Language and Basics of Linguistics-Syllabus

Word and Image
2
Communicative English Handbook
For
II Semester Communicative English Students
Paper III: Reading Comprehension and Composition

And
Paper IV: Language and Basics of Linguistics
Editor
Prof. Chitra Panikkar
Bengaluru CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

Central College Campus, Bengaluru 560001
Word and Image 1: Communicative English Handbook for I

Semester BA Communicative English under Faculty of Arts is
prepared by the Members of the Text Book Committee, Bengaluru
Central University (BCU).
© Bengaluru Central
University First Edition:
2019
Published by:
Bengaluru Central University
Press Bengaluru Central
University (BCU) Central
College Campus
Bengaluru -560 001.
Foreword (Vice Chancellor)

Prof. S. Japhet
Vice-Chancellor
Bengaluru Central
University Bengaluru-
560001.
PREFACE
Prof. Chitra Panikkar
Chairperson
UG BOS in
English BCU
Members of the Board of Studies
Dr. Chitra Panikkar

Chairperson
Board of Studies in English, UG
Bengaluru Central University (BCU) Bengaluru-560
001
1. Dr. Ramadevi . M. Government Arts College Dr.

Ambedkar Veedhi, Bengaluru- 560 001.
2. Prof. M. Shivaprasad Vivekananda Degree College, Dr.
Rajkumar Road, Bengaluru-560 055.
3. Prof. Mah Jabeen
B.M.S College for Women, Bengaluru- 560 004.
4. Prof. C.P. Usharani S.J.R.College of Arts, Science and
Commerce,
Race Course Road, Bengaluru-560 009.
5. Dr. Macquillin. C.D
H.K.E.S Veerendra Patil Degree College,
Sadashivanagar, Bengaluru- 560 080.
6. Dr. R. Rajaram
St. Joseph’s College of Commerce (Autonomous)
Bengaluru 560 025
7. Dr. N.S. Gundur

Tumkur University, Tumkur -572 102.
8. Prof. Kannan
Akkamahadevi Women’s University, Jnana Shakthi Campus,
Tonvi, Vijayapura - 585 101.
Members of the Textbook Committee
Chairperson
Manjula Veerappa
Associate Professor
Vijaya College, Jayanagar, Bengaluru 11.
Members
Dr Rama Devi
Professor
Government Arts College, Bengaluru.
Vasudha A R
Assistant Professor and HOD
St.Anne’s Degree College for Women, Halasuru, Bengaluru 08
Naureen Aziz
Reader
Jyoti Nivas College Autonomous, Koramangala, Bengaluru.
Dr Nazia Obed
Assistant Professor
Government Arts College, Bengaluru.
Shirisha Kumari Balagam

Assistant Professor
St.Anne’s Degree College for Women, Halasuru, Bengaluru 08.
Anuragh Gowtham K
Assistant Professor
Vijaya College, Jayanagar , Bengaluru 11.
Prakruthi Badrinath
Assistant Professor
Nobel School of Business, J P Nagar, Bengaluru 78.
Introduction
And
Note to the Facilitator
Word and Image 2 is a book prescribed for the students of Communicative English, of
the newly formed Bengaluru Central University. Communicative English is a subject
in which students are trained in the fundamentals of communication with an emphasis
towards writing for the media. The course aims to develop the student’s proficiency in
English and develop their communication skills.
This book has been designed to enhance students’ Reading Skills and Linguistic
Ability. The book is divided into two sections, each focusing on the two papers
prescribed by Bengaluru Central University. The second semester has two papers:
Paper 1: Introduction to Basics of Grammar and Paper 2: Language and Basics of
Linguistics The first part of the book attempts to develop the students’ communication
skills by enhancing their grammatical competence. The second part aims to help
students develop effective spoken and listening skills.
Objectives of Paper 3 Reading Comprehension and Composition
Objectives
 To enhance specific reading and writing skills.
 To develop interpretative reading and writing skills.
 To comprehend different styles of writing.
 To improve visual and verbal ability.
 To develop practical communication skills.

Learning Outcomes
 Ability to read and write in varying tones.
 Equip students to be able to attempt the English written component in
competitive exams.
 Enable students to be keen listeners and observers of the language.
 To analyze a topic or a current issue from different perspectives.
 Enhance logical thinking and error free writing.
Paper 4: Language and Basics of Linguistics
• .To understand what constitutes language and we as teachers of English,should

know about language.
• To understand how we acquire our mother tongue and how we learn English.
• To understand how we can utilize our knowledge of different aspects of
language,pedagogically.
• To understand the basic concepts in the area of linguistics.
• To impart knowledge about the appropriateness, grammaticality and
acceptability of English language
• To assist the students in learning the concepts of register, style and jargon as
well as the various varieties of English
Learning Outcomes
Teaching and learning will be fruitful only when the practical sessions are
conducted in an effective manner.
• To enhance students language awareness.
• To equip them with tools for observation, description and explanation
of language.
• To enable the teachers, to help their learners to enhance their language
awareness.
• The course also aims at developing the students intuition about
language and making them a better researcher of various aspects of
language.
• Teachers should use audio CDs/ clips to make learning interesting and
effective.
• Teachers are to use audio CDs with RP pronunciation.
• Use role play activities for Functional English.
Contents
Paper 3: Reading Comprehension and Composition
Module 1
Reading Comprehension
 Skimming and Scanning
 Taking the students from answering short passages with factual questions to
long passages that have inferential questions
 Identifying the tone, topic sentence and supporting sentences
 Rearranging sentences in a paragraph
Module 2
 Formal Letter Writing
 E-mail
Module 3
Paragraph Writing: Reflective, Descriptive, Narrative and Argumentative
 Writing short paragraphs
 Introduce students to various topics
 Description of a picture that is presented
Module 4
Dialogue Writing
Module 5
Analysis of Issue and Arguments
Module 6
Writing Summary
Module 7
Para Jumble
Para Completion
Odd Sentence Out
Practicals – 50 Marks (35+15) .

Practical exam to be conducted for 35 Marks.
15 Marks for Internal Assessment.
Listen to audio clips and write a summary (Poem and Lecture)
Integrated and Independent Writing
Module 1
Reading is a part of our daily lives. It is performed for pleasure and information.
Reading skills are important for the individuals since they foster comprehension in
reading. Reading Comprehension is the ability to understand a written passage of a
text. Reading is not a passive activity; it requires active engagement with the text and
understanding. Each Reading Comprehension question is based on a passage that may
vary in length from one paragraph to several paragraphs Reading Comprehension
questions are designed to test a variety of abilities that are required in order to read
and understand different kinds of written material. The abilities include:
 to understand the meaning of individual words and sentences
 to understand the meaning of paragraphs and larger bodies of text
 to distinguish between minor and major points
 to summarize a passage
 to understand the structure of a text in terms of how the parts relate to one
another
Skimming and scanning are different strategies for speed reading.
Skimming
Skimming is reading a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. It can be
contrasted with scanning, which is reading in order to find specific information. It is a
specific reading skill which is common in reading newspapers, messages and e-mails.
It is important that learners understand that there is no need to read every word when
skimming.
Skimming is not reading faster; it's reading more efficiently. Skimming involves
reading key portions of a passage to know the gist.
Scanning
Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or
names. It can be contrasted with skimming, which is reading quickly to get a general
idea of meaning. Scanning is commonly used in everyday life, for example when
looking up a word in dictionary or finding your friend’s name in a contacts directory
of your phone etc.
Tone, Topic sentence, Supporting sentence and Concluding sentence:

Tone
Any written composition has a tone. It can be defined as an attitude of a writer
towards a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of
words or the view point of a writer on a particular subject.
Every written piece consists a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which
the writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal,
informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, cheerful etc.
Topic sentence
The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph. It consists the main
idea which is developed in the rest of the paragraph. The topic sentence should be a
complete sentence, a statement of intent, opinion or a mix of both. It should be neither
too broad nor too narrow.
Supporting sentence
Supporting sentence come after the topic sentence and it supports the main idea of the
paragraph/passage. These sentences follow the topic sentence in a paragraph. They
usually give details in order to develop and support the main idea. These sentences
should be arranged in a logical order.
Concluding sentence
The conclusion signals the end of the passage; these sentences summarize the main
point and relates them to the topic sentence. It gives a final comment on the topic and
leaves the reader with the most important ideas to think about. It can also be used to
make a suggestion or a prediction.
Comprehension Passages
1. Read the following passage and answer the questions.
A device that calculates or manipulates data in some way is a computer. Thus, adding
machines, pocket calculators and abacuses are examples of computers. Today,
however, the term computer generally refers to an electronic device that can
manipulate data at high speed, with great accuracy and through complex series of
steps without human direction. The heart of such a computer consists of electronic
components such as transistors and integrated circuits.
Wired to huge variety of other devices, computers process numbers, words, electrical
pulses and many other forms of information in specific ways that are specially useful
to particular people and organisations.
Computers can perform millions of complicated mathematical calculations in seconds.
They can also be used to produce printed text at blinding speeds, draw complex
pictures and control manufacturing processes. In some instances a computer can do in
minutes what might take a person lifetime.
The awesome power of computers along with their widespread use has triggered socio
and economic changes of great magnitude. Computers in myriad roles in
manufacturing have improved the quality and increased the quantity and variety of
products. In the process computers have replaced some workers but have created new
jobs for others. Many, perhaps most people believe that the overall impact of
computers has been good. They point to some of the positive aspects of computer use.
In medicine, computers have revolutionised many aspects of diagnosis and treatment.
In business they have relieved workers of boring, repetitive tasks and then have
performed those jobs better and faster. In the home they are also useful, for example,
tiny computers in wrist watches, automobiles, television sets, microwave ovens and
other products have made them more efficient and reliable.
Other people, however, think that the computer is largely a negative factor. They
resent the "depersonalised" numbers assigned to human beings so that computers can
more easily perform such tasks as billing and recording licences. These people also
point to computer errors which, though infrequent, are sometimes difficult to correct.
They also wonder, amid conflicting studies, whether the use of the small computers
called calculators is not creating a generation of mathematics illiterates. A more
serious charge is that without computers nuclear weapons and modern warfare would
be impossible. Then, too, there is concern about the opportunity for invasion of
individual privacy because of the huge amount of data about people stored in and
accessible from computers.
I. Tick the most appropriate answer.
1. Although any device that calculates and manipulates data can be called a computer,
today a ‘computer’ means
a) a high speed manipulator of data
b) an electronic data processor
c) a highly accurate calculator
(d) (a), (b) and (c)
2. A computer can process data "in specific ways that are useful to particular people
and organizations". This means that computers can be
a) assembled
b) chosen
c) customized
d) copyrighted
3. The power of computers has
a) accelerated
b) changed
c) hampered
d) slowed
-social and economic progress.
4. It has been shown that without the pocket calculators

a) more people would be good at Maths.
b) very few students could pass maths examinations.
c) students can learn maths quickly
d) none of the above.
5. Some people criticize computers because they

a) often make errors that are difficult to correct.
b) have made nuclear wars a reality
c) have deprived people of their jobs
d) have changed the way a doctor or hospital works
II. Give short answers

1. Write a simple definition of a computer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________
_____________________________________________________________________
______
2. In what fields have computers brought about a change? How?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
3. why do people object to computers? Cite three reasons that you think are important.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
4. Give an example of a way in which a person's privacy can be 'invaded' by
computers.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
5. As a student, how would you make use of the computer?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
2. Read throughh this newspaper article and answer the questions.
Chief Minister Mufti Mohammad Sayeed's home town is famous for one particular
item over which India's mastery is rather uncertain these days-the cricket bat. If the
Indian batsmen are beleaguered in South Africa these days, units making bats in this
south Kashmir town also face a grim future. For even as supply orders are pouring in
from Meerut and Jalandhar-based sports goods manufacturers, delivery dates are iffy
because many units have been earmarked for demolition as part of Mufti's jihad
against encroachments.
"My hands are full of orders. My unit's turnover could cross the Rs 40 lakh mark,"
says Salroo Sports group's Nazir Ahmad. "But I'm now busy looking around for an
alternative workplace as the aauthorities have marked part of my unit as illegal." This
comes at a time when the multi crore complex for sports goods built by Sheikh
Abdullah in 1982 is still occupied by troops who were billeted there in 1991.
Last week, Ghulam Hassan Salroo, president, Kashmir Sports Manufacturers
Association led a delegation to the DC, Anantnag to request that the complex be
vacated. Spread over around 7 hectares, this facility for manufacturing bats had a
seasoning plant for fresh willow clefts and could accommodate 32 units. But in 1982
only a few moved in, so the troops occupied the near-empty complex in 1991.
Later, Dr Farooq Abdullah decided to build another such complex in neighboring
Halmul the oldest manufacturing place for bats-as well as make the main complex
functional, but he lost office before that could be done. Now the DC Anantnag has
promised that the troops will vacate the complex.
"We must have some place to work. After a long wait we have got something to do.
We are panicky," said Gulam Mohammed of Sangam Sports. Against the orders for
just 19,000 bats last year, this time he's booked 1, 00,000.
Of the 129 bat-making units registered with the Industries Department, almost two-
thirds are doing well, this year thanks to the World Cup hype. A similar trend has
been seen in Jammu too. Conservative estimates put the yearly turnover at around Rs
25 crore excluding the earnings from supplying raw material to Jalandhar and Meerut.
1. In which two towns are cricket bats manufactured?
a) b)
2. From which two places have the biggest orders come?
a) b)
3. How many registered cricket bat manufacturing units are there in all?
_____________________________________________________________________
______
4. Why can't the sports goods complex be used?

