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CHAPTER

21
Preventive
Medicine
and Screening
DAVID N. PHALEN, DVM, PhD, Dipl ABVP-Avian

We are all children at heart. When we want something,

we want it now and are willing to trust in fate if it means
that we can get it now. Many bird owners are like this.
They want a bird, so they buy it. They don’t necessarily
spend the time to research the source of the bird, and
often there is little money left over to make sure that
their purchase is healthy. Many people buy birds and
know very little about them, trusting in the information
provided by their friends, the Internet or the pet store.
As a result, husbandry-related diseases and infectious
disease still remain a critical problem for bird owners
and veterinarians.

Preventing the
Introduction of
Transmissible Diseases
EDUCATION
Preventive medicine is an essential element of avian
medicine, aviculture and pet bird ownership. Preventive
medicine begins with education. New bird owners
should be provided with a basic understanding of nutri-
tion, safe and adequate caging, household hazards,
hygiene and bird behavior. Improper nutrition, poor
caging, improper sanitation and improper or inadequate
socialization can all lead to disease — physical and psy-
chological — that can shorten the bird’s life or result in
significant lessening of its quality. Similarly, bird owners
and potential bird owners must be educated to the risk
factors that lead to the introduction of an infectious dis-
ease or the acquisition of a bird that is already sick.
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The process of educating bird owners and potential bird for sick birds, the main facility for the breeding birds or
owners about bird health-related issues works best when pets, a kitchen, and if birds are being hand-raised, a
it is started before the bird is purchased. It begins at the nursery. A clean-up area separate from the kitchen is
grass roots level. Aviculturists, pet store owners and preferred. Obviously, pet bird owners and small hobby-
their employees have to educate themselves, assure that ists may only occasionally need a designated quarantine
their stock is healthy and provide accurate information area, hospital or nursery, whereas large breeding opera-
to their clients. Selling a healthy bird and providing the tions may need these facilities all the time. Likewise, the
information to keep it healthy will result in a satisfied actual physical structure of each component of the
client and repeat business. Veterinarians also must be aviary will vary enormously. In the home, a bathroom or
proactive. This means educating themselves, other vet- extra bedroom may serve as a hospital or quarantine
erinarians, clients and potential clients alike. Speaking to area. Large breeding facilities, on the other hand, might
local bird clubs, contributing to newsletters and bird mag- have separate buildings for some of these components.
azines, and being active in local and national avian veteri-
nary organizations are all part of preventive medicine. Other elements of aviary design can facilitate or reduce
the chances of disease transmission. Outdoor aviaries are
practical only in the warmer parts of the country, but
ACQUIRING BIRDS they have a number of important advantages. Rain and
The risk of disease drops dramatically if the person buy- wind naturally dilute pathogens, and freezing and direct
ing a bird researches potential sources of birds prior to sunlight also can inactivate some pathogens (Chapter 37,
purchase. It is reasonable for the buyer to ask a source Management of Racing Pigeons). On the other hand,
for references and to request to see the facilities where birds in outdoor aviaries are more likely to be attacked
the bird was raised. Aviculturists who are members of by raccoons and be exposed to sarcocystis from opos-
national organizations that promote bird breeding and sums. Parasites and mosquito-borne diseases also are a
education of their membership, such as the American risk with outdoor aviaries. The chances of disease trans-
Federation of Aviculture, are more likely to have a good mission can be reduced in indoor collections by making
preventive medicine plan in place. In the USA, avicultur- sure there is adequate ventilation and maximal separa-
ists can become certified as having the basic elements of tion of cages. If stocking density is high, especially if
a preventive medicine program through the Model cages are stacked on top of each other, then the chances
Avicultural Program. This or similar certification is a of disease transmission increase dramatically. Pacheco’s
good indication that the aviculturalist is making efforts disease and proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) are
to produce healthy birds. It also is a positive sign when examples of diseases that are more likely to occur in an
aviculturists or pet stores have an established relation- indoor aviary. Aspergillosis is a disease that is more likely
ship with an avian veterinarian. A great contribution to to occur in climates with high humidity or indoor collec-
the health of avicultural birds in the USA was the cessa- tions with poor ventilation.
tion of indiscriminate importation of wild-caught birds.
In other countries where the practice of wild bird Movement between these areas should be from the clean-
importation persists, contagious diseases still flourish. est place to the dirtiest. The kitchen is the cleanest area,
followed by the nursery, main collection of birds, hospital
and quarantine area. Keeping the traffic flow through the
COMBINING DIFFERENT facility to the minimum reduces the risk of disease trans-
SPECIES OF BIRDS fer. The traffic flow can be analyzed by drawing a floor
Risk of disease transmission is increased when birds that plan of a facility and using a pen to trace movement
originate from different parts of the world are combined. through it. The more complicated the movement pattern,
Aviculturists are strongly encouraged to focus on one the more chance for disease spread. It is often the case
group of closely related birds rather than raising a wide that a clean area has to be entered several times a day. In
variety of unrelated species. If many species of birds are large facilities with multiple workers, designating individ-
to be raised, separating them into different facilities by uals to work in specific areas can solve this problem.
genus or at least continent of origin may reduce disease When this is not possible, changing clothes or washing up
problems. well between areas should be considered. Restricting
access to the birds by the public and other bird owners
COMPONENTS OF THE also reduces the risk of disease transmission.
P H Y S I C A L F A C I L I T Y 30
Any multiple bird facility, including pet stores, should QUARANTINE
have specifically designated areas including a quarantine Quarantine will be effective only if the basic rules of
area for newly acquired birds, a separate hospital area quarantine are followed. The most important rule of
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quarantine is the “all in and all out” rule. One or more cause disease. These opportunistic organisms, however,
birds are brought into quarantine initially and no new cause disease only when they are allowed to reach high
birds are allowed into quarantine until the first birds concentrations or when other husbandry practices are
have left. The location of the quarantine facility or area less than ideal. Candida albicans, Aspergillus spp.,
also is important. Just keeping a bird in a separate cage Pseudomonas spp. and members of the Enterobacter-
is not good enough. Some degree of distance between iaceae are examples of ubiquitous opportunistic
the new bird and the previously acquired birds is neces- pathogens. Diseases caused by these organisms can be
sary. A separate building is ideal, but the garage, base- greatly minimized with proper hygiene. Whenever possi-
ment or bedroom also are acceptable. ble, food containers should be located so that they are
not contaminated with feces. Likewise, water sources
The proper duration of quarantine is a shifting target that should be designed and located to minimize contamina-
will vary to some degree with each circumstance. The tion from feces and food dunked in the water. Uneaten
longer the quarantine period, the more likely it is that a perishable foods should be removed from the cage before
disease problem will be recognized before a bird is intro- they have a chance to spoil. Water and food bowls should
duced into the flock. Thirty days is generally the mini-
be cleaned regularly and water sources such as automatic
mum quarantine period recommended for birds, but 45
drip systems should be regularly flushed and disinfected.
to 60 days is safer. Some aviculturists who are particularly
Cages should be designed so they are easily cleaned and
concerned about PDD may quarantine birds for 6 to 12
fecal and other organic material buildup does not occur.
months. For the quarantine to be meaningful, it has to
apply to all birds entering the collection, even those birds There are many misconceptions about sanitation and
that originated in that facility and are now returning. its importance. Many bird owners obsess about it. When
considering the degree of sanitation necessary for a pet
Applying quarantine procedures to all birds leaving and
home or aviary, it should be remembered that birds do
returning to the aviary can be onerous, especially for
not come from a sterile environment and a sterile envi-
those who show their birds. One solution to this prob-
ronment is not the goal. Many bird owners also obsess
lem is to select birds that will be shown that season and
about transmitting viruses among birds. The best way to
isolate them from the rest of the flock during the show
keep viruses out is to follow the above guidelines for
season. At the end of the show season, they can be quar-
preventing the introduction of these diseases. If a collec-
antined for a designated period of time and screened for
tion is not infected with viral disease(s), there is no
disease, if necessary, before being reintroduced into the
potential for viral transmission within that closed
collection.
collection.

