5

Prepared by: Dr. Farouk Majeed Muhauwiss

CHAPTER
Civil Engineering Department – College of Engineering
Tikrit University

SETTLEMENT OF BUILDINGS

5.1 TYPES OF SETTLEMENT

Settlement is a term that describes the vertical displacement of a structure, footing, road or
embankment due to the downward movement of a point.
From structural point of view, settlement of structures may be of two types:

• Equal or uniform settlement: This type has no serious implication on the structure or
civil engineering performance of the building. But it should have a maximum limit to prevent the
failure of soil under the structure.

• Differential settlement: It means that one point of the structure settles more or less than
the others, therefore, it may lead to damage of the superstructure. Usually it occurs due to one or
more of the following:
1. Variation of soil stratum (the subsoil is not homogeneous).
2. Variation in loading condition.
3. Large loaded area on flexible footing.
4. Differential difference in time of construction, and
5. Ground condition, such as slopes.

5.2 TILTING OF FOUNDATIONS

The limiting values of foundation tilting are presented in Table (5.1) and can be calculated as:
ML µ
tan L
I .….……..…………….………………………….(5.1a)
L B E

MB µ
tan B
I …..……..…………….………………………….(5.1b)
B L E
where,
ML = moment in L - direction = Q. eL
MB = moment in B - direction = Q. eB
ωL and ωB tilting angles in L and B directions, respectively, and
I m = moment factor that depends on the footing size as given in Table (5.2).
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Table (5.1): Effect of foundation tilting on structures.

ω ( in radians) Result to structure

1/150 Major damage
1/250 Tilting becomes visible
1/300 First cracks appear
1/500 No cracks (safe limit)

Table (5.2): Values of I m for various footing shapes.

Footing type Im
Circular 6.00
Rectangular with L/B = 1.00 (Square) 3.70
1.50 5.12
1.25 5.00
2.00 5.38
2.50 5.71
5.00 5.82
10.0 5.93
∞ (Strip) 5.10

5.3 LIMITING VALUES OF SETTLEMENT PARAMETERS

Many investigators and building codes recommended the allowable values for the various
parameters of total and differential settlements as presented in Tables (5.3 - 5.6).

Table (5.3): Limiting values of maximum total settlement, maximum differential settlement,
and maximum angular distortion for building purposes
(Skempton and MacDonald, 1956).

Settlement (mm)
Settlement parameter Sand Clay
Ref.1 Ref.2 Rf.2
Maximum total settlement, S T (max .) 20 32 45

Maximum differential settlement, ΔST (max .)

• Isolated foundations. 25 51 76
• Raft foundations. 50 51-76 76 - 127

Maximum angular distortion, β max . 1/300

Ref. 1 - Terzaghi and Peck (1948), Ref. 2 - Skempton and MacDonald (1956)

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Table (5.4): Limiting values of deflection ratios

(The 1955 Soviet Code of Practice).

Deflection ratio (Δ / L) Average maximum

Building type Settlement
Sand Clay (cm)
Steel and concrete frames 0.0010 0.0013 10

Multistory buildings
L/H ≤ 3 0.003 0.004 8 / 2.5
L/H ≥ 5 0.005 0.007 10 / 1.5

One-story building 0.001 0.001 -----------

Water towers, Ring foundations 0.004 0.004 -----------

L = length between two adjacent points under consideration, and

H = height of wall above foundation.

Table (5.5): Limiting angular distortion for various structures

(Bjerrum, 1963).

Angular distortion
Category of potential damage β max .
Safe limit for flexible brick walls (L/H >4) 1/150

Danger for structural damage of general buildings 1/150

Cracking in panel and brick walls 1/150
Visible tilting of high rigid buildings 1/250

First cracking in panel walls 1/300

Safe limit of no cracking of building 1/500

Danger for frames with diagonals 1/600

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Table (5.6): Recommendation of European Committee for Standardization

(1994) on differential settlement parameters.

Item Parameter Magnitude Comments

Limiting values 25 mm Isolated shallow foundation

ST
for serviceability 50 mm Raft foundation

5 mm Frames with rigid cladding

ΔST 10 mm Frames with flexible cladding
20 mm Open frames

β 1/500 -----------

ST 50mm Isolated shallow foundation

Maximum acceptable
foundation movement
ΔST 20mm Isolated shallow foundation

β ≈ 1/500 -----------

5.4 COMPONENTS OF TOTAL SETTLEMENT

Foundation settlement mainly consists of three components (see Fig. (5.1)):
(i) Immediate settlement ( Si ): occurs due to elastic deformation of soil particles upon load
application with no change in water content.
(ii) Primary consolidation settlement ( Sc ): occurs as the result of volume change in
saturated fine grained soils due to expulsion of water from the void spaces of the soil
mass with time.
(iii) Secondary consolidation settlement (Ssc): occurs after the completion of the primary
consolidation due to plastic deformation of soil (reorientation of the soil particles). It
forms the major part of settlement in highly organic soils and peats.

∴ ST = Si + Sc + Ssc ….……………..…………….………………….(5.2)

These components occur in different types of soils with varying circumstances:

• For clay: ST = Si (minimum) + Sc (major) + Ssc (small, but present to certain extent)
Therefore, for clay these settlements must be calculated.
• For sand: ST = Si (major) + Sc (present but mixed with Si) + Ssc (undefined)
Since sand is permeable, therefore, Terzaghi theory cannot be applicable.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Settlement
Si

Sc
S sc
t2
Time
t1
Loading
+ End of construction
p ′ (net load)
Consolidation Time
tc
p ′ = gross load – weight of excavated soil.
Excavation -

+
Swell

tc /2
Displacement Time
Corrected curve
tc
Settlement - Instantaneous time-settlement curve
(need to be corrected for construction period
using Terzaghi correction, See Text books)

Fig.(5.1): Settlement versus time relationship.

5.5 METHODS OF COMPUTING IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

Many methods are available to calculate the elastic (immediate) settlement of shallow
foundations. But, only those methods of practical interest are discussed herein:
1. Theory of Elasticity method for granular soils or partially saturated clays.
2. Schmertmann method for granular soils.
3. Bjerrum method for layered clay under undrained condition.

5.5.1 Immediate Settlement Based on the Theory of Elasticity

The elastic settlement of a footing rested on granular soils or partially saturated clays, can be
estimated using the elastic theory as (see Fig.(5.2)):

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

1 − μs 2
Si (flexible) = q o .B′ I s .I D .C N .…....……….….………..……..(5.3)
Es
S i ( rigid ) ≈ 0.93.S i ( flexible) …………….….……………………..……..(5.4)

Si (average) = 0.85.Si (center) .…….…….….……....……………..…….. (5.5)

G.S.