_____________________________________________________________________
______
5. How many sports goods manufacturers have been mentioned in the article? Name
them and the companies they head.
_____________________________________________________________________
______
6. 'iffy’ in sentence 4 means
a) quick
b) uncertain
c) slow
d) impossible
7. According to Masood Hussain, who else shares a grim future with the units making
bats
in south Kashmir?
8. What does ‘Kashmir willow weeps’ mean?
a) a trade opportunity has been sadly lost
b) there is a recession in the sports goods industry
c) the willows in Kashmir are sad
d) the Indian cricket team is doing badly.
ONE-DAY CRICKET may not be as old as the game of cricket is, yet the instant
version of the game is more than half a century old. There is recorded evidence of
limited-over matches being played in the 1940s. But it started full-fledged in 1950 -
where else – in England.
Some superannuated Englishmen rubbed shoulders with national and county
cricketers of the country every Sunday in limited overs games. It caught the
imagination of the public instantly. The tournament was a big draw. And sponsors
came rushing. Soon the matches got televised too.
The popularity of these matches was pretty obvious. The county matches, of three-day
duration, were not only long but also excruciatingly dull and dreary. The results, most
often, were either one-sided or dull draws.
In total contrast, the one-day matches promised action, thrills, frills, runs, wickets and,
above all, an exciting result. Those were the days when fast food was the flavor of
England. Instant cricket became another flavor. The growing popularity of these
games disturbed the connoisseurs. They treat it as a necessary evil. Some conservative
cricket bosses called it 'snicket' and ‘slogget’ but not cricket. Tony Greig, the former
England skipper, once wrote: "The purists were horrified but they were only a tiny
minority"
But the purists had no choice as these ‘snicket’ and 'slogget games gained in
popularity. The first official one-day tournament was started in England in 1963. Soon
more changes in English cricket followed. Each county was allowed to recruit three
overseas players. The one-day tournaments Gillette Cup (with 60 overs-a-side) and
Benson and Hedges Trophy (55 overs-a side) - started in 1972 and became big crowd
pullers.
The first official one-day international was played on Jan 5, 1971 between England
and Australia in Melbourne. It was watched by a packed house at the Melbourne
Cricket Ground. But the first one-day international (ODI) happened by chance rather
than by design. The match was played on the 5th day of an Ashes Test after the first
four days were washed out. The success of that match led to a three-match one-day
series during Australia's return tour of England in 1972. The series was a roaring
success.
I. Say whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). If false, give the
correct answer.
1. The first ever limited overs match was played in 1950 in England.
2. The limited overs tournaments became popular because it appealed to the public.
3. England and Australia planned a one-day match in 1971.
4. The first ODI was a part of the Ashes series.
5. Purists thought that one day cricket was a game for minorities
II. Answer briefly

1. Who took part in the first informal one-day cricket games?
_____________________________________________________________________
______
2. What three things were there in one-day cricket that was missing in 3-day matches?
_____________________________________________________________________
______
3. Why do you think purists did not approve of one-day matches?
_____________________________________________________________________
______
4. Were the words ‘snicket’ and ‘slogget’ used approvingly? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
______
5. Does any sentence in the passage suggest that the game of cricket started in
England? Quote.
_____________________________________________________________________
______
4. Read through the paragraph and answer the questions.

In the Babarnama, the Emperor describes a party on a raft on a river in 1519. The raft
struck a submerged tree trunk and tipped the revellers into the river.... 'a China cup
and a spoon and a tambour went into the water. Interestingly, the Babarnama also
mentions where the Mughals bought their Chinese blue and white: 'In Kabul can be
had the products of Khorasan, Rum, Iraq and China. The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri repeats
the fact. Perhaps direct trade with China was less easy through arduous mountain
routes. There are many such references. The Akbarnama lists Chinese blue as one of
the colours for textile dyes.
Paintings of the Mughal school (the Babarnamah commissioned around 1590 in the
reign of Akbar) show that "Babar and his friends are regularly served kebabs and
pilaus from dishes and plates that are sometimes gold, sometimes green, and
sometimes blue and white. Some of the latter were also displayed in the alcoves and
niches of the walls which were called chinadan. In the well known Mughal miniature
'Emperor Jahangir weighs Prince Khurram' (1610-1615), for example, the niches are
full of pottery. There are cups, flat ‘brush washer' bowls, stemcups, vases, and two
pairs of Chinese figurines on either side of bleu de chine jars. These seem to have
been certainly imported rather than turned out in the local ateliers. The courts of the
Great Mughals reveal the continuing popularity of blue and white porcelain in India
and also point to possible influences on indigenous manufacture. But where did the art
of blue and white originate in India?
1. This extract has most probably been taken from
a) an encyclopedia
b) a magazine
c) a tourist guidebook
2. A good title for this extract would be
a) Mughal paintings
b) Babarnamah
c) Chinese pottery
3. How many sources are mentioned in the passage?
a) two
b) one
c) three
If the pillar of balance was one which the Mughals did not recognize and did their
best to overturn, that of personality is one for which they must be given full credit.
Akbar's long reign of forty-nine years and his overpowering personality might be
thought likely to crush out all initiative from his sons. Nevertheless, his successor
Jahangir (1605-1627), though drunken and cruel, proved to have the ability to hold his
own and extend the empire, and to possess a personality in his own right. He was
saved from a war of succession by the pre-decease of his brother and had only to deal
with a short-lived revolt of his eldest son Khusrau. Along with his vices of drink
temper, and cruelty he proved to have a keen artistic sense so that he became a kind of
life-president of Indian artists, an attractive love of nature, and a sense of humour. His
attachment to the empress Nur Jahan is well known and commemorated by a special
issue of gold mohurs. He wrote his own memoirs and he and his court are vividly
portrayed by the English ambassador Sir Thomas Roe who spent nearly four years
(1615-1619) in following the Mughal court from camp to camp in search of
commercial privileges.
Shah Jahan was a man of greater mark, though in my view less attractive than
Jahangir, in spite of his obvious faults. Shah Jahan was a man of great executive
ability, to which he added a love for the magnificent and a refined artistic sense,
specially for architecture. He was in a special sense the architectural director of his
day and there seems to be little doubt that the great buildings of his reign, the Taj
Mahal, the Delhi Fort, and Jama Masjid, and the reconstruction of the Agra Fort,
would not have been what they saree without his personal inspiration and direction.
To these great gifts he added a capacity for affection revealed in his marriage with
Mumtaz Mahal. Here the catalogue often ends, but there is another side. His romantic
love did not hesitate to expose Mumtaz to the rigours of travel in all states of health so
that she died at the age of 39 after giving birth to her fourteenth child. In his youth he
was not only ambitious but cruel and vindictive to an unnecessary degree. A more
controlled man than his father he was also more ruthless. At his succession he
executed all the male Mughal collaterals, the descendants of his brothers and uncles,
although at that time they had little political significance. In his later years he became
sensual and self-indulgent to an extent remarked upon even in that far from critical
age. The sorrows of his later days were to a large extent a direct reflection of the acts
of his early ones. The pathetic prisoner of the Agra Fort gazing romantically across
the Jumna to the Taj was in fact an old man who had gained power by ruthlessness
and lost it through self-indulgence. As a ruler he governed India firmly for thirty years
and left behind him a legend of magnificence, rough justice and prosperity.
1. Answer briefly
1. How many Mughal Emperors are mentioned in this piece!
2. What one feature of the great Mughals does the author talk about?
3. Who has written extensively about the Mughal courts?
4. Why was he in India?
2. What does it mean? Circle the correct answer.
1. pillar of balance could refer to

a) political balance
b) mughal architecture
c) conquest of India
2. He was saved from the war of succession by the predecease of his brother implies
that
a) only one brother was allowed to live
b) there was always a quarrel about who would be emperor
c) they fought many wars after they became emperors
3. The writer feels that Shah Jahan was less attractive than Jahangir because he
a) made Mumtaz Mahal travel with him
b) dealt out rough justice
c) was needlessly cruel
4. 'self indulgence in the passage means
a) fond of one's pleasures
b) thinking only of oneself
c) extravagant
5. overpowering personality means
a) dictatorial nature
b) extremely strong character
c) intensely emotional
Joti, a gardener's son, was once invited to attend the marriage ceremony of a Brahmin
friend. As he loved his friend dearly, he attended the function. The bridegroom was
being led in a procession to the bride's house. The procession consisted of men,
women and children mostly Brahmin. Joti was also walking along with the
procession.
One orthodox Brahmin recognized him and was annoyed at the sight of a low caste
boy walking with the Brahmins in the marriage procession. Unable to contain himself,
he shouted, "How dare you walk along with us? You are not our equal. Get behind!
Otherwise, go away." Joti felt insulted. He left the procession and returned home.
He narrated the whole incident to his father with anger in his eyes. However, his
father advised him to observe old customs. That night Joti could not sleep. What
could he do for the equality of human beings? Caste system was deep-rooted. As the
lower caste people were not educated, they had accepted this mental slavery for ages.
Joti therefore resolved to revolt against this mental slavery and educate the lower
caste people. He became the first Indian to start a school for the untouchables as well
as a girls' school in Maharashtra. We recognize him today as Mahatma Phule.
1. According to the passage, what has made low caste people accept mental slavery?
a) Poverty
b) Old customs
c) Apathy of change
d) Lack of education
e) Supremacy of the Brahmins
2. What kind of a man was Joti's father?
a) A man of revolutionary ideas
b) One who advised him to start a school for the untouchables
c) A man who did not want Joti to break old traditions
d) A man not in favour of Joti attending the marriage ceremony
e) One who was also present in the marriage procession
3. What did Joti do after his insult?
a) Left the procession and went to his friend
b) Tried to take a revenge on his friend
c) Decided not to join any such marriage processions in future
d) Involved himself actively in the freedom movement
e) Engaged himself in social service
4. Why did Joti attend the marriage?
a) On the advice of his father
b) He was invited by the father of the bride
c) The bridegroom was a good friend of Joti
d) Not mentioned in the passage
e) None of these
5. Why could Joti not sleep that night?
a) He had to attend the marriage of his friend
b) He wanted to do something for the lower caste people
c) The Brahmin insulted his friend
d) His father was sick
e) He was not getting any help for his school
6. Why was the Brahmin annoyed with Joti?
a) He left the marriage procession abruptly
b) He insulted his friend
c) He did not invite the Brahmin for the marriage procession
d) He was an uninvited guest
e) He was walking along with other Brahmins in the marriage procession
7. According to the passage, why did Joti quit the marriage procession?
a) He was asked accordingly by his friend
b) He could not tolerate his insult
c) He had to see his ailing father
d) His father warned him against attending that marriage
e) He had no faith in such customary rituals
8. What does the author highlight in this passage?

a) Joti's contribution to the upliftment of the people of lower classes
b) Poverty of lower class people in India
c) Need for separate schools for girls
c) Merits of caste system in India
e) Need for unity among different sections of people in India
7. Read the following passage and answer the following questions on the
basis of information provided in the passage.
Our body is a wondrous mechanism and when subjected to unusual stress over a
period of time, it adapts itself to deal more effectively with that stress. Therefore,
when you exert your muscles against resistance, they are forced to adapt and deal with
this extraordinary work load. This is the principle of weight training. Strands of
muscle fibres become thicker and stronger in response to the demands placed on
them.
One of the great merits of weight training is the strength of your heart. During weight
training, your heart is forced to beat faster and stronger in order to pump sufficient
blood to the muscles being worked. In time, your heart, like your body will adapt to
this extra-workload by becoming stronger and more efficient. Since your body needs
a given amount of blood to perform its daily tasks your heart will now need fewer
beats to pump the same quantity of blood. Sounds good? There's more. Your entire
circulatory system is given a thorough workout every time you exercise which
increases its overall efficiency. Even the neural paths from your brain's command
centres to each individual muscle become more effective, enabling easier recruitment
of muscle fibres for carrying out physical tasks. In essence, your body becomes a
well-oiled and finely-tuned piece of machinery, whirring along without any break
down. In today's stress filled world, you need all help you can get.
1. What is the principal training of weight lifting?
a) Adapting the body to muscle force
b) Adapting muscles to force implied on them
c) Disposing extra workload
d) Mechanized response to external conditions
2. What affects the nature of muscle fibres?

a) Intensity of workload
b) Alimentary system
c) Nutrition
d) Stress imposed on them
3. How does the heart become stronger owing to physical exercise?
a) Thorough acclimatisation
b) Naturalisation
c) Adapting to excessive workload
d) By accelerating the circulation of blood
4. How much blood does the heart pump at the same number of heartbeats, when
exposed to excessive stress?
a) Same quantity
b) Less than before
c) More than normal
d) None of these
5. What happens to your body due to physical exercise?

