Wasit University Control Systems

College of Engineering Fourth Class

Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi

Analysis of Second-Order System

The below figure shows a general second-order system.

wn2 wn2
G(s) = , G(s)H(s) =
s(s + 2ξwn ) s(s + 2ξwn )
wn2
C(s) G(s) s(s + 2ξwn ) wn2
= = = 2
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s) wn2 s + 2ξwn s + wn2
1+
s(s + 2ξwn )
Let us study the effect of pole location before finding unit step response. To find poles
closed loop transfer function of above figure.
Let us put s 2 + 2ξwn + wn2 = 0
−b ± √b 2 − 4ac −2ξwn ± �(2ξwn )2 − 4 × 1 × wn2
s= =
2a 2×1
, From this equation, we can conclude the following: -s = − ξwn ∓ wn �ξ2 − 1
i) The poles are real and unequal if �ξ2 − 1 > 0, ξ>1
ii) The poles are real and equal if �ξ2 − 1 = 0, ξ=1
iii)The poles are real and complex conjugate if �ξ2 − 1 < 0, ξ<1
Where ξ is known as damping ratio or damping factor.

Effect of ξ on Second-Order System

Let us analysis the effect of ξ on pole location as well as response of Second-Order
Systems.
Effect of ξ on Pole location
(𝒊𝒊) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟏𝟏: 𝟎𝟎 < 𝝃𝝃 < 𝟏𝟏
a) The poles are complex conjugate of each other and are given by
𝑠𝑠1 , 𝑠𝑠2 = − 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 ∓ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1
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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi
b) The poles are located on the second and third coordinates due to the existence of both real and
imaginary parts.
c) The response is under damped.

(𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟐𝟐: 𝝃𝝃 = 𝟏𝟏

a) The poles are real and equal . The poles are s1 , s2 = − ξwn
b) The poles lie on the negative 𝜎𝜎 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
c) The response is critically damped.

(𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟑𝟑: 𝝃𝝃 > 𝟏𝟏

𝑎𝑎) The poles are real and unequal . The poles are given by 𝑠𝑠1 , 𝑠𝑠2 = − 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 ∓ 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1
b) Since there are no imaginary terms of 𝛏𝛏 > 𝟏𝟏 The poles lie on the negative σ −
axis and unequal places.
c) The response is over damped.

(𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟒𝟒: 𝝃𝝃 = 𝟎𝟎

a) The poles are complex with only the imaginary part and lie on jw axis. The poles are conjugates
of each other.
b) The poles are given by 𝑠𝑠1 , 𝑠𝑠2 = ± 𝑗𝑗 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 .
c) The response is critically un damped.

(𝒗𝒗) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟓𝟓: 𝟎𝟎 > 𝝃𝝃 < −𝟏𝟏

(𝑎𝑎) 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜉𝜉 𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑠𝑠1 , 𝑠𝑠2 = − 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 ∓ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1

(𝑏𝑏) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
(𝑐𝑐)𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

(𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪: 𝝃𝝃 = −𝟏𝟏

(𝑎𝑎) 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑠𝑠1 , 𝑠𝑠2 = 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 , 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 .

(𝑏𝑏) 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
(𝑐𝑐)𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 .
(𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪: 𝝃𝝃 < −𝟏𝟏
(𝑎𝑎) 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑠𝑠1 , 𝑠𝑠2 = − 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 ∓ 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1

(𝑏𝑏) 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
(𝑐𝑐)𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi
Effect of ξ on nature of response
Let us obtain the solution for response c(t) to a unit step input [r(t)=u(t)]
1
The Laplace transform of r(t)=
𝑠𝑠

𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 × 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)

