 xy
10 sec (N) = 𝑵′ − 𝑩
Sec
 1 10 53 34.61 3.54 100 35.4
2 20 49 30.61 3.42 400 68.4
3 30 44 25.61 3.24 900 97.2
4 40 51 32.61 3.48 1600 139.2
5 50 60 41.61 3.73 2500 186.5
6 60 36 17.61 2.87 3600 172.2
7 70 32 13.61 2.61 4900 182.7
76.8
8 80 21 2.61 0.96 6400

9 90 59 40.61 3.70 8100 333

10 100 56 37.61 3.63 10000 363
11 110 80 61.61 4.12 12100 453.2
12 120 30 11.61 2.45 14400 294
13 130 39 20.61 3.03 16900 393.9
14 140 45 26.61 3.28 19600 459.2
15 150 35 16.61 2.81 22500 421.5
16 160 22 3.61 1.28 25600 204.8
17 170 38 19.61 2.98 28900 506.6
18 180 31 12.61 2.53 32400 455.4
∑𝑥 2 ∑𝑥𝑦
∑𝑥 = 1710 ∑𝑦 = 53.68
= 210900 = 4844.100

m  
x y  n xy
=
  x   n x 2
2

= −0.0053

c 
x xy   y  x 2

=
  x   n x
2 2

= 3.4824

∴Equation is 𝑦 = −0.0053𝑥 + 3.4824 and

 𝑙𝑛2 𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1 = = = 131.59seconds
2 𝐴 0.0053

For 3rd Sample

Time
Count per 𝑵
S.No (x) 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒏𝑵 𝒙𝟐 xy
10 sec (N) = 𝑵′ − 𝑩
Sec
1 10 73 54.61 4.00 100 40
2 20 50 31.61 3.45 400 69
3 30 51 32.61 3.48 900 104.4
4 40 51 32.61 3.48 1600 139.2
5 50 70 51.61 3.94 2500 197
6 60 69 50.61 3.92 3600 235.2
7 70 53 34.61 3.54 4900 247.8
8 80 22 3.61 1.28 6400 102.4
9 90 65 46.61 3.84 8100 345.6
10 100 74 55.61 4.02 10000 402
11 110 90 71.61 4.27 12100 469.7
12 120 40 21.61 3.67 14400 440.4
13 130 55 36.61 3.60 16900 468
14 140 42 23.61 3.16 19600 442.4
15 150 28 9.61 2.27 22500 340.5
16 160 39 20.61 3.03 25600 484.8
17 170 40 21.61 3.07 28900 521.9
18 180 30 11.61 2.45 32400 441

∑𝑥 2 ∑𝑥𝑦
∑𝑥 = 1710 ∑𝑦 = 59.90
= 210900 = 5420.73

m  
x y  n xy
=
 x  n x
2 2
 = −0.0056

c 
x xy   y  x 2

=
  x   n x
2 2

= 3.8567

∴Equation is 𝑦 = −0.0056𝑥 + 3.8567 and

𝑙𝑛2 𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1 = = = 124.50seconds
2 𝐴 0.0056

For 4th Sample

Time
Count per 𝑵
S.No (x) 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒏𝑵 𝒙𝟐 xy
10 sec (N) = 𝑵′ − 𝑩
Sec
1 10 70 51.61 3.94 100 39.4
2 20 77 58.61 4.07 400 81.4
3 30 50 31.61 3.45 900 103.5
4 40 40 21.61 3.67 1600 146.8
5 50 80 61.61 4.12 2500 206
6 60 55 36.61 3.60 3600 216
7 70 54 35.61 3.57 4900 249.9
8 80 30 11.61 2.45 6400 196
9 90 61 42.61 3.75 8100 337.5
10 100 77 58.61 4.07 10000 407
11 110 75 56.61 4.03 12100 443.3
12 120 20 0.61 0.48 14400 57.6
13 130 60 41.61 3.73 16900 484.9
14 140 45 46.61 3.28 19600 459.2
15 150 55 36.61 3.60 22500 540
16 160 30 11.61 2.45 25600 392
17 170 45 26.61 3.28 28900 557.6
18 180 33 14.61 2.68 32400 482.4
 ∑𝑥 2 ∑𝑥𝑦
∑𝑥 = 1710 ∑𝑦 = 59.65
= 210900 = 5378.6790

m  
x y  n xy
=
  x   n x 2
2

= −0.0059

c 
x xy   y  x 2

=
  x   n x
2 2

= 3.8784

∴Equation is 𝑦 = −0.0059𝑥 + 3.8784 and

𝑙𝑛2 𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1 = = = 116.64 seconds
2 𝐴 0.0059

For 5th Sample

Time
Count per 𝑵
S.No (x) 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒏𝑵 𝒙𝟐 xy
10 sec (N) = 𝑵′ − 𝑩
Sec
1 10 50 31.61 3.45 100 34.5
2 20 40 32.61 3.67 400 73.4
3 30 20 1.61 0.48 900 14.4
4 40 50 31.61 3.45 1600 138
5 50 21 2.61 0.96 2500 48
6 60 20 1.61 0.48 3600 28.8
7 70 21 2.61 0.96 4900 67.2
8 80 25 6.61 1.89 6400 151.2
9 90 30 11.61 2.45 8100 220.5
10 100 20 1.61 0.48 10000 48
11 110 25 6.61 1.89 12100 207.9
12 120 20 1.61 0.48 14400 57.6
13 130 24 5.61 1.72 16900 223.6
 14 140 55 36.61 3.60 19600 504
15 150 60 41.61 3.73 22500 559.5
16 160 20 1.61 0.48 25600 76.8
17 170 21 2.61 0.96 28900 163.2
18 180 21 2.61 0.96 32400 172.8
2 ∑𝑥𝑦
∑𝑥
∑𝑥 = 1710 ∑𝑦 = 31.49
= 210900 = 2776.4500

m  
x y  n xy
=
 x  n x
2 2

= −0.0044

c 
x xy   y  x 2

=
  x   n x
2 2

= 2.1705

∴Equation is 𝑦 = −0.0044𝑥 + 2.1705 and

𝑙𝑛2 𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1 = = = 156.34 seconds
2 𝐴 0.0044

Result and Discussion

Sample no Half –life (𝒕𝟏 )in Seconds Half life in minutes

𝟐
1 93.22 1.654
2 131.59 2.193
3 124.50 2.075
4 116.64 1.944
5 156.34 2.606

Mean 𝑡1 = 2.074 minutes

2
2.551−2.074
Now, Relative error % = × 100% = 18.69 %
2.551
Discussion

The error of 18.69% in our experiment is due to the amount of time

taken for observation. We have included only 3 minutes for reading.
Moreover it is also due to amount of time taken to make the sample and
keeping it in G.M counter

Precautions:

a) Reading should be taken carefully

b) Amount of time to keep the sample in G.M counter should be
shortened
c) Reading must be taken for as long time period as for accuracy
 Date………………………….. Experiment no: 05
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO STUDY THE DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR TO FIND DAMPING

CONSTANT, FREQUENCY UNDER DAMPING OVER DAMPING AND
CRITICAL DAMPING

Apparatus Required

Bread Board
Function Generators
Jumpers
Oscilloscope
Capacitors-inductor-resistor

Theory

An electronic oscillator, like its mechanical equivalent, has a natural or resonant

frequency  1 at which it tends to oscillate. A periodic driving force
LC
delivered at just this frequency will cause large oscillations. If the driving force is
delivered at any other frequency   R , the system will oscillate with reduced
amplitude at the frequency  of the driving force, not at its natural frequency. You
will investigate in this lab some important properties of the forced, damped
oscillator.
Figure shows a schematic diagram of a circuit with a resistor, capacitor, and
inductor which can be connected in series by closing switch S2 to form a damped LC
oscillator. When switch S2 is open and switch S1 is first closed, the capacitor is
connected to the voltage source, V, and charges through resistor R to this voltage.
When S1 is subsequently opened and S2 is closed, the voltage across the capacitor
decays back to zero but may oscillate while doing so, depending on the values of the
components.