a) More efficient
b) Less efficient
c) Efficiency of the body remains the same
d) None of these
6. What does the term 'well-oiled' in the passage denote?
a) Healthy
b) Efficient
c) Massaged
d) None of these
7. Which one of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage?
a) Health is wealth
b) Exercise-its benefits
c) The mechanics of weight training
d) How to retain your health
8. In the present world, the importance of physical exercise has
a) Increased
b) Decreased
c) Remained at the same level
d) None of these
9. What, according to the passage, is the of the heart?
a) Oxygenation of blood
b) Pumping the blood to the muscles
c) Pumping the blood to capillaries
d) Accelerating the circulation of blood
10. What does the above passage suggest?
a) We should carry out physical exercise as a routine
b) Physical exercise is necessary occasionally
c) We should ignore physical exercise
d) We should subject our body to as much exercise as it can withstand.
Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion. The general
recognition of this fact is shown in the proverbial phrase. It is the busiest man who
has time to spare. Thus, an elderly lady at leisure can spend the entire day writing a
postcard to her niece. An hour will be spent in finding the postcard, another hunting
for spectacles, half an hour to search for the address, an hour and a quarter in
composition and twenty minutes in deciding whether or not to take an umbrella when
going to the pillar box in the street. The total effort that would occupy a busy man for
three minutes, all told, may in this fashion leave another person completely exhausted
after a day of doubt, anxiety and toil.
1. What happens when the time to be spent on some work increases?
a) The work is done smoothly
b) The work is done leisurely
c) The work consumes all the time
d) The work needs additional time
2. Explain the sentence: Work expands so as to fill the time available for its
completion
a) The more work there is to be done, the more the time needed
b) Whatever time is available for a given amount of work, all of it will be used.
c) If you have more time, you can do more work
d) If you have some important work to do, you should always have some additional
time.
3. Who is the person likely to take more time to do work:
a) A busy man
b) A man of leisure
c) An elderly person
d) An exhausted person
4. What is the total time spent by the elderly lady in writing a postcard?
a) Three minutes
b) Four hours and five minutes
c) Half an hour
d) A full day
5. What does the expression "pillar box' stand for?
a) A box attached to the pillar
b) A box in the pillar
c) Box office
d) A Pillar-type post box
The first thing the children wanted to do at the zoo was to ride the elephant. They
were frightened as they climbed the ladder to take their seats on the swaying back of
the huge beast. Elephants seem awkward creatures as they move along heavily, their
legs covered with loose folds of tough skin and their trunk swinging from side to side
in search of food or drink. An elephant has great strength in its trunk, and can drag
heavy loads with ropes, but it can also use its trunk to pick up small articles such as
coins or nuts from the ground.
After their ride on the elephant, the children went to see the lions and tigers. Crowds
of people stood watching, protected from the cruel beasts by the strong metal bars of
the cages. From there, they went to see the monkeys. Those merry creatures were
jumping about the rocks, swinging on the wires of their cages, or begging for nuts
from the passers-by. If anyone annoyed them, they would scold him angrily and beat
their chests with their hands. In the end, they saw some curious creatures like the
giraffe with its long neck and the camel with its short beard.
1. Which of the following is the reaction of monkeys when they get irritated?
a) They jump about the rock
b) They swing on the wire of the cage
c) They beat their chest
d) They beg from visitors
e) They keep quiet
2. The cages of lions are made of strong metals bars in order to
a) Protect visitors from the lions
b) Protect lions from other animals
c) Ensure the durability of the cages
d) Enable the visitors to see the lions
e) Enable lions to get fresh air
3. Which of the following is the chief function of the trunk of the elephants?
a) Picking up small articles like coins from the ground
b) Swaying from side to side
c) Dragging heavy loads
d) Eating food and drinking water
e) Creating fear among other animals
4. The children were afraid of riding on the elephant as
a) The elephant looked awkward
b) The back of the elephant was swaying
c) The trunk of the elephant was swinging
d) The elephant was dragging heavy loads
e) Its legs were covered with loose folds
5. Which of the following is a ferocious animal?
a) Giraffe
b) Elephant
c) Monkey
d) Camel
e) None of these
6. Which of the following does not make elephant awkward in appearance
a) Its long trunk
b) Its swinging trunk
c) Its heavy movement
(d) Loose folds on its legs
(e) None of these
10.Read the following passage and answer the questions.
To those who do listen the desert speaks of things with an emphasis quite different
from that of the shore, the mountain, the valley or the plains. Whereas these invite
action and suggest limitless opportunity and exhaustless resources, the implications
and the mood of the desert are something different. For one thing, the desert is
conservative, not radical. It is more likely to provide awe than to invite conquest. The
heroism which it encourages is the heroism of the endurance, not that of conquest. It
brings man up against this limitation. turns him in upon himself and suggests values
which more indulgent regions suppress. Sometimes it induces contemplation in men
who have never contemplated before. And of all the answers to the question-what is a
desert good for - contemplation is perhaps the best.
1. In order to receive the desert's message, the beholder needs to be
a) Courageous in his reaction
b) Conservative in his responses
c) A good listener
d) Sensitive to nature
2. The desert is unique among landscapes in that it encourages only
a) Contemplation
b) Indolence
c) Heroic endeavour
d) Adventurous spirit
3. If one responds with insight to the mood of the desert, it evokes

a) An inclination for deep thought
b) The possibility of unending resources
c) The desire for heroic conquest
d) A sense of intense revulsion
4. The writer calls the desert 'conservative rather than 'radical' because it provides an
environment that
a) Inspires man to explore it
b) Offers unlimited opportunity to conquer
c) Tests one's endurance
d) Makes one gloomy
5. What does the phrase brings man up against his limitation, mean?
a) It makes man feel hopeless about his Limitations
b) It makes man aware of his limitations
c) It compels man to fight against his limitations
d) It persuades man to overcome his limitations
The best way of understanding our own civilization is to take an ordinary sort of day
in the life of an ordinary sort of man, myself for instance, and to see what he does. My
home is in London. I get up in the morning when an alarm clock rings on the table by
my bed. It is quite a complicated machine and works perfectly. I get into a hot bath,
the water for which has been heated by gas. The gas is supplied by the Gas Board for
the area in which I live; it is part of a national system. The water is supplied by the
City Water Board. After bathing, I shave-the water for my shave comes from a kettle
which has been heated by electricity. As far as I am concerned, what happens is very
simple: I put a plug in the wall and put on the switch and the electricity does the rest. I
use a safety razor, the blade of which, made of very finely tempered steel, has been
cut, together with millions of other blades, by machines. The clothes which I put on
have also been spun and woven largely by steam or electrically driven machines.
1. The I' in this passage represents:
a) A common man b) A rich person
c) An automation d) A robot
2. The ideal way of understanding a civilization is
a) To read its literature
b) To see how the people shave, bathe and dress
c) To assess its technological progress
d) To study the daily routine of an ordinary person
3. The 'complicated machine in the passage refers to
a) An electric kettle b) A safety razor

c) An alarm clock d) Gas
4. The gas being supplied by a national system' means that
a) It is supplied by a nationalist government
b) It is supplied only nationally and not internationally
c) It is supplied all over the country by a central agency
d) It is supplied to only those who believe in a national system
5. The kind of life experienced by the writer is representative of
a) An advanced urban society
b) A rural society
c) A semi-urbanized society
d) A socialist society

Mikhail Gorbechev's ouster, though dramatic in every respect, is on no account a
surprise. Both his foes and his closest friends had been warning him of it with a
heightening sense of urgency for the past several months. Its consequences, however,
are wholly unpredictable. The Soviet Union could well witness protracted violence on
a mass scale should the reformists and the republics, those which have sought varying
degrees of sovereignty for themselves, choose to defy the central authority. It is
possible that the country after an initial period of uncertainty, and perhaps even
violence, could revert to the pre-Perestroika system. Equally uncertain is the course of
East-West relations. These are bound to deteriorate though the extent of deterioration
must remain a matter of conjecture. Hailed abroad as a leader who had dared to free
Soviet citizens from fear, who had enabled the countries of Eastern Europe to become
democracies ever as they gained their full sovereign status, who had paved the way
for the reunification of Germany and who had exposed the moribund and totalitarian
character of communism, he appeared, at home, to come under fire from all sides.
1. Under Gorbachev's term, the Soviet people were
a) Afraid to speak
b) Indisciplined and lazy
c) Committed to communism
d) Not afraid to criticize.
2. The relations between the Soviet Union and Western countries
a) Are likely to remain unaffected
b) May improve considerably
c) Will definitely get worse
d) Will fluctuate
3. The post-Gorbachev era may witness
a) A more open economy
b) Reversal of Perestroika
c) Greater role for reformers
d) Sovereignty for republics
4. As a result of his policies, the countries of Eastern Europe became
a) Democratic and truly independent
b) Authoritarian and inhuman
c) United and totalitarian
d) Democratic but with a monarchy
5. The removal of Mikhail Gorbachev from power is
a) Vivid and shocking
b) Dramatic but expected
c) Thrilling and extraordinary
d) Strange and cruel
MODULE II
FORMAL LETTER WRITING
Letter is a written conversation between people. It is an important means of

communication both in personal life and workplace. It builds interpersonal
relationships, conveys information and facilitates business and official transactions. A
letter also gives the writer an opportunity to express ideas, thoughts and emotions.
Letters can be broadly classified into two types:
Formal Letter
The formal letter follows a prescribed structure and pattern. It is formal in tone and
has a specific purpose (mainly business, professional and official purposes). It is
generally addressed to institutions, organizations, employees, clients, officials and
authorities. Formal letters include recommendation letters, enquiry, job applications,
cover letters and complaint.
Informal Letter
Informal letter is personal. It does not follow a set pattern or rules. The tone is
friendly and informal. It is written to family, friends and acquaintances.
Formal Letter
Formal letter is one of the most widely used modes of communication across the
globe. A well written letter can play a vital role in generating a favourable response,
clinching a business deal, impressing a potential client or customer, resolving
disputes, enhancing the reputation of an organization, and opening the doors of
opportunities for professionals.
Formal letter writing is a crucial communication skill. Letter represents the individual
or a firm. A poorly written letter makes you look unprofessional and incompetent.
Therefore one should be aware of the intricacies of composing an effective formal
letter.
Some guidelines/tips for writing a good formal letter
• A formal letter should be well organized
• It should be precise, brief, focused and meaningful
• Begin with a formal greeting
• State the purpose clearly
• Present the message logically
• Provide all the necessary information
• Do not include anything irrelevant
• Be clear, do not leave room for ambiguity
• Keep the language simple
• Be polite, even if it is a complaint letter
• Avoid spelling and grammatical errors
• Avoid contractions (e.g. I’m, it’s, we can’t)
Parts of a formal letter
1. Letterhead/Sender’s address
Letterhead is the printed heading that includes the name and address of the company
or organization, along with contact numbers and e-mail address.
Note: The letterhead is printed at the centre. If the sender is an individual, the name
and address are typed/written left-hand side top.
2. Date
The date can be written in one of the following way:
06 November, 2019
3. Inside address/ Recipient’s address:

This includes the name and address of the addressee of the letter. If the name of the
recipient is unknown, his/her designation is mentioned. (e.g. The Manager, The
Principal etc., )
4. Salutation/ Greeting
The salutation is the formal greeting meant for the addressee
e.g. Dear Sir/Madam
Note: If the addressee is someone familiar, his/her name could be used
e.g. Dear Mr. Kumar, Dear Ms. Gupta etc.,
5. Subject
A brief line that would state the subject or purpose of the letter
6. Body of the letter

It explains the objective of the letter with relevant details.
7. Closing/sign off/ complimentary close

The closing should correspond with the salutation and subject matter of the letter
e.g. Yours faithfully, Yours sincerely, Yours truly etc.,
8. Signature
The signature of the sender. The name and designation of the sender are typed below
the signature.
Format
Corporation Bank
N.T. Road Branch
14-3, Nrupathunga Road,
Rashtrothaana Parishat Building,
Bengaluru – 560002
Tel: 22459853, 22097654
Date: 06th November, 2019
The Manager
Raghav Electronics
05th Main, 17th Cross,
J.P. Nagar, Bengaluru – 560078
Dear Sir
Sub:
Body of the letter
Yours Sincerely,
Signature

Sample 01: Request to bank for opening a savings bank (SB) account
Tejaswini .K.
15, 14th Cross, R.T. Nagar,
06th November, 2019
The Manager
Corporation Bank, N.T. Road Branch
Bengaluru
Dear Sir
Sub: Requisition for opening a savings bank account
I wish to open a savings bank account in your bank. Also, find enclosed the filled in
application form, necessary documents and a cheque of Rs. 5,000/ as my initial
deposit.
Kindly open a savings bank account in my name.
Yours Sincerely
Signature
Sample 02: Enquiry about advertised goods

