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Reproduction in plants
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes
The sexual reproduction in plants include the following steps
Development of reproductive organs
Game formation
Pollination
Germination of pollens
Fertilization
Seed formation
Dispersal of seeds
Seed germination
Growth and development
Flowers are the reproductive organs in flowering plants.
FLOWERS
A flower is a specialized shoot which bears the reproductive organs in flowering plants.
Most plants have male and female reproductive organs on the same flower. these plants are
called hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers. the unisexual flowers have either male organs or
female organs.
Structure of a typical flower
flowes differ from each other in colour, shape or no. of various parts. however a flower may have
all these four parts or may lack any. the four parts make four rings of specialized leaves.

Sepals:
sepals are usally green and protect the flower bud from intense light, insects and dessication.
they usally disappear after pollination. All sepals together make the outer most whorl in flowers
called calyx. in some flowers there may be another whorl outside it called Epicalyx e.g hibiscus.

Petals
In insect pollinatied flowers they are usually brightl;y couloured and s cented. they may produce
nectar, a sugary solution, from small glands at their bases. they have two important functions.
a) coulour, nectar and scent attract pollinating insects
b) provide a landing platform for insects
Stamens
stamens are the male parts of a flower. A stamen consists of a filament bearing an anther. the
anther is usually made up of two lobes, each contyaining two sacs called pollen sacs. in the
pollen sacs are pollen grains.
pollen grains
pollen grains are produced by meiosis in the pollen sacs. when an anther matures the pollen
sacs split open and release their pollen grains. apollen grain may be dispers3ed by wind or
transferred by insects from anther to stigma. each pollen contain two haploiud nuclei.
Carpel/pistil: these are the female reproductive organs. A flower may have one or more carpels.
Each carpel can be recognised into three parts. A basal swollen ovar bearing a long neck, style
and the tip stigma.
Each ovary contain one or more ovules. A mature ovule contain an egg cell or ovum with in it.
the ovules are attached in the ovary with a small stalk funicle at a region called placenta.
Receptacle
The floral parts like sepals, petals, stigmas and carpels are all arranged and attached to the
expanded end of a flower stalk called receptacle. The flower stalk is called pedicel.
Formation of gametes insiude the reproductive organs of a flower.
development of pollen grains
Each stamen consisyts of two parts
i. an anther in which four pollen sacs produce pollen grains
ii. A filament which contains a vascular bundle supplying food and water is the anther. the
filament also provide attachment for an anther.
each pollen sac when immature contain spore mother cells that under go meioses. each spore
mother cell produces four haploid microspores.
with in the ovary one or more ovules develop. each ovule is attached with the wall of the ovary
at a point called Placenta forming a short stalk called funicle. Funicle supplies food and water to
the developing ovule.
Structure Of An Ovule
The main body of the ovule is called nucellus. It is protected by integuments on its outr side. A
small pore at one end of ovule is called micropyle.
The embryo sac and egg cell are produced by meiosis. So they have haploid nuclei in them.
POLLINATION
Definition
Transfer of male gametes (Pollens) to female flower part stigma is called pollination.
Pollination may be self pollination or cross pollination.
Self pollination
Definition
if the pollen grains are transferred to a stigma of the same flower or a different flower of in the
same plant is called self pollination.
Self pollination leads to self fertilization. It has certain advantages over cross pollination.
Advantages of Self pollination
Greater reliability
Self pollination does not depend on any external agent like wind or insects. etc,
so in case where plants of the same species are rare or are separated by long distances the self
pollination ensures the process of fertilization.
Examples
In chick weed, wood sorrel self pollination takes place.
How Do Plants Ensure Self pollination
Some flower plants, wood sorrel never open so self pollination is ensured.
Male and female parts mature at the some time and stigma lie closer to the anthers with
in a flower.
These flower do not produce nectar or scent.
Cross Pollination
Definition
if pollen grains are transferred to stigma of the different flower of another plant of the same
kind, it is called cross pollination.
Advantages of Cross pollination
Cross pollination increases the chances of variation
As cross pollination leads to out breeding, it increases genetic variability,
It increases quality and quantity of the yield produced.
How Do Plants Ensure Cross-pollination
Plants bear unisexual flowes, either male or female flower on a plant, example; paw paw
in bisexual flowers stamens and carpels mature at different times e.g. custard apple
In bisexual flowers the length of stamens and carpels are different so anther and stigmas
do not lie close together.eg. primrose
Methods of pollination
Pollination occurs through wind or insects. the flowers have characteristic flowers that ensure
the pollination to occur either through wind or through insects.
Structure of an insect pollinated flower
Lupin Flower:

Calyx:
the calyx is green with five sepals. they are joined together forming a short tube.