= ↔ 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = 2
𝑅𝑅 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟏𝟏: 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟎𝟎 < 𝝃𝝃 < 𝟏𝟏
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = + =
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 ) 𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 )
𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 ) + 𝑠𝑠(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2 + 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 0 , 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 + 𝐶𝐶 = 0 , 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 = 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 → 𝐴𝐴 = 1 , 𝐵𝐵 = −1 ,
𝐶𝐶 = −2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
1 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = − 2
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 )
1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
= −[ 2 +
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 ) (𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 )
1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
= −[ + ]
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 (1 − 𝜉𝜉 2 ) (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 (1 − 𝜉𝜉 2 )

𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 = 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝜉𝜉 2
1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) == −[ + ]
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑2 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑2
𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 −𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − [𝑒𝑒 −𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡]
𝑑𝑑
𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑
𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 −𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − [𝑒𝑒 −𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡]
𝑑𝑑
𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑
𝑒𝑒 −𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 𝜉𝜉
== 1 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛼𝛼)𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡�
�1−𝜉𝜉 2 �1−𝜉𝜉 2
�1−𝜉𝜉 2
Where:- [ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝛼𝛼 = 𝜉𝜉 , 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝛼𝛼 = �1 − 𝜉𝜉 2 , 𝛼𝛼 = tan−1 ]
𝜉𝜉

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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟐𝟐: 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝝃𝝃 = 𝟏𝟏
For critically damping the roots are real and equal. Substituting ξ = 1 in the
standard second order equation, we get
C(s) wn2 wn2
= =
R(s) s2 + 2ξwn s + wn2 s2 + 2wn s + wn2

𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2

𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = = =
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 ) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 ) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2
𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = + + 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 +
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2 𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2
𝐴𝐴 = lim 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = lim 2 =1
𝑠𝑠→0 𝑠𝑠→0 (𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 )
𝑑𝑑
𝐵𝐵 = lim � (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠)� = −1
𝑠𝑠→−𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶 = lim [(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠)] = −𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
𝑠𝑠→−𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
1 −1 −𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = + +
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 )2
𝑐𝑐 (𝑡𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒𝑒−𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒−𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 = 1 − (1 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡)𝑒𝑒−𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡

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College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi
(𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟑𝟑: 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝝃𝝃 > 𝟏𝟏
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) = =
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 ) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1)
𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = + +
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1) (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1)

𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2
𝐴𝐴 = lim 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = lim 2 =1
𝑠𝑠→0 𝑠𝑠→0 (𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 )

𝐵𝐵 = lim (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1) 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠)

𝑠𝑠→−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 −𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 −1)
𝑤𝑤2𝑛𝑛
= lim
𝑠𝑠→−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 −𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 −1) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1)
𝑤𝑤2𝑛𝑛
=
(−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1)(−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1) + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1)
𝑤𝑤2𝑛𝑛 𝑤𝑤2𝑛𝑛
= =
2 2
(−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 − 1)(−2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 − 1) (−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1)(−2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1)
=
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 1/2
= =
2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 ( �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) (𝜉𝜉 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 − 1)
𝐶𝐶 = lim (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1) 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠)
2
𝑠𝑠→−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 +�𝜉𝜉 −1)
2
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
lim =
𝑠𝑠→−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 +𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 −1) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 +𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 −1)
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2
= =
(−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 +𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 −1)(−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 +𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 −1)+𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 +𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 −1)
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 1/2
= =
(−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1)(2𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) ( −𝜉𝜉�𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 + 1)

1/2 1/2
1 (𝜉𝜉 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉2 − 1) ( −𝜉𝜉�𝜉𝜉2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉2 + 1)
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = + +
𝑠𝑠 2
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉 − 1) (𝑠𝑠 + 𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 − 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �𝜉𝜉2 − 1)
5
1/2 2 −1�𝑤𝑤 1/2 2 −1�𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 + 𝑒𝑒 �−𝜉𝜉−�𝜉𝜉 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
+ 𝑒𝑒 �−𝜉𝜉+�𝜉𝜉 𝑛𝑛

(𝜉𝜉 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) ( −𝜉𝜉�𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 + 1)