Royal Electronics
Orchid Plaza, Opp. Jain Temple,
M. G. Road, Bengaluru – 560001
Tel: 080 – 22897653/ 22987534
17th October, 2019

Maruti Stationary Suppliers
Halasuru
Bengaluru - 560042
Dear Sir
Sub: Details of A4 size file folders
This is in response to your advertisement of A4 size file folders in The Times of
India. We are interested in buying folders in bulk.
We request you to send us the details of the product along with the price list.Samples
would be appreciated.
We hope to get a quick response from you.
Yours Sincerely
Signature

Sample 03: Complaint letter about unhygienic conditions in the locality
Jyothi .S.
#15, 09th Block, Jayanagar
27th September, 2019
The Municipal Commissioner
Bengaluru
Dear Sir
Sub: Complaint about accumulating garbage in our locality
I wish to bring to your notice that the garbage containers in our locality are
overflowing as they have not been emptied since one week. Heaps of garbage has
been accumulating causing unbearable stench. This is a serious health hazard.
Kindly arrange to get the garbage cleared immediately and instruct the sanitary staff
to remove the garbage daily.
Thanking you in anticipation of a positive response.
Yours Sincerely
Signature
Assignment
1. Write a letter to the special officer, BMTC with respect to delay in getting your bus
pass.
2. Write a letter to your principal seeking permission to attend the youth exchange
programme in Hyderabad which is conducted by the Youth Welfare department, GOI.
3. Write a letter to the Indian Red Cross Society asking them to conduct a blood
donation camp at your college.
4. Write a letter to the principal of your college complaining about the dirty toilets in
your college.
5. Write a letter to your area corporator about the lack of a park in your ward.
E-MAIL
E-mail stands for electronic mail. It is similar to a letter, but it is sent electronically to
one or more recipients through internet. Email is a fast, convenient, reliable and
inexpensive way to communicate and is widely used all over the world. It also
provides an effective and safe way to transfer electronic data. It is easy to use; anyone
with an email account and an internet connection can send and receive email.
Advantages of Email:
• It is instantly delivered to anyone in any part of the world
• It can be sent to multiple recipients at the same time.
• One can also attach additional attachment and files, including pictures and
videos.
• You can know when the recipient received the mail.
• It can be read on multiple devices
• It can be saved, reproduced and printed.
Composing an Email:
Writing an email is easy and can be done in a few simple steps
1. Open your mail account
2. Click the compose/write icon
3. The compose/write tab contains the following fields
(i) To
(ii) Sub
4. Enter the email address of the recipient(s) in the “to” field (use comma to
separate multiple addresses)
5. Enter the subject of the mail in the “Subject” field.
6. Click in the message box and type your message
7. To attach a file, click the attach icon, a dialog box appears, select the file and
click open.
8. Click the send button.
Informal/casual emails are sent to family members, friends and to people you know
well. These are casual and have no set format and rules. Formal emails adhere to a
specific format and structure. Formal emails are sent to organizations, institutes,
companies, people you are doing business with, clients, customers and authorities.
Parts of a formal Email:

Subject Line
The subject line clearly states the purpose of the mail. It should be brief (ideally not
more than six words), appropriate and to the point. If the subject line is lengthy,
misleading or irrelevant the mail may not be read. E.g. “Job Application”, “Staff
Meeting, 18th Oct, 2019”, “Project Report Overdue”
Salutation
The salutation should be formal and appropriate. If you know the person’s name, use
their name along with the title/designation. E.g. Dear Prof. Pathak, Ms. Sameena
Khan, Project Manager
If you do not know the name, use title/designation.
If you do not know either name or title, it is acceptable to write “To whom it may
concern”.
Note: Do not use improper salutations such as “hi” and “hello”
Body of the mail/message/text
The body of the mail elaborates on the purpose of the mail. Mention your objective
clearly and include necessary details. Keep it as brief as possible. However, if the
mail is lengthy, break the content into paragraphs. If there are attachments mention
them in the body of the mail to make sure the recipient reads them. Use complete
sentences and avoid slang, emojis and contractions.
Note: Introduce yourself to the recipient first.
E.g. My name is Keerthi .M, I teach Mathematics at S.K. University.
Closing
A proper closing is very important to make a good impression. E.g. Yours faithfully,
Yours sincerely, Regards etc.
Name and title of the sender can be typed below.
Writing an effective Email is a skill; only a well written/structured email can produce
the desired result.
Tips/Guidelines
Keep the message clear and concise.
Do not use decorative fonts for formal emails. The standard fonts for formal mails
usually are Times New Roman and Arial.
The standard font size generally used is 12.
Do not use colours unless it is absolutely necessary.
Proofread before sending the mail.
A professional signature template would add impact.
Sample 01: Job application

To [email protected]
Subject Application for the post of Sales Executive
To whom it may concern:
My name is Shwetha Rao. I wish to apply for the position of Sales Executive as
advertised in Naukri.com. I strongly believe I am a qualified candidate for this
position. I have excellent communication skills and an aptitude for customer service.
My experience at ITC as a sales manager coupled with good communication skills
would prove to be an asset to the company.
I am attaching a copy of my resume in pdf format.
I look forward to hearing from you.

Regards
Your name
Sample 02: Meeting Notification

Subject Research Scholars’ Meeting, December 28
We will hold our monthly research scholars’ meeting in the conference room at 11:00
a.m. on Friday, December 28th.
Research scholars should be prepared to give an update on their current projects and
to submit the monthly report.
Sincerely
Dr. Mahesh .M.
Chairperson, Department of English
Sample 03: Applying for internship

Subject : Internship
Dear Madam/ Sir
I am a student of journalism, now in my third year B A (sixth semester), at

Government Arts College, Bengaluru. As part of the course all students are required
to do a three month internship with a media house.
As I hope to work in the electronic media after completing my studies , I would be

interested in working with your channel. I am completely flexible and would be
happy to work in any department in order to gain experience.
I would be very grateful if you could give me an opportunity to work with your
channel.
The most suitable times would be from early March to mid-October.
Please find enclosed my CV.
Thank you for your attention. I look forward to hearing from you.
Warm Regards
Your name
Assignment
1. You are Ms. Sneha and you recently bought a car from Autotek Cars. Write an
email to the manager of, Autotek Cars explaining the poor quality of vehicle
service offered to you by them.
2. You are a project manager and you took the help of Samuel, an additional
resource, to complete a task in time. Write a "Thank You" email to Samuel
appreciating his timely help and making the project a success.
3. You are former student of Prof. Madhukar. Write an email to Prof. Madhukar
thanking him for his guidance that contributed to your overall development.
4. You are invited for your best friend's wedding but you are traveling on work
on the same day. Write an email to your best friend congratulating the couple
and apologizing for not attending his/her wedding explaining your situation.
5. You are a part of corporate communication team in your company. The

working time period is revised as 8:30 am to 5:00 pm. Write an email to the
employees in your company informing the same.
Module 3
Paragraph Writing
A paragraph is the full and logical development of a single idea. Paragraphs are
comprised of coherent sentences. A paragraph is a group of sentences organized
around a central topic. In fact, the cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to focus on one
idea. A well written paragraph takes its readers on a clear path, without detours. A
paragraph expresses a single idea.
A paragraph should consist of:
 Topic sentence
 Supporting sentence(s)
 Concluding sentence
A paragraph usually consists of five sentences: the topic sentence, three supporting
sentences, and a concluding sentence. A good paragraph must have the following
elements:
Unity: Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. Every paragraph has one
single, controlling idea that is expressed in its topic sentence, which is typically the
first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph is unified around this main idea, with the
supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. All the sentences in a paragraph
are logically connected to the central idea. Irrelevant material violates the principle of
unity.
Order: Order refers to the way you organize your supporting sentences. Whether you
choose chronological order, order of importance, or another logical presentation of
detail, a good paragraph always has a definite organization. In a well-ordered
paragraph, the reader follows along easily. Order helps the reader grasp the meaning
and avoids confusion.
Coherence: Coherence is the quality that makes writing understandable. Sentences
within a paragraph need to connect to each other and work together as a whole. One
of the best ways to achieve coherency is to use transition words. These words bridge
one sentence to the next. Transition words that show order (first, second, third);
spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact) are to
be used. Also, in writing a paragraph, using a consistent verb tense and point of view
are important ingredients for coherency.
Completeness: Completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If all sentences
clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then the paragraph is complete. If there
are not enough sentences or enough information to prove your thesis, then the
paragraph is incomplete. Usually three supporting sentences, in addition to a topic
sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a paragraph to be complete. The
concluding sentence or last sentence of the paragraph should summarize your main
idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.
Writing a Good Paragraph
Organizing a paragraph
Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.
One North Carolina man found quite a surprise last year while fishing in the Catawba
River: a piranha. Jerry Melton, of Gastonia, reeled in a one pound, four ounce fish
with an unusual bite. Melton could not identify it, but a nearby fisherman did. Melton
at first could not believe he had caught a piranha. He said, “That ain’t no piranha.
They ain’t got piranha around here.” Melton was right: the fish is native to South
America, and North Carolina prohibits owning the fish as a pet or introducing the
species to local waterways. The sharp-toothed, carnivorous fish likely found itself in
the Catawba River when its illegal owner released the fish after growing tired of it.
Wildlife officials hope that the piranha was the only of its kind in the river, but locals
are thinking twice before they wade in the water.
Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes,
sounds, or feels like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.
Piranhas are omnivorous, freshwater fish, which are mostly known for their single
row of sharp, triangular teeth in both jaws. Piranhas’ teeth come together in a scissor-
like bite and are used for puncture and tearing. Baby piranha are small, about the size
of a thumbnail, but full-grown piranha grow up to about 6-10 inches, and some
individual fish up to 2 feet long have been found. The many species of piranha vary in
color, though most are either silvery with an orange underbelly and throat or almost
entirely black
Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence—
first, second, third.
You can safely swim with piranhas, but it’s important to know how and when to do it.
First, chose an appropriate time, preferably at night and during the rainy season.
Avoid piranha-infested waters during the dry season, when food supplies are low and
piranhas are more desperate. Piranhas feed during the day, so night-time swimming is
much safer. Second, streamline your movement. Wild or erratic activity attracts the
attention of piranhas. Swim slowly and smoothly. Finally, never enter the water with
an open wound or raw meat. Piranhas attack larger animals only when they are
wounded. The presence of blood in the water may tempt the fish to attack. If you
follow these simple precautions, you will have little to fear.
Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.

Piranhas comprise more than 30-60 species of fish, depending on whom you ask. The
many species fall into four genera: Pygocentrus, Pygopristis, Serrasalmus, and
Pristobrycon. Piranha in the Pygocentrus genus are the most common variety, the kind
you might find in a pet store. Pygopristis piranha are herbivores, feasting on seeds and
fruits, not flesh. In contrast, fish in the Serrasalmus genus eat only meat, and their
teeth are razor-sharp. Pristobrycon are the least friendly of all piranhas; they often bite
the fins of other fish, even fish of the same species. The label piranha, then, refers to a
wide variety of species.
Tips to Develop a Paragraph
 Think of a specific topic
 Brainstorm and collect ideas
 Choose the topic sentence
 Put the ideas in order around the topic sentence
 Make the first and last sentences short and effective
Assignment
Write a paragraph of about 100 words on the following:
1. Write about your favorite sport.
2. Good health is the most precious of all possessions.
3. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.
4. Bengaluru
5. Childhood
Module 4
DIALOGUE WRITING
A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. It is an effective tool of
composition and communication. The conversation may be formal, between a senior
and junior officer, or between a teacher and a student. It may also be informal -
between two friends or a husband and a wife.
However, before learning to write dialogues, it is important to learn Language
functions. A language function can be defined as "the use to which language is put,
the purpose of an utterance rather than the particular grammatical form an utterance
takes". The language used for a particular function varies in formal and informal
contexts.
Language Function Formal Informal

Starting a - Excuse me - Hi/Hey
conversation/ -Hello - What's up?
Greetings - Just a moment, please - I don't think we have
- Good morning/ good met.
afternoon
Making requests - could you please _____ - Can you ____?