A damped LC oscillator is equivalent to a damped mechanical oscillator formed

from a mass on a spring with a shock absorber. Both systems obey the same
differential equation, in the form of Eq. 1 for the charge on the capacitor in the
damped LC oscillator and Eq. 2 for its mechanical equivalent; only the symbols are
different.
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2 R   0             1
dt dt C
d 2x dx
M 2  b  kx  0              2 
dt dt

One can see from these equations that the inductance L takes the place of mass,
providing inertia to the system. The capacitance (1/C) , takes the place of the spring
constant k, supplying a restoring force. The resistance R substitutes for the
damping force b to resist motion, converting the kinetic energy of the conduction
electrons into heat. A solution of Equation (1) is an exponentially damped sine wave

   sin  t  
 
 t
Q  Q0e

With

2
1  R 
1
'    2 
2
 
 LC  2 L 

Where the parameter are

Q0 = charge at t =0 if   2

  2L R is the decay time or time for the envelope or exponential term to decrease
by 1/e

 2  1 LC where  is the resonant angular frequency of the undamped (R=0) LC

circuit. This shifts to  ' with damping

 =the phase of the signal, which describes where along the sine function the wave
starts at t =0

There are several properties of the damped oscillator that are important to know.
 The amplitude damps exponentially as time advances. After a certain amount
of time, the amplitude is halved. After the same amount of time, it is halved
again.
 The frequency is shifted.
  The oscillator can be (under)damped, critically damped, or overdamped.

Fig: LCR ( damped oscillator ) circuit diagram

Figure: Voltage decay of an LCR circuit

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

For,

L = 2.2 mH
C = 0.01  F
R = 40 
Neglecting internal resistance of sources,

 40 
2
1 R2 1
  2  
4  2.2  103 
3 6
LC 4 L 2.2  10  0.01  10 2

= 4.5  1010  8.2  107  4.49  1010

∴ 𝜔 = 2.11 × 105 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Also
 𝑅 40
𝛼= =
2𝐿 2 × 2.2 × 10−3
∴ 𝛼 = 9.09 × 103

Experimental Observation

For underdamping condition, at R = 40 

Voltage ( V1) = (1.6 × 0.2)𝑉 = 0.32 V

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉1 ) = (0.32 ± 0.04)𝑉

And Voltage ( V2) = (0.2 × 0.2 )𝑉 = 0.04𝑉

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉2 ) = (0.04 ± 0.04)𝑉

And Time ( t1) = (0.4 × 50)𝜇𝑠 = 20𝜇𝑠

∴ 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡1 ) = ( 2.0 ± 10)𝜇𝑠

Time ( t2) = (1.4 × 50)𝜇𝑠 = 70𝜇𝑠

∴ (𝑡2 ) = (70 ± 10)𝜇𝑠

Then,
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑖. 𝑒
2 1 𝑇
2
2𝜋
× 106 = 0.251 × 106 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
25

∴ 𝜔𝑒𝑥𝑝 = (0.251 ± 0.1) × 106

(2.51 ± 1.00) × 105 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Also,
1 𝑉1
𝛼𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑉2

1 0.32
= 𝑙𝑛 ( )
50𝜇𝑠 0.04

𝛼𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 4.16 × 104

(4.16 ± 0.01) × 104

Result

The theoretical and experimental observation are

Damping Const(𝛼) 2.11 × 105 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2.51 ± 1.00) × 105 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Frequency (𝜔) 9.09 × 108 (4.16 ± 0.01) × 104

Discussion

The harmonic oscillator equivalent of electronic circuit is LCR, we used square wave
as input which is transformed into sinusoidal wave and was damped under the
constraint of resistance into series. The value of resistance when increased from
40Ω 𝑡𝑜 327Ω the under damping condition turned into the critical damping on
further increment of resistance to 365Ω overdamping condition is attained

Precaution:

a) Join the circuit properly

b) To reduce noise we need to make connection between elements tight
c) The least count for voltage and times must be noted for each conditions.
Date………………………….. Experiment no: 03
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

STUDY OF SOLAR FLUX DENSITY VARIATION WITH TIME AND ESTIMATE THE VALUE OF SOLAR
ENERGY DENSITY USING PYRANOMETER

Apparatus Required
 Pyranometer
 Stop Watch

Theory
A pyranometer is a type of actinometer that can measure solar irradiance in the desired
location and solar radiation flux density. The solar radiation spectrum extends approximately
between 300 and 2800 n.
The main components of Pyranometer

a) Thermophile
A sensor consisting of thermophile connected in series and provided with a black coating for
absorbing all solar radiation. It exhibits a near perfect cosine response and a flat spectrum that
relative to the temperature gradient.
b) Glass dome:
This dome restricts the spectral response from 300 to 2800 nm froma field of view of 1800. This
hemispherical glass dome also shields the thermophile from wind, rain and convection.
c) Occulating disc:
It is used for measuring the diffuse radiation and blocking beam radiation from the surface.
Working principle
A pyranometer is operated based on the measurement of temperature difference between a
clear surface and dark surface. The black coating on the thermopile sensor absorbed the solar
radiation while a clear surface reflects the radiation and hence heat loss is absorbed.
Application:
Establishment of green house locations
Designing photovoltaic systems

OBSERVATIONS

1. When Pyranometer is placed in dark room for 10 min

Maximum reading (𝑂1 ) = 1𝑊/𝑚2

Minimum reading (𝑂2 ) = 1𝑊/𝑚2
𝑂 1 +𝑂2 1+0
Background flux = = = 0.5 𝑊/𝑚2
2 2

2. When pyranometer is exposed to sunlight

Irradiance (
S.N Time ( pm) ̅|𝟐
|𝒚 − 𝒚 comments
𝒘/𝒎^𝟐)
1 1:40 350 2440.36
3 1:44 340 864.36
2 1:42 330 1552.36
4 1:46 375 5535.36
5 1:48 364 4019.36
6 1:50 422 14737.96
7 1:52 464 26699.56
8 1:54 453 23225.76
9 1:56 452 22921.96
10 1:58 448 21726.96
11 2:00 422 8723.56
12 2:02 394 6304.36
13 2:04 380 9101.16
14 2:06 396 11320.96
15 2:08 407 1730.56
16 2:10 259 2641.96
17 2:12 352 2581.56
18 2:14 354 31.36
19 2:16 295 9880.36
20 2:18 400 1420.42
21 2:20 364 4019.56
22 2:22 382 6625.96

23 2:24 384 6955.56

24 2:26 382 6625.96
25 2:28 322 457.96
26 2:30 294 43.56
27 2:32 320 376.36
28 2:34 244 3203.56
29 2:36 364 4019.56
30 2:38 382 6625.96
31 2:40 384 6955.56
32 2:42 382 6625.96
33 2:44 322 457.96