NEW BIRD EXAMINATIONS Much time has been spent discussing which disinfectant
Having every new bird or group of birds acquired exam- is best. This focus on disinfectants ignores the most
ined and possibly screened for disease by an avian veteri- important part of sanitation, basic cleaning. Organic
narian is a critical element to a preventive medicine pro- material must be removed first before any disinfectant
gram. The extent of testing that might be done with a can be effective. It is in the organic material that the bac-
new bird will vary considerably according to the circum- teria can grow, parasite eggs are protected and viruses
stances. If a bird is going into a home where it will be the are at their highest concentration. In aviaries where
only bird, then testing is done to show that the bird is transmissible diseases are not a problem, cleaning is
healthy. If the bird is going into a multiple-bird household usually all that is necessary. Studies have shown that one
or aviary, testing is designed not only to make sure that of the best ways to sanitize food and water bowls is to
the bird is healthy, but also to determine as best as is pos- run them through the dishwasher. Syringes and other
sible if it is infected with diseases that could be intro- hand-feeding tools also are readily cleaned and for all
duced to a collection. practical purposes disinfected in the dishwasher. The
dishwasher should be separate from the home kitchen
dishwasher. If disinfectants are to be used, they should
be used after a surface is cleaned. They work best if they
Preventing Diseases by are left in contact with the surface for as long as possi-
Common Environmental ble. It is difficult or impossible to disinfect organic mate-

Pathogens rial, therefore, it is impossible to disinfect dirt floors and

very difficult to disinfect wood surfaces. Disinfectants
may be toxic, however, if viral diseases are or have been
SANITATION a problem in an aviary, disinfecting food and water con-
All environments contain organisms that can potentially tainers and environmental surfaces is indicated. Phenolic
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disinfectants and bleach are effective against most screening tools that have a tremendous potential for
viruses and are the only disinfectants that work against abuse. It is generally assumed that parrots should have
viruses that do not have an envelope. Quaternary ammo- relatively few bacteria in swabs of their oral cavity and
nium and chlorhexidine-based disinfectants are effective cloaca, and that the predominate bacteria present on
only against enveloped viruses. these surfaces should be gram-positive rods and cocci.
The presence of large numbers of gram-negative bacter-
ial rods, clostridial spores or budding yeasts is consid-
ered to be abnormal. It has been the tendency of avian
Testing veterinarians to treat birds that have predominately
Examination and testing of birds has two goals. The first gram-negative flora of these areas. Likewise, when
is to make sure the newly acquired bird is healthy and Pseudomonas spp. or members of the Enterobacter-
does not have an infectious or non-infectious disease. iaceae such as E. coli are cultured, it has been common
The second is to make sure the bird is not subclinically practice to treat these birds.
infected with a disease that could be transmitted to other
Over time, however, it has become clear that this is not
birds in the owner’s aviary. There are two different types
the correct approach. The gastrointestinal flora is influ-
of testing. The first types are non-specific tests that pro-
enced by many factors. If the bird is not outwardly ill,
vide general information that suggests a bird is healthy or
the presence of the so-called “pathogenic bacteria” is
ill, but do not specifically identify the etiology. The sec-
more often a reflection of poor nutrition or other man-
ond types of tests are very specific and permit the identi-
agement problems than anything else and does not
fication of specific infectious agents. Because we cannot
mean that these organisms are causing this particular
test for all infectious agents, it is common to use both
bird a problem. In these instances, improving nutrition,
types of tests when evaluating a new bird.
hygiene or other management practices will result in the
Gram stain becoming normal again without treatment
NON-SPECIFIC ASSAYS (see Chapter 4, Nutritional Considerations).
The most important diagnostic assays in the broadest
manner of speaking are the history, examination of the The use of aerobic culturing to screen birds also can
bird in the cage and the physical exam (see Chapter 6, lead to false impressions. Many of the normal flora
Maximizing Information from the Physical Examination). found in the bird’s gut are anaerobes. When cultures are
However, it is the information derived from this phase of performed of cloacal swabs and feces, they are generally
the workup that will lead to the development of a test- sent in for aerobic culture. Under these circumstances,
ing plan, and will be important in the interpretation of only the facultative anerobes and the aerobic bacteria
the results of any diagnostics that may be done. grow, and the culture becomes skewed toward the
smaller numbers of Pseudomonas spp. and Entero-
Common non-specific diagnostic assays that are often bacteriaceae that may be present.
included in the new bird exam include the complete
blood cell count (CBC), chemistry panel, fecal wet The fecal Gram stain should be evaluated in light of the
mount and float, and oral and cloacal Gram stains and other findings in the individual bird. If the Gram stain is
culture. Plasma electrophoresis and even radiographs abnormal but the bird is otherwise healthy, management
are included as part of the new bird exam by some vet- problems may be the underlying cause of the abnormal
erinarians. Interpretation of these diagnostic assays is GI flora. Appropriate corrections to diet and husbandry
discussed in detail in other chapters and only a few com- can then be initiated. After these changes have been
ments will be made about these here. implemented for an adequate period (several weeks is
commonly employed), a fecal Gram stain should be
It has been the experience of the author that the CBC is a reexamined. If the bird has diarrhea or is showing other
very useful tool for screening the new bird. It rarely gives signs of illness and the Gram stain is abnormal, a culture
a definitive diagnosis, but if abnormalities in the CBC are may be indicated. Pending culture results, treatment
found it is a strong indication of an underlying health with appropriate antibiotic, anti-yeast or antifungal ther-
problem. The plasma electrophoresis also has consider- apy should be initiated.
able value, as alterations in this assay are found early in
the course of infectious diseases, often before the disease Salmonellosis is a problem that is rarely seen in parrots
becomes patent.6 Fecal wet mounts can reveal Giardia but is common in other species of birds. Currently,
spp. infections and are the best way to detect infections many facilities require that birds be screened for infec-
with Macrorhabdus ornithogaster (megabacterium).17 tion with Salmonella spp. prior to entry. It is fairly com-
mon for otherwise normal birds to have positive fecal
The Gram stain and fecal cultures are commonly used cultures. This poses a significant problem, as these birds
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Table 21.1 | Diagnostic Assays for Psittacosis+