- I am sorry to trouble - Will you please ______?
you_____ - Mind doing_____?
- I hope you don't mind me
asking _______
Expressing Gratitude - It is very kind of you. - Thank you/Thanks a lot
- I am grateful to you.
- You have been a great help.
Complementing - May I say how_______ - What a beautiful/
- If I may say so____ wonderful ____
- Please accept my - Wow!
compliments -Amazing! _______
Congratulating - Congratulations! - Congrats!
- I must Congratulate _____ - Well done!
- We are Proud of you. - We are happy for you.
Apologising - I apologise - Very/ extremely/ so
- I beg your pardon sorry
- Kindly excuse me
Responding to an - That is okay - That's fine
apology - I appreciate your apology - Alright!
- I hear you - Fine!
Expressing Sympathy - I am sorry to hear that_____ - How sad!
- I sympathise with you - That's a pity.
- My sympathies are with you. - Oh my god!
Seeking permission/ - May I ______? - Mind If I_____
information - Could you please______? - Can you please____?
Giving permission - Yes. Permission granted. - Of course, you can
- We are pleased to permit. - Go ahead
Refusing permission - I am sorry, that's not possible - No, please
- I am afraid I can't____ - Sorry that is not_____
- I would rather you didn't - Sorry, I can't___
Request for repetition - I beg your pardon - Pardon?
- Would you mind repeating? - What did you say?
-May I ask you to repeat? What was that?
Complaining - I regret to bring to your - Sorry, but____
notice____ - How could you that!
- I would like to bring to your
purview_________
Agreeing - I agree - Of course
- That is a great idea. - That's great
- Indeed - Yes
Disagreeing - I am afraid I don't agree - No
- Well, you have a point - I am not sure
but____
- I am sorry I disagree
Leave-taking - It was a pleasure seeing you - Bye

- Nice meeting you - See you later
- Goodbye - catch you later
- I am afraid, I must go now.
-Let me take your leave
Having learnt the language functions, let us now get into writing dialogues. However,
while writing dialogues we need to keep the following in mind
 The context- We need to understand whether the context is formal or informal
which will, in turn, guide our language.
 Tense of the dialogue should be maintained through the conversation based
on the situation.
 Dialogue should be precise to convey the idea clearly.
 Punctuations should be marked appropriately.
EXCERCISE:
I. Complete the following conversations
1. Shopkeeper: Excuse me, sir. How can I help you?
Customer: __________________(asking for information)
Shopkeeper: Yes sir we do have it.
Customer: How much would it cost?
Shopkeeper: ________________(giving information)
Customer: Do I have buy a wrapper?
Shopkeeper: No sir it is complimentary.
Customer: _______________ (expressing gratitude)
2. Student: Good morning Sir. _________________(Asking for permission)

Principal: Please come in.
Student: _____________ (Introducing himself).
Principal: Yes. What can I do for you?
Student: Sir I am here to invite you for the Annual Day tomorrow at 10 am.
Principal: ________________(agreeing).
Student: ___________( expressing gratitude)
3. Patient: Good morning sir, ___________________(introducing)

Doctor: Good morning. Please sit down. Tell me about your problem.
Patient: ________________(giving information?
Doctor: Since when do you have a fever?
Patient: For three days.
Doctor: ___________________(asking for other details)
Patient: Not really.
Doctor: Take these medicines for three days.
Patient: ______________(expressing gratitude)
4. Akash: Hi Preeti! You have not returned my book!!

Preeti______________(apologizing)
Akash: _____________(responding to the apology)
Preeti: May I return it next week?
Akash: ____________(disagreeing)
Preeti: Fine! Will give it tomorrow.
Akash: ________ (ending conversation)
5. Tenant: Hello. Is it 3535358?

Owner: Yes. May I know who is speaking?
Tenant: ____________(introducing)
Owner: What can I do for you?
Tenant: ______________(asking for information)
Owner: Oh, I am sorry. It is already taken.
Tenant: ______________(Leavetaking)
II. Develop dialogue for the following situations
1. You are a student enquiring for admission for BA course in a college. Write a
dialogue between the college office reception and you.
2. Conversation between two friends, who are planning a trip.
3. Conversation between a traffic policeman and a bike rider regarding not wearing a
helmet.
4. Conversation between two sisters on buying a new phone
5. Conversation between a customer and a sales executive in a TV showroom.
MODULE 5
ANALYSIS OF ISSUE AND ARGUMENT
Note to the Teacher: Education is a constant pursuit of Knowledge. This prepares the
students not only to gain knowledge but also to view problems from various
perspectives. Logical thinking and analytical thinking are few of the traits which have
to be developed among the students. Analysing an Issue or an Argument is one such
skill which can be taught in the class.
Analysis of an Issue:
This component helps to develop the ability to look at an Issue from various
viewpoints. While Analysing an Issue first understand the given issue properly.
Develop your view points based on the given Issue. Analysing an Issue deals with
one’s ability to argue a topic in one’s own view. This can be a debatable topic on any
subject such as Social, Political, Cultural and any other field which can be argued
with one’s own ideas and arguments.
Begin by giving a brief introduction about the topic of issue. The author is free to
state the issue and evolve the essay stating the chosen side of the topic and the reason
for standing by the chosen side. The author is free to agree or disagree with the
statement and the same can be developed with real time examples, relevant reasons
that support the chosen statement. An Issue essay is an interpretation of the author
with credible points from various arenas of events and situations. It can be concluded
with the author’s opinion of why the chosen statement is valid.
Sample Analysis of an Issue:
Question
In some countries, television and radio programs are carefully censored for offensive
language and 47ehavior. In other countries, there is little or no censorship.
In the matter of censoring television and radio programs for offensive language and
48ehavior, there is an inherent conflict between our right as citizens for freedom of
information and the government’s duty to protect us from potential harm. I think that
the rights of individuals should take a back seat while compared to society’s interest
in preventing the harm that exposure to obscenity can cause to the citizens,
particularly the youth.
It is my belief that exposure to obscene and offensive language and 48ehavior can
influence the 48ehavior of those who are exposed to it, although it is difficult to prove
a conclusive cause and effect relationship. But both common sense and our
experiences with children lead us to believe that people often tend to ape the language
and the 48ehavior which they are exposed day after day.
No one can deny that obscene and offensive 48ehavior is indeed harmful to a society
and such harm is both tangible and deep. For the individual, it has a debasing impact
on vital human relationships. For the society, it promotes a tendency toward immoral
and antisocial 48ehavior. Both outcomes, in turn, tear apart the social fabric that holds
a society together.
Those who advocate unbridled individual expression might point out that the right of
free speech is intrinsic to a democracy and necessary to its survival. Even so, this
right is not absolute, nor is it the most critical element. In my assessment, the interests
served by restricting obscenity in broadcast media are, on balance, more crucial to the
survival of a society. Advocates of free expression might also point out difficulties in
defining obscene or offensive language or 48ehavior. But in my view, however
difficult it may be to agree on standards, the effort is worthwhile.
In sum, it is in our best interest as a society for the government to censor broadcast
media for obscene and offensive language and 48ehavior. Exposure to such media
content tends to harm society and its citizenry in ways that are worth preventing, even
in light of the resulting infringement of our right of free expression
Exercise -1
Analyse the Issue on any three of the following: (300 Words)
1. Internet is an Information overload.
2. Youth prefer soft copy of the News Papers.
3. Children should be given freedom to choose their own religion.
4. Objective type of examination is enough to judge the students’ abilities.
5. Service in Defence must be made mandatory for all the youth who graduate.
In the above mentioned topics the writer is free to choose for or against the topic and
express his/her own views.
Analysis of an Argument:
While Analysing an Argument one should assess someone else’s argument. The task
is to present a brief passage in which the writer makes a case for a course of action or
interprets events by presenting claims and supporting evidences. The author’s job is
to observe the assertions made and critically assess the logic of the author’s position.

Points for Analysis
One has to analyse the logic of the writer’s case by assessing both the use of evidence
and the logical connections. In reading the author’s argument, consider the following:
 What substantiation is given?
 What conclusions are made?
 What suppositions (probably not stated) are made?
 What implications (perhaps not specified) would necessarily follow from the
author’s argument?
Also evaluate the logic and structure of the argument. See for altered words and
phrases to show the author’s reasoning connections like – evidently, however, hence,
in conclusion, thus, therefore, etc.,
Then assess the following:
 What changes are being made from one point of logic to another?
 Are classic logical errors prominent?
What Not to Address in Your Response

An important part of writing an Argument task well is that what one should not be
doing is:
 The writer should not discuss whether the statements in the argument are true
or accurate.
 The author is not asked to agree or disagree with the position stated.
 The author is also expected not to express his/her own views on the subject
being discussed (like in the Issue task).
Steps for Analysing the Argument:

1) Read the instructions and arguments thoroughly.
2) Categorize the argument’s assumptions, claims and conclusions. Assess their
quality.
3) Give as many alternative explanations and counterexamples.
4) Consider what explicit point or evidence might weaken while countering the
argument.
5) While writing an argument question one self the changes which one needs to
incorporate to make the argument much more logical.
Sample Analysis of an Argument:

Question: The following appeared as part of an article on trends on television.
A recent study of viewers’ attitudes toward prime-time television programs shows
that many of the programs that were judged by their viewers to be of high quality
appeared on (non-commercial) television networks and that, on commercial
television, the most popular shows are typically sponsored by the bestselling
products. Thus, it follows that businesses who use commercial television to promote
their products will achieve the greatest advertising success by sponsoring only
highly-rated programs and, ideally, programs resembling the highly-rated non-
commercial programs on public channels as much as possible.
This article concludes that businesses using commercial television to promote their
products will achieve the greatest advertising success by sponsoring only highly-rated
programs – preferably, programs resembling the highly-rated non-commercial
programs on public channels. He supports this claim on the basis of a recent study
indicating that many programs judged by viewers to be high in quality appeared on
non-commercial networks and that the most popular shows on commercial television
are typically sponsored by the best-selling products.
This argument is weak because it depends on three questionable assumptions.
The first of these assumptions is that non-commercial public television programs
judged by viewers to be high in quality are also popular. However, the study cited by
the author concerns viewer attitudes about the high quality of programs on non-
commercial public television, not about their popularity. A program might rate highly
as to quality but not in terms of popularity. Thus, the author unfairly assumes that
highly-rated public television programs are necessarily widely viewed, or popular.
The argument also assumes that programs resembling popular non-commercial

programs will also be popular on commercial television. However, the audiences for
the two types of programs differ significantly in their tastes. For example, a
symphony series may be popular on public television but not as a prime-time network
show, because public-television viewers tend to be more interested than commercial-
television viewers in the arts and higher culture. Thus, a popular program in one
venue may be decidedly unpopular in the other.
A third assumption is that products become best-sellers as a result of their being

advertised on popular programs. While this may be true in some cases, it is equally
possible that only companies with products that are already best-sellers can afford the
higher ad rates that popular shows demand. Accordingly, a lesser-known product
from a company on a smaller budget might be better off running repeated – but less
expensive – ads on less popular shows than by running just one or two costly ads on a
top-rated show.
In conclusion, the results of the cited study do not support the author’s conclusion. To
better evaluate the argument, we need to know the intended meaning of the phrase
highly-rated.
To strengthen the argument, the author must limit his conclusion by acknowledging
that popularity in public television might not translate to popularity in commercial
television and that the best advertising strategy for companies with best-selling
products may not be feasible for other businesses
(http://www.english-for-students.com/Analysis-of-An-Argument)
Exercise – II
Analyse an Argument for any three of the following: (300 Words)
1. “Studies have found that employees of not-for-profit organizations and
charities are often more highly motivated than employees of for-profit
corporations to perform well at work when their performance is not being
monitored or evaluated. Interviews with employees of not-for-profit
organizations suggest that the reason for their greater motivation is the belief
that their work helps to improve society. Because they believe in the
importance of their work, they have personal reasons to perform well, even
when no financial reward is present. Thus, if our corporation began donating a
significant portion of its profits to humanitarian causes, our employees’
motivation and productivity would increase substantially and our overall
profits would increase as well.”
2. “As violence in movies increases, so do crime rates in our cities. To combat
this problem we must establish a board to censor certain movies, or we must
limit admission to persons over 21 years of age. Apparently our legislators are
not concerned about this issue since a bill calling for such actions recently
failed to receive a majority vote.”
3. “Commuter use of the new subway train is exceeding the transit company’s
projections. However, commuter use of the shuttle buses that transport people
to the subway stations is below the projected volume. If the transit company
expects commuters to ride the shuttle buses to the subway rather than drive
there, it must either reduce the shuttle bus fares or increase the price of
parking at the subway stations
4. The following appeared in an editorial from a magazine produced by an
organization dedicated to environmental protection:
“In order to effectively reduce the amount of environmental damage that
industrial manufacturing plants cause, those who manage the plants must be
aware of the specific amount and types of damage caused by each of their
various manufacturing processes. However, few corporations have enough
financial incentive to monitor this information. In order to guarantee that
corporations reduce the damage caused by their plants, the federal government
should require every corporation to produce detailed annual reports on the
environmental impact of their manufacturing process, and the government
should impose stiff financial penalties for failure to produce these reports.”
5. The following appeared in the editorial section of a local newspaper.