Foundation
qo
BxL Df

Rigid foundation Flexible foundation

z settlement settlement
H
μ s = Poisson' s..ratio
E s = Modulus..of ..elsticity
Soil
Rock

Fig.(5.2): Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations.

where,
Si = immediate or elastic,
q o = net applied pressure on the foundation,
B ′ = B/2 for center of foundation, and
= B for corners of foundation,
μs = Poisson's ratio of soil, (see Table (5.7) for typical values).

E s = weighted average modulus of elasticity of the soil over a depth of H. For a multi-layered
soil stratum it is computed as:

E s(avg.) =
∑ Es (i) .H i
∑ Hi
in which, H i and E i are the thickness and modulus of elasticity of layer i, and ∑ Hi = H
(the depth of hard stratum) or 5B whichever is smaller,
(see Table (5.8) for typical values of E s ).
I s = Shape factor (Steinbrenner, 1934) computed by:
1 − 2μ s
I s = I1 + I2
1 − μs

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

where, I1 ...and...I 2 are influence factors = f (H / B′,..L / B) obtained from Table (5.9), and
H = depth of hard stratum

I D = Depth factor (Fox, 1948) = f (D f / B,..μ s ,..and..L / B) which can be approximated by:
( − 0 .19 )
⎛D ⎞ ⎛L ⎞
ID = 0 .66 ⎜ f ⎟ + 0 .025 ⎜ + 12 μ s − 4 .6 ⎟
⎝ B ⎠ ⎝B ⎠

Note: when D f = 0 , the value of I D = 1 in all cases.

C N = Number of contributing corners = 4 for center, 2 for edges, and 1 for corners.

Table (5.8): Typical values of E s for selected soils

(filed values depend on stress history, water content, density, etc.).

Table (5.7): Typical values of μ s .

Type of Soil E s (MPa)

Type of Soil μs Clay

Very soft 2-15
Clay, saturated 0.40 – 0.50 Soft 5-25
Clay, unsaturated 0.10 – 0.30 Medium 15-50
Sandy clay 0.20 – 0.30 Hard 50-100
Silt 0.30 – 0.35 Sandy 25-250
Sand (dense) 0.20 – 0.40
Coarse (void ratio = 0.4 - 0.7)
Glacial till
0.15
Fine-grained (void ratio = 0.4 - 0.7) Loose 10-153
0.25
Rock Dense 144-720
0.10 – 0.40
Loess Very Dense 478-1440
0.10 – 0.30
Concrete 0.15 Loess 14-57
Sand
Silty 7-21
Loose 10-24
Dense 48-81
Sand and gravel
Loose 48-144
Dense 96-192
Shale 144-14400
Silt 2-20

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Table (5.9a): Values of I1 to compute Steinbrenner's influence factor

1 − 2μ s
I s = I1 + I2 .
1 − μs
L/B
H / B′ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

0.2 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007
0.4 0.033 0.032 0.031 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.028 0.027 0.027 0.027 0.027
0.6 0.066 0.064 0.063 0.061 0.060 0.059 0.058 0.057 0.056 0.056 0.055
0.8 0.104 0.102 0.100 0.098 0.096 0.095 0.093 0.092 0.091 0.090 0.089
1.0 0.142 0.140 0.138 0.136 0.134 0.132 0.130 0.129 0.127 0.126 0.125
1.5 0.224 0.224 0.224 0.223 0.222 0.220 0.219 0.217 0.216 0.214 0.213
2 0.285 0.288 0.290 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.291 0.290 0.289
3 0.363 0.372 0.378 0.384 0.389 0.393 0.396 0.398 0.400 0.401 0.402
4 0.408 0.421 0.431 0.440 0.448 0.455 0.460 0.465 0.469 0.473 0.476
5 0.437 0.452 0.465 0.477 0.487 0.496 0.503 0.510 0.516 0.522 0.526
6 0.457 0.473 0.488 0.501 0.513 0.524 0.533 0.542 0.549 0.556 0.562
7 0.471 0.489 0.506 0.520 0.533 0.545 0.556 0.566 0.575 0.583 0.590
8 0.482 0.502 0.519 0.534 0.549 0.561 0.573 0.584 0.594 0.602 0.611
9 0.491 0.511 0.529 0.545 0.560 0.574 0.587 0.598 0.609 0.618 0.627
10 0.498 0.519 0.537 0.554 0.570 0.584 0.597 0.610 0.621 0.631 0.641
20 0.529 0.553 0.575 0.595 0.614 0.631 0.647 0.662 0.677 0.690 0.702
500 0.560 0.586 0.612 0.635 0.656 0.677 0.696 0.714 0.731 0.748 0.763

L/B
H / B′
2.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 50 100
0.2 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006
0.4 0.026 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024
0.6 0.053 0.051 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049
0.8 0.086 0.082 0.081 0.080 0.080 0.080 0.093 0.092 0.091 0.090 0.089
1.0 0.121 0.115 0.113 0.112 0.112 0.112 0.111 0.111 0.110 0.110 0.110
1.5 0.207 0.197 0.194 0.192 0.191 0.190 0.190 0.189 0.188 0.188 0.188
2 0.284 0.271 0.267 0.264 0.262 0.261 0.260 0.259 0.257 0.256 0.256
3 0.402 0.392 0.386 0.382 0.378 0.376 0.374 0.373 0.378 0.367 0.367
4 0.484 0.484 0.479 0.474 0.470 0.440 0.464 0.462 0.453 0.451 0.451
5 0.543 0.554 0.552 0.548 0.543 0.540 0.536 0.534 0.522 0.522 0.519
6 0.585 0.609 0.610 0.608 0.604 0.601 0.598 0.595 0.579 0.576 0.575
7 0.618 0.653 0.658 0.658 0.656 0.653 0.650 0.647 0.628 0.624 0.623
8 0.643 0.688 0.697 0.700 0.700 0.698 0.695 0.692 0.672 0.666 0.665
9 0.663 0.716 0.730 0.736 0.737 0.736 0.735 0.732 0.710 0.704 0.702
10 0.679 0.740 0.758 0.766 0.770 0.770 0.770 0.768 0.745 0.738 0.735
20 0.756 0.856 0.896 0.925 0.945 0.959 0.969 0.977 0.982 0.965 0.957
500 0.832 0.977 1.046 1.102 1.150 1.191 1.227 1.259 1.532 1.721 1.879

