Journal of In-Service Education

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Determinants of Teacher Professionalism

Kok‐Aun Toh , Cheong‐Hoong Diong , Hong‐Kwen Boo & Soo‐Keng Chia

To cite this article: Kok‐Aun Toh , Cheong‐Hoong Diong , Hong‐Kwen Boo & Soo‐Keng Chia
(1996) Determinants of Teacher Professionalism, Journal of In-Service Education, 22:2, 231-244,
DOI: 10.1080/0305763960220209

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0305763960220209

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 British Journal of In-service Education, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1996

Determinants of Teacher
Professionalism
KOK-AUN TOH, CHEONG-HOONG DIONG,
& HONG-KWEN BOO
NanyangTechnological University, Singapore
SOO-KENG CHIA
Upper Aljunied Technical School, Singapore

ABSTRACT Teacher professionalism is an important determinant in the

pursuit of educational excellence. This study examines how the four
factors: academic qualifications, professional training, teaching
experience and professional development, affect teacher professionalism.
A total of 338 high school teachers from 11 schools in Singapore
participated in the study. Interestingly, academic qualifications and
teaching experience of the subjects were not interrelated with teacher
professionalism, while the variable professional development was an
important contributory factor to teacher professionalism. Additionally,
subjects with higher professional training had a significantly higher
degree of teacher professionalism. The implications of these research
findings to the professional development of teachers and their career
paths are discussed.

Introduction
Historically, the concern with achieving educational excellence focused
on the curriculum and its delivery (Yip & Sim, 1990). The extensive
curriculum reform efforts in the 1960s and 1970s necessitated the
development of new classroom materials for students and teachers. With
greater maturity on the educational scene in recent years, there arose a
need to shift the focus to workplace conditions and the quality of
teachers' work life (Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1990; Seashore Louise, 1991)
and their bearing on teacher commitment. With nations investing
between 3 and 15% of their GDP in the education of their future citizens,
the school system provides employment for a significant proportion of
those actively employed. The large numbers would mean, therefore, that
the teachers who make up the profession are not a homogeneous group.
They are unlikely to display the same degree of teacher professionalism.
From the elementary grades to high school, a wide variation can be
expected in terms of qualifications, commitment, experience and
confidence with the subject matter delivery. Lam (1983) identifies

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KOK-AUNTOHETAL

teaching experience, academic and professional qualifications, and

professional development activities as possible determinants of teacher
professionalism.
Prick (1989) studied the developmental changes of 2103 teachers
during various stages of their careers, and concluded that personal and
organisational factors are responsible for mid-career changes in teacher
professionalism. The mid-career phase could be one of professional
growth, decline or stagnation. For those showing a mid-career decline,
there is cause for serious concern. Teachers who are dissatisfied with
their work invariably serve as poor role models to the junior colleagues
they come into contact with in their work environment, and other
aspirants or young entrants considering teaching as a career. With
schools as the potential source for future talents, there is some urgency
to study the professional characteristics of teachers and the relevance of
these characteristics and their influences to teacher professionalism.
This paper examines the determinants of teacher professionalism,
in particular, the endogenous variable, viz. academic qualifications,
inherent when teachers enter the profession, and the exogenous variables
acquired during practice - this is the period spanning from entry into the
profession to retirement. The exogenous variables studied are
professional qualifications, teaching experience *and professional
development. An examination of how these variables are interrelated to
teacher professionalism is paramount for excellent professional practice
in three ways. First, the relationship between the endogenous variable
and teacher professionalism has implications in the selection process for
new entrants to the profession. Secondly, the exogenous variables are
important for the future planning of professional development activities
and the encouragement, or otherwise, of teachers to further their
professional practice competency through attendance at courses.
Thirdly, the recognition of seniority in the teaching service, measured in
terms of years of teaching experience becomes an important
consideration. Understanding the degree of teacher professionalism is
important to all concerned with the business of education. Where teacher
professionalism deteriorates, it is difficult to see how the quality of
education demanded by the public can be ensured (Lam, 1983).
Teacher Professionalism Research
Teacher professionalism is a broad concept comprising several
dimensions (see the works of Becker, 1962; Hall, 1967; Pavalko, 1971;
Cullen, 1978; Territo, 1988; Miros, 1990). However, despite variations in
the dimensions used to define teacher professionalism from one
researcher to another, there are fundamental similarities by which
teacher professionalism can be operationalised. Based on these
fundamental similarities, Miros (1990) assembled a 13-item Likert-type
questionnaire to measure teacher professionalism. His Teacher
Professionalism Questionnaire had 13 statements on: independent
practice, code of ethics, licensing, single major professional association,