34 2:46 294 43.56

35 2:48 320 376.36
36 2:50 244 3203.56
37 2:52 232 4303.36
38 2:54 207 3794.56
39 2:56 186 4984.36
40 2:58 233 9331.56
41 3:00 260 12012.16
42 3:02 250 12904.96
 43 3:04 187 13829.76
44 3:06 183 6496.36
45 3:08 220 10732.96
46 3:10 197 20620.96
47 3:12 157 15726.96
48 3:14 177 9920.16
49 3:16 201 1384.5
50 3:18 289 134.56

∑𝑦 = 15003 ∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅) = 415121.40

CALCULATION
∑𝑦 = 15003 𝑦̅ = 300.6
∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2 = 415121.40
∑(𝑦−𝑦̅)2 √41521.40
Standard deviation (𝜎) = √( = ∼ 91.12
𝑁 50
𝜎
Standard error S.E = √𝑁 for N>30
91.12
= 12.89
√50
Best fit of data
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 − − − − − − − −(1)
∑ 𝑦 = 𝑚∑𝑥 + 𝑛𝑐--------------(2)
∑𝑥𝑦 = 𝑚∑𝑥 2 + ∑𝑥𝑐 − − − − − − − (3)
Solving (2) and (3) we get m & c
(∑𝑥𝑦 − 𝑚∑𝑥 2 )
𝑐= − − − − − − − −(4)
∑𝑥
∑𝑥∑𝑦 − 𝑛∑𝑥𝑦
𝑚= − − − − − − − −(5)
(∑𝑥)2 − 𝑛∑𝑥 2

Irradiance (
S.N Time ( min ) 𝑥2 xy
𝑤/𝑚^2)
1 0 350 0 0
3 02 330 4 660
2 04 340 16 1360
4 06 375 36 2250
5 08 364 64 2912
6 10 422 100 4220
7 12 464 144 5568
8 14 453 196 6342
9 16 452 256 7232
10 18 448 324 8064
11 20 442 400 8440
12 22 394 484 8668
13 24 380 576 9120

14 26 396 676 10296

15 28 369 676 10296
16 30 407 784 11396
17 32 259 900 7770
18 34 352 1024 11264
19 36 354 1156 12036
20 38 295 1296 10620
21 40 400 1444 15200
22 42 382 1600 14500
23 44 384 1764 16044
24 46 382 1936 16896

25 48 322 2116 17572

26 50 294 2304 15476
27 52 320 2500 14700
28 54 244 2704 16640
29 56 232 2916 13176
30 58 207 3136 12992
31 60 186 3600 12006
32 62 233 3844 11160
33 64 260 4096 14446
 34 66 250 4356 16640
35 68 213 4624 16500
36 70 182 4900 14484
37 72 235 5184 12740
38 74 239 5476 16920
39 76 230 5776 17686
40 78 204 6084 17480
41 80 191 6400 15819
42 82 181 6724 17480
43 84 187 7056 15912
44 86 183 7396 15280
45 88 220 7744 14842

46 90 157 8100 17730

47 92 177 8464 14444
48 94 201 8836 16638
49 96 282 9216 19296
50 98 289 9604 28322

∑𝑥 = 2450 ∑𝑦 = 15003 ∑𝑥 2 = 161700 ∑𝑦 2 = 624786

Equation (2) and (3) becomes

15003 = 2450 + 50 c -------------------(4)
624786 = 161700 m +2450 c -------- (5)
From (2), we get
15003−2450
𝑐= --------------------------(6)
50

Now, the solar energy density at mean distance of the earth from the sun (1.5 × 1011 𝑚 ) is
𝐿
𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝑓 = 4𝜋𝑑 2

We know
𝐿𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 3.9 × 1026 𝑤
3.9 × 1026
∴𝐹=
4 × 3.14 × (1.5 × 1011 )
1370 𝑤/𝑚2
Therefore,
Observed value = 300.1 w/m2
Expected solar density = 1370 2/m2
Percentage of actual solar energy density that we receive is 21.90 %
 Date………………………….. Experiment no:
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO STUDY THE CAUCHY FORMULA AND FIND CAUCHY CONSTANT

FOR GIVEN PRISM

Apparatus Required

Spectrometer Mercury Vapour Lamp

Prism Eye Piece
Sodium Light

Theory
Cauchy's equation is an empirical relationship between the refractive index and
wavelength of light for a particular transparent material. It is named for the
mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who defined it in 1836.
The most general form of Cauchy’s equation is
B C
n   A   ....
 2
4
where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength, B, C, D, etc., are coefficients
that can be determined for a material by fitting the equation to measured refractive
indices at known wavelengths.
The refractive index of the material of the prism for each colour is calculated using
𝐴+𝐷
𝑆𝑖𝑛( )
the relation.𝜇 = 2
𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
2

The refractive index n of the material of the prism for a wavelength λ is given by.
 B
n  A
2
Where A and B are called Cauchy’s constants for the prism.
If the refractive indices n1 and n2 for any two known wavelength λ1 and λ2 are
determined by a spectrometer, the Cauchy’s constants A and B can be calculated
from the above equation.
Above equation can also be written as y=mx+c
Now, taking sum on both sides

 y  m x  c
Again multiplying by x and taking summation of equation

 xy  m x 2
 c x
Solving both equation, we get

m 
x y  n xy
  x   n x
2 2

c
xy  m x 2

x

*The theory of light-matter interaction on which Cauchy based this equation was
later found to be incorrect. In particular, the equation is only valid for regions of
normal dispersion in the visible wavelength region. In the infrared, the equation
becomes inaccurate, and it cannot represent regions of anomalous dispersion.

OBSERVATIONS:
20 divisions of main scale = 100
1 divisions of main scale = 0.50
No. of division on the Vernier scale (V.S) = 30

 V.C =𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉.𝑆 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛
 0.5 0
( 30 ) =0.0170

a) For angle of Prism ‘A’

Vernier I Telescope Reading
Reading face-I Reading face -II Mean
S.N
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total 2A=T1-T2

1 64 6 64.102 303.5 13 303.721 60.191

2 63.5 28 63.976 303.5 13 303.721 60.128

3 63.5 28 63.976 304.5 13 304.721 59.628

Vernier II Telescope Reading

Reading face-I Reading face -II Mean
S.N
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total 2A=T1-T2