B ′ = B/2 for center of foundation, and = B for corners of foundation,

H = depth of hard stratum (rock) under the footing.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Table (5.9b): Values of I 2 to compute Steinbrenner's influence factor

1 − 2μ s
I s = I1 + I2.
1 − μs
L/B
H / B′ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

0.2 0.041 0.042 0.042 0.042 0.042 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043
0.4 0.066 0.068 0.069 0.070 0.070 0.071 0.071 0.072 0.072 0.073 0.073
0.6 0.079 0.081 0.083 0.085 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.091 0.091 0.092
0.8 0.083 0.087 0.090 0.093 0.095 0.097 0.098 0.100 0.101 0.102 0.103
1.0 0.083 0.088 0.091 0.095 0.098 0.100 0.102 0.104 0.106 0.108 0.109
1.5 0.075 0.080 0.084 0.089 0.093 0.096 0.099 0.102 0.105 0.108 0.110
2 0.064 0.069 0.074 0.078 0.083 0.086 0.090 0.094 0.097 0.100 0.102
3 0.048 0.052 0.056 0.060 0.064 0.068 0.071 0.075 0.078 0.081 0.084
4 0.037 0.041 0.044 0.048 0.051 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.063 0.066 0.069
5 0.031 0.034 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.045 0.048 0.050 0.053 0.055 0.058
6 0.026 0.028 0.031 0.033 0.036 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.050
7 0.022 0.024 0.027 0.029 0.031 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.039 0.041 0.043
8 0.020 0.022 0.023 0.025 0.027 0.029 0.031 0.033 0.035 0.036 0.038
9 0.017 0.019 0.021 0.023 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.029 0.031 0.033 0.034
10 0.016 0.017 0.019 0.020 0.022 0.023 0.025 0.027 0.028 0.030 0.031
20 0.008 0.099 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016
500 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

L/B
H / B′
2.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 50 100
0.2 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044
0.4 0.074 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076
0.6 0.094 0.097 0.097 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098
0.8 0.107 0.111 0.112 0.113 0.113 0.113 0.113 0.114 0.114 0.114 0.114
1.0 0.114 0.120 0.122 0.123 0.123 0.124 0.124 0.124 0.125 0.125 0.125
1.5 0.118 0.130 0.134 0.136 0.137 0.138 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.140 0.140
2 0.114 0.131 0.136 0.139 0.141 0.143 0.144 0.145 0.147 0.147 0.148
3 0.097 0.122 0.131 0.137 0.141 0.144 0.145 0.147 0.152 0.153 0.154
4 0.082 0.110 0.121 0.129 0.135 0.139 0.142 0.145 0.154 0.155 0.156
5 0.070 0.098 0.111 0.120 0.128 0.133 0.137 0.140 0.154 0.156 0.157
6 0.060 0.087 0.101 0.111 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.135 0.153 0.157 0.157
7 0.053 0.078 0.092 0.103 0.112 0.119 0.125 0.129 0.152 0.157 0.158
8 0.047 0.071 0.084 0.095 0.104 0.112 0.118 0.124 0.151 0.156 0.158
9 0.042 0.064 0.077 0.088 0.097 0.105 0.112 0.118 0.149 0.156 0.158
10 0.038 0.059 0.071 0.082 0.091 0.099 0.106 0.112 0.147 0.156 0.158
20 0.020 0.031 0.039 0.046 0.053 0.059 0.065 0.071 0.124 0.148 0.156
500 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.008 0.016 0.031

B ′ = B/2 for center of foundation, and = B for corners of foundation,

H = depth of hard stratum (rock) under the footing.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

5.5.2 Schmertmann's Method (1978): Use of Strain Influence Factor

This method is based on the Dutch cone penetration resistance q c using the strain influence
factor diagram. It is proposed for two cases, square foundation (L/B = 1) where axisymmetric
stress and strain conditions occur and strip foundation (L/B = 10) where plane strain conditions
exist.

C1 C 2 2 B I Δz
For square foundation: Si = Δp ∑ z .................….....…….............(5.6a)
2 .5 0 qc

C1C 2 4B I Δz
For strip foundation: Si = Δp ∑ z .............….....……..........…(5.6b)
3.5 0 qc
where, P = gross applied pressure,
Po′ = effective stress at the foundation level,

Δ P = net applied pressure = P - Po′ (in kN/m2),

q c = cone end resistance, kN/m2, for each soil layer,
Δ z = thickness for each soil layer, (in meters),
Po′
C1 = correction for depth of foundation = 1 − 0.5 ≥ 0.5
Δp
t
C 2 = correction for creep or time related settlement = 1 + 0.2 log 10
0.1
t = time in (years) after construction,
Iz = average strain influence factor for each soil layer obtained as the value at the
mid point of each soil layer from a diagram drawn alongside the q c depth
graph with a depth of 2B for square foundation and 4B for strip foundation as
shown in Fig.(5.3), and

Δp
I z max = 0.5 + 0.1 is the maximum value of Iz , where σ ′v = vertical effective
σv ′
stress at a depth of B/2 for a square foundation and B for strip foundation.

Notes:
• Values of Δ z , average q c and average Iz for each soil layer are required for the
summation term.
• Settlements for shapes intermediate between square and strip can be obtained by
interpolation.

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

B
Po′ P Po′ IZ IZ
Df
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6
0 0

σ v′ for square 0.5B

IZmax
0.5B
B Square
σ v′ for strip
IZmax
B B Strip

2B 2B
2B – 0.6 IZ

3B

Fig.(5.3): Strain influence factor diagrams for Schmertmann's method.

4B
4B – 0.6 IZ

5.5.3 Bjerrum’s Method for Average Settlement of Layered Clay Soil

q.B
S i ( average ) flexible = μ o .μ 1 ……………..…………………….…..(5.7)
Eu

where, μ o and μ1 are factors for depth of embedment and thickness of soil layer beneath the
foundation, respectively; obtained from Fig.(5.4). Remember that the principle of layering could
be applied with this method such that the overlapping is equal to the number of layers 1.

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Foundatioon Engineeriing Chaapter 5: Settllement of Buildings

μ1

μo

Fig.(5.4): Coeffficients of vertical

v disp
placement for
f foundatiions on satu
urated clays
(after Jaanbu et al., 1956).
1

Problem
m (5.1): A (5m x 10m) rectangula
ar flexible foundation is placed on tw
wo layers off clay,
both 10m thick as shoown in the fiigure below. The modu ulus of elastticity of the upper
2
layer is 8 MN/m
M and that of the lower layer is 16 MN/m m2. Determin ne the imme ediate
a the centerr of the foundation using
settlement at g:
(1) Elasticc Theory Meethod.
75 kN/m2
(2) Bjerrum Method.