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 DETERMINANTS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

exclusive practice rights, body of specialised knowledge, application of

knowledge in professional practice, collaboration among members,
candidate selection, rigorous and protracted study/training period, high
status, high compensation and life-long commitment.
In Hall's (1968) work on professionalism and bureaucratisation, he
argued that professionalism be examined at two levels: the individual
level and the organisational level. At the individual level, he identified five
attributes as being important: use of the professional organisation as a
major referent, belief in service to the public, belief in self-regulation,
sense of calling to the field and autonomy for decision making. At the
organisational level he recognised four distinct types of setting for
professionalism to be demonstrated:
(1) the autonomous individual in private practice/business where the
professional is his own boss - the professional is the complete
determiner of the course of action for each event and also the person
responsible for all possible outcomes;
(2) the autonomous professional organisation in which the work of the
professional is subject to his own rather than to external or
administrative jurisdiction - the professional together with his partners
are the major determiners since they are the dominant source of
authority;
(3) the professional as an employee subordinated to an externally
derived system, with considerably lessened professional autonomy -
examples here are professionals employed in public schools, libraries
and social work agencies, all of which are affected by externally, often
legislatively-based structuring;
(4) the professional working in a department which is part of a large
organisation - examples of this are the legal, training or research
departments of many organisations.
Teachers conform to the third organisational setting, which is the
heteronomous organisation. In this sense, the individual, rather than the
organisational aspects of professionalism are likely to become more
relevant in defining teacher professionalism. According to Hoyle (1980),
professionalism describes the quality of practice; it describes the manner
of conduct within an occupation, how members integrate their
obligations with their knowledge and skill in a context of collegiality, and
their contractual and ethical relations with clients. Morrow (1988) also
placed more emphasis on the individual aspects, preferring to define
professionalism as the extent to which one is committed to one's
profession, and noting that individual members can vary in the degree to
which they identify with their profession and endorse its values.

Research Questions
The following research questions were examined:
(1) Do teachers with high academic qualifications demonstrate a higher
degree of teacher professionalism?

233
KOK-AUNTOHETAL

(2) Do teachers with high professionalism qualifications demonstrate a

higher degree of teacher professionalism?
(3) Do teachers with a greater length of teaching experience demonstrate
a higher degree of teacher professionalism?
(4) Do teachers with a higher degree of professional development
demonstrate a higher degree of teacher professionalism?
(5) How does professional development correlate with teacher
professionalism?
The Instruments
Two questionnaires were developed: one a Professional Development
Instrument (PDI), and the other a Teacher Professionalism Instrument
(TPI). To ensure content validity and reliability, the two instruments were
subjected to rigorous validation process by a 12-member panel of experts
before being pilot tested.
The TPI is a 31-item questionnaire developed to measure teacher
professionalism - of these, 16 items measure teaching competence, while
the remaining 15 items measure commitment to teaching. The Cronbach
alpha for the two variables conceptualised are 0.95 for teaching
competence and 0.90 for commitment to teaching. Factor analysis, using
the Varimax rotation, for the 16-item variable on teaching competence
suggests two factors with factor loadings of 5.58 and 5.51. The two factors
were named command of subject pedagogy and management of learning,
respectively. For the variable, commitment to teaching, three factors
were detected with factor loadings of 4.27, 2.58 and 2.07. These three
factors were designated as personal commitment, collegiality and
student-directed commitment.
The PDI has two parts - Part I captures the background information
of respondents, while Part II, a 14-item Likert-type questionnaire,
measures professional development. Reliability estimates of Part II of the
instrument on professional development had an alpha coefficient of 0.83,
while factor analysis of the items generated three factors: independent
learning, cooperative learning, and in-service learning, with factor
loadings of 2.74,2.48 and 2.38, respectively.
Part I of the PDI captures the background information, such as years
of teaching experience, and academic and professional qualifications.
From the available data, teaching experience was then conceptualised as
a continuous consisting of the number of years of teaching experience.
For the purpose of analyses, the respondents were also classified into
seven groups based on their years of teaching experience.

