Universitas Negeri Jakarta: Physics Task Fluid Mechanics
Universitas Negeri Jakarta: Physics Task Fluid Mechanics
Universitas Negeri Jakarta: Physics Task Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics
Group 5
Example
A water hose 2.50 cm in diameter is used by a gardener to fill a 30.0-L bucket. The gardener
notes that it takes 1.00 min to fill the bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-sectional area
0.500 cm2 is then attached to the hose. The nozzle is held so that water is projected horizontally
from a point 1.00 m above the ground. Over what horizontal distance can the water be projected?
Solution We identify point 1 within the hose and point 2 at the exit of the nozzle. We first find
the speed of the water in the hose from the bucket-filling information. The crosssectional area of
the hose is
d2 ( 2.50 cm )2
A1=π r 2=π
4
=π ( 4 )
=4.91 cm2
According to the data given, the volume flow rate is equal to 30.0 L/min:
L 30.0× 103 cm3 cm3
A1 v 1=30.0 = =500
min 60.0 s s
cm3 cm3
500 500
s s cm m
v1 = = 2
=102 =1.02
A1 4.91 cm s s
Now we use the continuity equation for fluids to find the speed v2 = vxi with which the water
exits the nozzle. The subscript i anticipates that this will be the initial velocity component of the
water projected from the hose, and the subscript x recognizes that the initial velocity vector of
the projected water is in the horizontal direction.
A1
A1 v 1= A 2 v 2=A 2 v xi → v xi= v
A2 1
4.91cm 2 m m
v xi= 2
1.02 =10.0
0.500 cm s s
We now shift our thinking away from fluids and to projectile motion because the water is in free
fall once it exits the nozzle. A particle of the water falls through a vertical distance of 1.00 m
starting from rest, and lands on the ground at a time that
2(1.00m)
t=
√ m
9.80 2
s
=0.452 s
2. Continuity Equation
When a fluid is in motion, it must move in such a way that mass is conserved. To see how mass
conservation places restrictions on the velocity field, consider the steady flow of fluid through a
duct (that is, the inlet and outlet flows do not vary with time). The inflow and outflow are one-
dimensional, so that the velocity V and density \rho are constant over the area A (figure 14).
Now we apply the principle of mass conservation. Since there is no flow through the side walls
of the duct, what mass comes in over A_1 goes out of A_2, (the flow is steady so that there is no
mass accumulation). Over a short time interval \Delta t,
This is a statement of the principle of mass conservation for a steady, one-dimensional flow, with
one inlet and one outlet. This equation is called the continuity equation for steady one-
dimensional flow. For a steady flow through a control volume with many inlets and outlets, the
net mass flow must be zero, where inflows are negative and outflows are positive.
There are other ways to make the flow visible. For example, we can trace out the path followed
by our fluorescent drop using a long-exposure photograph. This line is called a pathline, and it is
similar to what you see when you take a long-exposure photograph of car lights on a freeway at
night. It is possible for pathlines to cross, as you can imagine from the freeway analogy: as a car
changes lanes, the pathline traced out by its lights might cross another pathline traced out by an
adjoining vehicle at a different time.
Another way to visualize flow patterns is by streaklines. A streakline is the line traced out by all
the particles that passed through a particular point at some earlier time. For instance, if we issued
fluorescent dye continuously from a fixed point, the dye makes up a streakline as it passes
downstream. To continue the freeway analogy, it is the line made up of the lights on all the
vehicles that passed through the same toll booth. If they all follow the same path (a steady flow),
a single line results, but if they follow different paths (unsteady flow), it is possible for the line to
cross over itself. In unsteady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are all different, but in
steady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are identical.
example:
1.
A water pipeline with a diameter of 10 cm, connected to a another pipe with a diameter of 5 cm.
If the rate of water flow in a pipe diameter of 5 cm = 4 m / s, what is the speed of water flow in a
pipe whose diameter is 10 cm?
2. Determine the water flow rate (v) that flows through the cross section if known cross-sectional
area A1 = 20 cm2 and the cross-sectional area A2 = 5 cm2 ... g = 10 m/s2.
Application
This principle can be used to describe the drop in water surface at a culvert inlet.
1. For example, when the flow is constant and the water velocity increases due to a decrease
in roughness, such as through a culvert, the flow area must decrease. In the case of
constant cross section geometry that change in area is reflected in a change in the water
surface elevation. Q=VA, when flow is constant, as velocity increases, the flow area
decreases and vice versa.
2. At home have a water tap right? you try to open the water tap slowly while considering
the rate of water coming out of the mouth of the faucet. After the valve can not be played
again, plug valves partly mouth with your hand. Now compare, where the water flow rate
is greater. When some faucet mouth gagged or not corked? More and more parts of the
mouth of the hose is closed, the heavy water gush out (the bigger the water flow rate).
Conversely, if the mouth tube is not closed, the flow of water into its original (less
heavy). Weird right? why is this so?
That's because the tap into a small cross-sectional area as our valve partially closed
mouth, thus increasing the water flow rate (fluid flowed freely). Similarly, in the case of
slang. But you need to know that debit alias volume flow rate is always the same in every
place along the water flow, either when some mouth closed or not our faucets. So that's
changed is the rate of fluid flow.
3. BERNOULI’S EQUATION
This form of Bernoulli's Equation applies to steady irrotational flow, and the constant is
really a constant throughout the volume of irrotational flow. Nothing is said about streamlines.