5m x10m
x
10m
Si N/m2 , μ s = 0.3
E u1 = 8 MN

10m E u 2 = 16 MN/m
M 2
, μ s = 0.3

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Solution:

(1) (Elastic Theory Method):

8(10 ) + 16 (10 )
E avg . = = 12 .MN / m 2 = 12000 .kN / m 2
20
1 − μs 2
Si (flexible) = q o .B′ I s .I D .C N …………………………………………...………..(5.3)
Es
For H / B′ =20/2.5 = 8, L/B = 10/5 = 2: I1 = 0.611 and I 2 = 0.038 ; from Table (4.9)
1 − 2μ s 1 − 2(0.3)
I s = I1 + I 2 = 0.611 + 0.038 = 0.633
1 − μs 1 − 0 .3
I D = 1 (for D f = 0 ); and C N = 4 (for center).
1 − (0.3) 2
Si (flexible) = (75)(2.5) (0.633)(1)(4) = 36 mm.
(surface,center ) 12000

(2) (Bjerrum Method):

• Settlement of 1st. layer (average settlement):

From Fig.(5.4): for D f /B = 0 and L/B = 2; μ o = 1.00

For H/B = 10/5 = 2 and L/B = 2; μ1 = 0.70
q.B
S i ( average ) flexible = μ o .μ 1 ….…………..…………………….…………….…..….......(5.7)
Eu
(75)(5)(1000)
S1(average)flexible = (1.00)(0.70) = 32.81 mm
(8x1000)

• Settlement of 2nd. layer (average settlement):

From Fig.(5.4): for D f /B = 0 and L/B = 2; μ o = 1.00

For H/B = 20/5 = 4 and L/B = 2; μ1 = 0.85
(75)(5)(1000)
S 2 (average)flexible = (1.00)(0.85) = 19.92 mm
(16 x1000)

• The interaction between the 1st. and 2nd. Layers:

(75)(5)(1000 )
S3( average ) flexible = (1.00 )( 0.70 ) = 16.41 mm
(16 x1000 )

The immediate settlement at foundation center = S1 + S2 − S3

= 32.81 + 19.92 – 16.41 = 36.32 mm
Problem (5.2): (Schmertmann's method settlement on sand)

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

A (3m x 3m) square footing rested at a depth of (2m) below the ground surface.
Estimate the immediate settlement of the footing under the load and soil conditions
shown in the figure below after (0.1 year) from construction.

1.8 MN

γ t = 20 kN/m
2m 2

Depth from base Static cone penetration 5000 qc

3m x 3m
(m) resistance qc 1
Z = 1.0m 10000 0.4
2
0-1.0 5000 Z = 1.5m 0.5B 0.6
1.0-1.5 10000
1.5-5.0 10000 3
5.0-6.0 5000
Z = 5m 0.133
6.0-8.0 15000
4
Z = 6m 15000 2B
2B – 0.6 IZ

Z = 8m
Solution:
C1 C 2 2 B I Δz
For square foundation: Si = Δp ∑ z ...........….....…….............(5.6a)
2 .5 0 qc
P′
• C1 = correction for depth of foundation = 1 − 0.5 o ≥ 0.5
Δp
Po′ = effective stress at the foundation level = D f .γ = 2(20) = 40 kN/m2
3
Δ P = net increase in stress at footing level = P - Po′ = 1.8x10 − 40 = 160 kN/m2
3x3
40
C1 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.875 > 0.5 (O.K.)
160
t 0.1
• C 2 = Time correction factor = 1 + 0.2 log 10 = 1 + 0.2 log10 = 1.0
0.1 0.1
Δ Z .I Z
No. Δ Z (m) qc I Z (average)
qc
1 1.0 5000 (0 + 0.4)/2= 0.2 0.000040
2 0.5 10000 0.5 0.000025
3 3.5 10000 0.366 0.000128
4 1.0 5000 0.066 0.0000132

∑ 20.62x10 −5
(0.875)(1.0)
Si = (160)(20.62x10 −5 ) = 0.01155 m = 11.55 mm
2.5
Problem (5.3): (Total immediate settlement)

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Determine the total immediate settlement of the rectangular footing shown in figure
below after 2 months.
1200 kN

G.S.

1.0m
3m x 4m

2.0m Clay qc = 8000.kN / m2 ,..γ = 20.kN / m3

0.5B =1.5m 0.6
0.533

4.5m I z (avg.) 3.0m Sand E = 20000.kN / m2

0.133

Rock
2B = 6m
2B – 0.6 IZ

Solution:

Since the soil profile is made up of two different soils, then the total immediate settlement will be:

S i (Total) = S i (clay) + S i (sand )

• Immediate Settlement of clay by Bjerrum's method:

q.B
S i ( average ) flexible = μ o .μ 1 ….…………..…………………..….......(5.7)
Eu
From Fig.(5.4): for D f /B = 1/3 = 0.33 and L/B = 4/3 = 1.33; μ o = 0.93
for H/B = 2/3 = 0.66 and L/B = 1.33; μ1 = 0.38
(1200 / 3x 4)(3)(1000)
S1( average) flexible = (0.93)(0.38) = 6.6 mm
(2 x8x1000)
• Immediate Settlement of sand by Schmertmann's method:
For square foundation:
C1 C 2 2 B I Δz
Si = Δp ∑ z ..........................................….......…….............(5.6a)
2 .5 0 qc
Po′
C1 = 1 − 0.5 ≥ 0.5
Δp
At foundation level:
Po′ = D f .γ = 1(20) = 20 kN/m2, Δ P = P / A - Po′ = 1200 − 20 = 80 kN/m2.
3x 4
On sand surface:

15
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

(80)(3)(4)
Po′ = D f .γ = 3(20) = 60 kN/m2, ΔP = = 32 kN/m2 (2:1 method)
(3 + 2)(4 + 2)
60
C1 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.06 < 0.5 ∴ Use C1 = 0.5
32
t 2 / 12
C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log = 1 + 0.2 log 10 = 1.04
10 0.1 0 .1
0.533 + 0.133 I z .Δz (0.333)(3)
I z ( avg .) = = 0.333 , = = 4.9.x.10 −5
2 E 20000
Si (sand) = (0.5)(1.04)(32)(4.9.x.10 −5 ) = 0.815 mm
∴ Si (Total) = 6.6 + 0.815 = 7.415 mm

Home work: Redo problem (5.3) but with sand instead of clay as shown in the figure below.
(Ans.: S i (Total) = 5.75 mm).

