LECTURE #5

GETTING TO KNOW DNA AND RNA

DNA: The Genetic Material

 DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
 It is a type of macromolecule known as nucleic acid.
 It is often called as “ the blueprint of life “ because it contains the code of instructions
for building an organism and ensuring that the organism functions correctly.
 The structure of DNA is like a twisted or spiral ladder. Long strands of alternating sugars
and phosphate groups make up the vertical sidepieces of the ladder. The rungs of the
ladder are made up of nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine).
These small units that make up DNA – sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base – are
called nucleotides.

Structure of the nucleotide
A nucleotide consists of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen –
containing base.

The nirogenous bases. Purine bases have double-ring structures. Pyrimidine bases have
single-ring structures.

DNA Base Pairing

 Erwin Chargaff, an Austrian biochemist, analyzed the DNA of different organisms and
found out that all four bases are found in the DNA of all organisms. The proportion,
however, differs somewhat from organism to organism.
 According to Chargaff’s rules, in the base composition of DNA, the amount of adenine
closely equals the amount of thymine (A = T ). Likewise, the amount of guanine roughly
equals the amount of cytosine. ( G = C ).
  Accordingly, adenine will pair with thymine (A – T or T – A) by two hydrogen bonds,
while guanine will pair with cytosine (G – C or C – G) with tree hydrogen bonds.

Comparison between DNA and RNA

DNA REPLICATION

Replication is the process where DNA makes a copy of itself. It is a semi-conservative

process – meaning that one old strand is conserved and new strand is made. Replication is
happening in our cells right now. In every living organisms. DNA replication happens over and
over again and it happens remarkably fast. In human cells, for instance, about 50 nucleotides
are added every second to a new strand of DNA.

GENETIC INFORMATION

The genetic information, which characterizes the structure and function of any
organism, is present and stored in the sequences of its DNA. These sequences encode proteins,
which carry out most of the functions in all organisms. The information on the DNA is made
available by transciption of genes to mRNAs. Messenger RNA or mRNA is a class of RNA
molecules that carry information in protein synthesis. These mRNAs are translated into various
amino acid sequences of all proteins in an organism. In summary, the flow goes like this: DNA
encodes RNA; then, RNA encodes proteins. This is known as the Central Dogma of Molecular
Biology.

CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

The genetic information flows from a DNA to an RNA copy of the DNA gene, to the
amino acids that are joined together to produce the protein coded for by the gene.
Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes. It refers to the
process in which individual cells make or generate new specific proteins. The making of proteins
is important because proteins make up one of four building blocks of life and are involved in
just about every life process. The process starts with instructions carried by a gene to build a
particular protein.

Key Players

1. DNA – stores genetic information.

2. Gene – a sequence of DNA that encodes for a particular protein
3. Proteins – large molecules composed of amino acids
4. RNA – a polymer of nucleotides, usually single-stranded, that copies genetic information.

LECTURE #6
INFORMATION FLOWS FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEINS

TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription is the copying of a DNA gene into RNA. It happens inside the cell’s nucleus,
produces a transcript of the original gene, with the RNA nucleotides substituted for DNA
nucleotides. The copy is produced by the help of RNA polymerase, an enzyme that bonds
nucleotides together to make a new RNA molecule.

TRANSLATION
After DNA is transcribed into an mRNA molecule during transcription, the mRNA must
be translated to produce protein. In translation, mRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomes
work together to produce proteins.
Translation produces three major types of RNA molecules. Translation is the process that
converts or translates an mRNA message into polypeptides which make up a protein.

Three major types of RNA molecule

1. mRNA (messenger RNA)

- It carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
2. tRNA(transfer RNA)
-Its job is to convert the three-letter words (codon) to the corresponding amino acid.
3. rRNA(ribosomal RNA)
- It translates genetic information into proteins.
- Their main function is to heal wounds, fight infections and build muscle.
- Proteins are also essential part of your diet, as they provide some of the energy we
get from our food.

The Genetic code

Scientists use the genetic code in order to determine the sequence of amino acids that a
gene codes. It is like a dictionary that cells use to determine which amino acid will be translated
from each sequence of mRNA codons. A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that codes
for an amino acid.
 GENETIC MUTATION

Mutation – is any change in the DNA sequence of an organism.