Assay Sample Effective in These Day Positive Specifics
Species of Birds after Infection
Serology*
Elementary body agglutination Serum or plasma Parrots Approx. 14 days Negative with successful treatment
Complement fixation Serum or plasma All species of birds Approx. 21 days May remain positive with successful treatment
Solid phase ELISA Serum or plasma Parrots, others? Unknown Not available in the USA
PCR* Whole blood and combined All species of birds Oral 5 days, blood 10 Rapidly negative after the onset of treatment
oral and cloacal swab days, cloaca 15 days
+ Commonly affected species include pigeons, doves and parrots (particularly budgerigars & cockatiels).
*A combination of the elementary body agglutination assay and PCR or the complement fixation assay and PCR is more sensitive than either test alone.

cannot be shipped and it is not known if they actually at the sampling site or in the laboratory can give false-posi-
are a health risk to other animals. Little work has been tive results. Obtaining a sample that contains the organism
done to determine the success of eliminating intestinal and getting it to the laboratory before it degrades also can
salmonellosis with antimicrobial treatment in exotic be a problem for some PCR-based assays. Likewise,
birds; it is known that this approach does not work in inhibitory substances such as antibiotics and the contents
poultry. Serotyping Salmonella isolates may be of some of droppings can cause false-negative results.
benefit, as certain serotypes are more commonly associ-
ated with disease in birds than others. Serology has been Not all PCR assays are created equal. Different laborato-
an extremely useful tool for the eradication of S. pullo- ries offer tests with differing levels of sensitivity. It is
rum in poultry. Serologic screening for salmonellosis in important to use a laboratory that has a long history of
other species has potential value.11 experience with avian samples.

There are limitations to the sensitivity and specificity of

SPECIFIC ASSAYS individual infectious agent testing. The practitioner must
In this day and age, we rely on two important types of remember that assays exist for only a select number of
diagnostic assays, serologic and polymerase chain reac- the potentially pathologic avian agents. Testing only for
tion (PCR) assays. Serologic assays detect antibodies to specific agents may not yield a diagnosis for an individ-
specific organisms. PCR assays detect the DNA or RNA of ual sick bird, nor is this testing sufficient to declare an
targeted organisms. Serologic assays have the advantage individual bird or a collection free of disease.
of being generally inexpensive and able to be performed
on an easily acquired sample (serum or plasma) that is PSITTACOSIS
inexpensively shipped to the laboratory. The disadvan-
Infection with Chlamydophila psittaci is common in pet
tages of serology are that these assays may not become
birds. Clinical signs vary from none to a mild respiratory
positive until 2 to 3 weeks after infection and may
disease to a severe multisystemic, often fatal, disease.
remain positive after the infectious agent is no longer
Psittacosis is particularly important in avian medicine
present. Other complicating factors related to serologic
because it can spread widely before it is recognized and
assays include non-specific substances in serum that can
because it is a zoonotic and reportable disease. Clinical
sometimes cause a virus-neutralizing assay to read posi-
signs and traditional diagnostic assays such as hematol-
tive at high concentrations of serum or plasma, and anti-
ogy, clinical pathology and radiology, while helpful, are
complementary substances that can invalidate the com-
generally insufficient to specifically diagnose this disease.
plement fixation assay. Virus neutralization assays have
the disadvantage of requiring that growing cells are
Serology
always available, and these assays typically take 3 to 5
days to run. Because of the time it takes to set up these The elementary body agglutination assay (EBA) is a
assays, they are generally performed only once a week. tried-and-true serologic assay that has been used for the
There are several serological assays that use a secondary past 10 years. It detects anti-Chlamydophila IgM. It can
antibody that is said to detect all avian immunoglobu- detect infected birds within 15 days of infection and
lins. This type of cross-reactivity is extremely unlikely generally is positive by the time a bird is showing signs
and this type of assay cannot be recommended.14 of illness (Table 21.1). Another advantage of this assay is
that it becomes negative with successful treatment. It has
PCR-based assays have the advantages of being extremely a few minor limitations. Rarely, a bird may develop signs
sensitive, able to detect pathogens in the early stages of of disease before the agglutinating antibodies are pro-
infection, and do not require viable microorganisms to duced. Also, rarely, a bird with chronic psittacosis may
document their presence in the sample. The sensitivity of be EBA negative. The EBA works very well for psittacine
these assays also is one of their limitations. Contamination birds, but may not work in all species, particularly doves
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and pigeons. For doves and pigeons, the complement and M. genavense cause the majority of avian infections.
fixation assay (CF) is currently recommended.10,20 The time between infection and onset of clinical signs is
long, possibly several months. As a result, infected but
The CF test detects anti-Chlamydophila IgG that is present outwardly healthy birds may be introduced to a collec-
in blood a few days to a week after anti-Chlamydophila tion and infection disseminated widely before it is recog-
IgM. Therefore, there is a slight delay between when the nized. Mycobacteriosis is particularly common in captive
EBA and the CF become positive. The CF also may stay populations of grey-cheeked parakeets (Brotogeris
positive for an extended period of time after a bird has pyrrhoptera), canary-winged parakeets (B. versicolorus),
been successfully treated. To the best of the author’s Pionus spp., canaries (Serinus canarius), finches, the
knowledge at this time, only one laboratory offers the red siskin (Carduelis cuculatta) and waterfowl.
CF and EBA‡. The CF is a cumbersome test and is not Mycobacterial infections result in a multisystemic but
routinely run, so there may be a delay in getting results. slowly progressive disease that can present with many
possible signs. Because signs are rarely specific and
A solid phase enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA)a is
infection can remain inapparent for extended periods of
currently available, although not in the USA. This assay
time, ancillary diagnostic assays are needed.33
was found to compare favorably to the CF if the serum
sample produced a spot as dark or darker than the posi-
tive control (J. Grimes, personal communication, 1995). Detection of the Organism
Other serologic assays are offered, but have not been vali- Many mycobacterial infections colonize the intestinal
dated by peer-reviewed research. lamina propria and mycobacteria can be shed in the
feces. Acid-fast stains of the feces will reveal the organ-
PCR isms in some cases, but this assay has a very low sensitiv-
PCR testing for psittacosis is another excellent way to iden- ity and is of limited value as a screening tool. A PCR
tify infected birds. The organism can be detected in swabs assay‡‡ is now being offered that can detect mycobacteria
of the oral cavity as early as 5 days after infection, in cloa- in the feces. The major limitation with this assay is that
cal swabs by 10 days after infection and in the blood by 15 not all birds with avian tuberculosis are actively shed-
days after infection. The major disadvantage of the PCR is ding the organism, or they shed the organism in small
that birds that have been started on treatment before test- numbers or intermittently. A negative result with the
ing may be negative, and cloacal swabs that are heavily PCR assay, therefore, does not rule out the possibility of
contaminated with feces may interfere with this assay. The infection. The technology associated with PCR diagnos-
sensitivity of this assay is improved if both blood and com- tics for avian mycobacteriosis is developing rapidly and
bined oral and cloacal swabs are tested.1,8 this assay has significant long-term potential.33