1200 kN

G.S.

1.0m
3m x 4m

2.0m sand q c = 8000 .kN / m 2 ,.. γ = 20 .kN / m 3

3.0m clay E = 20000...kN / m2

Rock

5.6 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

5.6.1 Compression Index C c Method:

This method is adopted for normally and lightly overconsolidated clays. The compression
index C c is the gradient of e − log P plot for normally consolidated clay. While for
overconsolidated clay, C c is also the slope of the e − log P but beyond the preconsolidation
pressure Pc′ . C c values obtained from oedometer tests are likely to be underestimated due to

16
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

sampling disturbance. Therefore, some correlations which relate C c with soil composition
parameter have been published and two of them are as follows:
C c = 0.009(LL − 10) ....................................... (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948)
PI
C c ≈ 0.5ρ s ................................................................... (Wroth, 1979)
100
where, LL = liquid limit, PI = plasticity index, and ρ s = particle density.

Method (A):
1. Calculate the effective pressure σ ′o at center of the clay layer before the application of load.
2. Calculate the weighted average pressure increase at mid of clay layer using Simpson's rule:
1
Δσ avg . = ( Δσ t + 4 Δσ m + Δσ b )
6
where, Δσ t , Δσ m , and Δσ b are respectively the pressure increase due to applied load at
the top, middle and bottom of clay layer.
3. Using σ ′o and Δσ avg. calculated above, obtain Δe from equations below, whichever is
applicable.
(i) If σ ′p < σ ′o , the soil is under consolidated:
σ′o + Δσ avg.
Δe = C c log10 ....................…....................(5.8a)
σ′p
(ii) If σ ′p = σ ′o (OCR = 1), the soil is normally consolidated:
σ′o + Δσ avg.
Δe = C c log10 .......................…….............(5.8b)
σ′o
(iii) If σ ′p > σ ′o (OCR > 1), the soil is overconsolidated, and
(a) If σ ′p ≥ σ ′o + Δσ avg. then;
σ ′o + Δσ avg.
Δe = C s log10 ...........................…...........(5.8c)
σ′o
(b) If σ ′p < σ ′o + Δσ avg. then;
σ′o + Δσ avg. σ′p
Δe = C c log10 + C s log10 ….……..…..(5.8d)
σ′p σ′o
5. Calculate the consolidation settlement by:
Δe
Sc = H t ..........…….........................................(5.8e)
1+ eo
where, e o = ω o .G s

Method (B):

17
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

1. For thick clay layer, better results in settlement calculation can be obtained by dividing a given
clay layer into (n) sub-layers.
2. Calculate the effective stress σ′o (i) at the middle of each clay sub-layer.
3. Calculate the increase of stress at the middle of each sub-layer Δσ (i) due to the applied load.
5. Calculate Δe (i) for each sub-layer from Eqs.(5.8a to 5.8e) mentioned before in method
(A step 3, whichever is applicable.
5. Calculate the total consolidation settlement of the entire clay layer from:

n n Δe i
S c = ∑ ΔS c = ∑ ΔH i where e o = ω o .G s .....…….............(5.9)
i =1 i =1 1 + e o

Values at mid-point of each sub-layer

Δe (i )
Layer σ′o (i) Δσ (i) Δe (i) ωo eo ΔH i ΔH i
1 + eo
1
2
3

Sc = ∑

G.S. G.S.
qo qo
Df Df
G.W.T. G.W.T.

Sand Δσ t Sand
ΔH1 Δσ (1 Layer 1
Δσ m ΔH 2 Δσ ( 2 Layer 2
H Clay Variation Clay
H
of Δσ
Δσ b
ΔH n Δσ ( n Layer n

Sand Sand

Method (A) Method (B)

Fig.(5.5): Calculation of consolidation settlement Methods.

18
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

4.6.2 Oedometer or m v Method:

From oedometer test, the values of volume change for each pressure increment is obtained
as:
av Δe Δe 1 ΔH
mv = but a v = and ΔH = H t therefore; mv =
1 + eo ΔP 1 + eo Δp H t

ΔH = Sc = m v .H t .Δp .........................…….................................. (5.10)

where,
a v = coefficient of compressibility of soil sample.
e o = initial void ratio of soil sample.
Δ e = the change in void ratio corresponding to a pressure change Δ p .
Δ p = Δ σ = change in stress.
H t = total thickness of the clay soil layer.
ΔH = change in thickness, and
m v = coefficient of volume compressibility of soil sample determined during an oedometer test
for each pressure increment applied above the vertical effective stress or overburden
pressure Po′ at the depth from which the sample was taken. If the applied stress or m v
values vary with depth, then the soil deposit must be divided into layers and the change in
thickness determined for each layer. Typical values of m v for different clay types are given
in Table (5.10).

Table (5.10): Typical values of mv . Δσ

H
Type of clay m v m2/MN
Very stiff heavily < 0.05 H
Overconsolidated clay 0.05 - 0.1
Firm overconsolidated clay, H
0.1 - 0.3
Depth

Laminated clay, weathered clay

Soft normally consolidated clay 0.3 – 1.0 H
Soft organic clay, sensitive clay 0.5 – 2.0
Peat > 1.5

Δσ mv ΔH
----- ----- -----
----- ----- -----
----- ----- -----
----- ----- -----
Oedometer or m v method. ----- ----- -----

19
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

5.7 SKEMPTON - BJERRUM MODIFICATION

FOR 3-DIMENTIONAL CONSOLIDATION
In one-dimensional consolidation tests, there is no lateral yield of the soil specimen and the
ratio of minor to major principal effective stresses, K o , remains constant. In that case, the
increase of pore water pressure due to an increase of vertical stress is equal in magnitude, (i.e.,
Δ u = Δ σ ) where Δ u is the increase in pore water pressure and Δ σ is the increase of vertical
stress. While for actual simulation of field condition, in 3-dimensions, any point in a clay layer
due to a given load suffers from lateral yield and therefore, K o does not remain constant.

∴ ........................................................................... (5.11)

where, = correction factor depends on pore-pressure parameter (A); obtained from Fig.(4.6).

Fig.(5.6): Settlement correction factor versus pore-pressure coefficient for

circular and strip footings (after Skempton and Bjerrum, 1957).

Problem (5.4): (consolidation settlement C c method)

A circular foundation 2m in diameter is shown in the figure below. A normally
consolidated clay layer 5m thick is located below the foundation. Determine the
consolidation settlement of the clay.