The second form of Bernoulli's Equation arises from the fact that in steady flow the
particles of fluid move along fixed streamlines, as on rails, and are accelerated and decelerated
by the forces acting tangent to the sreamlines. Under the same assumptions for the external
The equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid shows that the same volume of
fluid Q disappears at one point and reappears at another. The imaginary pistons move with the
speed of the fluid. Capital letters are used for quantities at one point, small letters for the same
quantities at the second point. The energies per unit volume, made up of kinetic, potential, and
pressure terms are equated. The pressure terms can also be handled as doing work on the element
of fluid, which is equivalent. The virtue of this derivation is that can be extended in various
directions to give important results, and that it is easily believed by students. The rigid tube can
be replaced by a surface generated by streamlines, which can be shrunk down to the
neighbourhood of a single streamline, which is just the second form of Bernoulli's Equation, but
here derived by energy instead of by dynamics.
The reason for the fraction 1/2 can be seen by a nice application of the conservation of
momentum. The momentum carried away by the fluid moving through the vena contracta is
v2ρS', where S' is the area of the vena contracta, and the reaction on the container is equal and
opposite. But we can also find the force on the container from the pressure distribution over the
walls. The pressure on the hole of area S is zero, but that on an equal area on the other side of the
tank is ρghS. This must also be the reaction on the tank due to the escaping fluid. Bernoulli tells
us that v2 = 2gh, so equating these two forces, we have ρghS = 2ghρS', or S' = S/2. Borda's
mouthpiece makes the pressure the static value right up to the edge of the hole; with a plane hole,
the pressure is reduced, so S' > S/2 in this case.
We have now seen the three different theorems that are included under the name of
Bernoulli's Equation. All are for steady flow of an incompressible, nonviscous fluid. The first is
valid in irrotational flow, the second along a streamline, and the third for an energy-conserving
flow in a tube. All look exactly the same when written down. They are capable of being extended
to situations different from these by suitable modifications, especially the last one.
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many situations not just the pipe flow we
have been considering up to now. In the following sections we will see some examples of its
application to flow measurement from tanks, within pipes as well as in open channels.
1. Pitot Tube
Note how some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the centre, goes to the tip of
the blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point the velocity is zero - the fluid does not
move at this one point. This point is known as the stagnation point.
From the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this point. Apply Bernoulli
along the central streamline from a point upstream where the velocity is u1 and the pressure p1 to
the stagnation point of the blunt body where the velocity is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.
This increase in pressure which bring the fluid to rest is called the dynamic pressure.
Dynamic pressure =
The total pressure is know as the stagnation pressure (or total pressure)
Stagnation pressure =
or in terms of head
Stagnation head =
The blunt body stopping the fluid does not have to be a solid. I could be a static column
of fluid. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in
an arrangement shown below to measure velocity of flow.
The necessity of two piezometers and thus two readings make this arrangement a little
awkward. Connecting the piezometers to a manometer would simplify things but there are still
two tubes. The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and they can then be easily connected to a
manometer. A Pitot static tube is shown below. The holes on the side of the tube connect to one
side of a manometer and register the static head, (h1), while the central hole is connected to the
other side of the manometer to register, as before, the stagnation head (h2).
A Pitot-static tube
Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the Pitot tube and using the
theory of the manometer,
The Pitot/Pitot-static tubes give velocities at points in the flow. It does not give the
overall discharge of the stream, which is often what is wanted. It also has the drawback that it is
liable to block easily, particularly if there is significant debris in the flow.
3. Venturi Meter
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It consists of a rapidly
converging section which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure. It then
returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently diverging 'diffuser' section. By
measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate
method of flow measurement as energy loss are very small.
A Venturi meter
Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat of
the Venturi meter we have
By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,
To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual discharge
taking in to account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of discharge
The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady
deceleration after the throat. This is designed to ensure that the pressure rises again to something
near to the original value before the Venturi meter. The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6
and 8 degrees. Wider than this and the flow might separate from the walls resulting in increased
friction and energy and pressure loss. If the angle is less than this the meter becomes very long
and pressure losses again become significant. The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing
pressure back to the original is rarely greater than 80%.
4. Rectangular Weir
For a rectangular weir the width does not change with depth so there is no relationship
between b and depth h. We have the equation,
A rectangular weir
7. Weir Assumptions
EXAMPLE
1. A reservoir of water has the surface at 310m above the outlet nozzle of a pipe with diameter
15mm. What is the a) velocity, b) the discharge out of the nozzle and c) mass flow rate.
(Neglect all friction in the nozzle and the pipe).
Solution:
Volume flow rate is equal to the area of the nozzle multiplied by the velocity
Solution:
Then
3. An airfoil (red shape) is moving through the air at 355 km/h at sea level. The atmospheric
pressure is 102,325 N/m2 and temperature is 27 C. At a point on the airfoil upper surface
the local velocity is 420 km/h.
b). If the pressure in part (a) is the average upper surface pressure, how much lift per
square meter (referred to ambient pressure) is being provided by the upper surface ?
c). If the average speed on the lower surface is 320 km/h, what is the pressure and the
average lift per square meter on the lower surface ?
b). Lift per square meter, upper surface = 101325 - 99038 = 2287 N/m2.
d). Total lift per square meter = 2287 + 1072 = 3359 N/m2.