The Sample
A total of 338 teachers, comprising 123 male and 215 female teachers
from a stratified random sample of 11 high schools, participated in the
study. The ratio of male to female respondents (1:1.7) reflects closely the
national sex ratio (1:1.6) in Singapore (Ministry of Education, 1990) where

234
 DETERMINANTS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM
the study was conducted. The 11 schools represent approximately 8% of
the total number (n = 142) of secondary schools. Table I shows the five
groupings of respondents using the criterion of academic qualifications.

Academic qualification Remarks

(i) Those with General Certificate of Comprising a small remnant of teachers
Education 'O' level qualification, viz. (<33Q who joined the teaching
with 10 years of schooling profession duing the 1960s and 1970s,
and are still in service
(ii) Those with General Certificate of
Education 'A' level qualification, viz.
with 12 years of schooling

(iii) Those with a university degree Forms the bulk of the teaching force
(90%)
(iv) Those with a university (cum laude) Makes up between 5 and 10% of the
degree teaching force

(v) Those with a postgraduate Makes up between 3 and 5% of the

qualification teaching force '
Table I. Academic qualifications of respondents.

Using professional qualifications alone, the respondents were also

grouped into three categories as in Table II.

Group Preservice teacher certification Additional mid-career

professional qualifications
1 2-year teacher certification programme Nil
2 1-year teacher certification programme Nil
3 1-or 2-year teacher certification Yes*
programme
*One year release for full-time studies leading to a further professional diploma in
teaching, with emphasis on human resource management and management of
school resources.
Table II. Professional qualifications of respondents.

Findings and Discussion

The statistical findings and the discussion on them are reported
according to each of the five research questions (RQ).
RQ1: Do teachers with high academic qualifications demonstrate a higher
degree of teacher professionalism? The sample of 338 respondents is
categorised into five groups as in Table I, and the mean teacher
professionalism for each group are compared. The outcomes (see Table
III) showed no significant difference (F< 1.0) at the 0.01 level in the mean

235
KOK-AUNTOHETAL

teacher professionalism scores among the five different groups of

teachers.

Source df SS MS F P
Academic 4 158.9 39.7 0.16 0.96
qualification
Error 333 84,408.8 253.5
Total 337 84,567.7
Table III. Difference in mean teacher professionalism scores
for groups with different academic qualifications.

This suggests that teacher professionalism is not dependent on academic

qualification alone. In other words, teachers with a postgraduate
qualification do not necessarily have greater professional competence or
display more commitment to the profession than a college graduate. Most
educational systems, however, give credence to teachers' academic
qualifications, both at the entry level and during mid-career, when
assessing them for the purposes of remuneration, promotions or career
development opportunities. Consequently, academically more qualified
persons have a better chance to succeed in the selection process at the
entry point, or nominated for positions of academic or administrative
responsibility during their mid-career phase. Educational administrators
may wish to re-assess the validity of such practices, especially when two
teachers of different academic qualifications could be assigned similar
teaching responsibilities in school.

Group Preservice teacher Additional mid<areer Mean teacher

certification professional qualifications professionalism
score
1 2-year teacher Nil 112.8
certification
programme
2 1-year teacher Nil 111.6
certification
programme
3 1-or 2-year teacher Yes 128.4*
certification
programme
*The mean teacher professionalism score for this group of teachers is significantly
different at the 0.01 level from the other two groups, using Duncan's multiple-range
test.
Table IV. Professional qualifications vis-a-vis mean teacher professionalism score.

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 DETERMINANTS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