If the paper from every morning edition of the nation’s largest newspaper were
collected and rendered into paper pulp that the newspaper could reuse, about 5
million trees would be saved each year. This kind of recycling is unnecessary,
however, since the newspaper maintains its own forests to ensure an
uninterrupted supply of paper.
(http://www.english-for-students.com/Analysis-of-An-Argument
Module 6
Writing a Summary
To summarize means to sum up the main points of any piece of writing. It is the act of
expressing the most important facts or ideas about something or someone in a short
and clear form, or a text in which these facts or ideas or expressed.
Summary writing helps you to develop the following skills:
• Ability to concentrate
• Power of condensation
• Command over the vocabulary
• Ability to select the correct information and to re-present in own words
• Skill in keeping to word limit
• Ability to express oneself clearly in writing
Example 1
“The Northern Lights”
There are times when the night sky glows with bands of color. The bands may begin
as cloud shapes and then spread into a great arc across the entire sky. They may fall in
folds like a curtain drawn across the heavens. The lights usually grow brighter, then
suddenly dim. During this time the sky glows with pale yellow, pink, green, violet,
blue, and red. These lights are called the Aurora Borealis. Some people call them the
Northern Lights. Scientists have been watching them for hundreds of years. They are
not quite sure what causes them. In ancient times people were afraid of the Lights.
They imagined that they saw fiery dragons in the sky. Some even concluded that the
heavens were on fire.
Summary
The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, are bands of color in the night sky. Ancient
people thought that these lights were dragon on fire, and even modern scientists are
not sure what they are.
Example 2
Most medical people despised the press, holding attitudes not totally unfamiliar today.
Reporters tended to be suckers for every quack, half-quack, over-eager scientist, or
naive country doctor who thought he had a serum to cure tuberculosis, a herbal
remedy for cancer, or a new surgical procedure to rejuvenate the aged. When the
newspapers were not wasting space on undeserving medical stories, they were over-
playing legitimate news, getting their facts wrong, and generally making a nuisance of
themselves interfering in the lives and practices of busy professionals. Doctors' deep
suspicion of what they read in the newspapers and even in the less-carefully edited of
the medical journals, helps to explain some of the early skepticism about insulin in
countries like Britain: Oh, the Americans are always curing everything; this week it's
diabetes. Even in Canada and the United States it was some months before there was
enough confirmation of the unlikely news from Toronto to convince wire services and
the more skeptical doctors and editors that insulin was, indeed, the real thing.
Summary
Most medical people hated the press, because reporters tended to believe every over-
eager scientist or naive country doctor who thought he had a cure for something.
Newspapers often over-played legitimate news, got their facts wrong, and interfered
in the lives and practices of busy professionals. Doctors became deeply suspicious of
what they read in the newspapers and less-carefully edited medical journals, therefore
were skeptical about insulin in countries like Britain because it seemed the Americans
were always curing everything.
Summarize the following passages:
Exercise 1
Encounter Groups
Because of the unstructured nature of the group, the major problem faced by the
participants is how they are going to use their time together - whether it be eighteen
hours of a week-end or forty or more hours in a one-week group. Often there is
consternation, anxiety, and irritation at first - particularly because of the lack of
structure. Only gradually does it become evident that the major aim of nearly every
member is to find ways of relating to other members of the group and to himself.
Then as they gradually, tentatively, and fearfully explore their feelings and attitudes
towards one another and towards themselves, it becomes increasingly evident that
what they have first presented are façades, masks. Only cautiously do the real feelings
and real persons emerge. The contrast between the outer shell and the inner person
becomes more and more apparent as the hours go by. Little by little, a sense of
genuine communication builds up, and the person who has been thoroughly walled off
from others comes out with some small segment of his actual feelings. Usually his
attitude has been that his real feelings will be quite unacceptable to other members of
the group. To his astonishment, he finds that he is more accepted the more real that he
becomes. Negative feelings are often especially feared, since it seems certain to each
individual that his angry or jealous feelings cannot possibly be accepted by another.
Thus one of the most common developments is that a sense of trust slowly begins to
build, and also a sense of warmth and liking for other members of the group. A
woman says on Sunday afternoon, 'If anybody had told me Friday evening that by
today I would be loving every member of this group I would have told him that he
belonged in the nut house.' Participants feel a closeness and intimacy which they have
not felt even with their spouses or members of their own family, because they have
revealed themselves here more deeply and more fully than to those in their own
family circle.
Thus, in such a group the individual comes to know himself and each of the others
more completely than is possible in the usual social or working relationships. He
becomes deeply acquainted with the other members and with his own inner self, the
self that otherwise tends to be hidden behind his façade. Hence he relates better to
others, both in the group and later in the everyday life situation.
Exercise 2
School and life
In my experience the problem of what to do in life was not made any easier by those
who were entrusted with my education. Looking back, it seems most odd that never
once in all the years that I was at school was there any general discussion about
careers. As presumably the main object of going to school is to prepare for after life, it
surely would have been very easy and relevant to organise lectures or discussions
designed to give boys a broad view of the enormous variety of occupations open to
men of average intelligence? Of course many boys were destined from birth to follow
their fathers’ careers, but even these would have benefited by glimpse of a wider
horizon. Often and often in after life I have come across people doing jobs that I had
never dreamed of before, and which would have thrilled me had I been told about
them at school. I suppose the reason for this extra-ordinary omission is that so many
schoolmasters had themselves such a restricted view. Spending all their time working
to a rigid curriculum, the passing of examinations by their pupils gradually became
the whole object of their working life. I recognize the importance of being made to
learn things that one does not like, but surely it was not good to give the young mind
the impression that all education was a form of mental gymnastics. For example, I
used to find geometry rather fun, and, when I still had the naïve idea that what I was
being taught might have some practical value, I asked what geometry was for. The
only answer I ever got was that it taught one how to solve problems. If, instead, I had
been told the simple fact that the word was derived from the Greek ge, the earth, and
metron, a measure, and that the meaningless triangles that I was asked to juggle with
formed the basis of geographical exploration, astronomy and navigation, the subject
would immediately have assumed a thrilling romance, and, what is more, it would
have been directly connected in my mind with the things that most appealed to me.
My experience in this connection may have been unfortunate, but it was by no means
unique; many of my friends who went to different schools confess to a similar
experience, and complain that when they had completed their school education they
had not the remotest idea of what they wanted to do. Moreover I do not think that this
curiously detached attitude towards education was confined to schools. It had been
intended that I should go to one of the great universities. I was tepid about the idea
myself, for I had developed a dislike for the very thought of educational
establishments. However, the prospect of three extra seasons in the Alps was a
considerable incentive, and by dint of an enormous mental effort I succeeded in
cramming sufficient Latin into my head to pass (at my second attempt) the necessary
entrance examination. In due course I went to be interviewed by the master of my
prospective college. When I was asked what subject I propose to take when I came up
to the university, I replied, somewhat diffidently, that I wanted to take Geology -
diffidently, because I still regarded such things as having no reality in the hard world
of work. The answer to my suggestion confirmed my fears. ‘What on earth do you
want to do with Geology? There is no opening there unless you eventually get a first
and become a lecturer in the subject.’ A first, a lecturer - I, who could not even learn a
couple of books of Horace by heart! I felt that I was being laughed at. In fact I am
sure I was not, and that my adviser was quite sincere and only trying to be helpful, but
I certainly did not feel like arguing the matter. I listened meekly to suggestions that I
should take Classics or Law, and left the room in a state of profound depression. ‘Oh
Lord,’ I thought, ‘even here I won't be able to escape from Kennedy's Latin Primer,’
with which I had been struggling for ten years.
Exercise 3
Violence
Now, if you want to stop violence, if you want to stop wars, how much vitality, how
much of yourself, do you give to it? Isn’t it important to you that your children are
killed, that your sons go into the army where they are bullied and butchered? Don’t
you care? My God, if that doesn’t interest you, what does? Guarding your money?
Having a good time? Taking drugs? Don’t you see that this violence in yourself is
destroying your children? Or do you see it only as some abstraction?
All right then, if you are interested, attend with all your heart and mind to find out.
Don’t just sit back and say, ‘Well, tell us all about it’. I point out to you that you
cannot look at anger nor at violence with eyes that condemn or justify and that if this
violence is not a burning problem to you, you cannot put those two things away. So
first you have to learn; you have to learn how to look at anger, how to look at your
husband, your wife, your children; you have to listen to the politician, you have to
learn why you are not objective, why you condemn or justify. You have to learn that
you condemn and justify because it is part of the social structure you live in, your
conditioning as a German or an Indian or a Negro or an American or whatever you
happen to have been born, with all the dulling of the mind that this conditioning
results in. To learn, to discover, something fundamental you must have the capacity to
go deeply. If you have a blunt instrument, a dull instrument, you cannot go deeply. So
what we are doing is sharpening the instrument which is the mind - the mind which
has been made dull by all this justifying and condemning. You can penetrate deeply
only if your mind is as sharp as a needle and as strong as a diamond.
It is no good just sitting back and asking, ‘How am I to get such a mind’? You have to
want it as you want your next meal, and to have it you must see that what makes your
mind dull and stupid is this sense of invulnerability which has built walls round itself
and which is part of this condemnation and justification. If the mind can be rid of that,
then you can look, study, penetrate, and perhaps come to a state that is totally aware
of the whole problem.
To investigate the fact of your own anger you must pass non-judgemental on it, for
the moment you conceive of its opposite you condemn it and therefore you cannot see
it as it is. When you say you dislike or hate someone that is a fact, although it sounds
terrible. If you look at it, go into it completely, it ceases, but if you say, ‘I must not
hate; I must have love in my heart’, then you are living in a hypocritical world with
double standards. To live completely, fully, in the moment is to live with what is, the
actual, without any sense of condemnation or justification - then you understand it so
totally that you are finished with it. When you see clearly the problem is solved.
But can you see the face of violence clearly - the face of violence not only outside you
but inside you, which means that you are totally free from violence because you have
not admitted ideology through which to get rid of it? This requires very deep
meditation, not just a verbal agreement or disagreement.
You have now read a series of statements but have you really understood? Your
conditioned mind, your way of life, the whole structure of the society in which you
live, prevent you from looking at a fact and being entirely free from it immediately.
You say, ‘I will think about it; I will consider whether it is possible to be free from
violence or not. I will try to be free.’ That is one of the most dreadful statements you
can make, ‘I will try’. There is no trying, no doing your best. Either you do it or you
don‘t do it. You are admitting time while the house is burning. The house is burning
as a result of the violence throughout the world and in yourself and you say, ‘Let me
think about it. Which ideology is best to put out the fire?’ When the house is on fire,
do you argue about the colour of the hair of the man who brings the water?
Exercise 4
Freedom and selfishness
It is always the problem of how to change an ideal into reality that gets in the way of
both the leaders and the people. A thought is not a deed and never will be. We are not
magic men. We cannot imagine something into existence - especially a change of
behaviour. Just as we have been conditioned to be what we are now - greedy,
competitive, stingy, mean - so we need to learn to love, to learn to be free.
Freedom is a difficult thing to handle. How many people given the complete freedom
to do whatever they like would die of boredom? No structure, no rules, no compulsion
to work from nine to five, no one telling us when to do this, do that - it sounds great
until we try it. We've learned to be directed by so many others - by mommy, daddy,
teacher, principal, boss, policeman, politician, bureaucrat, etc. - that freedom from all
this could be overwhelming. Imagine: making love, eating, sleeping, playing ... and ...
ho, hum, now what? Where do you go and what do you do when the trip ends?
Give people freedom and they'll do all the things they thought they never had a
chance to do. But that won't take very long. And after that? After that, my friend, it'll
be time to make your life meaningful. Can you do it if you're free? Can you do it if
others no longer require you to do what they say is best? Authority is only necessary
for those who need it. Most of us need it because we've been taught to believe that we
have to be concerned about others. For instance: 'You're selfish if you think of
yourself,' or even: 'Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for
your country.'
Sorry friends, but that's all Christian, authoritarian, manipulative bullshit. You've got
to get in touch with what your real needs are before you can begin to be of value to
others. The other-directedness of Americans that is promoted by mom, God, and the
flag has pushed us to the precipice of Fascism in this country. We are no longer able
to think for ourselves, we think for the 'good' of others. 'Who am I?', 'What do I really
want out of life?' These are considered selfish questions. So a whole society goes
down the drain. So it is with communes, whose members are too eager to help their
curious 'brothers,' who find it remarkably easy to create all kinds of physical and
figurative mess and then leave it for the members to clean up.
Challenges to this traditional, other-directed, do-gooder mystique are met with
admonitions and scoldings: 'Why are you so selfish, all the time thinking only about
yourself? Don't you have any regard for the rights of others?' (The intent and frequent
effect of such a question is to make one feel guilty and consequently willing to
conform to the 'altruistic' wishes of others.) And because we have become so
confused about what is really important to us as individuals, we believe these
admonitions - and with good reason. Our demands are indeed 'selfish'. As we are no
longer capable of knowing who we really are, we are compelled and desire to be like
someone (everyone) else. We feel we must have money, a new car, power, position,
prestige, and an all too material sense of personal worth.
Exercise 5
How children fail.
Most children in school fail. For a great many this failure is avowed and absolute.
Close to forty per cent of those who begin high school drop out before they finish. For
college the figure is one in three. Many others fail in fact if not in name. They
complete their schooling only because we have agreed to push them up through the
grades and out of the schools, whether they know anything or not. There are many
more such children than we think. If we ‘raise our standards’ much higher, as some
would have us do, we will find out very soon just how many there are. Our
classrooms will bulge with kids who can’t pass the test to get into the next class.
But there is a more important sense in which almost all children fail: except for a
handful, who may or may not be good students, they fail to develop more than a tiny
part of the tremendous capacity for learning, understanding, and creating with which
they were born and of which they made full use during the first two or three years of
their lives.
Why do they fail? They fail because they are afraid, bored, and confused. They are
afraid, above all else, of failing, of disappointing or displeasing the many anxious
adults around them, whose limitless hopes and expectations for them hang over their
heads like a cloud. They are bored because the things they are given and told to do in
school are so trivial, so dull, and make such limited and narrow demands on the wide
spectrum of their intelligence, capabilities, and talents.
They are confused because most of the torrent of words that pours over them in
school makes little or no sense. It often flatly contradicts other things they have been
told, and hardly ever has any relation to what they really know - to the rough model of
reality that they carry around in their minds. How does this mass failure take place?
What really goes on in the classroom? What are these children who fail doing? What
goes on in their heads? Why don’t they make use of more of their capacity?
This book is the rough and partial record of a search for answers to these questions. It
began as a series of memos written in the evenings to my colleague and friend Bill
Hull, whose fifth-grade class I observed and taught in during the day. Later these
memos were sent to other interested teachers and parents. A small number of these
memos make up this book. They have not been much rewritten, but they have been
edited and rearranged under four major topics: Strategy; Fear and Failure; Real
Learning; and How Schools Fail. Strategy deals with the ways in which children try to
meet, or dodge, the demands that adults make on them in school. Fear and Failure
deals with the interaction in children of fear and failure, and the effect of this on
strategy and learning. Real Learning deals with the difference between what children
appear to know or are expected to know, and what they really know. How Schools
Fail analyses the ways in which schools foster bad strategies, raise children’s fears,
produce learning which is usually fragmentary, distorted, and short-lived, and
generally fail to meet the real needs of children.
Exercise 6
Hypnosis
There are many methods of producing hypnosis; indeed, almost every experienced
hypnotist employs variations differing slightly from those of others. Perhaps the most
common method is something along these lines. The hypnotist tries to obtain his
subject’s co-operation by pointing out to him the advantages to be secured by the
hypnosis, such as, for instance, the help in curing a nervous illness to be derived from
the patient’s remembering in the trance certain events which otherwise are
inaccessible to his memory. The patient is reassured about any possible dangers he
might suspect to be present in hypnosis, and he may also be told (quite truthfully) that
it is not a sign of instability or weakness to be capable of being put in a hypnotic
trance, but that, quite on the contrary, a certain amount of intelligence and
concentration on the part of the subject is absolutely essential.
Next, the subject is asked to lie down on a couch, or sit in an easy-chair. External
stimulation is reduced to a minimum by drawing the curtains and excluding, as far as
possible, all disruptive noises. It is sometimes helpful to concentrate the subject’s
attention on some small bright object dangled just above eye-level, thus forcing him
to look slightly upwards. This leads quickly to a fatigue of the eye-muscles, and thus
facilitates his acceptance of the suggestion that he is feeling tired and that his eyes are
closing. The hypnotist now begins to talk to the subject in a soft tone of voice,
repeating endlessly suggestions to the effect that the subject is feeling drowsy, getting
tired, that his eyes are closing, that he is falling into a deep sleep, that he cannot hear
anything except the hypnotist’s voice, and so on and so forth. In a susceptible subject,
a light trance is thus induced after a few minutes, and the hypnotist now begins to
deepen this trance and to test the reactions of the subject by giving suggestions which
are more and more difficult of execution. Thus, he will ask the subject to clasp his
hands together, and tell him that it is impossible for him to separate his hands again.
The subject, try as he may, finds, to his astonishment, that he cannot in actual fact pull
his hands apart. Successful suggestions of this kind are instrumental in deepening the
hypnotic trance until, finally, in particularly good subjects, all the phenomena which
will be discussed presently can be elicited.
Having induced a reasonably deep hypnotic trance in our subject, what types of
phenomena can be elicited? The first and most obvious one, which, indeed, may be
responsible in large measure for all the others, is a tremendous increase in the
subject’s suggestibility. He will take up any suggestion the hypnotist puts forward and
act on it to the best of his ability. Suggest to him that he is a dog, and he will go down
on all fours and rush around the room barking and yelping. Suggest to him that he is