No test is 100% sensitive. Therefore, if the greatest degree Serology

of sensitivity is sought, the PCR and the EBA and egg
Mounting evidence suggests that serology will be an
inoculation culture or tissue culture could both be per-
important tool for detecting birds with mycobacteriosis.
formed when screening parrots. PCR can be combined
At the time of this writing, however, serologic assays for
with the CF when screening doves and pigeons.
mycobacteriosis are still experimental. Successful sero-
Chlamydophila psittaci infections can occur in almost logic assays will have to be applicable to all species that
any species of caged bird. The author recommends test- are to be tested, and they will have to be able to detect
ing for this organism in most birds presented for new infection with the multiple species of mycobacteria that
bird purchase examinations. The author especially rec- infect birds. A complement fixation assay was developed
ommends testing cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) as to detect mycobacterial antibodies. This assay had the
they can carry this bacterium and not demonstrate clini- advantage that it did not require species-specific reagents.
cal signs of disease. The few cases of human infections The complement fixation reaction, however, was very
the author has observed have been acquired from an cumbersome and required reagents that had a short
otherwise healthy pet cockatiel. Pigeons and doves are shelf life, making it impractical to use. Additionally, cul-
commonly infected with C. psittaci and should be rou- ture filtrate was used for this assay and it was necessary
tinely tested. to run multiple tests with antigens from each specific
serotype of M. avium in order to detect all of the
infected birds.18
MYCOBACTERIOSIS
Several mycobacterial species, including Mycobacterium Indirect ELISAs have been used successfully to detect
avium, M. genavense, M. fortuitum and M. tuberculosis, antimycobacterial antibodies in waterfowl and quail. The
cause mycobacteriosis in birds. Mycobacterium avium indirect ELISA, however, requires a specific secondary
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antibody, limiting its usefulness to closely related disease is advanced. Radiographs, endoscopy and biopsy,
species. A blocking ELISA has been developed that cir- cytology and hematology are all valuable tools in the
cumvents the need for a specific secondary antibody. diagnosis of this disease. Even with all these assays, the
This assay has been tested in canaries, white-winged diagnosis of aspergillosis is often a difficult one.
wood ducks and quail with known or suspected M.
avium infections. At this point, there has been good cor- The diagnosis of aspergillosis has been most extensively
relation between infected birds and birds that are posi- studied in humans. Ancillary diagnostic assays used in
tive with this assay. Protoplasmic antigen from one people include PCR to detect Aspergillus DNA from
serotype of M. avium was found to cross-react with all blood, an ELISA to detect Aspergillus antigen and an
other serotypes tested. However, early work suggests ELISA to detect anti-Aspergillus antibody. These studies
that antibodies to other species of mycobacteria can be clearly indicate that even a combination of these three
detected only if their specific antigen is used.34 assays will not be adequate to detect many cases of
aspergillosis.4,5 The problem comes from the fact that
The immunological response of the host also may most people who contract aspergillosis are immunocom-
complicate the interpretation of serologic assays for promised. This also may be true in birds. If the infected
mycobacteriosis. The complement fixation assay was person’s immune system is adequate to contain the dis-
used to screen ring-necked turtledoves for infection. The ease and the organism is localized in a walled-off granu-
wild-type birds in this collection were all antibody posi- loma, then these individuals are found to produce anti-
tive, but the majority of the birds that had the white body. People with generalized disease are generally
color mutation were seronegative. It is not known if the severely immunocompromised and they do not produce
failure of an antibody response in these birds is limited antibody. In these people, Aspergillus antigen and DNA
to this particular color mutation or also may occur in are most likely to be found in the blood, but they are
other species and color mutations of birds18 (see Chapter not when the lesion is encapsulated. If the pathophysiol-
28, Implications of Mycobacteria in Clinical Disorders). ogy of avian aspergillosis resembles that seen in humans,
then none of these assays are likely to detect infection in
MYCOPLASMOSIS most infected birds. A combination of these assays may
Mycoplasmosis is a common disease of pigeons and be more specific, but false negatives are to be expected.
poultry, but occurs infrequently in companion birds with
the possible exception of cockatiels. The disease in Serology
pigeons and companion birds is characterized by con- Extended efforts have been undertaken to develop a
junctivitis and upper respiratory signs, and less fre- serologic assay for birds infected with Aspergillus spp.
quently pneumonia. Distention of the infraorbital sinus This work was pioneered at The Minnesota Raptor
with fluid or purulent material is common. PCR assays Center, which currently offers an ELISA assay for the
for Mycoplasma spp. have been developed and are
detection of anti-Aspergillus antibodies‡‡‡. Differing sec-
offered by many diagnostic laboratories. Some of these
ondary antibodies are used in this assay, depending on
assays will amplify DNA from all mycoplasmas, so that a
the species of bird to be tested. Using well-defined clini-
Mycoplasma sp. infecting a parrot could be detected
cal case material, the assay has been validated for use in
even if it was not one of the common poultry
several species of Falconiformes, but as designed does
pathogens. The disadvantage of this assay is that just
not work in owls. Immune suppression appears to
because mycoplasma is present in a lesion, it is not con-
accompany aspergillosis in raptors. Prior to treatment,
clusive proof that it is the cause of disease.
many raptors have little or no detectable antibody.
Successful treatment results in a subsequent rise fol-
ASPERGILLOSIS lowed by a decline in antibody titers. A failure of anti-
Aspergillosis is an infection of the respiratory system that body titers to rise with treatment or an increase in the
occurs sporadically in a wide range of birds (see Chapter titers without the expected decrease is considered to be
29, Implications of Mycoses in Clinical Disorders). Birds a poor prognostic sign. Thus a medium to high positive
from cold and dry climates are highly susceptible to antibody titer is highly suggestive of disease. However,
infection. Environments that are conducive to the envi- negative to low positive results are inconclusive.24
ronmental growth of Aspergillus spp. and environments Similar results were found in penguins with aspergillo-
that are poorly ventilated will result in an increased inci- sis.25 Birds with high antibody titers, high beta and
dence of aspergillosis. Disease can be localized to the gamma globulins, and albumen concentrations above