RQ2: Do teachers with high professional qualifications demonstrate a higher

degree of teacher professionalism? Using the groupings identified in Table
II, the mean teacher professionalism scores of each group was computed
(see Table IV). Duncan's multiple-range test reveal a mean teacher
professionalism score for respondents with additional mid-career
professional qualifications to be significantly different, at the 0.01 level,
from the other two groups with only preservice teacher certification as
professional qualification.
The findings reinforces the argument for up-grading, re-certification,
up-dating opportunities in the form of professional courses for teachers
in their mid-career phase of practice. In this study, the 1-year releasal for
full time studies in a further professional diploma in teaching course (see
Table II) is awarded to teachers who have been selected to be the head of
an academic subject department. Being 'chosen' for this programme
provides self-fulfilling motivation by itself. The feeling of being selected
as a model teacher is compelling enough to spur a teacher on to higher
echelons of teacher professionalism. These teachers are likely to have a
greater feeling of professional self-worth. A case can also be made for
some consideration of the needs of the majority who are not 'chosen'
and, therefore, remain as practising teachers. This is to recognise the fact
that the vast majority will not be selected, since not everybody can be
selected to be a head of department. It is therefore important that
releasal from school be provided, very much like the sabbatical leave of
university faculty members, to enable the vast majority of mid-career
teachers who wish to seek additional professional qualifications to
pursue further studies leading to award of postgraduate degrees.
With professional qualifications contributing positively to teacher
professionalism, one can intuitively conclude that a significant
relationship between professional development activities and teacher
professionalism is to be expected. This is shown to be the case in RQ5.
Further discussion on this follows with RQ5.
RQ3: Do teacher with a greater length of teaching experience demonstrate a
higher degree of teacher professionalism? There is a very large variation in
the teaching experience among respondents, ranging from the first year
of teaching among the' new entrants, to 30 years of experience behind
them. Seven different groupings emerged when respondents were
grouped according to teaching experience (see Table V). When the mean
teacher professionalism scores were compared, there is no significant
difference in the mean teacher professionalism scores amongst the seven
groups of teachers at the 0.01 level.
This finding is further reinforced when teaching experience is
correlated with teacher professionalism. The results shown in Table VI
indicate that there is no significant correlation between teaching
experience and teacher professionalism, or the two sub-scales of teacher
professionalism, viz. teaching competence and commitment to teaching.

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KOK-AUNTOHETAL

Source df SS MS F P
Teaching 6 Hiii 33O3 U2 0.25
experience
Error 331 82,585.7 249.5
Total 337 84,567.7
Table V. Difference in mean teacher professionalism scores
for groups with different years of teaching experience.

The findings suggest that teaching experience per se is neither a

determinant nor does it contribute to the professionalism of teachers -
an observation which refutes the many earlier qualitative studies on
teachers' professional lives (Burden, 1982; Christensen et al, 1983; Sikes
et al, 1985; Goodson, 1992) which held the view that experienced
teachers displayed greater teacher professionalism than those with fewer
years of teaching practice. It would seem that the 'content' during their
preservice experience forms the substance of teacher professionalism
and not the mere quantum of the accumulated years of experience that
matters. Surely practice, if it is professional, must accumulate practical
knowledge of a professional nature and also the years of this practical
knowledge translate to practical wisdom, which invariably counts for and
matters in what makes a teacher's practice professional.

Teaching experience (in years)

Teaching competence 0.08 (p = 0.14)
Commitment to teaching 0.02 (p = 0.68)
Teacher professionalism 0.06 (p = 0.27)
Table VI. Correlation between teaching experience and (1) teaching
competence, (2) commitment to teaching and (3) teacher professionalism.

The findings in this study supports the belief that a high level of teacher
professionalism can be found across the spectrum of teachers from new
entrants to the profession to those with many years of teaching
experience. In other words, a new teacher may have a level of teacher
professionalism equal to or even exceeding that of a more experienced
teacher, who is many years his/her senior. This is suggested by a similar
finding in the report by the United Federation of Teachers (Harrington,
1987). The findings can also be interpreted to suggest that beginning
teachers may, in fact, demonstrate a higher level of teacher
professionalism than more experienced teachers. According to Ryan &
Kokol (1990) the older group of teachers in such a situation can be a
liability to schools, and they have, therefore, suggested that it may be
useful to recognise the more experienced teachers' views and needs in a
developmental perspective. A better understanding of the developmental

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 DETERMINANTS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

stages of the professional lives of teachers could strengthen teachers'