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Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi
1/2 2 −1�𝑤𝑤 1/2
𝑒𝑒 �−𝜉𝜉−�𝜉𝜉
2 −1)𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
+ 𝑒𝑒 (−𝜉𝜉𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 +𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛�𝜉𝜉
(𝜉𝜉 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) ( −𝜉𝜉�𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 + 1)

2 −1�𝑤𝑤 2 −1�𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡
( −𝜉𝜉�𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 + 1) 𝑒𝑒 �−𝜉𝜉−�𝜉𝜉 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
+ ((𝜉𝜉 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 − 1))𝑒𝑒 �−𝜉𝜉+�𝜉𝜉 𝑛𝑛
=1+
((𝜉𝜉 �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 − 1))(( −𝜉𝜉�𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) + (𝜉𝜉 2 + 1))

�−𝜉𝜉−�𝜉𝜉 2 −1�𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡 �−𝜉𝜉+�𝜉𝜉 2 −1�𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡

�𝜉𝜉 − �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1 �𝑒𝑒 �𝜉𝜉 + �𝜉𝜉 2 − 1 �𝑒𝑒
𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡) = 1 + −
2�𝜉𝜉 2 − 1) 2�𝜉𝜉 2 − 1)

(𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟒𝟒: 𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝝃𝝃 = 𝟎𝟎

C(s) wn2
=
R(s) s2 + 2ξwn s + wn2
Substituting ξ = 0 in the standard second order system, we get
C(s) wn2 wn2 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶
= 2 → C (s) = = +
R(s) s + wn2 s(s2 + wn2 ) 𝑠𝑠 (s2 + wn2 )
𝐀𝐀 𝐬𝐬 𝟐𝟐 + 𝐀𝐀wn2 + Bs 2 + Cs ↔ 𝐀𝐀wn2 = wn2 → 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 0 → 𝐵𝐵 = −1, 𝐶𝐶 = 0
1 −𝑠𝑠 + 0 𝒔𝒔
= + 2 2 , 𝒄𝒄 (𝒕𝒕) = 𝟏𝟏 − 2 2 = 𝟏𝟏 − 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 wn 𝒕𝒕
𝑠𝑠 (s + wn ) (s + wn )

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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅, 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕. 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓.

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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi

Time Response Specification

*Maximum Peak, MP, is defined as the value of the first
overshoot in response c(t).
*Maximum Overshoot, Mo, is defined as

𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜 = 𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃 − 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

=𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) = lim 𝑆𝑆. 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑡𝑡→∞ 𝑠𝑠→∞
*Maximum Percent Overshoot, MPO, is defined
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 −𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
%MPO = *100
𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝜋𝜋 𝝃𝝃
−
�1−𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐
%MPO = 𝑒𝑒 ∗ 100
*Time to Maximum Overshoot, tp, is the time required for the
response to reach the maximum peak, MP
𝜋𝜋 3.14
𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = =
𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝝃𝝃2
*Settling Time, ts, is the time required for the response to reach
and thereafter to remain within a prescribed percentage of the
final value. The common criteria are 2% and 5%.
+2%
− 4
⎧�⎯� 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 =
𝝃𝝃 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
⎨ �⎯� 𝑡𝑡 = 3
⎩ −+5% 𝑠𝑠 𝝃𝝃 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi

*Rise Time, tr, is the time required for the response on its
initial rise to go from 10% to 90% of the steady-state value of
the response.
𝜋𝜋 − 𝛽𝛽
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = . 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 β = cos −1 𝝃𝝃 . β = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑
2.5
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 = .
𝐵𝐵 𝑊𝑊
*Time Delay, td, is the time required for the response on its
initial rise to reach 50% of its steady-state value.
1 + 0.7𝝃𝝃
𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 =
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
1
∗ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑇𝑇 =
𝝃𝝃 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
*Oscillation Frequency, 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 , is the frequency of oscillation of
the transient response. These time-domain performance indices
are illustrated in the following figure. 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 = 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝝃𝝃2

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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi

Specification of Time Response.