upper airways or the syrinx, or it may involve the air sacs 1.8 g/dl had a favorable prognosis. In contrast, birds
and lungs. Respiratory signs are a common feature of with low or undetectable antibody titers and albumin
this disease, but a bird may not manifest signs until the levels below 1.8 g/dl had a poor prognosis.
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The accuracy of available serologic and antigen capture PBFDV agglutinates only red blood cells from a few
assays for the diagnosis of aspergillosis in parrots has species of cockatoos, this assay is not practical outside of
been inadequately studied. In one study, a commercially Australia.23
available ELISA for anti-Aspergillus antibodies and anti-
gen capture assay‡‡‡‡ was evaluated in seven birds with PCR
confirmed aspergillosis. Of these birds, only one was
Birds become viremic 7 to 14 days after infection with
found to be weakly positive with serology and three
PBFDV. If the birds are unable to mount an appropriate
birds were positive, two weakly, with the antigen detec-
immune response they will remain viremic. If they do
tion assay, suggesting that either parrots in this study did
mount an appropriate immune response they cease to
not make anti-Aspergillus antibodies and had little circu-
be viremic. Virus, however, may persist in the feathers
lating antigen, or that these assays were not sensitive.13 A
and possibly the skin, so that these birds are a potential
second study of ten birds found a higher percentage of
source of infection until their next molt. PCR is done on
sero- and antigen-positive birds; however, in neither
heparinized blood.7 If multiple birds are to be sampled,
study were non-infected birds tested, so the specificity of
care must be taken to prevent contamination between
these assays remains to be determined.16 Currently, the
samples. In most circumstances, birds that are PCR posi-
author does not recommend using any of the available
tive and have clinical signs of disease will remain posi-
Aspergillus assays for routine screening of parrots.
tive and are likely to die from their infection. Birds that
are positive but are not showing signs of disease should
PSITTACINE BEAK AND be retested in 3 months. If they are negative at that time
FEATHER DISEASE VIRUS (PBFDV) they are thought to be cured. Rarely, lories, lovebirds
PBFDV is a common infection of wild birds in Australia. and occasionally other species of parrots will develop
In the USA and possibly elsewhere, this virus is enzootic clinical disease, but will then recover and become virus
in many lovebird collections and also is seen to a lesser negative.
degree in budgerigar aviaries. Disease is seen in many
species of parrots, including African grey parrots, love- It has been suggested that it is important to differentiate
birds, budgerigars, lories, lorikeets, eclectus parrots and between the lory variant of PBFDV and the other vari-
cockatoos. Infection also occurs in Neotropical parrots, ants. The author does not agree with this conclusion.
but disease is rare and infections are transient in most Although the lory variant may behave somewhat differ-
cases. ently than other PBFDV variants, it is still pathogenic, so
the significance of a positive test is the same in a lory or
The sequence of the PBFDVs genome varies up to 16% any other parrot species, regardless of the variant.31
between isolates. This has diagnostic significance, as PCR
primers have to be designed in the conserved region of PBFDV infection in lovebirds (Agapornis spp.) may not
this virus (ORF1) if they are to detect all variants of this follow the same patterns as seen in other parrots.
virus.3,37 Recently, a specific variant of PBFDV has been PBFDV is widespread in commercial lovebird collections,
recognized in collections of lories in the USA. It also is but disease is rare. It is the author’s impression that
reported to occur in lovebirds.26 Its sequence and its rela- virus shedding may persist more than 3 months in birds
tionship to previously published sequences of the PBFDV that never show signs of disease.26
have not been reported. PCR primers derived from the
ORF1 also can detect this variant. Primers also have been AVIAN POLYOMAVIRUS (APV)
designed to differentiate it from other PBFDVs. Lories
APV is a common infection of a wide range of parrots.
with this infection may remain viremic for 6 months or
APV causes morbidity and mortality in nestling budgeri-
more without showing clinical signs. Lories that develop
gars (Melopsittacus undulatus), Indian ring-necked para-
clinical signs often die, but some will recover.31
keets (Psittacula krameri), lovebirds and many parrots.
Disease is less common in nestlings of other Old World
Serology parrots. Nestling budgerigars in aviaries with enzootic APV
Birds that become infected with PBFDV but do not become viremic within 7 days of hatch and are serologi-
develop disease have high antibody titers. Birds that do cally positive by 10 days after hatch. If they survive infec-
develop disease have low antibody titers or no antibody tion, fecal shedding may persist for 6 months or longer,
at all. A hemagglutination assay has been developed to but ceases at some point after the birds become sexually
detect serum antibodies to PBFDV. Serum antibody has mature. Although they stop shedding virus, infected
been detected within 1 to 2 weeks of exposure. This budgerigars will remain seropositive for life.15,16 Nestling
assay has been effectively used to study the prevalence parrots of other species become viremic within 2 weeks of
of PBFDV infections in wild Australian parrots. Because infection. They also develop virus-neutralizing antibody at
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approximately 14 days postinfection. Antibody titers in appears that all species of parrots have the potential to
most species of nestlings that survive infection are main- become infected with and shed APV, so all birds that are
tained for 10 or more years and possibly for life. Viremia going into an aviary where they might expose nestlings
persists for 6 to 8 weeks in most cases. Fecal shedding should be tested. Nestlings that survive an outbreak of
begins shortly after the onset of viremia, but persists for APV are assumed to be shedding virus. Therefore, testing
as long as 12 to 16 weeks.21 In rare cases, viremia and fecal birds 4 months after the outbreak when virus shedding
virus shedding may persist for more than 10 months.7 The should have stopped, rather than immediately after the
duration of viremia and virus shedding in adult birds outbreak when virus shedding is expected, best uses the
infected with APV has been studied in only a limited num- owner’s resources.21
ber of birds. However, it appears that viremia and virus
shedding occurs only briefly in mature birds or not at Testing birds older than 16 weeks that are going into a
all.21 Viremia and virus shedding also are significantly single-bird household is of questionable value. If they
impacted by concurrent infections with PBFDV. Birds with test positive and are not sick, they will shed transiently
co-infections appear to shed APV continuously and may and stop shedding. If a bird is positive at 16 weeks, it
never clear the virus.16 has already been infected and will not generally become
clinically ill. It will continue to shed for some time and it
Serology should be isolated from other birds.