performance in the classroom (Feiman &Floden, 1981).
There is, therefore, the need to examine closely the entire process
of teacher professionalisation. In the context of this study, a number of
factors may explain this lack of differentiation in the level of teacher
professionalism among groups of teachers with varying years of teaching
experience. One factor is the rigid vertical hierarchy prevalent in schools
where administrative guidelines originate from the school principal or
vice principal. These guidelines filter down through the subject heads to
the teachers who are expected to adhere to them. In an environment
which does not recognise or support the views of teachers, or consider
their views, it is likely that teachers degenerate to passive practitioners
who are neither encouraged to think nor empowered to make decisions
for themselves (Levin, 1993). Hall (1968) identified "autonomy for
decision making" as one of the five dimensions of professionalism. To
encourage teacher professionalism, teachers need to be actively involved
in making decisions, especially those which affect them.
Another factor that could possibly explain the lack of differentiation
in the level of teacher professionalism is that all teachers, whether new
or experienced, are not given differentiated treatment in many schools
where the principal and administration run the show exclusively.
Experienced teachers, despite their experience, are not given
opportunities to act as 'mentors' to new teachers (Harrington, 1987) or
invited to share their practical knowledge with newer teachers. Being
called upon to act as mentors or to share their expertise would challenge
them to develop professionally on the job, so that they become more
professional in terms' of professional competence and commitment to the
profession. When the practical knowledge of experienced teachers is not
recognised and brought to bear on practice in their work environment, it
is likely that teachers may not be motivated to move on to further heights
of teacher professionalism.
RQ4: Do teachers with a higher degree of professional development
demonstrate a higher degree of teacher professionalism? For this research
question two groups of teachers were arbitrarily identified - the high
professional development group and the low professional development
group. Teachers in the high professional development group had PDI (the
Professional Development Instrument) scores of 43 and above (maximum
possible score: 70), while those in the low professional development
groups had scores of 35 and below. 107 respondents were identified for
each of the two professional development groups so defined. The
difference of means of the teacher professionalism scores of each of the
two professional development groups is significant at the 0.01 level (see
Table VII). This outcome underscores the importance of professional
development in teachers' lives. The high professional development group
perceived themselves as having a higher level of teacher professionalism.

239
KOK-AUNTOHETAL

Professional N Mean SD t df P
development
High 107 121.2 14
7.38 213 0.0001
Low 107 105.3 17.3
Table VII. Difference in teacher professionalism for high
and low professional development groups.
The results in this study have highlighted the importance of professional
development as a determinant, in defining understanding and achieving
teacher professionalism. Teachers actively involved in professional
development programmes perceived themselves to have a higher level of
teacher professionalism compared to their counterparts not engaged in
professional development activities. This finding suggests that a high
degree of teacher professionalism among teachers is usually not a result
of more years of teaching experience per se. It is more likely to be due to
teachers' cognitive development (Oja, 1989), which is professional
growth on the job in terms of vigorous involvement in professional
development activities, and optimising the opportunities given to carry
out these activities.
In gearing towards excellence in schools there should, therefore, be
greater emphasis on teachers' professional development, and
professional development programmes. In particular the professional
development programmes should recognise that different teachers have
different professionals needs, and differentiated programmes should be
designed to meet a teacher's real professional needs rather than
perceived needs to ensure his/her continual professional growth on
the job.
It is important, though, that professional development is not merely
seen in terms of opportunities for teachers to attend in-service
programmes. There is a need to make use of the new perspective about
teacher development that have contributed to a higher level of
professionalism among teachers. For example, Christensen et al (1983)
explained the need for school administrators to be able to identify
teachers in different stages of their career and to provide these teachers
with appropriate challenges so that they continue to develop
professionally. Based on evidence collected from qualitative studies of
teachers, Christensen et al (1983) showed that these intervention
measures contributed to greater teacher professionalism.
While promotional prospects provide an avenue for generating
teachers' enthusiasm in the teacher professionalisation process, there is
still a need to examine other avenues. Harrington (1987) suggested that
teachers should be empowered to come up with new challenges and be
given the administrative support to implement them. This would make
them feel they are part of the team contributing to the overall set-up.

240
 DETERMINANTS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

RQ5: How does professional development correlate with teacher

professionalism? Teacher professionalism was correlated with each of the
three factors of professional development (independent learning,
cooperative learning and in-service learning) identified through factor
analysis and the results are shown in Table VIII. The correlation is
significant between teacher professionalism and each of the three
identified variables of professional development. This finding emphasises
the importance of providing some form of platform for independent
learning, cooperative learning and in-service learning.
Besides the traditional mode of merely providing in-service
programmes as a means of encouraging teachers to higher levels of
professionalism, it may be pertinent to draw upon other means that will
encourage independent learning and cooperative learning. One way to
bring this about is through some form of teacher organisation with which
they can identify strongly (Harrington, 1987). An effective professional
organisation can contribute to greater teacher professionalism by
providing organisational support, as well as to encourage teachers to
learn from each other.

Professional development variables Teacher (1) (2)

professionalism'
(1) Independent learning 0.39*
(2) Cooperative learning 0.27* 0.33*
(3) In-service learning 0.39* 0.48* 0.43*
*p<0.01.
Table VIII. Inter-correlations between professional development variables
and teacher professionalism.