1 243.5 21 243.857 123.5 11 123.687 60.085

2 243.5 19 243.823 123.6 11 123.687 60.068

3 243.5 19 243.823 123.5 11 123.755 60.034

 Angle of Prism (A) = (60.191 + 60.128 + 59.628 + 60.085 + 60.068 + 60.034

∴ 𝐴 = 60.0220
Also
𝜎𝐴 = 0.2010
Δ 𝐴 = 0.08190
Angle of prism (𝐴) = (60.0220 ± 0.0819)0

b) Determination of minimum deviation of different colours light

Reading of Minimum
S.N Colors Vernier Reading of Direct Difference
Deviation
M.S Tootal M.S Tootal 𝐷𝑚
V.S V.S
(deg ) (deg) (deg ) (deg) (Deg)
1. Red I 253.0 16 253..27 210.5 28 210.97 42.30
 II 73..0 21 73.35 30.5 04 30.57 42.78
I 254.5 18 254.80 212.0 20 212.33 42.47
II 74.5 23 74.88 32.0 15 32.25 42.63
I 260.0 27 260.45 218.0 24 218.40 42.05
II 80.5 12 80.70 38.5 06 38.60 42.10
I 253.5 16 253.27 210.5 28 210.97 42.68
II 73.0 21 73.35 30.5 04 30.57 43.11
I 255.0 27 255.45 212.0 20 212.33 43.12
2. yellow
II 75.0 09 75.15 32.0 15 32.25 42.90
I 26.1 02 261.03 218.0 24 218.40 42.63
II 81.5 07 81.62 38.5 06 38.60 43.02
I 254.0 24 254.40 210.5 28 210.97 44.18
II 74.0 01 74.62 30.5 04 30.57 44.70
I 255.5 14 255.73 212.0 20 212.33 43.40
3. Green
II 75.5 26 75.96 32.0 15 32.25 43.68
I 261.5 28 261.97 218.0 24 218.40 43.57
II 82.0 17 82.28 38.5 06 38.60 43.68
I 255.0 09 255.15 210.5 28 210.97 44.18
II 75.0 16 75.27 30.5 04 30.57 44.70
I 256.5 19 256.82 212.0 20 212.33 44.49
4. Voilet
II 76.5 08 76.63 32.0 15 32.33 44.30
I 262.5 04 262.57 228.0 24 218.40 44.17
II 83.0 12 83.20 38.5 06 38.60 44.60

Mean Dm for red colour = 42.39

Mean Dm for yellow colour = 42.91
Mean Dm for for Green colour = 43.57
Mean Dm for violet colour = 44.41
∴ for red, (Dm)red = 42.390 with (𝜎𝐷𝑚 )𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.2910 , (Δ𝐷𝑚 )𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.1190
for yellow, (Dm)yellow = 42.910 with (𝜎𝐷𝑚 )𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.2130 , (Δ𝐷𝑚 )𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.8710
for Green, (Dm)green = 43.570 with (𝜎𝐷𝑚 )𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 0.4830 , (Δ𝐷𝑚 )𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 0.1970
for Violet, (Dm)violet = 44.410 with (𝜎𝐷𝑚 )violet = 0.2230 , (Δ𝐷𝑚 )violet = 0.0910
So,
(𝐷𝑚 )𝑅𝑒𝑑 = (42.99 ± 0.119)0
(𝐷𝑚 )𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = (42.91 ± 0.0871)0
(𝐷𝑚 )𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = (43.87 ± 0.197)0
(𝐷𝑚 )𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 = (44.41 ± 0.091)0

Now , for refractive index

𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚,𝑛
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
2
Colour Dm A 𝜇= Δ𝜇
𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
2
Red 42.390 60.020 1.55 0.098
Yellow 42.91 0
60.02 0
1.56 0.078
Blue 43.570 60.020 1.57 0.078
Violet 44.410 60.020 1.58 0.097

Calculation
1
𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚,𝑛 2 𝐷 +𝐴 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 2 ) Δ𝐷𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑚2 )
Δ𝜇 = [ ] +[ ]
𝐴 𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 2 ) 2𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 2 )

∴ 𝜇𝑅 = (1.55 ± 0.098) 𝜇𝐺 = (1.55 ± 0.098)

∴ 𝜇𝑦 = (1.56 ± 0.078) 𝜇𝑉 = (1.58 ± 0.097)
To determine diffraction angle of Ist Order
Reading of Minimum
Colors Vernier Reading of Direct Difference
Deviation
M.S Tootal M.S Tootal 𝐷𝑚
V.S V.S
(deg ) (deg) (deg ) (deg) (Deg)
I 3550 12 355.20 38.5 05 38.58 43.38
Red II 175.0 14 175.23 218.0 29 218.48 43.25
I 7.0 23 7.38 50.5 08 50.63 43.25
 II 187.0 09 187.15 230.0 04 230.07 42.92
I 356.0 18 356.47 37.0 29 27.48 41.01
II 176.0 23 176.38 216.5 09 216.65 40.27
yellow
I 8.0 28 8.47 49.0 23 49.38 40.91
II 188.0 24 188.40 228.5 14 228.73 40.33
I 357.5 03 357.55 36.0 26 36.43 38.93
II 177.0 28 177.47 215.5 29 215.98 38.51
Green
I 9.5 26 9.93 48.5 16 48.97 38.84
II 189.0 28 189.47 228.0 12 228.20 38.73
I 1.0 22 1.37 31.5 29 31.98 30.61
II 181.0 24 181.40 211.5 22 211.87 30.47
Violet
I 14.0 24 14.40 45.0 06 45.10 30.70
II 193.0 11 198.18 224.0 02 224.03 30.85

Then, for 1st order

(𝜃1 )𝑅𝑒𝑑 = 21.600 with (Δ𝜃1 )𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.04910
(𝜃1 )𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 20.310 with (Δ𝜃1 )𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.09600
(𝜃1 )𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 19.380 with (Δ𝜃1 )𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.04530
(𝜃1 )𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 15.530 with (Δ𝜃1 )𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.03990

For the calculation of wavelength

𝟏
Colour (𝒂 + 𝒃) = 𝜽𝟏 𝝀 = (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 𝚫𝝀
𝑵
Red 21.600 6232A0 772.9A0
Yellow 20.310 5876A0 1524A0
Green 19.380 5608A0 723.4A0
Voilet 15.330 4476A0 651.5A0

For Red,
𝜆𝑅 = (6232 ± 772.9)𝐴0

For Yellow,
𝜆𝑅 = (5876 ± 152)𝐴0

For Green,
𝜆𝑅 = (5608 ± 723.4)𝐴0

For Voilet,
𝜆𝑅 = (4476 ± 651.5)𝐴0

Where, Δ𝜆 = Δ𝜃1 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1

As for Cauchy’s Constant
𝜇 = 𝐴 + 𝐵/𝜆2
Comparing it with equation y = mx+c we get
𝑦=𝜇
𝑥 = 1/𝜆2
And A = c, B = m
So, for ∑𝑦 = 𝑚∑𝑥 + 𝑛𝑐
And ∑𝑥𝑦 = 𝑚∑𝑥 2 + 𝑐∑𝑦
∑𝑥∑𝑦−𝑛∑𝑥𝑦
B = m = (∑𝑥)2 −𝑛∑𝑥 2

And
𝑚∑𝑥 2
A = C = ∑𝑥𝑦 − ∑𝑥

For best fit

𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝝁 xy
𝝀𝟐

2.57 × 1012 1.55 3.99 × 1012 6.63 × 1024

2.90 × 1012 1.56 4.52 × 1012 8.39 × 1024
3.18 × 1012 1.57 4.99 × 1012 1.01 × 1025
4.99 × 1012 1.58 7.89 × 1012 1.49 × 1025
∑𝑥 = 1.38 × 1013 ∑𝑦 = 6.26 ∑𝑥𝑦 = 7.14 × 1013 ∑𝑥 2 = 5.00 × 1025
Then,
∑𝑥∑𝑦−𝑛∑𝑥𝑦
B = m = (∑𝑥)2 −𝑛∑𝑥 2 = 1.07 × 10−14 𝑚2