An excellent virus-neutralizing (VN) assay has been The author seriously doubts that the veterinarian will be
developed to detect antibodies that neutralize APV. In able to detect an infected bird that will subsequently come
this assay, virus is first incubated with two-fold dilutions down with disease as, in his experience, the onset of
of serum or heparinized plasma. The virus-plasma mix- viremia and the onset of disease occur very close together.
tures are then incubated with chicken embryo fibro-
blasts, the fibroblasts are washed and the cells are moni- When the value of testing blood was first recognized, it
tored for cytopathic effects (CPE). If CPE do occur at the was suggested that PCR of blood detected only frag-
highest concentration of serum, then the bird did not ments of DNA and that a positive did not reflect the true
have neutralizing antibody. If virus growth is inhibited infection status of the bird. It also was suggested that
and CPE do not occur, then the bird did have neutraliz- immunized birds that were blood PCR positive were pos-
ing antibody. In the author’s hands, this assay takes 5 itive because of DNA present in the vaccine. Both these
days to complete.15 assumptions have been proven to be false. Therefore, if
a bird is positive by blood PCR, it is infected with APV.19
Use of the APV VN If they test positive and do not have APV disease, they
Parrots infected with APV may begin shedding virus prior will shed transiently and then stop shedding.
to seroconversion and maintain high antibody titers many
years after they stop shedding virus. Therefore, the sero- P S I T T A C I D H E R P E S V I R U S E S ( P s HV s )
logic status of a bird is not a good indicator of virus shed- OR PACHECO’S DISEASE VIRUSES
ding. Sensitive PCR assays should be used in place of
PsHVs are the causative agent of Pacheco’s disease.
serology to detect virus-shedding birds. The APV VN has
Pacheco’s disease occurs in sporadic outbreaks in newly
some limited value in epidemiologic studies and could
formed and long-established parrot collections. Losses
be used to determine if APV had ever been in a collec-
can range from a single bird up to hundreds of birds.
tion. Under these circumstances the immunization status
Generally, birds that develop clinical Pacheco’s disease
of the birds should be considered. Nestlings do not pro-
die. There are four major genotypes of PsHVs. All are
duce virus-neutralizing antibody to the commercial APV
capable of causing Pacheco’s disease and genotypes 1, 2
vaccine. Therefore, antibody-positive nestlings have been
and 3 are capable of causing internal papillomas.32,35,36
infected with APV. Adult parrots do develop neutralizing
Outbreaks of Pacheco’s disease occur when carrier birds
antibody following immunization, but their antibody
expose naïve birds. The dynamics of each outbreak will
titers are typically low compared to those seen in birds
depend on the genotype of the virus and the species of
that survived infection.19
birds involved. In some collections, Pacheco’s disease
will not occur, but over time multiple birds will develop
Use of the APV PCR
papillomas.
Viremia may precede virus shedding and virus shedding
continues after the cessation of viremia; therefore, com- Macaws, Amazon parrots and some species of conures
bined oral and cloacal swabs and heparinized blood are most likely to be carriers of PsHVs. Infection preva-
should be submitted for PCR analysis. If blood is tested lence appears to be higher in imported wild-caught
alone, many virus-shedding birds will be missed. It birds. Infection also has been recognized in cockatoos
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582 C l i n i c a l Av i a n M e d i c i n e - Vo l u m e I I