Harrington (1987) described how teacher centres helped practising

teachers to develop professionally. She pointed out how these centres
serve as venues for teachers from various school districts to meet to
discuss and share matters of common interest, such as subject pedagogy
and content. Through their interaction with one another, both
cooperative learning and independent learning are promoted in a natural
setting rather than a 'forced upon' setting. In these centres, experienced
teachers can be 'planted' as seeds, thus providing them with
opportunities to serve as 'mentors' to new teachers and 'catalysts' to
encourage other teachers in a congenial environment.

Conclusion
This paper highlights one area of concern in the search for educational
excellence, that of teacher professionalism and the factors affecting it.
The endogenous variables, academic qualification, does not seem to be
important by itself. However, a clarification may be necessary. Even
though academic qualification may not be important in the equation for

241
KOK-AUNTOHETAL

teacher professionalism, it is still deemed an important criterion in the

recruitment of potential teachers since sound academic qualification
invariably equates with subject content matter mastery. This is an
important teacher selection criterion and should rightly continue to be so
to ensure confidence with subject matter delivery.
Of the three exogenous variables considered, teaching experiences
does not seem to matter. The concern here perhaps should be the lack of
high teacher professionalism in senior teachers with many years of
teaching experience. Of particular concern is senior teachers who show a
lower degree of teacher professionalism compared to new teachers. To
ensure that teachers continue to grow on the job, the literature supports
the notion that timing and content of professional development
programmes should be planned with sensitivity to teachers' needs and
concerns (Christensen et al, 1983). What has to be done, therefore, is for
the educational system to recognise the different career stages of the
professional lives of teachers and to ensure that the different needs at
these stages are met. If teachers are to grow professionally, then suitable
opportunities during the different stages of their career must be provided
for, so that they do not stagnate (or worse still, decline) on the job.
The two exogenous variables that are significant factors contributing
to teacher professionalism are professional qualifications and
professional development. This may be a 'cart and horse' scenario.
Evidence for this is best exemplified by teachers in this study who have
acquired additional professional qualification - a mid-career further
professional diploma. Having undergone a professional development
programme specially tailored for them, this group of teachers perceive
themselves as possessing a higher degree of teacher professionalism
than other groups of teachers in this study. In other words, one variable
reinforces the other. The finding thus highlights the need for a fresh
approach to differentiated professional development programmes for
teachers, especially those belonging to the other groups not 'chosen' for
the professional development programme.
There is also the near absence of cooperative learning as a
professional development activity amongst teachers at the high school
level. Since the finding indicates that all the three variables of
professional development - independent learning, cooperative learning
and in-service learning - continue to teacher professionalism, there is a
need to explore how cooperative learning can be facilitated. At present,
teachers see little relevance in, have no opportunities to be involved in,
or are unaware of, cooperative learning as a meaningful professional
development activity. However, participation in cooperative, collegial
groups can expand the teachers' level of expertise by supplying a source
of intellectual provocation and new ideas (Shulman & Carey, 1984). It also
allows teachers to break the grip of psychological isolation from other
adults that characterises the teacher's classroom environment (Sarason,
1971).

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 DETERMINANTS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM
There is a vast potential of know-how available within the teaching
profession which is not tapped at present. Structures are needed that
provide non-threatening opportunities to bring teachers who can offer
experience together with teachers who would like to use this experience
for the development of their practice. Examples of such a structure are
schemes that make it possible for individual teachers to visit each other
in whose work they are interested to study; or to invite such teachers to
their classrooms (or schools) in order to use their competencies for
planning and implementing innovation. Such a development will take time
as teachers are not used to actively learning and sharing with each other.
Teacher professionalism, vis-a-vis teaching competence and
commitment to teaching, has been left to develop very much on its own
for far too long. This study shows that it is not an unalterable variable; in
fact, professional development is an important determinant of teacher
professionalism. There is, therefore, a need for all agencies with an
interest in the welfare of teachers and consequently their commitment
and competence, to focus on suitable professional development activities
as a means of boosting teacher professionalism of the teachers. It is
necessary to provide teachers with resources, including those which
promote self-learning and cooperative learning, bearing in mind that,
ultimately, we must entrust to them our educationabenterprise.

Correspondence
Professor Kok-Aun Toh, National Institute of Education, Nanyang
Technological University, 469 Bukit Timah Road, Singapore 259756.

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