Causes of Mutation
1. Errors made during mitosis and meiosis
2. Environmental factors.
Types of Mutation
1. Gene Mutation – a type of mutation that affects a single gene during replication.
2. Chromosomal mutation – affects the entire chromosomes during meiosis.
Example:
1. Cri-du-chat syndrome. It is caused by a deletion on the short arm of chromosome 5.it is
caused by a break in the DNA molecule that makes up a chromosome.
2. Down’s Syndrome – it is a birth defect which takes place when an individual possesses three
copies of chromosome 21, instead of the normal two copies.
3. Patau Syndrome – (trisomy 14), characterized by severe cleft palate and an average life span
of 6 months.
4. Edward’s Syndrome – (trisomy 18) has multiple defects, clenched fist, and an average life
span of 3 months.
5. Klinefelter Syndrome – males have one or more extra X sex chromosomes. This genetic
condition results when a boy is born with an extra copy of X chromosome. It adversely affects
testicular growth, resulting in smaller testicle, which can lead to lower production of the sex
hormone testosterone. Furthermore, it may also cause reduced muscle mass, reduced body
and facial hair, and enlarged breast tissue.
6. Turner Syndrome – females have only one X sex chromosome. The most common feature of
Turner syndrome is short stature, a webbed neck, puffiness or swelling of the hands and feet,
and skeletal abnormalities. An early loss of ovarian function is also very common.
 LECTURE #7
EVOLUTION
- Evolution does not simply mean change; it is the change in the characteristics of a
population of an organism passed over the course of generations.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
- A French naturalist, he described a two part process by which change was gradually
introduced into the species and passed down through generations.
- His theory is known as the theory of transformation. It is also referred to as Lamarckism.
- He explained that animals changed as they adapted to environmental influences.
- The characteristics were then passed on to their offspring.
Lamarck’s Theory of Transformation
4. Use and disuse – the idea states that organisms lose characteristics they do not require
and develop instead those that are useful for their survival.
Example;
a. use: toes of water birds.
b. disuse: wings of penguins
2. Inheritance of acquired traits – this idea states that the traits acquired by an individual over
a lifetime can be passed down to its offspring.
Example: Neck of giraffe
Darwinian Theory of evolution
Charles Darwin
- He developed a theory of evolution to explain biological change.
- According to him, species survived through a process called natural selection.
- His theory states that those that successfully adapted to meet the changing
environment flourished, but those that failed to evolve and reproduce died and
eliminated in the population.
- He published detailed explanations of his theory in “on the origin of species” in 1859.

Theory of Natural Selection

- It is popularly understood as “survival of the fittest”.
(Fitness means ability to survive and produce more offspring compared with other
members in the population)

- This idea also states that individual organisms that have adapted traits that are suitable
to their environments will live long enough to breed and pass down those desirable
traits to their offspring.

- Natural selection is the result of the interactions between genetic variations in a

population and the environment.

4 principles
1. Organisms within the species exhibit variation
2. Organisms exhibit competition
3. Organisms within a population differ in their reproductive success.
4. Organisms develop adaptation.

Evidence of evolution

1. Fossil evidence
- Fossil is the preserved remains or traces of any organism from past life.
It can be direct (body fossils like bones, teeth, shells and leaves) or indirect (trace fossils like
footprints, tooth marks, tracks, burrows)
-fossils are found most commonly in layers of sedimentary rocks.
2. Evidence of comparative anatomy
- The comparison of body structures among different species.
a. Homologous structure
– refer to body parts that are similar in structure but perform different functions in different
organisms.
(Example. Limbs of human, cheetah whale and bat)

b. Analogous structure
- refer to body parts of organism that are similar in function but are structurally different.
(Example: fin of shark (fish), wing of penguin (bird) and flipper of dolphin(mammal).

3. Evidence of comparative embryology

- The comparison of structures that appear during the different stages of different organisms.

4. Evidence from vestiges

- Organisms show the presence of functionless and reduced remnants of organs that once have
been present and functional in their ancestor.

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LECTURE #8
PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION

1. Convergent Evolution. The species that are not closely related to each other independently
develop similar kinds of traits as they adapt to shared and/or similar environment. As a result,
these unrelated species become more and more similar in appearance and develop analogous
structures.
2. Divergent Evolution. It is the process of two or more related species becoming increasingly
dissimilar. The trait held by a common ancestor evolves into different variations over time as
the species diversify to new habitats.

3. Parallel Evolution. It is the individual evolution of similar traits of two related species that
have come from a common ancestor.

1. Coevolution. It occurs when closely interacting species exert selective pressures on each
other so they evolve together in a kind of conversation of adaptations. It is common
among predator-prey and host-parasite pairs.

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LECTURE #9
BIODIVERSITY

It is the variability among living organisms from all sources. (Terrestrial, marine, and
other aquatic ecosystem and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.)
2 COMPONENTS

1. Species richness
- refers to the number of different species in the community.
2. Relative abundance of different species
-refers to how common or rare the species are relative to one another in the community.
 STABILITY OF ECOSYSTEM
-refers to its ability to resist change and return to its original species composition after being
disturbed.