20
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Circular foundation
diameter B = 2m
G.S.

1.0m Sand
q = 150 kN/m2
γ = 17 kN/m3

0.5m W.T.
z Sand
0.5m
γ sat. = 19 kN/m3
Normally consolidated clay
5.0m γ sat. = 18.5 kN/m3
C c =0.16, e o =0.85
Solution:

(1) As one layer of clay of 5m thick:

At the center of clay: σ ′o = 1.5(17) + 0.5(19-9.81) + 2.5(18.5-9.81)= 51.82 kN/m2
For circular loaded area, the increase of stress below the center is given by:
⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
Δσ = q ⎨1 − ⎬ where: b = the radius of the circular foundation,
⎪⎩ [(b / z) 2 + 1]3 / 2 ⎪⎭
⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
At mid-depth of the clay layer: z = 3.5m; Δσ = 150⎨1 − ⎬ = 16.66 kN/m
2

⎪⎩ [(1 / 3.5) + 1] ⎪⎭
2 3 / 2

σ ′ + Δσ 51.82 + 16.66
Δ e = C c log10 o = 0.16. log10 = 0.0194
σ ′o 51.82
Δe 0.0194
Sc = Ht = (5)(1000) = 52.4 mm
1 + eo 1 + 0.85

(2) Divide the clay layer into (5) sub-layers each of 1m thick:

• Calculation of effective stress at the middle of each sub-layer σ′o(i) :

For 1st. Layer: σ′o(1) =1.5(17) +0.5(19-9.81) + 0.5(18.5-9.81) = 35.44 kN/m2
For 2nd. Layer: σ′o( 2) = 35.44 +1.0(18.5-9.81) = 35.44 + 8.69 = 43.13 kN/m2
For 3rd. Layer: σ′o(3) = 43.13 + 8.69 = 51.81 kN/m2
For 4th. Layer: σ′o( 4) = 51.81 + 8.69 = 60.51 kN/m2

21
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

For 5th. Layer: σ′o(5) = 60.51 + 8.69 = 69.20 kN/m2

• Calculation of increase of stress below the center of each sub-layer Δσ (i) :

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
For 1st. Layer: Δσ (1) = 150⎨1 − = 63.59 kN/m2
⎪⎩ 3/ 2 ⎬
[(1 / 1.5) + 1] ⎪⎭
2

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
For 2nd. Layer: Δσ ( 2) = 150⎨1 − ⎬ = 29.93 kN/m
2

⎪⎩ [(1 / 2.5) + 1] ⎪⎭2 3 / 2

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
For 3rd. Layer: Δσ (3) = 150⎨1 − ⎬ = 16.66 kN/m
2

⎪⎩ [(1 / 3.5) + 1] ⎪⎭
2 3 / 2

⎪⎧ 1 ⎪⎫
For 4th. Layer: Δσ ( 4) = 150⎨1 − ⎬ = 10.46 kN/m
2

⎪⎩ [(1 / 4.5) + 1] ⎪⎭
2 3 / 2

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
For 5th. Layer: Δσ (5) = 150⎨1 − ⎬ = 7.14 kN/m
2

⎪⎩ [(1 / 5.5) + 1] ⎪⎭
2 3 / 2

Δe (i )
ΔH i σ′o (i) Δσ (i) ΔH i
Layer no. 2 2 Δe*(i) 1 + eo
m kN/m kN/m
m
1 1 35.44 63.59 0.0727 0.0393
2 1 43.13 29.93 0.0366 0.0198
3 1 51.82 16.66 0.0194 0.0105
4 1 60.51 10.46 0.0111 0.0060
5 1 69.20 7.14 0.00682 0.0037
∑ = 0.0793
σ′o(i) + Δσ (i)
Δe*(i) = C c log10 ; C c = 0.16, e o = 0.85, Sc = 0.0793 m = 79.3 mm.
σ′o(i)

(3) Weighted average pressure increase (Simpson's rule):

At the center of clay: σ ′o = 1.5(17) + 0.5(19-9.81) + 2.5(18.5-9.81)= 51.82 kN/m2

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
At z = 1.0m from the base of foundation: Δσ = 150⎨1 − = 75 kN/m2
⎪⎩ 3/ 2 ⎬
[(1 / 1) + 1] ⎪⎭
2

22
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
At z = 3.5m from the base of foundation: Δσ = 150⎨1 − = 16.66 kN/m2
⎪⎩ 3/ 2 ⎬
[(1 / 3.5) + 1] ⎪⎭
2

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
At z = 6.0m from the base of foundation: Δσ = 150⎨1 − ⎬ = 6.04 kN/m
2

⎪⎩ [(1 / 6) + 1] ⎪⎭
2 3 / 2

( Δσ t + 4 Δσ m + Δσ b ) = [75 + 4(16 .66 ) + 6.04 ] = 24 .61 kN/m2

1 1
∴ Δσ avg . =
6 6
σ′ + Δσ 51.82 + 24.61
Δ e = C c log10 o = 0.16. log10 = 0.027
σ ′o 51.82
Δe 0.027
Sc = Ht = (5)(1000) = 72.9 mm
1 + eo 1 + 0.85

Problem (5.5): (consolidation settlement mv method)

A building is supported on a raft of (30m x 45m), the net pressure being 125 kN/m2 as
shown in the figure below. Determine the settlement under the center of the raft due to
consolidation of the clay.

Raft foundation
30m x 45m
G.S.
q = 125 kN/m2 15m
3.5m
7.0m
W.T. 22.5m
25m Sand
45m
23.5m

4.0m Clay
m v = 0.35 m2/MN 30m

Solution:

From Ch.(4) the vertical stress below the corner of flexible rectangular or square loaded area
Δσ z = I.q o
At mid-depth of the layer , z = 23.5m below the center of the raft:
m / z = 22.5/23.5 = 0.96 and n / z = 15/23.5 = 0.64 therefore; I = 0.140
Δσ z = (4)(0.140)(125) = 70 kN/m2

23
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Sc = m v .H t .Δσ .........................……..................................(5.10)
Sc = (0.35)(70)(4)(1000) = 98 mm.
5.8 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
It occurs after the primary consolidation settlement has finished when all pore water
pressures have dissipated (see Fig.(5.7)). Secondary consolidation can be ignored for hard or
overconsolidated soils. But, it is highly increased for organic soil such as peat. This can explained
due to the redistribution of forces between particles after large structural rearrangements that
occurred during the normal consolidation stage of the soil.
Settlement

Si Primary Secondary
consolidation. consolidation.
Time
Sc
t1
S sc t 2 >> t1
t2
t2
Time
t1

Fig. (5.7): Definition of secondary compression.

t2
S c s = C α .H. log10 ................……..................................(5.12)
t1
where, S c s = secondary consolidation settlement.
C α = coefficient of secondary consolidation; obtained from table below.
H = thickness of clay layer.
t1 = time of primary consolidation settlement, and
t 2 = time of secondary consolidation settlement.
C v .t C .t H2
To determine t1 : from Tv = take Tv = 1.0 and t = t1; then 1.0 = v 1 or t 1 =
2
H H2 Cv

Table (5.7): Values of C α for some typical soils.