and African grey parrots, and under some circumstances able and include central nervous system disease, respira-
it also may occur in lovebirds and cockatiels. The list of tory signs, diarrhea and signs of pancreatic insuffi-
potential carrier species likely will grow as more is ciency.28,29 In a recent report of an outbreak of PMV-3 in a
learned about these viruses. Any bird that survives an pet store, the hemagglutination inhibition assay (HI) was
outbreak of Pacheco’s disease should be considered found to be a sensitive means of detecting infected
infected until shown otherwise. Mounting evidence sug- birds.14 Others have tried serologic methods for detect-
gests that parent-to-offspring transmission occurs. The ing subclinical infections of PMV-3 in Neophema and
offspring may remain asymptomatic or develop internal other species with little success.12,29 This discrepancy may
papillomatosis, depending on the genotype of the virus. It be due to the duration of the infection at the time serol-
appears that once a bird is infected they will be infected ogy is performed. In a recent study with PMV-1, low lev-
for life. This includes survivors of Pacheco’s disease that els of antibody were detected in African grey parrots.
were treated with acyclovir. These antibodies were detectable with an experimental
ELISA, but not with the HI. This assay is currently under
The key to preventing Pacheco’s outbreaks and internal development and may prove useful in the future.14 In
papillomatosis is keeping carrier birds out of the collec- disease outbreaks where PMV-3 is suspected, submission
tion or, if they are already in the collection, isolating them of proper samples for histopathology is currently the
from birds that are not infected. Studies to date show that most accurate method of confirmation.
PsHVs in carrier birds are present in significant concentra-
tions in the mucous membranes of the cloaca and oral
mucosa. Swabs of these surfaces can be tested by PCR.
Virus also may be detected in blood, but concentrations Applied Preventive
of virus are low in the blood and in one study blood PCR
was inconsistently positive, while mucosal swabs were
Medicine
more dependably positive. In rare individuals, birds have
been identified that are only blood positive. The biologi- TESTING NEWLY ACQUIRED BIRDS
cal significance of this is not known; until it is, it is recom- The ultimate decision as to what type of testing should
mended that both blood and combined oral and cloacal be done for a particular bird will depend on the specific
swabs be used for PsHV PCR.22 details regarding the source of the bird, species of the
bird, the aviary or home into which it is going, the
PCR resources of the owner and findings on physical exami-
Recently discovered sequence data has permitted the nation. Non-specific assays such as CBC, oral and fecal
development of a single PCR assay that can detect all Gram stain, protein electrophoresis, fecal wet mount
four genotypes of the PsHV (R. Dahlhausen, personal and fecal floatation can be applied to all birds. (Ed.
communication, 2003). Preliminary work with less ideal Note: In some practitioners’ experience, a negative fecal
primer sets suggests that PCR of blood and a combined flotation has not correlated with the absence of intes-
oral and cloacal swab will detect the majority of birds tinal parasites). Ascarids are commonly expelled from
unapparently infected with PsHVs. birds, especially those with previous exposure to warm,
outdoor environments, following the administration of
Serology an appropriate anthelmintic. This occurs in birds with
There are three major serogroups of the PsHV.9 Serotype negative fecal flotations, and routine deworming may be
1 contains genotypes 1 and 4, serotype 2 contains geno- advised in these situations (M. Wissman, personal com-
type 2 and serotype 3 contains genotype 3.36 It is clear munication, 2002).
that many birds that are infected with PsHVs are
Fecal and oral cultures are indicated if abnormalities are
seropositive. It still remains to be determined, however,
found on the Gram stains and birds show other evi-
if all birds infected with PsHVs will demonstrate positive
dence of illness. Chemistry panels are most likely to
serologic results. Preliminary evidence suggests that anti-
identify problems in older or unthrifty birds, but can be
bodies to one serotype inconsistently neutralize viruses
useful in detecting early disease or establishing baselines
of other serotypes.22 Therefore, if serology is to be used
for future reference, even in clinically healthy individu-
to detect PsHV-infected birds, multiple assays using all
als. Radiographs are relatively costly tests that can be
three viruses or their antigens will have to be run.
used for screening. Generally, however, they are used
only when there is some other indication of disease.
PARAMYXOVIRUS 3 (PMV-3) Currently, the choice of serologic and PCR-based testing
PMV-3 is a common cause of disease in the Australian is best tailored to the species and background of the
grass parakeets (Neophema spp.). Clinical signs are vari- bird being examined (Table 21.2 and Table 21.1).
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Table 21.2 | Diagnostic Tests Used to Screen for Specific Infectious Diseases
Infectious Agent Assay Sample for Testing Species Commonly Infected Sensitivity Specificity
Mycobacteria PCR Feces Brotogeris spp., canaries, finches, Fair Good
red siskins, waterfowl
Serology Serum or plasma Experimental Experimental
M. ornithogaster Wet mount Feces Budgerigars, finches, cockatiels, Fair to poor Good if many organ-
parrotlets, lovebirds, lories, other isms present
PBFDV PCR Blood* Old World parrots Excellent Excellent
APV PCR Blood and swabs** Lovebirds, budgerigars, all parrots Excellent Excellent
recently exposed to other birds
Serology Serum or plasma Proof of previous or current Does not reflect virus-
infection shedding status
PsHV PCR Blood and swabs Macaws, Amazon parrots, conures, Excellent Excellent
others?
Serology Serum or plasma Unknown Unknown
PMV-3 HI+ Serum or plasma Neophema spp., others? Questionable in chronic infection Good
ELISA++ Serum or plasma Experimental Experimental
*Heparinized blood + HI: Hemoagglutination inhibition
**Combined oral and cloacal swab ++ ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunoassay

There is a saying: “Be careful for what you look for, by local bird clubs. These marts serve many valuable
because you may find it.” This is particularly applicable purposes. They provide an important outlet for the sale
to testing new birds. It is incumbent upon practitioners of birds and at the same time raise money for the spon-
to know everything that they can about the tests they are soring organizations. This money is used to help sup-
using so that if one does come back positive, it can be port the bird club and in many cases to fund research
properly interpreted. It also is important to correlate and conservation efforts. The bringing together of birds
test results with the entire clinical picture. If the testing from multiple premises into a confined area and the
results don’t make sense, then repeat those assays or handling of these birds by the general public, however,
have them performed by a different laboratory. results in the ideal opportunity for disease spread, the
most common of which is APV.
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE AND
There are preventive measures that can be taken that
THE VETERINARY HOSPITAL
will help to mitigate disease transmission at bird marts.
It is a common practice for veterinarians to board birds.
The most important is to limit sale of birds to those that
There is no doubt that this is a valuable service to the
are completely weaned. Weaned birds will rarely, if ever,
veterinarian’s clients, but it also poses challenges for the
develop APV disease although they are still susceptible
prevention of disease transmission. The greatest risk
to infection. Birds that are taken to a bird mart but not
occurs if birds of uncertain infection status are housed
sold should be quarantined away from the rest of the
in the same room. If all birds are screened for PBFDV,
breeder’s birds until they can be sold. A policy of not
APV, PsHVs and Chlamydophila psittaci before they are
letting anyone handle birds unless they have bought
allowed to board, then the risk of disease is diminished.
them also will reduce the spread of disease. Finally,
There is no test for birds that have the etiologic agent of
cages made of clear, hard plastic panels can be used to
proventricular dilatation disease, however, so the trans-
display birds that are for sale. Ideally, these cages would
mission of this disease cannot be prevented. Other
have a fan in the back that draws air out of the cage and
strategies for preventing disease transmission would be
a Hepa filter in the front to filter out potential pathogens.
to keep birds in isolettes or to house birds separately in
Even without these fans, cages made from clear plastic
different parts of the hospital.
panels are much better than wire cages. If nestlings are
Veterinarians see sick birds and therefore will have birds allowed at bird marts, then they should be confined to
with infectious diseases in their hospital. A protocol brooders or cages made from this material and taken
should be developed for every hospital for routine clean- out to the car or hotel room for feeding. Nestlings that
ing of the exam, treatment and hospital rooms and caging. are not sold must go into quarantine after the show.
Routine PCR testing of swabs of these environments can
be used to determine if the cleaning is effective. Boarding PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
birds should be housed separately from hospitalized birds. IN THE PET STORE
Pet store owners and managers who intend to sell birds
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE first need to consider what market it is that they wish to
AND BIRD MARTS reach. Budgerigars, cockatiels, lovebirds, canaries and
A common way for aviculturists to sell their birds is to finches appeal to one type of customer and come with
bring them to bird marts or bird fairs that are sponsored their own significant disease problems. The larger species
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of birds appeal to other types of customers. Combining ease of nestling parrots. Lovebirds and budgerigars from
these birds can lead to additional health problems. many sources may shed this virus. The risk of APV disease
can be greatly reduced if stores buy only weaned birds.
It has been a common practice in the USA for individual Alternately, some stores may choose not to sell the
producers of cockatiels, lovebirds, budgerigars and smaller species of birds. If nestlings are to be present in
finches to sell their birds to buyers who combine birds the store, all the sources of all birds brought into the
from multiple sources and ship them to other sellers store need to be screened for APV. Setting up a separate
who distribute them to pet stores. This practice maxi- bird room that the public can look into but may enter
mizes the potential for disease transmission. Cockatiels only with supervision will help to keep customers from
supplied in this manner have a high incidence of psitta- bringing disease into the store. If a customer wants to
cosis. Similarly, lovebirds and budgerigars from these see a bird, they may be required to put on a clean smock
sources are commonly infected with APV, and lovebirds and gloves and possibly even dip their feet in a foot bath
are commonly infected with the PBFDV. When infected before entry into the bird room. If economics require
birds are mixed with birds from clean collections, dis- that nestlings that are still being hand-fed be purchased,
ease transmission is likely. When these birds come into a an alternate approach to keeping them healthy is to raise
pet store, not only may they be unhealthy, but they also and wean them in isolation away from the store.
are an important source of infection for other parrots
whose retail value may be much higher. The classic Psittacosis is very common in cockatiels and can occur in
example of this is APV outbreaks that occur in nestling any species of parrot. It can cause widespread disease in
macaws, conures and eclectus parrots 2 weeks after they pet store birds, requires a long treatment period, is a
are brought into a pet store. The tendency in these reportable disease in most areas and is transmissible to
circumstances is to blame the breeder who supplied the people. All sources of birds should be tested for this dis-
nestlings that died, but the problem lies with the ease.
budgerigars and lovebirds in the store that are actively
shedding virus and that fatally exposed these birds after Quarantine is another element of the preventive medi-
they entered the store. cine that can provide important dividends to the pet
store. All birds coming into the store should be isolated
It has been the author’s experience that pet stores have for some period of time before they are mixed with
healthier stock if they establish a relationship with one other birds in the store. If the incoming birds have been
or more local breeders and buy birds directly from exposed to disease, it is likely that they will begin show-
them. If the local breeder can see the possibility of a sus- ing signs during the quarantine period. It has been com-
tained market, they are more willing to spend money to mon practice for some distributors to treat some species
verify that their flock does not contain the common dis- of birds with tetracyclines for variable lengths of time
eases that can cause so many problems in the pet store. before they are sold. This can mask signs of psittacosis
Aviaries that supply birds to stores can be screened for but may not cure the birds. Once the birds are off med-
infectious diseases by environmental testing or testing a ication signs will often reappear. Money is a factor in any
random selection of birds. The specific types of screen- preventive health plan and a careful balance must be
ing tests should be tailored to the type of birds being established between cost of preventive medicine and its
purchased, and this protocol is best done with the assis- benefits. Careful consideration should be taken so that
tance of an avian veterinarian. Subsequently, if appropri- all preventive measures have a clear economic benefit.
ate biosecurity measures are maintained, the pet store
owners can feel assured that they are buying clean stock. Finally, if preventive measures are undertaken, the public
This requires some initial investment, but this invest- should be made aware of what is being done and birds
ment is spread out over many birds and is well worth it. should be sold as value-added products. For instance, if
extensive efforts are undertaken to acquire polyomavirus-
Other management techniques can be used to minimize free birds, then these birds should be advertised as such.
the risk of disease. First and foremost, a relationship When the consumer sees that one store is concerned
should be established with an avian veterinarian. The about infectious diseases and others do not place similar
veterinarian’s role is to provide advice that will help emphasis on them, the consumer will buy from that store,
minimize the risk of disease, but at the same time will even if the cost may be somewhat higher.
not result in huge expenditures. A general rule is that
any change should increase the pet store owner’s profit.
IMMUNIZATION AND
If it does not, then another approach should be taken.
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
The two diseases that can substantially impact the pet Immunization for poxvirus, paramyxovirus-1 and salmo-
store are APV and psittacosis. APV is predominately a dis- nella can be important elements of disease control in rac-
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ing pigeons. Poxvirus immunization also is advised for potential value and potential risks of the West Nile virus
canaries that are raised outdoors. The current parrot her- vaccine is minimal, it should probably be used only as a
pesvirus vaccine in the USA is a monovalent vaccine. The last resort. Screening in the enclosure of high-risk birds
exact serotype present in the current vaccine is not known and other mosquito control programs may be the safest
at the time of this writing. It is expected that this vaccine ways to prevent disease from the West Nile virus.
will protect against the serotype from which it is derived.
It is not known, however, if this vaccine will protect A discussion of the avian polyomavirus vaccine is
against other serotypes. In collections of birds where there included in Chapter 32, Implications of Viruses in
is a high risk of Pacheco’s disease, use of this vaccine may Clinical Disorders. The author believes that management
be indicated. A polyvalent vaccine that would protect practices are critical to the control of avian poly-
against infection with the three common serotypes may omavirus, and that there are few circumstances where
immunization would be helpful in its control.
someday be developed and could potentially protect
against Pacheco’s disease and internal papillomatosis.
Product Mentioned in the Text
The value of the equine West Nile virus vaccine in birds a. Immunocomb, Biolage Laboratories, Kibbutz Baled, Israel

remains to be proven. The author was not aware of

Resources
adverse reactions to the vaccine the first year that it was ‡ Texas Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, PO Drawer 3040, College
used. However, a hemolytic anemia has been reported in Station, TX 77841, 979-845-3414
‡‡ Dr. Carlene Emerson, Department of Veterinary Microbiology and
lories that were immunized a year after the first set of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University,
immunizations. This problem, however, has not been Pullman, WA 99164-7040
‡‡‡ The Raptor Center, 1920 Fitch Ave, Saint Paul, MN 55108, 612-624-4969
seen in another collection of birds immunized 2 years in
‡‡‡‡ Avian and Wildlife Laboratory, University of Miami School of Medicine,
a row. Given that the current information about the Miami, FL

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