Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
ILOCOS NORTE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND TRADES
Laoag City

LECTURE IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH I

CHAPTER I: Nature of Inquiry and Research

Humans are naturally curious about anything and everything. We always ask questions and test theories about
ourselves, others, events, the environment, and the world around us. Research is asking questions and looking for
answers to these questions. We are already engaging ourselves into research when we are looking for and into
something, when we are comparing things, when we are searching for more information, and when we are finding what
people think and want.

Research
- It was coined from the French word “cerhier” which means seek; prefix “re” means to repeat.
- Literally, it means to repeat looking for something. It is finding the truth again about ideas and problems which
were in existence before in different perspectives.
- It is widely recognized as an important tool for solving man’s various problems and in making life more colorful
and convenient. Ex. modern gadgets, medicines, tools and equipment that make our tasks easier
- It is a natural day-to-day activity of gathering information. There is one form of research, however, which is more
disciplined in its methodology and more scientific in its procedure. It is called academic research.

Quantitative Research
- It is an objective, systematic, empirical investigation of observable phenomena through the use of computational
techniques.
- It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to
some larger population and explain a particular observation

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 Objective. It seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts. It is not based on mere
intuitions/guesses.
 Clearly Defined Research Questions. The researchers know in advance what they are looking for.
 Structured Research Instruments. Data are normally gathered using structured research tools such as
questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics of the population like age, socioeconomic status, number of
children, etc.
 Numerical Data. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, oftem organized and presented using table, charts,
graphs and figures that consolidate large numbers of data to show trends, relationships, or differences.
 Large Sample Sizes. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a large sample size is required. Random sampling is
recommended in determining the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results.
 Replication. Reliable quantitative studies can be repeated to verify or confirm the correctness of the results.
 Future Outcomes. By using mathematical calculations and with the aid of computers, if-then scenarios may be
formulated thus predicting future results.

Strengths of Quantitative Research

 It is objective. It cannot be easily misinterpreted.
 The use of statistical techniques allows you to comprehend a huge number of vital characteristics of data.
 The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way.
 It requires a large number of respondents. Thus, the findings are more statistically accurate.
 Quantitative studies are replicable.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

 It is costly. The expenses will be greater in reaching out to a lot of people and in reproducing the questionnaires.
 The information contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually ignored. It does
not consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information.
  Many information is difficult to gather specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, etc.
 If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate. Researchers must
be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument.
Kinds of Quantitative Research
 Descriptive Research
- It is concerned with describing the nature, characteristics and components of the population.
- There is no manipulation of variables or search for cause and effect related to the phenomenon.
- It finds general attributes of the existing situation and determine the frequency with which it occurs.
- Ex. Number of Hours SHS Students Spend in Social Media, Number of Malnourished Students who Failed in
the Achievement Test, Healthiness of the Foods Served During Recess in the Public Schools
 Correlational Research
- It is the systematic investigation of the nature of relationships, or associations between and among variables
without necessarily investigating into causal reasons underlying them.
- It is also concerned with the extent of relationships that exists between and among variables.
- Ex. Sex and Mathematical Ability, Marriage and Cancer Recovery, Occupation and Life Span
 Evaluation Research
- It aims to assess the effects, impacts or outcomes of practices, policies or programs.
- Ex. Assessing the Implementation of Nursing Care in a Hospital, Determining the Impact of a New Treatment
Procedure for Patients, Effectivity of K to 12 Curriculum
 Survey Research
- It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying samples
- Cross-sectional: The information is collected from a sample in just single point in time. Ex. Child-rearing
Practices of Single Parents, Population Control Practices of Unmarried Couples
- Longitudinal: The researcher collects information on the same subjects over a period of time, sometimes
lasting many years. Ex. Growth of Rice Yield in the Country, Rate of Promotion of Doctorate Degree Holders
Five Years After Earning the Degree
 Causal-Comparative Research
- It is also known as ex post facto (after the fact) research.
- This derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in the past and now
compared to some dependent variables. It discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs.
- Ex. How Weight Influences Stress-Coping Level of Adults
 Experimental Research
- This utilizes scientific method to test cause-and-effect relationships under conditions controlled.
- An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variable.
- Ex. A teacher would like to know if a new teaching strategy is effective or not so s/he teaches one section
using the new strategy and teaches another comparable section without the new strategy, then an
achievement test was given to the sections.

Types of Variables

QUALITATIVE VARIABLES: These allow for classification based on some characteristic. With measurements of
qualitative/categorical variables you cannot do things like add and subtract, and multiply and divide.
• Nominal / Categorical Variable
This variable can only assume categorical or classification values. There is no ordering of the categories.
ex. Student number, account number, civil status, color
• Ordinal Variable
This variable can assume rank values. There is a clear ordering of the variables.
ex. Degree of dislike, educational attainment, degree of difficulty

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES: These are measured numerically. With measurements of quantitative variables, you can do
things like add and subtract, and multiply and divide, and get a meaningful result.
• Interval Variable
This variable can assume values with numerical meanings. The value does not have true zero point.
ex. Scores, grades, temperature in Celsius and in Fahrenheit
• Ratio Variable
 This variable can take values with absolute zero point or true zero point.
ex. Income, allowance, expenditures, temperature in Kelvin