The value of species can be divided into 3 categories

1. Direct economic value

- The species is considered to have economic value if their products are sources of food,
medicine, clothing, shelter and energy.

2. Indirect economic value – a species has an indirect economic value if there are benefits
produced by the organism without using them.(certain species maintain the chemical quality of
natural bodies of water, prevent soil erosion and floods, cycle material in the soil, and absorbs
pollutants)

3. Aesthetic value – a lot of species provides visual or artistic enjoyment.

(a forested landscape, natural park, prayer mountains)

Population
 Is a group of individuals of the same species living in a given area at a particular
time.

Population Ecology
 Is the study that focuses on the factors that influence a population’s size, growth
rate, density, and population structure.

Patterns of Dispersion

1. Uniform distribution
– The individuals are equally spaced apart.

2. Random distribution
– The individuals are spaced at unpredictable distance from each other.
3. A Clumped distribution
– The individuals are grouped together.

Population Growth

Growth in Ecology means a change in number, either positive or negative.

 Positive growth – occurs when population is increasing in number.
 Negative growth – occurs when population is decreasing in number.
 Zero growth – occurs if there is no increase or decrease in number.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF POPULATION

1. Immigration – the movement of individuals into a population from another population.

2. Births – these increase the number of individuals in a population.
3. Emigration – the movement of individuals out of a population and into another.
4. Deaths – the size of a population decreases when individuals die.

Population size can also be affected by the following:

1. Density dependent factors – any factor dependent on the density of the population in
question.
Example: disease, predation and other factors that have an increasing impact on birth
and death rates as the population increases in size.

2. Density independent factors – any factors not dependent upon density of the population in
question.
Example: climate and natural calamities, such as floods, fires, earthquakes, meteor
impacts, and volcanic eruptions – these affect population birth and death rates randomly .
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LECTURE #10
BIOMOLECULES

Biochemistry is the study of substances and chemical reactions involved in life

processes. Biomolecules are formed from smaller and simpler organic compounds and are
much larger in size compared with other organic compounds. The major types of biomolecules
are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. All of them contain carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. Lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids may contain nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.

 CARBOHYDRATES they are molecules made from aldehydes and ketones containing
numerous hydroxyl groups. May be types of sugar known as monosaccharides and
disaccharides; they may also be long polymers of monosaccharides known as polysaccharides.

1.Monosaccharides-are composed of a single ring

2.Disaccharides-consist of two monosaccharides that are chemically combined
3.Polysaccharides-are polymers containing numerous monosaccharides monomers.
 LIPIDS are water-insoluble molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. It include fats and oils, waxes, steroids, and phospholipids. Fats and oils are
triglycerides that are combinations of glycerol and three fatty acids.

 NUCLEIC ACIDS are made up of nucleotides that consist of a nitrogen base, a

phosphate group, and a cyclic 5-carbon sugar. The two types of nucleic acids are
deoxyribonucleic acid- DNA and ribonucleic acid-RNA.

 PROTEINS are made up of amino acids bound by peptide bonds. Amino acid contains
an amine group, carboxylic acid group, and variable group.

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. They are found as structural materials in hair,
nails and connective tissues. Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts.

The 20 common amino acids

1. glycine 11. tryptophan
2. asparagine 12. glutamic acid
3. alanine 13. lysine
4. glutamine 14. tyrosine
5. valine 15. arginine
6. serine 16. methionine
7. leucine 17. histidine
8. threonine 18. proline
9. isoleucine 19. phenylalanine
10. aspartic acid 20. Cysteine
 FOOD LABELS contains the amounts of carbohyrates, proteins, and lipids in the form
of fat and cholesterol for each serving of the food

 KEY TERMS
BIOMOLECULE- is any molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large
macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.
CONDENSATION REACTION-is a process by which two molecules form a bond with the
removal of a molecule of water.
HYDROLYSIS-is a reaction in which water is added to a reactant, breaking the reactant
into two product molecules.
MONOMER- is a small molecule that joins with other similar molecules to make a
polymer; repeating units of a polymer.
POLYMER- is a large organic molecule consisting of small repeating units called
monomers.

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Reminder: Read and study your lessons from lecture 5 to 10…you have
to answer questions from this given lectures...Have a fruitful year end and
more learning happens in the year 2020…May God will always bless you
with good health and wisdom in all decisions that you have to make in your
life. Always remember that to become successful in life is a choice.
Keep safe my dear students this holiday season…God bless you all.