Hitler, and he will throw his arms about and produce an impassioned harangue in an
imitation of the raucous tones of the Führer! This tremendous increase in
suggestibility is often exploited on the stage to induce people to do foolish and
ridiculous acts. Such practices are not to be encouraged because they go counter to the
ideal of human dignity and are not the kind of way in which hypnosis ought to be
used; nevertheless, they must be mentioned because it is probably phenomena such as
these which are most familiar to people from vaudeville acts, from reading the papers,
and so forth.
It would not be true to say, however, that all suggestions are accepted, even in the
very deepest trance. This is particularly true when a suggestion is made which is
contrary to the ethical and moral conceptions held by the subject. A well-known story
may be quoted to illustrate this. Charcot, the great French neurologist, whose classes
at one time were attended by Freud, was lecturing on hypnosis and was demonstrating
the phenomena of the hypnotic trance on a young girl of eighteen. When she had been
hypnotized deeply he was called away, and handed over the demonstration to one of
his assistants. This young man, lacking the seriousness of purpose so desirable in
students of medicine, even French ones, suggested to the young lady that she should
remove her clothes. She immediately awakened from her trance, slapped his face, and
flounced out of the room, very much to his discomfiture.
Exercise 7
Acquiring new knowledge.
In all learning, advances tend to come irregularly and in bursts, as you gain fresh
insights into the subject. In order to obtain these insights you must thoroughly
understand what you are studying. If you really understand a subject not only do you
remember it easily, but you can apply your know ledge in new situations. The
important thing is not what you know, but what you can do with what you know. The
extra effort involved in getting a firm grounding in the essentials of a subject is repaid
many times in later study. How are you to achieve understanding? Understanding
involves (1) linking new knowledge to the old and (2) organizing it and remembering
it in a systematic fashion. To retain and make sense of any new concept or fact it must
be linked in as many ways as possible to your existing body of knowledge. All good
introductory textbooks are constantly giving familiar examples, or using analogies, or
appealing to common experience. In setting out the differences between daylight
vision and twilight vision, for example, most writers point out that as twilight falls in
the garden, blue flowers remain blue for some time after red blossoms appear black,
illustrating, by appeal to common experience, that under dim illumination the colours
of the blue end of the spectrum become relatively brighter than those of the red end.
Or again, to illustrate that the movement of any particular electron during the passage
of an electric current is only a few centimetres a second, although the velocity of the
current is extremely great, the analogy is often used of a truck run into the end of a
long line of trucks in a shunting yard, a corresponding truck being rapidly ejected
from the far end. Linking new information to familiar experience in this fashion
always helps understanding. In order to tie the new information to your stock of
knowledge with as many links as possible, you must reflect on it, and try and relate it
to what you already know. Thinking the matter over by yourself, writing out
summaries of the main points, and talking to other students about it, are all valuable
for fixing it more clearly in your mind.'
Module 7
Verbal Reasoning
Para Jumble
Para-Jumble refers to a paragraph where the sentences forming it are jumbled. In para
jumbles, one has to rearrange the parts of a sentence into a meaningful sentence or
sentences into a meaningful paragraph.
Para-jumbles are the best way to evaluate a candidate’s ability to understand
language. Students are required to arrange the jumbled sentences in such a way that it
makes a meaningful paragraph. It evaluates the comprehension skills i.e. paragraph
writing skill of the student.
Any paragraph consists of Introduction, the middle session and the Ending. It’s easy
to determine the Introduction and the Ending part. The middle section should be
arranged accordingly such that it follows both the Introduction and Conclusion. We
need to have an idea about tenses, pronouns, subject-verb agreement rules to answer
the 4 to 5 questions in less than 2 minutes.
Understanding the topic of the paragraph: One should be able to discern what is being
talked about, because the subject of individual sentences forms the most important
clue for establishing links between various sentences.
Understanding the information flow and approach of author: The second thing that is
pivotal to identify is the information flow that has been adopted by the author. What is
his exact purpose in the paragraph? Is he explicating something or is he criticizing
something? Being able to identify his purpose in the paragraph will obviously help us
to establish the order of sentences.
A pre-requisite to develop the two skills above is to possess the qualities of a Good
Reader.
Points to be considered to be considered while rearranging the sentences:
Transition words make the shift from one idea to another very smooth. They organize
and connect the sentences logically. Observing the transition words found in a
sentence can often give you a clue about the sentence that will come before/after that
particular sentence. Given below are some commonly used transition words:
also, again, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,
similarly, consequently, hence, otherwise, subsequently, therefore, thus, as a rule,
generally, for instance, for example, for one thing, above all, aside from, barring,
besides, in other words, in short, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand,
rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, first of all, to begin with, at the
same time, for now, for the time being, in time, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon,
the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this
in mind, after all, all in all to sum-up.
Personal pronouns are he, she, it, him, her, they, you, your etc. Personal pronouns
always refer to a person, place or thing etc. Therefore, if a sentence contains a
personal pronoun without mentioning the person, place or object it is referring to, the
person, place or object must have come in the previous sentence. Often, this is a good
lead to identify a link.
Demonstrative pronouns (such as that, this, these, those) also cannot be used in the
first sentence without introduction.
Articles – There is two types of articles- Definite and Indefinite article.‘ The’ article is
used to define an already known specific person or a thing. Therefore, ‘The’ is most
unlikely to be used in the opening sentence or the first sentence. ‘A’ or ‘An’ are used
to express a general statement or give Introduction of a person, place or a thing. So, in
a paragraph, we can expect the sentence containing Indefinite articles to be prior to
the sentence containing the Definite article.
Abbreviation/acronym approach: If both Full forms as well as short form of a word is
present, then the sentence containing Full form will appear before the sentence
containing the short-form.
Make sure to follow the chronological order present in the sentences (such as before,
after, later, when)
The Conclusion part is the summary of the whole paragraph. Example: If most of the
sentences are problem oriented then the conclusion should be a solution or preventive
measure for that particular problem.
Sample 1
A. Despite the strong performance of the economy in 2010-11, the outlook for
2011-12 is clouded by stubborn and persistently high inflation, and rising
external risks.
B. The three key macroeconomic concerns before the Union Budget 2011-12
were high inflation, high current account deficit (CAD), and fiscal
consolidation.
C. Additionally, there was an expectation that the government would restart the
reform process.
D. While the Budget sets a lower nominal gross domestic product (GDP) growth
target of 14%, we believe that the real GDP growth target of 9% factored in
the Budget is on the optimistic side.
E. The Budget has made an attempt to address all these issues, albeit through
small steps.
Answer options
A)BCEAD B) CBAED C)DACEB D) ADCEB
Answer: Option A
Explanation
B is the opening sentence. It is independent and introduces three main problems.
The word additionally means that there must be something before sentence C. These
issues in E are the issues mentioned in B and C. B will be followed by C, which will
be followed by E. Hence, BCE is the mandatory pair.
Sample 2
A. The potential exchanges between the officials of IBBF and the Maharashtra Body-
Building Association has all the trappings of a drama we are accustomed to.
B. In the case of sports persons, there is room for some sympathy, but the apathy of
the administrators, which has even led to sanctions from international bodies, is
unpardonable.
C. A case in the point is the hefty penalty of US $10,000 slapped on the Indian Body-
Building Federation for not fulfilling its commitment for holding the Asian
Championships in Mumbai in October.
D. It is a matter of deep regret and concern that the sports administrators often cause
more harm to the image of the country than sportsmen and sportswomen do through
their dismal performances.
Answer Options:
A. CABD B. DBCA C. DABC D. CDBA
Answer Option B
Explanation:
Here sentence 3 is an example of sentence 4. So it will come after 4. So now only
option B and C remain. Going by the ACRONYM method. (IBBF in 1 and Indian
Body-Building Federation in 3) 3 will come before 1.
Assignment
Arrange the words to form meaningful sentences:
1. family/I/really//with/enjoy/time/spending/my.
_____________________________________________________________________
_______
2. again/see/I/to/you/soon/hope
_____________________________________________________________________
_______
3. called/being/detests/Timothy/he
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
4. imagine/I/getting/angry/can’t/him
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
5. to/more/to/have/patient/learn/you’ll/be
_____________________________________________________________________
________
I Re arrange the following sentences to form a coherent paragraph.
1) What came out was very large garland made out of currency notes.
2) The unrespecting governor opened the box in full view of the gathering.
3) When the RBI governor came to inaugurate the new printing press, the local
unit of BJP handed him a gift wrapped box.
4) There was a twist- the notes were all as tattered as notes could get.
II
(A) Passivity is not, of course, universal.
(B) In areas where there are no lords or laws, or in frontier zones where all men go
armed, the attitude of the peasantry may well be different.
(C) So indeed it may be on the fringe of the unsubmissive.
(D) However, for most of the soil-bound peasants the problem is not whether to be
normally passive or active, but when to pass from one state to another. (E)
This depends on an assessment of the political situation.
(1) BEDAC (2) CDABE (3) EDBAC (4) ABCDE
III
A. On Monday the secretary of state is due to hold a day of meetings with high-level
political, military and business figures to further a "strategic dialogue" aimed at
further expansion of US trade in India.
B. US secretary of state Hillary Clinton arrived in India on Sunday for strategic talks
aimed at bolstering bilateral ties and securing firmer support for the war in
Afghanistan.
C. Clinton arrived by plane in Delhi before noon, according to a reporter travelling
with her, ahead of expected talks with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and President
Pratibha Patel in the evening.
1. BAC2. BCA3. CBA4. CAB
IV
A. Literature is uncanny. What does this mean? To try to define the uncanny is
immediately to encounter one of its decisive paradoxes, namely that ' the uncanny '
has to do with a troubling of definitions, with a fundamental disturbance of what we
think and feel.
B. The uncanny is not just a matter of the weird or spooky, but has to do more
specifically with a disturbance of the familiar.
C. The uncanny has to do with a sense of strangeness, mystery or eeriness.
D. More particularly it concerns a sense of unfamiliarity which appears at the very
heart of the familiar, or else a sense of familiarity which appears at the very heart of
the unfamiliar.
E. Such a disturbance might be hinted at by way of the word ' familiar ' itself.
V
A. Constructed role for women places them in the
B. domestic sphere and prevents them from undertaking
C. social, economic, and political activities designated for men
D. In traditional, patriarchal societies, the culturally
(A) ADCB (B)BCDA (C) DABC (D)DACB
VI
A. Claimed that an “independent agency” found that
B. the Prime Minister, in a recent televised interview, misleadingly
C.70 lakh Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) accounts
D. were opened for persons aged 18–25 years (D)
(A)BACD (B) BCDA (C) ADCB (D)DBCA
VII
A. Riots had to be contained, food shortages to be overcome, princely states (as many
as five hundred) to be integrated, refugees (almost ten million) to be resettled.
B. It is safe to say that no modern politician had anywhere near as difficult a job as
Jawaharlal Nehru’s.
C. At Independence, the country he was asked to lead was faced with horrific
problems.
D. This, so to say, was the task of fire-fighting; to be followed by the equally daunting
task of nation-building.
(A)ABDC (B) BCAD (C) BACD (D) DCBA
VII
A. Indian society has tried very hard to sweep the issue of child sexual abuse under
the carpet.
B. In a democracy, unless the society recognizes the need for a law to regulate an
issue, the issue is not addressed.
C. But the first step is obviously an acknowledgement of the issue itself.
D. It starts with the family hushing up instances of sexual abuse of children within the
family, resulting in underreporting of the issue and a gross underestimation of the
gravity of the problem.
ABDC
ADBC
CBDA
BDAC
Para completion
Para-completion requires you to complete the paragraph in a way that it is coherent
and complete. It tests your comprehension skills. All it asks of you is to complete a
missing line from a paragraph, and this line is generally the last line of the paragraph.
The concluding sentence must have the following components:
a) It must be a value addition to the given Paragraph
b) It must preserve the unity of thought and structure
c) It must be consistent in tone with the given Paragraph
Para completion can be solved using the following methods:
 Cause – effect: One of the most common conclusion patterns. The paragraph
presents us with causes, and the correct answer option presents us with the
logical effect. Do remember that the effect cannot be in contradiction with the
causes. Course-of-action: The paragraph presents us with a situation, and the
correct answer offers a probable course of action.
 A contrasting option: The paragraph presents us with a viewpoint, or several
viewpoints.. Contrast offers us an opposing viewpoint without invalidating the
other. Contradiction essentially refutes what the given Paragraph asserts.
 Chronological order: The paragraph may present us with a series of events
following a definite and linear timeline.
 A problem-solution approach: The Paragraph offers a problem or a
problematic situation, and the correct answer option may be a solution to the
given problem.
 Theory-Illustration: The paragraph contains a theory or more likely a
theoretical discussion, and the correct answer option offers an example to
explain it.
 Reinforcement of an argument: Another extremely common Paragraph
structure. The Paragraph contains the argument, and the correct answer option
the appropriate substantiation of it.
Another way of answering this question is by eliminating the options. The following
answer choices can be eliminated.
a) Irrelevant: Such answer options are the conclusions which are either entirely
unrelated to or only vaguely related to the Paragraph.
b) Repetition: A theme cannot be extended by repeating either directly or
indirectly what has been stated earlier.
c) Contradiction: The last line cannot disprove what the Paragraph has tried to
prove.
d) Too broad: This is the kind of answer option that magnifies the scope of the
argument beyond reasonable.
e) Too narrow – Here the incorrect answer option focuses pointlessly on a very
minor aspect of the Paragraph, and therefore fails to complete the main theme
of the passage.
f) Inconsistent tone – Be chary of the options that are clearly not alligned with
the tone of the passage.
g) New themes –The writer may talk about them in the next Paragraph, or the
one after that, but not in the given Paragraph.
Sample
They are the most terrible of punctuation marks in an otherwise optimistic
story. Every few months a bombing somewhere in India claims dozens of
ordinary lives, killing random unfortunates going about their daily business.
The attacks are usually blamed on militant groups fighting Indian rule in parts
of divided Kashmir, and on elements of the Pakistani intelligence services that
allegedly help them__________________________ .
A) The mighty Indian nation cannot do a thing against these irritant attacks.
B) It is an obstacle to ending the rancorous, bloody feud that has scarred the
60 years since independence and partition.
C) Blaming Pakistan is the standard response of India's old politicians who
cannot think of anything new.
D) Each murderous onslaught sets back the painstaking progress India and
Pakistan are making.
E) India has to be more responsible rather than blaming Pakistan for
everything that goes wrong on its soil.
Explanation:
In order to solve this question let us first identify the key words
 By identifying the key words we can see that they refer to the
bombings, which are like punctuation marks (those are the pauses that
we take), as they kill random people.
 It is clearly mentioned in the passage that it is the Pakistani militants
who help in the killings thereby creating the punctuation marks.
Key words are to be identified and understood
Option A: There is no mention of any action that may or may not be taken by
India, and hence can be eliminated.
Option B: The second statement is a restatement, and hence is eliminated.
Option C: and Option E: These are clubbed together as they are very similar
and both talk of India blaming Pakistan, inspite of India being at fault. This
has not been mentioned and thus cannot be derived from the passage.
Option D: Thus this is the only option left, and by method of elimination, this
is the answer.
Assignment
1. I was only 4 years old when my dad was working with elephants, lions, and tigers.
----. When I was 14, I was already taking care of and raising baboons and lion cubs,
leopard cats and other animals. At 17, I began working professionally with elephants.
I did that for about 8 years and then gave it up. I have been working in the
construction business since then
A. Elephants and many other animals are just like people
B. Therefore, I always had animals around me
C. You have to love them unconditionally
D. But nothing would happen to elephants
E. They are the type of animal that demands food all the time
2. When it comes to vehicular pollution, there is a need to understand why Delhi has
an ever-growing motorised vehicle population. Efficient mobility is essential for a
smooth functioning city. A primary cause for the explosion of private cars in the city
is the____________________________________.
A) Delhi’s vehicular traffic, particularly private vehicles, is not the prime culprit.
B) higher number of trips by autos and taxis and a larger presence of two-wheelers.
C) absence of a properly functioning, predictable, integrated public transport system
with efficient last-mile connectivity.
D) a feeder system integrating the different forms of public transport, synchronised
road management system and improved pedestrian facilities.
E) High fines, a hyper-vigilant police force and the short period of enforcement.
3. Some people shy away from travelling alone, a few embrace it. So, what is it that
makes it an attractive option? What are the advantages of going it alone? Well first
things first, travelling solo can be very liberating. The itinerary you set and all the
decisions you make are yours and yours
alone_______________________________________________.
A) You don’t need to worry about any other person or group.
B) but that is just one of many problems you will have to solve yourself, along with
making your own arrangements, and setting your own goals.
C) Actually, you can be completely selfish.
D) The most important factor to consider in your decision to make a trip alone is your
own sense of independence.
E) None of these.
4. The expenditure of time, money and sparse judicial and prosecutorial resources is
often justified by claims of a powerful deterrent message embodied in the ultimate
punishment- the death penalty. But studies repeatedly suggest that there is no
meaningful deterrent effect associated with the death penalty and further, any
deterrent impact is no doubt greatly diluted by the amount of time that inevitably
passes between the time of the conduct and the punishment. In 2010, the average time
between sentencing and execution in the United States averaged nearly 15 years.
A) A single federal death penalty case in Philadelphia was found to cost upwards of
$10 million — eight times higher than the cost of trying a death eligible case where
prosecutors seek only life imprisonment.
B) The ethics of the issue aside, it is questionable whether seeking the death penalty is
ever worth the time and resources that it takes to sentence someone to death.
C) Apart from delaying justice, the death penalty diverts resources that could be used
to help the victims’ families heal.
D) A much more effective deterrent would be a sentence of life imprisonment
imposed close in time to the crime.
5) Relations between the factory and the dealer are distant and usually strained as the
factory tries to force cars on the dealers to smooth out production. Relations between
the dealer and the customer are equally strained because dealers continuously adjust
prices—make deals—to adjust demand with supply while maximizing profits. This
becomes a system marked by a lack of long-term commitment on either side, which
maximizes feelings of mistrust. In order to maximize their bargaining positions,
everyone holds back information—the dealer about the product and the consumer
about his true desires. _________________
A) As a result, ‘deal making’ becomes rampant, without concern for customer
satisfaction.
B) As a result, inefficiencies creep into the supply chain.
C) As a result, everyone treats the other as an adversary, rather than as an ally.
D) As a result, fundamental innovations are becoming scarce in the automobile
industry.
E) As a result, everyone loses in the long run.
Odd Sentence Out