Continuous and Discrete Variable

 Continuous Variable: A variable that can take infinite number on the value that can occur within a population. Its
values can be divided into fractions. Ex. Age, Height, Temperature
 Discrete Variable: A variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into
fractions. Ex. Sex, Blood Group, Number of Children in the Family

Dependent and Independent Variables

 Dependent Variable: It is also called outcome variable. It is the result or effect of the changes brought by the
independent variable.
 Independent Variable: It is also called cause variable. It is the one responsible for the conditions that act on
something else to bring about changes.
Ex. In a certain study, a group of students was subjected to aroma therapy using essential oils while reading and
another group read under normal conditions, then after a month both groups took a reading comprehension
test. In this case, the reading comprehension test score is the dependent variable and exposure to aroma
therapy is the independent variable. This is because the test score is dependent on whether or not the student
was exposed to aroma therapy. The variable exposure to aroma therapy is independent because it is something
that brought about the change.

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ACTIVITY:
I. On the space before the number, write I if the variable is interval, N if nominal, R if ration and O if ordinal.
_____ 1. Military Title _____ 6. Clothing
_____ 2. Temperature in Degree Celsius _____ 7. Score in Research
_____ 3. Birthplace _____ 8. Feeling for Today
_____ 4. Year Level _____ 9. Means of Transportation
_____ 5. Favorite Type of Music _____ 10. How Internet is Used at Home

II. Identify the independent and dependent variables.

1. Organizational Commitment and Teaching Performance of SHS Teachers in INCAT
Independent: ____________________________________________________________
Dependent: _____________________________________________________________
2. Conceptual, Interpersonal, and Technical Skills of Bank Managers: Their Relationship to Operational
Efficiency
Independent: ____________________________________________________________
Dependent: _____________________________________________________________
3. Increasing Mathematics Achievement through Contextualized and Localized Materials
Independent: ____________________________________________________________
Dependent: _____________________________________________________________
4. Impact of Blended Learning on Student Achievement in Social Studies
Independent: ____________________________________________________________
Dependent: _____________________________________________________________
5. Effectiveness of Exposing Students in Classical Music on Reading Comprehension
Independent: ____________________________________________________________
Dependent: _____________________________________________________________

III. On the space before the number, write T if the statement is true and F if false.
_____ 1. Research is advantageous not only to students but to life as a whole.
_____ 2. Research can be done even informally.
_____ 3. Research requires no step-by-step procedure for as long as results are obtained.
_____ 4. Empirical data should be gathered and analyzed before arriving at a conclusion.
_____ 5. Correlational research is also called ex post facto.
_____ 6. A variable may not vary in a study.
 _____ 7. The independent variable is the variable predicted.
_____ 8. A fewer number of respondents is needed in a study to minimize the error.
_____ 9. Longitudinal survey covers a single period of time.
_____ 10. In quantitative research, respondents are given very limited opportunity to elaborate their responses.
IV. Write the letter of the correct answer on the space before the number.

_____ 1. Which of the following BEST defines quantitative research?

A. It produces or prove a theorem.
B. It is concerned with finding new truths in education.
C. It is an exploration associated with libraries, books and journals.
D. It is a systematic process for obtaining numerical information about the world.

Refer to the following characteristics of research for items 2-5:

A. Objective B. Numerical Data C. Replication D. Large Sample Sizes
_____ 2. Data are in the form of statistics.
_____ 3. It is not based on guess work.
_____ 4. It is needed to arrive at a more reliable data analysis.
_____ 5. It is done to check the correctness and verify the findings of the study.

_____ 6. Which research design seeks to describe “what is”?

A. Correlational C. Experimental
B. Descriptive D. Evaluation
_____ 7. In this type of research, the investigator tries to probe the significance of relationship between two or
more factors or characteristics.
A. Correlational C. Ex-post Facto
B. Experimental D. Survey

Refer to the following variables for items 8-10:

A. Interval B. Ratio C. Nominal D. Ordinal
_____ 8. It can be ordered.
_____ 9. It can be measured along a continuum.
_____ 10. Its sub-type is dichotomous variable.

V. Using Venn Diagrams, show the similarities and differences between continuous and discrete variable.

Continuous Variable Discrete Variable

 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
ILOCOS NORTE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND TRADES
Laoag City

LECTURE IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH I

CHAPTER 2: Identifying and Stating the Problem

Research as the Art of Inquiry, Revisited

 Research is the primary source of knowledge. It aims to develop new knowledge and apply scientific and
engineering principles to connect the knowledge in one field to that in others.
 Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates
new knowledge that is generally acceptable. It is essential to human’s existence to keep abreast with the
continuous technological advancement, fast changing environment, ever evolving competition, and even to
some extent, a mean for survival.
 Research findings can guide school administrators, academic heads, curriculum planners, and teachers in policy
making and in improving the effectiveness of teaching strategies.
 It is recommended that it is sound to know not only what is generally supposed to be true about several
phenomena and theories but also the level to which properly conducted research support such beliefs. In order
to assess the degree to which beliefs are supported, it is necessary to understand the research process.

Research Topic
- It is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer in the form of scientific inquiry.
- Topics or problems are general questions about relations among variables, or characteristics of the phenomenon
which a researcher needs to undertake.