And
𝑚∑𝑥 2
A = C = ∑𝑥𝑦 − =1.53
∑𝑥

Hence, Equation is
10−14
𝜇 = 1.53 + 1.07 ×
𝜆2

For,
𝜆 = 6300𝐴0 , 𝜇 = 1.56
𝜆 = 4400𝐴0 , 𝜇 = 1.58

From plot:
A = C = 1.528
B = m = 1.6 × 1012 𝑚2

Result
From the experiment the following results are obtained
Colours Refractive index (𝝁) Wavelength (𝝀)
Red (1.55 ± 0.098) (6232 ± 772.9)𝐴0

Yellow (1.56 ± 0.078) (58.36 ± 1524)𝐴0

Green (1.57 ± 0.078) (5608 ± 323.4)𝐴0

Voilet (1.58 ± 0.097) (4476 ± 651.5)𝐴0

Cauchy’s Constant
A = 1.54 B = 6.65 × 10−15 𝑚2
Discussion
The refractive index of the substance thus formed was to be linear function of
inverse square of the wavelength of the colour of light. The deviation in the
experiment may be due to the least count of spectrometer The refractive index
increases from yellow to blue i.e  y  B and wavelength from blue to yellow

B  y
From the experiment we conclude that , the refractive index  increases from red
light to blue lifth i.e R  0   y  G  B  I  V
And wavelength increases from violet to red. The linear relationship between
refractive index and inverse square of wavelength shows that the substance
because more refractive or more visible for the smaller wavelength of light. During
this experiment, there arise error due to the defect in our experiment like
fluctuation of table, the room may not be completely dark and least count i.e no. of
division can’t be visible completely. As we remove this problem, we can find good
output from the experiment.

Precaution
1) Reading should be made properly avoiding the parallex error
2) Reading should be taken for clear band of colors only
Date………………………….. Experiment no: 07
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO PERFORM THE PROGRAM USING 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

A) IDENTIFICATION OF ODD OR EVEN PARITY OF GIVEN HEX NUMBER

B) MULTIPLICATION BY TWO, EMPLOYING BIT ROTATION
C) MULTIPLICATION OF TWO 8-BIT HEX NUMBERS WITHOUT
NEGLECTING CARRY

Apparatus Required
Microprocessor Kit/Device (8085)

Theory
It is programmable electronic chip ( Integrated circuit (IC). A single IC has
computing and decision making capabilities similar to central processing unit of
computer.
8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit
microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration –
 8-bit data bus
 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
 A 16-bit program counter
 A 16-bit stack pointer
 Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
 Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
The architecture of 8085 microprocessor mainly includes the timing & control unit,
Arithmetic and logic unit, decoder, instruction register, interrupt control, a register
array, serial input/output control. The most important part of the microprocessor is
the central processing unit. It has a set of registers for performing various
operations. The various registers include
Accumulator (register A)
Registers: B, C, D, E, H and L
· Stack pointer
· Program Counter
· Temporary register
The 8085 microprocessor has 74 basic instructions and 246 total instructions. The
instruction set of 8085 was defined by the manufacturer INTEL CORPORATION.
Each 8085 instruction has a one-byte (8-bit) operation codes or opcode. With 8-bit
binary opcode, a total of 256 different operation codes can be generated, each
representing a certain operation. It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens,
mobile phones, etc.

OBSERVATION OR CALCULATION
a) Identification of odd or even parity of given hex no.
Address Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments
8010 Data ( 10 ) Data

Steps 1: Set the memory counter to data location and bring in ACC
8000 21 START LXI H, 8010 Set Memory Counter
8001 10
8002 80
8003 7E MOV A,M Get 1st no. in ACC

Steps 2: “OR” the contents of Accumulator with itself

8004 37 ORA A Set the flag
Steps 3: Check parity and store 00 for odd and EE for even at 8011
8005 E2 JPO H Advance pointer
8006 0C ODD If parity odd, jump
8007 80
8008 2C INR L Point to memory location
8009 36 MVI M,EE For result
800A EF
800B EF RST S Go to monitor
800C 2C ODD INR L Point to memory location
800D,
3600 MVI M,00 Store 00 in 8011
800E

Steps 4: Go back to monitor

800E EF RST 5 Go to Monitor

To run program → Next → Reset→ Go → 8000 → Execute

For result: Reset →Ex Mem→ 8010 → Next , we get
8010 – 10 ( Data ) 8010 – 30 ( Data )
8011 – 00 ( Odd parity ) 8011 – EF ( Even )

b) Multiplication by two, employing bit rotation

Address Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments
800A Data ( 1A ) Data

Steps 1: load data of location 100 A in accumulator

8000 3A START LDA 800A Load no. in ACC
8001 0A
8002 80
Steps 2: Set the carry flag to zero
8003 37 8TC H Set Carry flat to 1
8004 3F CMC M Complement the carry

Steps 3: Rotate the accumulator through carry

8005 17 RAL Rotate Acc. Through Carry

Steps 4: Store the contents of accumulator in 200B

8006 32 STA 800B Store in 800B
8007 0B
8008 80

Steps 5: Rotate the accumulator through carry

8009 EF RST 5 Go to Monitor

For result: Next →Reset→ Go→ 8000 →Execute

To get result press Next →Reset → Ex Mem→ 800A→ Next
We get
800A – 1A
800B – 34

c) Multiplication of two 8-bit hex no. without neglecting carry

Address Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments
8100 Data ( OA ) LSB of 1st no.
8101 Data ( OB ) MSB of 1st no.
8102 Result ( OO ) LSB of 2nd no.
8000 21 LXI H, 8100 MSB of 2nd no
8001 00 Result for LSB
8002 81 Result for MSB
8003 46 MOV B, M
8004 13 INX H
 8005 4E MOV GM
8006 AF
8007 81
8008 05
8009 C2 INZ Loop Jump loop in no. zero
800A 07
800B 80
800C 23 INX H Increment of H-L pair
800D 77 MOV M,A Store the result
800E EF RST 5 Go to monitor

To run program Press Next →Reset→ Go→ 8000 →Execute and

To get result press Next → Reset → Ex Mem→ 8100→ Next we get
8100 – OA
8101 – OB
8102 – 6E

Result
i) Even parity is found of no. 30
ii) The multiplication of 1A by two is 34
Date………………………….. Experiment no: 05
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO PERFORM GIVEN PROGRAM BY USING 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

a) HEXADECIMAL ADDITION OF TWO 8-BIT HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS

b) DECIMAL ADDITION OF 2-BIT DECIMAL NUMBERS
c) ADDITION OF TWO 16-BIT HEXADECIMAL NUMBER NEGLECTING CARRY

Apparatus Required
Microprocessor Kit/Device (8085)

Theory
It is programmable electronic chip ( Integrated circuit (IC). A single IC has
computing and decision making capabilities similar to central processing unit of
computer.
8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit
microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration –

 8-bit data bus

 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
 A 16-bit program counter
 A 16-bit stack pointer
 Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
 Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
The architecture of 8085 microprocessor mainly includes the timing & control unit,
Arithmetic and logic unit, decoder, instruction register, interrupt control, a register
array, serial input/output control. The most important part of the microprocessor is
the central processing unit. It has a set of registers for performing various
operations. The various registers include
Accumulator (register A)
Registers: B, C, D, E, H and L
· Stack pointer
· Program Counter
· Temporary register

The 8085 microprocessor has 74 basic instructions and 246 total instructions. The
instruction set of 8085 was defined by the manufacturer INTEL CORPORATION.
Each 8085 instruction has a one-byte (8-bit) operation codes or opcode. With 8-bit
binary opcode, a total of 256 different operation codes can be generated, each
representing a certain operation. It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens,
mobile phones, etc.