Type of clay Cα

Normally consolidated clay 0.005-0.02

Plastic or organic soil ≥ 0.03

24
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Hard clay or overconsolidated clay with O.C.R > 2 0.001 - 0.0001

Problem (5.6): (Total settlement)

As shown in the figure below, a footing 6m square, carrying a net pressure of 160 kN/m2 is
located at a depth of 2m in a deposit of stiff clay 17m thick; a firm stratum lies immediately
below the clay. Form Oedometer tests on specimens of the clay, the value of mv was found
to be 0.13 m2/MN and from Triaxial tests the value of A was found to be 0.35. The
undrained Young's modulus for the clay is estimated to be 55 MN/m2. Determine the total
settlement under the center of the footing.

Square foundation (6m x 6m)

q = 160 kN/m2 G.S.

2m
3m 1.5m
3m
17m 3m 4.5m
thick clay layer 3m
7.5m 6m
2
m v = 0.13 m /MN
10.5m
Eu = 55 MN/m2
6m
A = 0.35 13.5m

Firm stratum

Solution:

(1) Immediate settlement (Using Bjerrum method):

From Fig.(5.4): for H/B = 15/6 = 2.5, L/B = 1 and D f /B = 2/6 = 0.33

μ o = 0.91 and μ1 = 0.60

q.B
S i ( average ) flexible = μ o .μ 1 ….…….……..…………………..….....(5.7)
Eu
(160)(6)(1000)
S i (average) flexible = (0.91)(0.60) = 9.5 mm
(55x1000)

(2) Consolidation settlement (mv - method):

25
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

From Ch.(4), the vertical stress below the corner of flexible rectangular or square loaded area
Δσ z = I.q o
At mid-depth of each 3 m depth as shown in the table below:

Layer z
I
Δσ ′ S c (oed) = m v .H t .Δσ ′
m / z, n / z From Ch.(4) 2
no. (m) (kN/m ) (mm)
Fig.(4.15)
1 1.5 2.00 0.233 149 58.1
2 5.5 0.67 0.121 78 30.4
3 7.5 0.40 0.060 38 15.8
4 10.5 0.285 0.033 21 8.2
5 13.5 0.222 0.021 13 5.1
∑ = 116.6
For 1st. Layer: m / z = 3/1.5 = 2.00 and n / z = 3/1.5 = 2.00 therefore; I = 0.233
Δσ′z = (4)(160)(I)..........................(kN/m2)
S c ( oed ) = m v .H t .ΔP .........................……..................................(5.10)

S c (oed ) = (0.13)( Δσ′z )(3)(1000) ....... (mm).

(3) Correction for A pore water pressure:

From Fig.(5.6): for H/B = 15/6.77 = 2.2 (equivalent diameter = 6.77 m) and A = 0.35;
ρ circle =0.55 then, S c (oed ) = (0.55)(116.6) = 64 mm.

∴ Total settlement = ST = Si + Sc = 9.5 + 64 = 73.5 mm

5.9 DEGREE OR RATE OF SETTLEMENT

It is the ratio of consolidation at time (t) to that of 100% consolidation when the pore water
pressure was diminishes. It is calculated as follows:
(1) First, from Oedometer tests, the coefficient of consolidation ( C v ) is calculated as:

k
Cv = …..........…….............................................................(5.13)
m v .γ w

26
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

av Δe
where, m v = volume.change .coefficien t = , av = = compressibility coefficient
1 + eo Δp
and k = permeability of soil.

(2) Second, the time factor ( Tv ) is calculated from:

C v .t
Tv = .................………........................................................(5.14)
(H d ) 2
where, H d (drainage path) = H (for one-way drainage) and
= H/2 (for two-way drainage).

(3) Third, with ( Tv ) value obtained from Eq. (5.14), the degree of consolidation U % at any
time (t) is calculated from Fig.(5.8) depending on the distribution of the excess pore water
pressure; or one of the following equations:

π U% 2
Tv = ( ) for U ≤ 60 % .....................…….................................(5.15a)
4 100

Tv = 1.781 − 0.933. log10 (100 − U%) for U > 60 % .........................(5.15b)

(4) From the degree of consolidation U % at any time (t), the settlement at any time is
calculated from the following relation if the total settlement is known:

S t Settlement.at.any.time( t )
Ut = = ……………………….…..….....(5.16)
S∞ Total.settlement
where, S ∞ = ST = Si + Sc + Ssc.

Note: U % for any layer depends on pore water pressure distribution using Figs.(5.20a
and 5.20b) to find U t at any time. But, for other shapes use division to suit with figures
above as shown in the following example.

Example:
2b

Clay H A B C
= +

b
Curve (1+3) Curve (1) Curve (3)
27
U .A + U c .A C
UA = B B
∑A
Foundatioon Engineeriing Chaapter 5: Settllement of Buildings

Fig.(5.8): Variation of
o average degree
d of co
onsolidation and time factor
(for EP
PWP conditioons given in Figs. a, andd b) .

(a) 1-D drain

nage

Curve (1) C
Curve (2) C
Curve (3)

(b) 2-D drain

nage

Curve (1) 28 C
Curve (2) C
Curve (3)
Foundatioon Engineeriing Chaapter 5: Settllement of Buildings

Problem
m (5.7): (deegree of conssolidation)
For pore water pressure disstribution accross a clay soil layer sh
hown below, find the avverage
deg
gree of conso
olidation afte
er (15) yearss.