Sources of Research Topics

The following are the things that may be considered before starting the research activity:
1. Prevailing theories or philosophy
2. Observations, intuitions or a combination of both
3. Different subjects taken and from them identify a problem that interests a student-researcher most
4. Fields of interest or specialization or event from related fields
5. Existing problems in the classroom/school/campus/university which one may want to solve
6. Existing needs of the community or society
7. Repetition or extension of investigations already conducted
8. Related studies and literatures
9. Advice of authorities or experts from funding agencies
10. Offshoots of friendly conversations
11. Incidental from interesting topics of professors during the course meeting/session

Selecting the Research Topic

In choosing a research problem, be guided by the following criteria:
1. It should be something new or different from what has already been written about. It must be original.
2. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity.
3. It should be of researcher’s interest and researcher must be with the topic.
4. It should be a modest one for a beginner to be carried on within a limited period of time.
5. It should be clear, not ambiguous. It should be specific, not general.
6. It should consider the training and personal qualifications of the researcher.
7. It should consider the availability of data involved in the study and the methods and techniques to be employed
in gathering them.
8. It should consider the availability of effective instruments for gathering the data and their treatment.
 9. It should consider the financial capacity of the researcher to support the project.
10. It should consider the time factor involved in the undertaking.

Selecting the Problem

The starting point of any research is the identification and definition of the research problem. This step is the
most difficult one because, while there are some guidelines in the selection and narrowing down the problem, these are
unlike the technical rules and requirements in the choice of research deign and measurements. The following may be
considered as basis for selecting the problem: technical and personal.
Technical Personal
 significant to chosen field  interest
 pioneering or novel  training
 originality  expertise
 arouse intellectual curiosity  financial capacity
 relevance to degree  time factor involved in the project
 availability of data
 availability of instruments

Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Title

1. The title must contain the following elements:
a. the subject matter or research problem;
b. the setting or locale of the study;
c. the respondents or participants involved in the study; and
d. the time or period when the study was conducted.
Note: If the title becomes too long because of these elements, the timeframe or period may be omitted except
in evaluation studies.
2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the study but should be brief and concise as possible.
3. The use of terms as “Analysis of”, “A Study of”, “An Investigation of” and the like should be avoided.
4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written in inverted pyramid.
5. When encoded in the title page, all words in the title should be in capital letters.
6. If possible, the title should not be longer than 15 substantive words.
7. Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much information.

Characteristics of a Good Title

1. A title should give the readers information about the contents of the research.
2. Choose a title that is a phrase rather than a complete sentence.
3. Select a straightforward title over other kinds.
4. Use no punctuation at the end of the title.
5. Do not underline the title of research or enclose it in quotation marks.

Background of the Study

This part of research includes information which would focus attention on the importance and validity of the
problem. It is the general orientation to the problem area. A brief rationale to justify the problem must be provided. This
is the present state of knowledge regarding the problem. Answer these questions: What facets of the problem are
known and what need further investigation? What approaches have been used in research of the problem?
For a good background, the researcher can state the antecedents of the study, the reasons why this topic is
proposed relative to previous studies. The Background includes:
1. discussion of the problem in general and the specific situations as observed and experienced by the researcher;
2. concepts and ideas related to the problem including clarification of important terminologies; and
3. discussion of the existing conditions and what is aimed to be in the future or the gap filled-in by the researcher.

Statement of the Problem

This is the basic difficulty, the issue, the are of concern, the circumstances which exist, then how they ought to
be. It tells what s done to make the situation that exists more like what it should be. It exposes anything that is wrong
with the situation or condition or circumstance which is being descried. It has two main elements:
 1. the objective; and
2. research questions.
Objective or Purpose of the Study. It is the first part of the problem where the researcher states the objective.
This is a statement of a long-term objective expected to be achieved by the study. This is derived by the identification
and crystallization of the research problem and as reflected in the title.
Research Questions. The specific questions which are to be answered in the study are called research questions
and are all in question form. Is the objective or purpose of the study observable, measurable or verifiable? Focus on a
clear objective. State the precise goal. The problem should be limited enough in making a definite conclusion possible.
1. The major statement or question may be followed by minor statements or questions.
2. If the goal is specifically to test a given hypothesis then state so. In many cases, the objective will be a more
general statement than that of a hypothesis.
3. Investigative questions are the specific topical questions that one must resolve to achieve research objective or
test the research hypothesis.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The scope describes the coverage of the study. It specifies what is covered in terms of concept, number of
subjects or the population included in the study, as well as the timeline when the study was conducted. Delimit by citing
factors or variables that are not to be included and the boundary in terms of time frame and number of respondents.
This section discusses the parameters of the research in paragraph. It answers the basic questions:
1. What: The topic of investigation and the variables included
2. Where: The venue or setting of the research
3. When: The time frame by which the study was conducted
4. Why: The general objectives of the research
5. Who: The subject of the study, the population and sampling method used
6. How: The methodology of the research which may include the research design, methodology and the research
instrument

Significance of the Study

In this part of the research, the researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the study. S/he
describes how the problem will be solved and specifically pinpoints who will benefit from such finding or results. Usually
the beneficiaries of the study are those experts concerned about the problem, the administrators or policy-makers who
make the decisions or implement programs, the subjects themselves, future researchers and those who are directly or
indirectly affected by the problem. In this portion, one may also state the specific sectors who will benefit from the
study.