OBSERVATION OR CALCULATION

a) Hexadecimal addition of two 8-bit hexadecimal no.

Steps:
1) Initialize HL register pair with address where 1st no. lying
2) Store the no. in accumulator
3) Get 2nd no.
4) add two no. and store the result in 8002
5) Go back to Monitor

Address Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments

8000 Data ( 1A ) 1st no. to be added
 8001 Result ( 18 ) 2nd no. to be added
8002 Result ( 00 ) Result

Steps 1:
8003 11 START LXI H, 8000 Load HL pair and
8004 00 Point 1st no.
8005 80

Steps 2:
8006 7E MOV A,M Load the accumulator

Steps 3:
8007 23 INX H Advance pointer

Steps 4: Clear the L.S nibble and store it at 8102

8008 86 ADD M Add 2nd no.
8009 23 INX H Advance pointer
800A 77 MOV MA Store result

Steps 5: Decrement of the counter having no. of bytes

800B EF RST 5

To get Result
To run program Next → Reset→ Go → 8003 Starting point of program and →
Execute
To Observe result
Reset →Ex Mem→ Location of data ( 8000 ) → Next for next Data at ( 8001 ) and for
result press next i.e at ( 8002 ) , we get
8000 – 1A
8001 – 18
8002 – 32

b) Decimal addition of two 8-bit decimal number

Eg. 81+15 =96 (Result)
Steps:
1) Load the contents of first location in accumulator
2) add it with the contents of second location
3) Adjust the decimal
4) Store result and go back to monitor.

Address Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments

8000 Data ( 23 ) 1st no. to be added
8001 Result ( 32 ) 2nd no. to be added
8002 Result ( 00 ) Result

Steps 1:
8003 21 LXI H, 8000 Point of IN no.
8004 00
8005 80
8006 7E MOV A,M Load no. in a accumulator

Steps 2:
8007 23 INX H Point to 2nd no.
8008 86 ADD M Add two no.

Steps 3:
8009 27 DAA Convert to decimal

Steps 4: Clear the L.S nibble and store it at 8102

800A 23 INX H Point to storage
 800B 77 MOV M,A Store it
800C EF RST 5

For result: Next →Reset→ Go→ 8003 →Execute

Reset → Ex→ Mem→ 8000→ Next
8000 – 23
8001 – 32
8002 – 55

c) Addition of two 16-bit Hexadecimal no. neglecting carry

Steps:
1) Load the 1st no. in HL pair
2) Load 2nd no.
3) Add the two no. and store result
4) Go back to monitor.
Address Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments
8000 LSB 1(A) LSB of 1st no.
8001 MSB 1(A7) MSB of 1st no.
8002 LSB 2(68) LSB of 2nd no.
8003 MSB 2(B9) MSB of 2nd no
8004 00 Result for LSB
8005 00 Result for MSB

Steps 1:
8006 2A START LHLD 8000 Load HL pair with 1st no.
8007 00
8008 80
Exchange HL and DE
8009 EB
resistor

Steps 2:
 Load the HL pair with 2nd
800A 2A LHLD 8002
no.
800B 02
800C 80

Steps 3
800D 19 DAD
Add HL and DE registors
800E 22 SHLD 8004
store result in 8004
800F 04
8010 80

Steps 5:
8011 EF RST 5

For result: Next →Reset→ Go→ 8003 →Execute

Reset → Ex Mem→ 8000→ Next we get
8000 – CA
8001 – A7
8002 – 6B
8003– B9
8004– 35
8005– 61

Result

i) The addition of two 8 – bit hex no. 1A and 18 is 32

ii) The addition of two –bit decimal o. 23 and 32 is 55
iii) the addition of 16 bit no. A7CA and B96B is 6135
Here we neglected the carry in the addition of hexdecimal no. and decimal addition
should be carried out in such a way that the result is less than 100 as the output
1004 greater cannot be shown.
Precaution
a) Apparatus must be handled carefully
b) The location where the program starts is important as we have execute program
from same location.

Discussion
We can add 8-bit hexadecimal number ( by neglecting carry), two 8-bit decimal
number (<99) and two 16 bit hexadecimal number ( neglecting carry) successfully
with the help of various addition programs of microprocessor (8085). The address,
planning programming and the execution parts are the most important components
which contains the input data, micro-processor or programming parts and the result
parts. The proper Programming of related addition of two number (8-bit hexa –
decimal or 16 bit hexa decimal ) give the required results by 8085 microprocessor)
Date………………………….. Experiment no……………….
Class…………………………. Group………………………….
Roll no. ……………………… Sub……………………………..
Shift………………………….. Set……………………………...

TO USE OP-AMP AND STUDY DIFFERENT SIGNALS

Apparatus Required
Op-amp ( IC -741)
Resistors
Jumpers
Capacitors

Theory
Operational Amplifiers, or Op-amps as they are more commonly called, are one
of the basic building blocks of Analogue Electronic Circuits. It is a linear device that
has all the properties required for nearly ideal DC amplification and is used
extensively in signal conditioning, filtering or to perform mathematical operations
such as add, subtract, integration and differentiation. An ideal operational
amplifier is basically a 3-terminal device that consists of two high impedance
inputs, one an Inverting input marked with a negative sign, ("-") and the other a
Non-inverting input marked with a positive plus sign ("+").

The amplified output signal of an Operational Amplifier is the difference between

the two signals being applied to the two inputs.

Operational amplifier can be used, not as a linear device, but as a "digital" device
whose output is either  Vsat and is used to indicate the polarity of the differential
input. An operational amplifier used in
this way is called a comparator
Square Wave Generator
Square wave are non-sinusoidal periodic wave form that can be represented as an
infinite summation of sinusoidal waves. It has an amplitude alternate at a regular
frequency between fined minimum and maximum values with the same duration.

The time period of the output of the square wave generator can be expressed using
the following equation as shown in fig

 2 R3  R2 
T= 2  2.303R1C1 log10   sec
 R 2 

For common practice is to make R3 equal to R2 then equation of the time period can
be simplified as,

 3R2 
T= 2  2.303R1C1 log10  
 R2 
T= 2.1976R1C1

And frequency can be defined as,

1 1
f    2.455kHz
2 2.1976  22  103  0.1  106
Experimentally, from oscilloscope (Vpp)=9 div = 2V

T=4  0.2=0.8mS
1) From triangular wave generator
6
Cin=0.1  F =0.1 10 F F

Ra=10 k =104 
Rb=10 k =104 
R=12 k

Theoretically
4 Rb Rc
T
Ra

Ra 104
f    4.26kHz
4 Rb Rc 4  104  12  103  0.1  106

Experimentally, T = 1  0.2 ms = 0.2  10-3sec

1 1
Observed frequency (f) =  3
 5  103 Hz  5kHz
T 0.2  10
The triangular wave is obtained by simply cascading an integrator in the output of
square wave generator as shown in fig (2) The frequency of wave ( triangular ) form
is given by either the following expression

Ra 1
f  or f 
4 Rb Rc  R  Rb 
2 Rc ln  a 
 Ra  Rb 

For the generator of triangular waves we must use the square wave for input
OBSERVATIONAND CALCULATION
For square wave generator
Cin=0.1  F