2
100 kN/m
k N/m2
60 kN N/m2
40 kN
Impeervious

C
Clay 4m = +

Peervious N/m2
60 kN/m2 60 kN
Given: PWP
P Case (1) Casee (3)
C v = 0.4 m2/year
Solution
n:
C v .t (0.4)(15
1 )
Tv = 2
= = 0.375
(H d ) ( 4) 2

From Figg.(5.8) for Tv = 0.375; U1 = 65%

% (curve 1) and

for Tv = 0.375; U 2 = 75% (curve 3)

U 1 .A 1 + U 2 .A 2 0.65(4)(60) + 0.75(4)(40) / 2
U avg. = = = 0.675 = 67.5%
∑A (
100 + 60
)(4)
2

Problem
m (5.8): (deegree of conssolidation)
c n C v = 0.4 m2/year, and
For a layer of cllay of 4m thiick, if the coefficient of consolidation d PWP
disttribution is given
g as below. Calcula ate: (1) the average
a deggree of conssolidation affter 20
yeaars, and (2) the
t time requ uired for 62 % consolida ation.

29
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

Pervious 100 kN/m2 100 kN/m2 0 kN/m2

Clay 4m = +

Impervious
250 kN/m2 100 kN/m2 150 kN/m2
Solution:
Given: PWP Case (1) Case (2)
C =C0..4t m3/year
(0.4)( 20)
(1) Tv =v v = = 0.50
(H d ) 2 ( 4) 2

From Fig.(5.8) for Tv = 0.50; U1 = 76% (curve 1) and

for Tv = 0.50; U 2 = 69% (curve 2)

U 1 .A 1 + U 2 .A 2 0.76(4)(100) + 0.69(4)(150) / 2
U avg. = = = 0.73 = 73%
∑A (
100 + 250
)(4)
2

(2) To calculate the time required for any degree % of consolidation, take several times t i ( year )
and find the corresponding U i ( avg.) as follows:

U 1 .A 1 + U 2 .A 2
t i (year) Tv U1 U2 U avg. = (%)
∑A
10 0.25 0.55 0.45 50.7 < 62
12 0.30 0.62 0.50 56.8 < 62
15 0.375 0.67 0.57 62.7 ≈ 62
18 0.45 0.72 0.64 68.5 > 62

Sample of Calculation:
C v .t (0.4)(10)
• For t = 10 (years): Tv = = = 0.25
(H d ) 2
( 4) 2

30
Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

From Fig. (5.8) for Tv = 0.25; U1 = 55% (curve 1) and

for Tv = 0.25; U 2 = 45% (curve 2)

U 1 .A 1 + U 2 .A 2 0.55(4)(100) + 0.45(4)(150) / 2
U avg. = = = 0.507 = 50.7%
∑A (
100 + 250
)(4)
2
• After drawing U i ( avg.) versus t i ( year ) as obtained from table above; it can be seen

that the required time for 62 % consolidation = 15 (years).

Problem (5.9): (consolidation for layered soils)
A raft foundation is placed at surface of a normally consolidated clay layers with internal
sand drain layers as shown in the figure below. Determine the % degree of consolidation
after 10 years if the PWP distribution is as given in the same figure.

2
100 kN/m2
50 kN/m G.S.
10m x 20m
2m C v = 0.4m / year, C c = 0.1 , eo = 0.60
2
Clay layer (1)
γ = 18 kN/m 3

Sand
PWP Distribution

3m
C v = 0.3m 2 / year, C = 0.09, e = 0.65 Clay layer (2)
c o
γ = 19 kN/m3
Sand

C v = 0.2m 2 / year, C = 0.08, e = 0.60

4m c o
Clay layer (3)
γ = 20 kN/m3

100 kN/m2 Impervious

Solution:

(1) Calculate ( T v ) for each clay layer; 1, 2, 3:

⎡ C v .t ⎤ 0.4(10)
Tv1 = ⎢ 1 2 ⎥ = = 4,
⎢⎣ ( H 1 ) ⎥⎦ ( 2 / 2) 2
⎡ C v 2 .t ⎤ 0.3(10)
Tv 2 = ⎢ 2 ⎥
= = 1.333 , and
⎢⎣ ( H 2 ) ⎥⎦ (3 / 2) 2

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

⎡ C v 3 .t ⎤ 0.2(10)
Tv 3 = ⎢ 2 ⎥
= = 0.125
⎣⎢ ( H 3 ) ⎦⎥ ( 4) 2
(2) Calculate ( SC i ) for each clay layer; 1, 2, 3:
Cc σ ′ + Δσ
for normally consolidated clay: S Ci = H t log 10 o
1+ eo σ ′o
for clay layer (1):
σ′o = γ .H = 18(1) = 18 kN/m2, Δ σ =100(10)(20)/(10+1)(20+1) = 86.580 kN/m2
0.1 18 + 86.580
∴ S C1 = (200) log 10 = 9.55cm
1 + 0.60 18
for clay layer (2):
σ′o = γ .H = 18(2) + 19(1.5) = 65.5 kN/m2, Δ σ =100(10)(20)/(10+3.5)(23.5) = 63.042 kN/m2
0.09 64.5 + 63.042
∴ SC2 = (300) log10 = 4.85cm
1 + 0.65 64.5
for clay layer (3):
σ′o = γ .H = 18(2) + 19(3)+ 20(2) = 133 kN/m2, Δ σ =100(10)(20)/(10+7)(27) = 43.573 kN/m2
0.08 133 + 43.573
∴ S C3 = (400) log 10 = 2.46cm
1 + 0.60 133
(3) Calculate (U %) for each clay layer; 1, 2, 3 after (10) years:
Total settlement for all layers:
S c = S c1 + S c 2 + S c 3 = 9.55 + 5.85 + 2.46 = 16.86 cm

From Fig.(5.8): for clay layer (1): for Tv 1 = 4; U1 = 100% (curve 1)

for clay layer (2): for Tv 2 = 1.33; U 2 = 95% (curve 1)
for clay layer (3): the PWP distribution consists of cases (1 + 2) and calculated as:

Pervious 50 kN/m2 50 kN/m2 0 kN/m2

4m = +

Impervious
100 kN/m2 50 kN/m2 50 kN/m2
C v = 0.2 m3/year Curve (1) Curve (2)
for Tv 3 = 0.125; U1 = 0.38 (curve 1) and U 2 = 0.22 (curve 2)

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Foundation Engineering Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings

U1 .A1 + U 2 .A 2 0.38(4)(50) + 0.22(4)(50) / 2

U3 = = = 0.326 = 33%
∑ A
(
50 + 100
)(4)
2
The average degree of consolidation after (10) years for all layers is calculated from:

1
U i ( avg.) = U ( t ) = (S c1 U 1 + S c 2 U 2 + S c 3 U 3 + .......... )
Sc

U i( avg.) =
1
[(9.55)(1.00) + (4.85)(0.95) + (2.46)(0.33)] = 0.89 = 89 %
16.86

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