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ACTIVITY:

On the space provided, write T if the statement is True and F if false.

_____ 1. The research title must summarize the main idea of the study.
_____ 2. A friendly conversation can be a source of a research topic.
_____ 3. Stating the significance of the study is the first phase in research.
_____ 4. Citing relevant past researches on the same study in your introductions suggests that your research
Lacks novelty.
_____ 5. Delimitations in the study entail the accepted shortcoming in conducting the research.
_____ 6. An existing problem in your classroom can be considered as a research problem.
_____ 7. The time frame of the study may be omitted in the research.
_____ 8. The setting of the study may not be cited in the scope and delimitations.
_____ 9. The significance of the study presents the coverage and boundaries of the research.
_____ 10. The participants in the study must be stated in the statement of the problem.
_____ 11. The specific research problems must be in declarative form.
_____ 12. The significance of the study justifies the research problem.
_____ 13. Research topics must be general and ambiguous.
_____ 14. A research title can be in a sentence form.
_____ 15. Scope and delimitations include the benefit one can get in the research study.
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
ILOCOS NORTE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND TRADES
Laoag City

LECTURE IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH I

CHAPTER 3: Learning from Other Studies and Reviewing the Literature

Importance of Related Theories and Concepts

A theoretical framework can be thought of as a map or travel plan. At the start of any research, it is important to
consider relevant theory underpinning the knowledge base of the phenomenon to be researched. The theoretical
framework dwells on time-tested theories that embody the findings of numerous investigations on how phenomena
occur. It provides a general representation of relationships between things in each phenomenon.
The conceptual framework is the researcher’s idea on how the research problem will have to be explored. It
embodies the specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken.

Purpose of the Review of Related Literature and Studies

The review of literature and studies involves the critiquing and evaluating of what other researchers have done
in relation to the problem to be studied whether these studies affirmed or negate the subject under study. These can be
from books, conference proceedings, referred journal and other published articles.
Literature may be defined as written works collectively, especially those with enduring importance, exhibiting
creative imagination and artistic skill which are written in a period, language, and subject. In other words, any written
materials published in book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook and encyclopedia are considered literature. The
relevance of each literature presented to the present study is also explained thoroughly.
The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline, and from assignment to assignment.
Some institutions require the researchers to separate the literature and studies. Others put it together, like international
published papers.
The review of related studies is equally important to the review of related literature. Published and unpublished
research studies such as thesis, dissertation, and research proceedings are sources of materials that are included.
Reviewing the literature requires the ability to juggle multiple tasks, from finding and evaluating relevant
material to synthesizing information from various sources, from critical thinking to paraphrasing, evaluating, and citation
skills. The following are ten simple rules for writing a literature review:
1. Define the topic and audience. Several other people may have had the same idea. Thus, topics must be
interesting, important and current.
2. Search and re-search the literature. Start downloading published articles related to the topic.
3. Take notes while reading. This will help you remember the important lines, its author, your impressions and
associations while reading.
4. Choose the type of review you wish to write. Some journals are now favoring the publication of rather short
reviews focusing on the last few years, with a limit on the number of words and citations.
5. Keep the review focused, but make it of broad interest. Arrange the readings according to themes.
6. Be critical and consistent. Reviewing the literature is not like arranging hollow blocks. It is very important to
have consistency in your review.
7. Find a logical structure. The review must worth the reader’s time, timely, systematic, well-written, focused and
critical. It also needs a good structure.
8. Make use of feedback. Incorporating feedback from reviewers greatly helps improve a review draft.
9. Include your own relevant research. In many cases, reviewers of the literature will have published studies
relevant to the review they are writing.
10. Be up-to-date in your review of literature and studies. Today’s reviews of literature need awareness not just of
the overall direction and achievements of a field of inquiry, but also of the latest studies, so as not to become
out-of-date before they have been published.

What, Where and How to Find Information

 1. List down all the important variables which you need in your study and any theories which you think can
generate your hypothesis and those that can explain the relationships among your variables.
2. Continue your search for information related to your problem being studied.
3. Check the population you want to include in your study. Conduct a library research. Contact firms, if necessary.
Examine the materials. Write in the index cards the information gathered from each source. Use all printed aids
to help you.
4. Know how to write citations where you can include the author, title, publisher and date of publication, volume
number, page number, information about the study and findings.
5. Review and synthesize those findings that support or reject your hypothesis or research questions. Records and
report of organizations, statistical data, census data, government and business documents, periodicals and
journals, theses and dissertations, unpublished manuscripts, indexes and abstracts, etc.
6. Use online computers for searching and retrieval of information. Surf the internet. For your related studies,
journals and periodicals are usual good sources of information on studies conducted. Books are good for
theoretical framework. Critique the material as you read them.
7. Synthesize the reviewed literature. Categorize them and cluster them according to whether these were
conducted abroad or locally, or you may categorize them according to periods, to geographical origin, to
similarity in the methodology, or contrast in their findings or even similarity in their conclusion.