RA=1𝑘Ω
RB=100𝑘Ω
Theoretical Calculation;
Theoretical Value Observed Value
T1 = 0.693 ( RA+RB) =0.0069 second
T1 = 7 mS = (0.007 ± 0.001)second
T2=0.693 RBC=0.0069
T2 = 8mS = (0.008 ± 0.001) second
1
𝑓= =72.46 Hz 1
𝑇1 +𝑇2
𝑓= =66.67 Hz
𝑇1 +𝑇2

b) for triangular wave

for RA = RB = 10𝑘Ω = R and C = 0.1𝜇𝐹

Theoretical Value
For frequency
𝑅𝐴
𝑓=
4𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐵
10 × 103
= 250 𝐻𝑧
4 × 10 × 163 × 10 × 103 × 0.1 × 10−6

Experimental Value: for frequency

1 1
𝑓= =
𝑇 4.4 𝑚𝑆
∴ 𝑓 = 227.27 𝐻𝑧

c) For sawtooth wave

1 1 1
frequency (f) = 𝑇 = 0.4𝑚𝑠 = 0.4×10−3

∴ 𝑓 = 2500 𝐻𝑧
d) For Sine Wave
1 1
Theoretical frequency (f) = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 = 2𝜋×10×103 ×0.1×10−6

∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 159.15 𝐻𝑍
1 1
Experimental frequency (f) = 𝑇 = 8×10−3 = 125.00 𝐻𝑧

Result:
So, the square triangular, sawtooth and sine waves are generated by using
amplifier ( op-amp). So the Op-amp is general device for signal generating. While
doing the experimental on triangular wave sometimes peak of triangle donot occur.
For this we need to make change in capacitor.
Date………………………….. Experiment no: ……….
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO DESIGN AND STUDY PULSE AMPLIFIER

Apparatus Required

Bread Board
Resistors ( 100𝑘Ω, 1kΩ, 11kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 1kΩ, 100kΩ, 200kΩ)
Function Generators Potentiometer
Jumpers Power Supply
Transistor (BC 507)
Capacitors ( 22𝜇𝐹, 100𝜇𝐹, 0.1𝜇𝐹)

Theory

Pulse amplifier is an electronic circuit which amplifies any small signal and
converts in to pulse. A pulse consist of a voltage of current then increases from zero
constant to a maximum and decreases to zero ( constant ) in a comparatively short
time unless otherwise specified pulse is assumed to be rectangle

It consist of two parts 1) CE amplifier and other is (ii) Schmit trigger. In

experimental circuit fig (1) transistor (T1) is in CE amplifier mode which amplified
sine wave input signal in opposite phase and other part this circuit which indicates
transistors T2 and T3 in the form of Schmidt trigger. It changes sine wave into
rectangular wave having sharp leading edges.

Here, when (-ve) going on sine wave on the base of T2. Causes T3 saturaged which
gives low output and it remained positive until going to Sine wave  Vin ( high
threshold voltage ) on base of T2 gets negative going signal  VTC ( low threshold
voltage ). In this way we get rectangular wave pulse on collector of T 3. The turn on
voltage (Vth) is always greater then off voltage (VTL)

OBSERVATION OR CALCULATION

At point ( A )

Vin = 0.6 × 50 𝑚𝑉
= 0.03 mV
∴ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = (0.03 ± 0.01)𝑉z
 1 1
Frequency ( fin ) = 2×0.5 𝑚𝑠 = 0.001 = 1000 𝐻𝑧

At point C

Voltage of first peak = (0.6 × 2 )𝑣 = 1.2 𝑣

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = (1.2 ± 0.4 )𝑣

And Voltage of 2nd peak = (1.3 × 2 )𝑣 = 2.6 v

∴ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = (2.6 ± 0.4)𝑣

Then Difference = (2.6 − 1.2)𝑣 = (1.4 ± 0.4)𝑣

At point B,

Voltage of 1st peak = (3.5 × 2)𝑣 = (7.0 ± 0.4 )𝑣

Voltage of 2nd peak = (4 × 2)𝑣 = (8.0 ± 0.4 )𝑣

At point D

Voltage of rectangular wave = 1.4 V

(1.4 ± 0.2 )𝑣

At point ( E )

Voltage of rectangular wave ( Vout) = (9.5 ± 1.0)𝑣

Result

At point Upper threshold voltage Lower threshold voltage

B (8.0 ± 0.4 )𝑣 (7.0 ± 0.4 )𝑣
C (2.6 ± 0.4)𝑣 (1.2 ± 0.4 )𝑣

Difference between upper and lower threshold voltage at C is

(1.4 ± 0.4 )𝑣
Discussion:

From base of Q2, we can get value for threshold frequencies which is imitated by the
upper section of triangular wave at ‘D’ and lower section as : - Difference of
threshold frequencies is equal to lower portion and lower threshold to upper portion.

Precaution

a) Circuit must be connected properly

b) To take reading of threshold frequencies the oscilloscope must be set to DC and
ground to get reference position ( ground ) .
Date………………………….. Experiment no: 02
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO DESIGN AND STUDY AMPLITUDE MODULATION CIRCUIT

Apparatus Required
Bread Board Resistors
Power Supply Function Generators
Tracing Papers Jumpers
Transistors (BC 547 ) Oscilloscope
Capacitors

Theory
Modulation is defined as the process of changing the characteristics (Amplitude,
Frequency or Phase) of the carrier signal (high frequency signal) in accordance with
the intensity of the message signal (modulating signal). Amplitude modulation is
defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied in
accordance with amplitude of the message signal (modulating signal).

The Standard form of an AM wave is defined by

S  t   Ac 1  K am  t  Cos 2 f c  t      1

Where Ka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

The demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the incoming
A.M wave at the receiver. An envelope detector is simple and yet high effective
device that is well suited for the demodulation is less than 100%. Ideally an envelop
detector produces an output signal that follows the envelope of input signal wave
form exactly flence, Some version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial
A.M radio receivers

The modulation index is defined as

Emax  Emin
m
Emax  Emin

Where Emax and Emin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated

wave
 Figure: Circuit Diagram for AM

OBSERVATION
For 4 V input signal
5 div = 2V
2
1 div = 5v

i) for maximum peak = 22 div

minimum peak = 14 div
2
→ 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( × 22 ) 𝑣 = 8.8 𝑣
5
2
→ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( × 14 ) 𝑣 = 5.6 𝑣
5

Calculation:

The modulation index of A.M is

Emax  Emin
m
Emax  Emin
 8.8  5.6
  100%  22.22%
8.8  5.6

ii) for 6v input

max. peak to peak div = 18 div
min. peak to peak div = 12 div

5 div = 1V
1
1 div = 5v
1
→ 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( × 18 ) 𝑣 = 3.6 𝑣
5
1
→ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( × 12 ) 𝑣 = 2.4 𝑣
5

Calculation:

The modulation index of A.M is

Emax  Emin
m
Emax  Emin
3.6  2.4
  100%  2.0%
3.6  2.4

Result
From above experiment, we had concluded, that the carrier takes the rider in
mixing two different sinusoidal wave in great explore in the electronics which is
directly applied in mixing the sound waves with the EM waves. The AM in the diff.
factor determine how many carrier waves takes the rider in one to another. The %
amplitude modulation determines the modulation factor which tells that there is
total modulation factor which tells that there is total modulation n which there is
mixing of rider wave in outgoing modulation rider wave.
Date………………………….. Experiment no: 03
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO STUDY DIGITAL TO ANALOG AND ANALOG TO DIGITAL