Corolla
the five petals are of different shapes and sizes. they are brightly coloured. the uppermost
called standard petal. It is held vertically . Two petals at the sides are called wings. Inside the
wings are two more petals joined together to form a boat-shaped keel.
Carpels
the single carpel is long, narrow and pod shaped, with about ten ovules in the ovary. the long
style ends in a stigma just inside the pointed keel.
Stamens
There are 10 stamens. Five long and five short. their filament are joined at their bases to make
sheath around the ovary.
Method of pollination of lupin flower
when an insect lands on the wings, presses them down. the keel is also pressed down. The
stigma comes out and touches the underside of the insects. If there are already pollens attached
on underside of the insect, they are sticked with stigma. When the keel is pressed down the long
stamens push the pollens out from the keel onto the underside of the bee.
Adaptations in insects for pollination
Some flowers show adaptations for some particular species of insects. The insects also
show certain charactewristics that enable them to be pollinator e.g honey bee.
Wings allow the bee to move from flower to flower.
Hairs on the body hold the sticky pollens
Wind pollination
Grasses, cereals are pollinated by wind currents. The flowers pollinated by wind shows
adaptations to ensure pollination by this method.
Structure of a wind pollinated flowers

Grases flowers are usually small, dull coloured and scentless.

Inflorescence of iscaemum consists of short stalks bearing flowers in pairs. each pair of flower is
enclosed and protected by bracts to make spikelet. the spikelets also occur in pairs. at the base
of each spikelet is a pair of non-flowering bracts, i.e. glumes. Each flower again is enclosed by
transparent flower glumes. The lower flower is unisexual and only gas stamens. The upper
flower is bisexual. It consists of an ovary with two feathery stigmas and stamens. At the base of
ovary are small structures called lodicules. Lodicules swell and push the glumes apart opening a
flower.
How ischaemum is adapted to wind pollination
Ischaemum has long filaments protrudes out of a flower. It exposes mature anthers to wind. the
slightlest wind breeze can shake the anthers carrying the pollens away. pollens floating in the
air can be trapped by feathery stigmas protruding out of flowers.
Comparison between an insect pollinated and wind pollinated flower
Feature Wind pollinated flower Insect pollinated flower
Flower Inconspicuous conspicuous
Petals small, dull coloured, or petals large, coloured
may be absent.
Scent Not scented Scented
Nectaries absent present
stigmas large, branched and feathery small stigmas, sticky to hold
stigma coming out of petals pollens. they are enclosed in
petals
Stamens long protruding out of flowers stamens enclosed in a flower
Anthers attachment anthers are attached at the tip anthers fixed at their bases so
of a filament so can easily the provide firm attachment
swayed by wind
Pollens pollens are produced large in pollen grains produced are
 number, light in weight, dry relatively large in size and small
and often smooth walls in number. they have sticky
walls.
Germination of pollens
once a pollen grain has transfferred to the stigma. It absorbs chemical secretions released by
the stigma. the chemical stimulates the pollen grain to germinate. A tube grows out of the
pollen grain that penetrates down to the ovary through style to the ovary.

Fertilization
The next step after germination of the pollen grain is fertilization.
The tube nucleus controls the growth of pollen tube down the stigma through style. As it enters
the ovule through micropyle the tip of the pollen tube and the tube nucleus degenerate., where
as the generative nucleus has already divided to two male gametes(sperms). One of them fuses
with egg cell.
Definition: The fusion of a sperm nucleus with that of an egg is called fertilisation.
The other sperm fuses withj the two fusion nuclei making a 3N(triploid) structure.
Fusion of male and a female gamete produces a diploid cell called a zygote. After fertlisation,
some changes occur in the structure of a flower described as post fertilisation changes.
Post fertilisation changes
after fertlization the stamens and petals wither and fall off.
Stigma style and sepals allso wither, but may persist and be modified to help fruit
dispersal. The other changes include.
whole ovule turns to a seed.
so the number of seeds and their location in a fruit can be correlated with the number andf
location of ovules in an ovary.
zygote devbelops into an embryo which later grows into shoot, root and cotyledons.
integuments of an ovule form the testa of a seed.
ovule stalk(funicle) dfevelops into seed stalk.
ovary changes into fruit, where as
wall of an ovary ripens to fruit wall or pericarp
Some reasons why fertlisation fails
pollination must occur befor fertilisation. however, pollination does not necessarily result into
fertlisation. why?
In some self sterile species if pollination takes place from the pollens produced by the
same plant, fertlisation does not take place.
in other plants if pollens from different species are transferred to the stigma, fertilisation
will not occur.
Fruit and seed formation
After pollination, the fusion of male and female gametes produce a zygote. A zygote then
develops into an embryo. An embryo consists of a tiny shoot(plunule), a root(radicle) and two
specialised leaves called cotyledons.
In dicot plants, the food synthesised in leaves is transported to the cotyledons through phloem.
The cotyledons grow in size so they can enclose the embryo. the outer wall of an ovule called
integument becomes harder and thicker to form a seed coat or testa. Meanwhile the ovary
enlarges, the petals, stamens, style and satigma shrivel and fall off. the ovary is now called a
fruit.
Definition; A fruit may be defined as a ripened ovary.
Structure of a seed and a fruit
A section of a dicot seed is shown below.