Functions of Review of Literature and Studies

1. To provide justification of the study
2. To identify gaps, problems and needs of related studies
3. To provide rationale of the study as well as the reasons of conducting the study
4. To have basis that will be used to support findings of the study

Citation Style Guide

Reference is an important part of a research paper. It must be consistent and easy to read across different
papers. There are predefined styles stating how to set them out --- these are called citation styles. Referencing is a
method used to demonstrate to the readers that you have conducted a thorough and appropriate literature search and
reading.
1. American Psychological Association (APA). APA is an author/date-based style. This means emphasis is placed on
the author and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it.
2. Modern Language Association (MLA). MLA is often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly in the USA. It
is arguably the most well used of all the citation styles.
3. Harvard. Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA, Harvard referencing is the most
well used referencing style in the UK and Australia, and is encouraged for use with the humanities.
4. Vancouver. The Vancouver system is mainly used in medical and scientific papers.
5. Chicago and Turabian. These are two separate styles but are very similar to one another. These are widely used
for history and economics.

In-text Citation
1. Direct Quotation – use quotation marks around the quote and include page numbers
Ex. Samovar and Porter (1997) point out that “language involves attaching meaning to symbols” (p. 188).
Alternatively, “Language involves attaching meaning to symbols” (Samovar & Porter, 1997, p. 188).
2. Indirect Quotation/Paraphrasing – no quotation marks
3. Citations from a secondary source
Ex. As Hall (1977) asserts, “culture also defines boundaries of groups” (as cited in Samovar & Porter, 1997, p.
14).

APA Examples of References by Type

In a Reference List In-Text Citation
1. Book with one author
King, M. (2000). Wrestling with the angel: A life of Janet Frame. Auckland, New (King, 2000) or King (2000)
Zealand: Viking. compare…
2. Book with two authors
Dancey, C. P. & Reidy, J. (2004). Statistics without maths for psychology: Using (Dance & Reidy, 2004) or
SPSS for Windows (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Dancey and Reidy (2004) said…
 3. Book with three to five authors
Krause, K. L., Bochner, S. & Duchesne, S. (2006). Educational psychology for First: (Krause, Bochner &
learning and teaching (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic., Australia: Thomson. Duchesne, 2006)
Subsequent citations: (Krause
et al., 2006)
4. Book or report by a corporate author e.g. organization, association,
government department
University of Waikato. (1967). First hall of residence (Information series no. 3). (University of Waikato, 1967)
Hamilton, New Zealand: Author.
5. Conference paper online
Bochner, S. (1996, November). Mentoring in higher education: Issues to be (Bochner, 1996) or According
addressed in developing a mentoring program. Paper presented at the to Bochner (1996) …
Australian Association for Research in Education Conference, Singapore.
Retrieved from http://www.aare.edu.au/96pap/bochs96
6. Journal article (electronic version) with DOI
Hohepa, M. & Kolt, G. S. (2006). Physical activity: What do high school students See what is applicable in 1 to 3
think? Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(3), 328-336.
Doi:10.1016/j/jadohealth.2005.12.024
7. Journal article (electronic version) without DOI
Harrison, B. & Papa, R. (2005). The development of an indigenous knowledge See what is applicable in 1 to 3
program in a New Zealand Maori-language immersion school. Anthropology
and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 57-72. Retrieved from ProQuest Education
Journals database
8. Journal article (print version)
Gibbs, M. (2005). The right to development and indigenous peoples: Lessons See what is applicable in 1 to 3
from New Zealand. Word Development, 33(8), 1365-1378.
9. Journal article (internet only – no print version)
Snell, D. & Hodgetts, D. (n.d.). The psychology of heavy metal communities and See what is applicable in 1 to 3
white supremacy. Te Kura Kete Aronui, 1. Retrieved from
http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wfass/tkka
10. Magazine article
Goodwin, D. K. (2002, February 4). How I caused that story. Time, 159(5), 69. See what is applicable in 1 to 3
11. Newspaper article (print version)
Hartevelt, J. (2007, December 20). Boy racers. The Press, p. 3. See what is applicable in 1 to 3
12. Newspaper article with no author
Report casts shadow on biofuel crops. (2007, October 16). Waikato Times, p. (“Report Casts Shadow,” 2007)
21.
13. Thesis (institutional or personal webpage)
Dewstow, R. A. (2006). Using the Internet to enhance teaching at the University See what is applicable in 1 to 3
of Wiakato (Master’s thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand).
Retrieved from http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/2241

Research Ethics
Scientific writing can be a complex and arduous process, for it simultaneously demands clarity and conciseness;
two elements that often clash with each other. The general principle underlying ethical writing the notion that the
written work of an author represents an implicit contract between the author of that work and its readers. Ethical
writing is clear, accurate, fair and honest.

Basic Principles of Ethical Practice

The University of Leicester (2010) enumerated basic principles of ethical research practice. Knowing what
constitutes ethical research is important for all people who conduct research projects or use and apply results from
research findings.
1. Obtain informed consent from participants. Informed consent must be given to the research participants before
they will be subjected for the research. In the case of minors, parents or guardians must be fully aware of the
said activity. For native speakers, informed consent may be translated in their dialect.
 2. There should be no pressure on individuals to participate. Incentives to take part should generally not be
provided. If an incentive is used it needs to be only a token, and not enough to encourage someone to
participate who would really prefer not to take part.
3. Respect individual autonomy. Autonomy means the freedom to decide what to do. Even when someone has
signed the consent form, they must be made aware that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time.
They must also be able to request that the data they have given be removed from the study.
4. Avoid causing harm. The duty of the researcher is not to cause harm. The researcher must make sure that the
principle of voluntary participation is observed in situations where there is interaction with subjects.
5. Maintain anonymity and confidentiality. Making data anonymous means removing the contributor’s name.
However, you will often need to take more than this basic step to protect a participant’s identity. Other
information can help to identify people, for example: job title, age, gender, length of service, membership in
clubs, and strongly expressed opinions.
6. Take particular care in research with vulnerable groups. Care is clearly needed in research with young children,
and with people with disability, or minors. However, others may be vulnerable in certain contexts, for example:
students, employees, dependents, or people with particular traits that could be subject to prejudice.