CONVERTER

Apparatus Required
Bread Board Resistors
Power Supply Digital Multimeters
Jumpers IC 741 ( Op amp)

Theory
A/D converters translate from analog measurements, which are characteristic of
most phenomena in the real world to digital language, used in information
processing, computing, data transmission, and control systems. D/A converters are
used in transforming transmitted or store data, or the results of digital processing,
back to real-world variables for control, information display , or further analog
processing

Flash A/D converter

This A/D counter is also called parallel counter, which is most widely used efficient
A/D counter in terms of it’s speed. This flash A/D converter circuit consists of a
series of comparators where each one compares the input signal with a unique
reference voltage. At each comparator, the output will be high state when the
analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage. This output is further given to
priority encoder for generating binary code based on higher order input activity by
ignoring other active input.
Truth table for priority Encoder
A’ B’ C’ A B
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

OBSERVATION:
Least count of Voltmeter = 0.01 V
Output Voltage
Voltage ( VA)
A B
0.20 ± 0.01 0.02 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.01
0.45 ± 0.01 0.01 ± 0.01 4.90 ± 0.01
0.72 ± 0.01 4.92 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.01
0.80 ± 0.01 4.90 ± 0.01 4.89 ± 0.01

Result and Conclusion:

Here, we have verified the analog to digital converter. The analog voltage is divided
into the logic values i.e in terms of high and low value with the help of the
comparator.
Discussion:
The four bit digital input data are converted into analog output data according to
truth table by using R-2R ladder operators. However the result or discrete value
obtained by this experiment form digital input signal may be affected by the
following factors.

Precaution:
 Circuit must be connected Properly
 IC no. must be looked carefully
Date………………………….. Experiment no: 06
Class: M.Sc 4th Semester Group………………………….
Roll no. 91 Sub……………………………..
Shift: Day Set……………………………...

TO PERFORM GIVEN PROGRAM BY USING 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

a) ADDITION OF 8-BIT NUMBER SERIES ( NEGLECTING

CARRY)
b) SEPARATION OF HEXADECIMAL NUMBER INTO TWO
DIGITS
c) COMBINATION OF TWO HEX NIBBLES TO FORM ONE
BYTE NUMBER

Apparatus Required
Microprocessor Kit/Device (8085)

Theory
It is programmable electronic chip ( Integrated circuit (IC). A single IC has
computing and decision making capabilities similar to central processing unit of
computer.
8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit
microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration −
 8-bit data bus
 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
 A 16-bit program counter
 A 16-bit stack pointer
 Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
  Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
The architecture of 8085 microprocessor mainly includes the timing & control unit,
Arithmetic and logic unit, decoder, instruction register, interrupt control, a register
array, serial input/output control. The most important part of the microprocessor is
the central processing unit. It has a set of registers for performing various
operations. The various registers include
Accumulator (register A)
Registers: B, C, D, E, H and L
· Stack pointer
· Program Counter
· Temporary register
The 8085 microprocessor has 74 basic instructions and 246 total instructions. The
instruction set of 8085 was defined by the manufacturer INTEL CORPORATION.
Each 8085 instruction has a one-byte (8-bit) operation codes or opcode. With 8-bit
binary opcode, a total of 256 different operation codes can be generated, each
representing a certain operation. It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens,
mobile phones, etc.

OBSERVATION OR CALCULATION

a) Addition of 8-bit number series ( neglecting carry )

Address
Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments
Planning
NO. of hexadecimal to
8100 Data ( 04 )
be added
8101 Data ( 10 ) First Hex. No
8102 Data ( 02 ) 2nd Hex no.
8103 Data ( 08 ) 3rd Hex no.
8104 Data ( 04 ) 4th Hex no.
Steps 1: Load the content from 8100 location
Point to no. of bytes to be
8000 21 Start LXI H,8100
added
8001 00
8002 81
8003 46 MOV B,M Load count in register B

Steps 2: Initialize accumulator as the result will be stored in accumulator

8004 AF XRA a Clear A Registor

Steps 3: Initialize accumulator as the result will be stored in accumulator

8005 23 Loop INX H Point to 1st no.
8006 86 ADD M Add memory to total

Steps 4: Decrement of the counter having no. of bytes

8007 05 DRC B Subtract form count

Steps 5: Check if zero. NO repeat from point 3

8008 C2 INT Loop Test to see if done
8009 05
800A 80

Steps 6: Check if zero. NO repeat from point 3

800B 32 8TA 8100 Save the result
800C 00
800D 81

Steps 7: Check if zero. NO repeat from point 3

800E EF R&T 5

To run program Next → Go →8003→ Execute

To See result Reset →Exam Man →8105→ Next we get
8105→1E

b) Separation of Hexadecimal number into two digits

Address Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments
8100 Data ( AF ) No. to be separated
8101 Result ( 00 ) Result for LSB
8102 Result ( 00 ) Result for MSB

Steps 1: load the bytes into Accumulator

8000 3A START LDA 8100 Get the no.
8001 00
8002 81

Steps 2: Clear the MS nibble and store in 8101

8003 E6 ANI Mask off the first 4-bits
8004 00 STA 8101
8005 81
8006 46 Store result first
8007 81

Steps 3: Load the byte from 8100

8008 3A LDA 8101 Get the no. again
8009 00
800A 81

Steps 4: Clear the L.S nibble and store it at 8102

800B E6 ANI F0 Mask off the last 4-bit
800C F0
800D 32 STA 8102 Store result of 8102
 800E 02
800F 81

Steps 5: Decrement of the counter having no. of bytes

8010 EF RST 5

To run program Next → Reset→ Go → 8000 → Execute

To find result Next → Ex Mem→ 8100 → Next, we get
8100 → AF
8101 → OF [ LSB of AF ]
8102 → AO [ MSB of AF ]

c. Combination of two hexa-nibbles to form one byte number ( neglecting carry)

Address
Code Label Mnemonic Operand Comments

8100 Data ( 04 ) MSB of no.

8101 Data ( 05 ) LSB of no.
8102 Result ( 00 ) Result

Steps 1: Initialize memory pointer with 8100 and load MS into Accumulator
8000 21 START LXI H, 2100 Point 1st no.
8001 00
8002 81
8003 7E

Steps 2: Shift the 4 –bits towards left, shifted info. is stored in Accumulator
8004 07 RLC
8005 07 RLC Move it to MSB
8006 07 RLC
8007 07 RLC
Steps 3: Point the next location 8101 and ‘OR’ it’s contents with the contents of
ACC
8008 23 INX H Point to next no.
8009 B6 ORA M Or the no. together

Steps 4: Increment of the memory pointer to store result at 8102

800A 23 INX H Store result
800B B6 MOV M,A

Steps 5: Go Back to Monitor

800C EF RST 5

To run program Next → Reset→ Go → 8000 → Execute

To find result Next → Exam Mem→ 8100 → Next, we get
8100 → 04 ( MSB )
8101 → O5 ( LSB )
8102 → 45 [ No. ( result ) ]

Result and Conclusion

 The addition of four hex-no. 10,62,08 and 04 is 1E

 The separation of hex-no. AF gives MSB = AO and LSB = OF
 The formation of hex-no. from MSB = 04 and LSB = 05 is 45
The location of the data must be considered in mind so that the accumulator can be
loaded in that location.

Precautions:
a) The location of data must be taken in mind
b) The location of program must be remembered as the execution of program must
start from that location.