Testa
it is the outer miost part of a seed. It is also
called a seed coat. It develops from the
integument of ovule. The integument becomes
harder and thicker in a seed to make a seed
 coat.
Micropyle
Micropyle is a tiny pore in the seed that
develops from the micropyle in the
ovule.Oxygen and water enter into a seed
through it during fermination of a seed.
Cotyledons
In dicot seeds, cotyledons develop from
embryo. they contain food stored in them.
During germination the embryo uses food
stored in them.
Hilum
A scar left at the point of attachment of funicle
is called hilum.
Funicle
A stalk with which a seed is attached to the
placenta
Advantages of reproduction by seed
it is an important adaptation in plants for land. To carry male gametes to a female
gamete, pollen tube develops that has excluded the dependence on external agents like water
for fertilisation
the seed contain stored food in them which is used during germination. untill a seedling
develops green foliage it uses the stored food.
Embryo in seed plants is protected inside the seed.
Seeds may be dispersed away from the parent plant.
Disadvantages
seeds may be eaten up by animals
they may fall on places where they do not germinate.
they rely upon some external agents for their dispersal.
Dispersal of seeds and fruits
spreading the seeds away from the parent plant is called dispersal.
Why dispersal is necessary
it reduces competetion between the members of the same species for food, light or
space by avoiding their overcrowding.
it reduces the risk of diseases by avoiding their overcrowding
It increases the survival chances of a species by enabling it to inhibit new and favourable
conditions.
Methods of dispersal of seeds and fruits
seed structure is adapted to be disperssed by various ways. the method of seed dispersal
include
Dispersal by wind
dispersal by animals
mechanical dispersal
dispersal by water.
Wind dispersal
the seeds or fruits which are dispersed by wind have certain modifications that enhance their
buouancy in the air.
Dispersal by parachute
Dispersal by wings
Extremely small size of seeds
"Explosive" fruits
Dispersal by parachute
The seeds or fruits dispersed by this mechanism include
seeds of willow, cotton
fruits of dendelion and clematis
Dispersal by wings
seeds of pines, fruits of elm. ash, sycamore and horn bean are dispersed by this method.

while the seed fall, the wing causes it to spin and so slows down its fall. This delay increases the
chances of the fruit being carried away in the air currents. In some other fruits like in shorea
fruit, the wing is formed from dry persistent sepals. The wings of seeds of tecoma and rose of
india are flattened extensions of their testa.
Extremely small size of seeds
seeds of orchids are extremely small, light in weight. They do not have any special appendages
attached to them. They are distributed by wind due to their small size and light weight.
Explosive fruits
Broom, lupin and peas disperse their seeds by this method.

the fruit wall twists on drying due to the fibrous tissue.As te twisting tension builds up, the pod
split open suddenly and ejects the seeds.
Animal dispersed
The dispersal of seeds through animals takes place by various ways. The following fruits have
some special features that ensure their dispersal by animals.
hooked fruits
Hooks and spines in some fruits and their source
In burdock. fruits are surrounded by hooked bracts.
in carrot, Butter cup, the pericarp is hooked.
Agrimony has hard hooked spines on its receptacle
succulent fruits
plum, blackberry, tomato, apple. strawberry etc
these fruits have fleshy parts that provide food for animals in cluding birds. The ripen fruits
attract animals by their bright colour, and scent. The fruit is eaten and the seeds may be thrown
away. if eaten, the seeds pass unharmed trhrough the gut of the animals.They are egested in
their faeces, if fallen on fertile soil grow to new plant.

Nuts, oak, peach are dispersed by the animals like squirrels that distribute while collecting Nuts.

Strawberry
the receptacle becomes swollen and bears on oits surface small green fruits called achenes,
each of which contain a single seed.
Seed germination
in most of the plants, the seeds do not germinate immediately after they are shed, they under
go a period of dormancy. The dormant seeds are usually dry and have inactive enzymes. The
dormant seeds are resistant to adverse conditions. the dormancy period provide an opprtunity
to the seeds to be dispersed befor germination and pass on conditions of drought and cold. if
the seeds are provided favourable conditions after breaking dormancy, they germinate.
Conditions for germination
the environmental conditions necessary for germination include
suitable temperature
sufficient water
oxygen
Role of water in germination
When a seed is soaked in water. it absorbs water. the water enters into seed through micropyle.
The seed swells and breaks the testa. It gives way to the delicate embryo to grow out. The
soaked seed also increases the permeabiliyty of testa to oxygen. warter provides medium for
enzyme action.It is needed as reactant for the hydrolysis of polysaccarides.
Role of oxygen
during dormancy, the metabolic activities are reduced and seed respires anaerobically.During
germination, more energy is required as the metabolic activities increase, oxygen is required for
aerobic breakdown of carbohydrates to release more energy.
Role of temperature
a suitable temperaturte is required for the normal working of the enzyemes during germination.
Role of enzymes during germination
The seeds may contain starch, proteins or fats as storage material in their cotyledons. When the
seeds aare soaked in water, the enzymes in the cotyledons become active. the y break large
complex insoluble storage materials to the small simple soluble substances that can be
transported to the growing region of the embryo where oxidation of the end products of
digestion releases energy.
Changes in the dry mass of seed and seedling
The dry mass of the seed and seedling reduces till the development of the green foliage. After
the green foliage develops, plants manufacture carbohydrates that are stored or converted to
protoplasm. ot then increases the dry nass of growing seedlin.