Plagiarism
It is the most widely recognized and one of the most serious violations of the contract between the reader and
the writer. It is the using of someone else’s words or ideas, if you are careless in your note-taking. This can mean that
you get mixed up over what is an exact quote, and what you have written in your own words.
Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted and so trustworthy, and socially responsible if the
results are to be valid and reliable. Plagiarism has been traditionally defined as the taking of words, images, ideas. Etc.
from an author and presenting them as one’s own.

Fifteen Ethical Guidelines

1. Always acknowledge the contributions of others and the source of his/her ideas.
2. Any verbatim text taken from another author must be enclosed quotation marks.
3. When you summarize, you condense, in your own words, a substantial amount of material into a short
paragraph or perhaps into a sentence.
4. When paraphrasing and/or summarizing others’ works, you must reproduce the exact meaning of the other
authors’ ideas or facts.
5. The author must have a thorough understanding of the ideas and terminology being used in the original text.
6. When in doubt as to whether a concept or fact is common knowledge, provide citation.
7. Authors are strongly encouraged to become familiar with basic elements of copyright law.
8. Authors are strongly urged to double – check in their citations.
9. The references used in a paper should only be those that are directly related to its contents.
10. Generally, when describing others’ works, do not rely on secondary summaries of those works.
11. When appropriate, authors have an ethical responsibility to report evidence that runs contrary to their point of
view. In addition, evidence that one uses in support of his/her proposition must be methodologically sound.
When citing supporting studies that suffer from methodological, statistical or other types of shortcomings, such
flaws must be pointed out to the reader.
12. Report the results of the study without any post hoc manipulations.
13. Only those who have made substantive contributions to a project merit authorship in a paper.
14. Faculty-student collaborations should follow the same criteria to establish authorship.
15. Academic or professional ghost authorship in the sciences is unacceptable.

Protecting the Intellectual Property in the Philippines

Philippine copyright law is enshrined in the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines, officially known as RA
no. 8293. The law is partly based on United States copyright law and the principles of the Berne Convention or the
Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.
Under Philippine law, original intellectual creations in the literary and artistic domain are copyrightable. These
include books, pamphlets, articles and other writings, periodicals and newspapers, lectures, sermons, addresses,
dissertations prepared for oral delivery, letters, dramatic or dramatic-musical compositions, choreographic works or
entertainment in dumb shows, musical compositions, drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving, lithography,
models of designs for works of art; original ornamental designs or models for articles off manufacture; illustrations,
maps, plans, sketches, charts and three-dimensional works relative to geography, topography or science; etc.
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
ILOCOS NORTE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND TRADES
Laoag City

LECTURE IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH I

CHAPTER 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Research design refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting the study. Thus, the researcher may utilize
a historical design, descriptive design or an experimental design.

Descriptive Research Designs

The purpose of this design is to describe the status of an identified variable such as events, people or subjects as
they exist. It usually makes some type of comparison contrasts and correlation and sometimes, in carefully planned and
orchestrated descriptive researches, cause-effect relationships may be established to some extent.
1. Descriptive Normative Surveys: If you want to describe the trends in a large population of individuals, a survey is
a good procedure to use. Survey designs are procedures in which you administer a survey questionnaire to
identify the trends in attitudes, opinions, behaviors or characteristics of a large group of people.
2. Correlational Research Studies: If you intend to estimate the extent to which different variables are related to
one another in the population of interest, make use of correlational studies. The elements of this design include
identification of the variables of interest, the group of subjects or respondents where the variables will be
applied, and the estimation procedure to determine the extent of relationships. When you attempt to
determine whether a relationship exists between quantifiable variables and to what degree, it is important to
remember that, if there is a significant relationship between two variables, it does not follow that one variable
causes the other.
3. Descriptive Evaluative Studies: The purpose of the descriptive evaluative study is to judge the “goodness of a
criterion measure”. Longitudinal studies establish the changes in that criterion measure over a long period of
time. Cross-sectional studies are designed to evaluate changes over time by comparing at the same point in
time, different people representing different stages in the development.
4. Assessment/Evaluation Studies: Assessment/evaluation studies attempt to determine the effectiveness or
efficiency of certain practices or policies when applied to a group of respondents. Assessment studies imply
measurement of key indicators without attaching any judgment to them while evaluation studies imply putting
judgment and valuing to the measurements obtained and is therefore at a much deeper level than assessment.
5. Descriptive Comparative Studies: These endeavor to establish significant differences between two or more
groups of subjects on the basis of a criterion measure. No attempts to control the effects of extraneous factors
are made. Group comparisons are usually involved. The groups in the study make up the values of the
independent variable. The dependent variable in a study is the outcome variable.