No. Time response specification

1 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝝃𝝃
𝑻𝑻𝒅𝒅 =
𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏
2 𝝅𝝅 − 𝜷𝜷
𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓 . 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝛃𝛃 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜−𝟏𝟏 𝝃𝝃 , 𝛃𝛃 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅
3 𝝅𝝅 𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑻𝑻𝒑𝒑 = =
𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏 �𝟏𝟏 − 𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐
4 𝝅𝝅 𝝃𝝃
−
%𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 = 𝒆𝒆 �𝟏𝟏−𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
5 +𝟐𝟐%
− 𝟒𝟒
⎧�⎯� 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 =
𝝃𝝃 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 =
⎨�⎯� 𝑻𝑻 = 𝟑𝟑
⎩ −+𝟓𝟓% 𝒔𝒔 𝝃𝝃 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏

Ex:- Determine open loop & close loop T.F. of the system
which shows step response of second order system having unity
feedback:

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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi

Sol :
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2
= 2 ���� 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆 + 2 𝝃𝝃 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2

𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 − 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 3.6 − 3

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = = = 0.2
𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 3
𝜋𝜋 𝝃𝝃
−
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑒𝑒 �1−𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐
𝜋𝜋 ʓ
−
�1−𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐
0.2 = 𝑒𝑒
𝜋𝜋 𝝃𝝃
−
�1−𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐 � ,
𝜋𝜋 𝝃𝝃 𝜋𝜋 2 𝝃𝝃2
ln(0.2) = ln �𝑒𝑒 − 1.61 = − , 2.6 =
�1 − 𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐 1 − 𝝃𝝃2
2 2 2 2
2.6 − 2.6𝝃𝝃 = 9.87𝝃𝝃 , 2.6 = 9.87𝝃𝝃 + 2.6𝝃𝝃
2 2 2.6
2.6 = 12.47𝝃𝝃 , 𝝃𝝃 = �� 𝝃𝝃 = 0.457
12.47
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2
= 2 ( 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ʓ = 0.457)
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆 + 2 𝝃𝝃 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2

𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2
=
𝑅𝑅 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆 2 + 0.914 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆 + 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2
𝜋𝜋
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = → 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 = 1.4114 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 /𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.
𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 1.992
= 2
(
𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 ) 𝑆𝑆 + 1.2874 𝑆𝑆 + 1.992

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Wasit University Control Systems
College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
So, 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) = 1+𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠).𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) , 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝐺𝐺 (𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) ���� 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇. 𝐹𝐹

1.992
𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆 2 + 1.2874 𝑆𝑆
=
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 1.992
2 ∗1
𝑆𝑆 + 1.2874 𝑆𝑆
1.992
So, the open loop transfer function is ∗1
𝑆𝑆 2 +1.2874 𝑆𝑆
25
Ex:-For a system having G(s)=𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+10) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 , 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝝃𝝃 (𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) 25 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2
Sol:- , 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) = = 𝑠𝑠 2 +10𝑠𝑠+25
= = 𝑆𝑆 2 +2 𝝃𝝃 𝑤𝑤
1+𝐺𝐺 (𝑠𝑠).𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆+ 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2

𝑖𝑖) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 2 = 25 → 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 = 5 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

10
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 2 𝝃𝝃 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 = 10 → 𝝃𝝃 = =1
2 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛
The system is critically damped.
2
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 = 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 �1 − 𝝃𝝃 = 5 × 0 = 0 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 = = = ∞, 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑 0
𝜋𝜋 𝝃𝝃 𝜋𝜋 ×𝟏𝟏 𝜋𝜋 ×𝟏𝟏
− − −
%MPO = 𝑒𝑒 �1−𝝃𝝃𝟐𝟐 ∗ 100 = 𝑒𝑒 �1−𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 ∗ 100 = 𝑒𝑒 �1−𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 ∗ 100
𝑒𝑒 −∞ ∗ 100 = 0

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College of Engineering Fourth Class
Electrical Eng.Department. Lecturer: - Haider ALRikabi

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