Experimental Research Designs

Experimental studies are also known as longitudinal or repeated-measures studies. They are also referred to as
interventions, because you do more than just observe the subjects. They use the scientific method to establish the
cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. An independent variable is manipulated to
determine the effects on the dependent variables. Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments.
An enormous difference between the descriptive method of research and experimental method of research is
the presence of control in the latter design. A factor called treatment is introduced into the research investigation and
the researcher attempts to isolate the effects of such treatment by means of control.

Historical Research Designs

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and variety of primary documentary
evidence, such as logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information like maps, pictures, audio
and visual recordings. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.
 The creation of quantitative data sets requires the historian to carefully compile consistent information about
the phenomenon to be investigated and apply the techniques of statistical data analysis to the data set to answer the
research questions. Thus, to make effective use of quantitative evidence and statistical techniques for historical analysis,
practitioners have to integrate the developing skills of the social sciences including statistical data analysis and data
archiving into their historical work.
Sampling Plans, Designs and Techniques
Sampling is the process of getting information from a proper subset of population. The fundamental purpose of
all sampling plans is to describe the population characteristics through the values obtained from a sample as accurately
as possible. A sampling plan is a detailed outline of which measurements will be taken at what times, on which material,
in what manner, and by whom that support the purpose of an analysis.
Given a population frame, the first question a researcher often asks is the question of sample size. How large a
sample must one take in order to be certain that the values calculated from this sample will not be too far from the
actual values of the population parameters? The Slovin’s formula may be applied: n = N/(1+Ne 2) where N = population
size and e = error balance.

Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling refers to a sampling technique in which samples are obtained using some objective chance
mechanism, thus involving randomization. It is the only approach that makes possible representative sampling plans. It
enables the investigator to specify the size of the sample that they will need if they want to have the given degree of
certainty that their sample findings do not differ by more than a specified amount from those that a study of a whole
population would yield.
1. Simple random sampling is a technique in which each member of the sample is selected by the equivalent draw
lots. The sample is selected in two ways: by a table of random numbers or by the lottery technique.
2. Systematic random sampling uses a list of elements of the population as a sampling frame and the elements to
be included in the desired sample are selected by skipping through the list at regular intervals. The starting point
to be taken is a random choice. Use the formula k = N/n where k = sampling interval, N = population size and n =
number of samples needed.
3. Stratified random sampling is a technique in which the population is first divided into strata and then samples
are randomly selected separately from each stratum. The number of units drawn from each stratum depends on
the ratio of the desired sample in the population (n/N).
4. Clustered random sampling is a technique in which the entire population is broken into small groups, or clusters,
then some of the clusters are the ones that are analyzed. It is administratively convenient to implement and its
main advantage is saving time and money.
Non-probability sampling is a technique when there is no way of estimating the probability that each element
has of being included in the sample and no assurance that every element has a chance of being included.
1. Accidental or convenience sampling is one which the investigator simply reaches out and takes the cases that
are at hand, continuing the process until the sample reaches a designated size. This is also known as “the man
on the street” interviews conducted frequently by the television news program. The problem here is the lack of
evidence that they are the representatives of the population you are interested in generalizing.
2. Purposive sampling or judgment sampling is used when practical consideration prevent the use of probability
sampling. Data from judgmental samples at best suggest or indicate conclusions but in general they cannot be
used as the basis of statistical testing procedures. In purposive sampling, you sample with a purpose in mind.
3. Snowball sampling identifies cases of interest from people who know other people who would be a good
interview participant.

Instrumentation
An important part of the research study is the instrument in gathering the data because the quality of research
output depends to a large extent on the quality of research instruments used. Instrument is the generic term that
researchers use for a measurement device.
Researchers can choose the type of instruments to use based on their research questions or objectives. There
are two broad categories: research-completed instruments and subject-completed instruments.
Researcher – Completed Instruments Subject – Completed Instruments
Rating Scales Questionnaires
Interview Schedules / Guides Self – Checklists
Tally Sheets Attitude scales
Flowcharts Personality Inventories
 Performance Checklists Achievement / Aptitude Tests
Time-and-Motion Logs Projective Devices
Observation Forms Sociometric Devices

A critical portion of the study is the instrument used to gather data. The validity of the findings and the
conclusions resulting from the statistical instruments will depend greatly on the characteristics of your instruments.

Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure and performs as it is
designed to perform. As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an
instrument.
1. Content validity: the extent to which a research instrument accurately measures all aspects of a construct.
2. Construct validity: the extent to which a research instrument measures the intended construct. For example, if a
person has a high score on a survey that measures anxiety does this person truly have a high degree of anxiety?
3. Criterion validity: the extent to which a research instrument is related to other instruments that measure the
same variables.

Reliability
Reliability relates to the extent to which the instrument is consistent. The instrument should be able to obtain
approximately the same response when applied to respondents who are similarly situated. Likewise, when the
instrument is applied at two different points in time, the responses must highly correlate with one another.

Sources of Data
Data can be collected from two sources: primary sources and secondary sources. Data collected from primary
sources are known as primary data and data collected from secondary sources are called secondary data.
Primary data are also known as raw data which can be collected from experimental research, observation or
questionnaire survey. Secondary data are data obtained from reports, books, journals, magazines, the web, and more.

Data Collection Methods

Interviews: The use of interview begins with the assumption that the participants’ perspectives are meaningful,
knowable and can be made explicit, and that their perspectives affect the success of the project.
1. Structured Interview: The researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more. The interview follows a
specific format with the same line of questioning. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is
presented with exactly the same questions in the same order. These are also known as standardized interviews
or researcher-administered surveys.
2. Face-to-Face Interview: this remains the most frequently used quantitative research method. It has a distinct
advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their
cooperation. This allows the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up
information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved, time consuming and
expensive.
3. Telephone Interviews: These are less time consuming and less expensive. The researcher has ready access to
anyone who has a telephone. The response rate of this interview is not as high as the face-to-face interview. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population. Example of this are
usage surveys, customer satisfaction surveys, or exploration of the potential for new products or services.
4. Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) is a form of personal interview but instead of completing
questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop to enter the information directly into the database. This
method saves time involved in processing data. However, this requires that interviewers have typing skills.

Questionnaires: This helps extract data from respondents. It serves as a standard guide for the interviewers who need to
ask the questions in exactly the same way. Without this standard, questions would be asked in a disorganized way at the
discretion of the methodology. There are normally five sections in a questionnaire namely: an introduction, the
respondent’s identification data, instruction, classification data and information.
 Introduction: It is the interviewer’s request for help. It is normally scripted and lays out the credentials of the
research company, the purpose of the study and any aspects of confidentiality.
 Respondent’s Identification Data: This includes the respondent’s name, address and others.
  Instruction: It refers to the interviewer ‘s directions on how to move through the questionnaire such as which
questions to skip and where to move to if certain answers are given.
 Information: It is the main body of the document and is made up of the many questions and response codes.
 Classification data and information: These establish the important characteristics of the respondent, particularly
related to their demographics which are sometimes at the front or at the end of the questionnaire.
1. Paper-and-pencil Questionnaire: This can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and
money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in
particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. But majority of the people who receive
questionnaires don’t return them and those who do might not be representative of the originally selected
sample.
2. Web-based Questionnaire: it is a new and inevitably growing methodology using the internet-based research.
This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would take you to a secure
web-site to fill in a questionnaire. Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do
not have a computer or access to the internet. Also, the validity of such surveys is in question as people might be
in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
3. Self-administered Questionnaire: Questionnaires are generally distributed through mail, filled out and
administered by the respondents themselves which is returned via mail to the researcher.
Questionnaires often make use of checklist and rating scales. These devices help simplify and quantify people’s
behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics, or other entities that the researcher is looking
for. Either the survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or vice versa.
While a rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a continuum. This states the criteria and
provide three or more responses to describe the quality or frequency of a behavior, skills, strategies or variables of the
study.

Observations: It is a way of gathering data by watching behavior, events, or noting physical characteristics in their
natural setting. If respondents are unwilling or unable to provide data through questionnaires or interviews, observation
is a method that requires little from individuals for whom you need the data.
 Overt vs Covert Observation: Observations can be overt when everyone knows they are being observed and
covert when no one knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed. The benefit of covert
observation is that people are more likely to behave naturally. However, you typically need to conduct overt
observations because of ethical problems related to concealing your observation.
 Direct vs Indirect Observation: Direct observation is when you watch interactions, processes or behaviors as they
occur. Indirect observation is when you watch the results of interactions, processes or behaviors.
There are ways of collecting observation data. These methods can be combined to meet your data such as recording
sheets and checklists which are the most standardized ways of collecting observation data. Observation guides list the
interactions, processes, or behaviors to be observed. They provide space to record open-ended narrative data. Field
notes are the least standardized way of collecting observation data and do not include preset questions or responses.
They are open-ended narrative data that can be written or dictated unto a tape recorder. These observations as
qualitative data can be decoded to quantify the variables for statistical analysis.

Tests: Tests provide a way to assess subjects’ knowledge and capacity to apply this knowledge to new situations. They
may require respondents to choose among alternatives like selecting a correct answer or an incorrect answer, to cluster
choices into like groups, to produce shorts answers, or to write extended responses.
1. Norm-referenced Tests: These provide information on how the target performs against a reference group or
normative population.
2. Criterion-reference Tests: These are constructed to determine whether or not the respondents have attained
mastery of a skill or knowledge area.
3. Proficiency Tests: These provide an assessment against a level of skill attainment, but includes standards for
performance at varying levels of proficiency, typically a three- or four-point scale ranging from below basic to
advanced performance.

Secondary Data: It is a type of quantitative data that has already been collected by someone else for a purpose different
from yours. These data are collected by researchers, government and private agencies, institutions or organizations, or
companies that provide important information for government planning and policy recommendation and theory
generation. Examples of these data are from the Philippine Statistics Office, Philippine Statistics on Education,
Department of Health, Department of Budget and Management, Commission on Audit and other government agencies
and institutions. You can also use data from international sources like World Bank, UNESCO, TIMSS, World Health
Organization, etc. Since secondary data have been collected for a different purpose from yours, the basic questions you
should ask are: Where do the data come from? Do they cover the correct geographical location? Are they up-to-date or
recent?
The usefulness of existing sources varies depending on whether they are accessible and accurate. When using
such instruments, it is advisable to do a quick scan to assess data quality before undertaking extensive analysis.