Four or five sentences, the sentences are to be arranged in a logical sequence to form
a coherent paragraph, but one of them does not fit into the sequence. Pick the sentence
that does not fit into the sequence.
Procedure:
 Identify the sentence that is most likely to start a paragraph, that sentence
which introduces an idea, or a concept, and that which is not abrupt often
starts a paragraph.
 Next step should be to establish a connecting link; here the parajumbles come
into the picture. The sentence that is taking the idea forward on similar lines
will come next in the sequence. See whether the subjects in the sentences are
linked or not.
 The sentence that you find difficult to fit into the sequence is the odd sentence,
and often the right answer.
 The subject matter of the odd sentence out may be very similar to that of the
other sentences, but it is not just about subject matter.
 All the sentences given may have the same theme, but one of them speak
about something different. This sentence is not in sync with the ideas
expressed in the other sentences.
 One the sentences may not fit the progression of ideas when the others are put
together.
 The answer choice could be a misfit chronologically or in the use of tense.
Sample
A. Corruption is pervasive across government departments, and Mr. Ghani is
yet to begin delivering on his promise to streamline governance.
B. The problem in Afghanistan has political, diplomatic and security

dimensions.
C. Politically, the government is seen to be corrupt, incompetent, and unable

to get its act together.
D. Even so, the repeated strikes in the most fortified areas with mounting
casualties demonstrate a steadily deteriorating security situation.
E. President Ashraf Ghani and Chief Executive Abdullah Abdullah are

reportedly not on the same page on key issues.
Answer: Option: D
Sentence B opens the discussion by asserting the problems Afghanistan has
been facing on different fronts. All the sentences, except D, are in line with
the idea discussed in the sentence B.
Sentence D would have also been considered a part of the paragraph, had the
adverbial phrase ‘Even so’ not been there. Usage of ‘Even so’ indicates a
contradiction but among the sentences given, all seem to be pointing towards
the problems in Afghanistan.
Assignment
Four/Five statements are given below, labelled A, B, C, D and E,/ A,B,C, and
D among these, three/four statements are in logical order and form a coherent
paragraph/passage. Choose the sentence that does not fit into the theme of the
passage.
Q1. A) I am particularly optimistic about the potential for technological innovation to
improve the lives of the poorest people in the world.
B. Companies are then willing to make the investments required to build new
systems, and customers are able to accept the transition costs of adopting new
behaviours.
C. But I believe that a realistic appraisal of the human condition compels an
optimistic worldview.
D. Usually, “optimism” and “realism” are used to describe two different
outlooks on life.
Q2. A. Much of the African surface is covered by savannas, or open

grasslands, and by arid plains and deserts.
B. Africa is a continent of great size, almost 12 million square miles or
about three times the size of the United States.
C. We have already noted the origins of humankind in East Africa where
some of the earliest fossil remains of protohominids have been found.
D. Most of it lies in the tropics and, although we often think of Africa in
terms of its rain forests, less than 10% of the continent is covered by tropical
forests, and those are mostly in West Africa.
Q 3 (a) My sister likes to watch the TV during her free time.

(b) I prefer reading novels.
(c) My father goes to the club for a game of bridge.
(d) My Brother works hard for his exams.
(e) My mother likes gardening so she spends a lot of time in the garden.
Q4. (a) People living in coastal areas are constantly under the threat of a
cyclone.
(b)Tornadoes are a common feature in some parts of America.
(c) The explosion of the atomic bomb at Hiroshima caused large-scale
destruction.
(d) In some countries where earthquakes occur frequently, houses are built
with wood.
(e) Volcanic eruptions can cause a great destruction.
Q5 (a) Coffee is a very popular stimulant among Americans.

(b) In Britain people generally prefer tea.
(c) Coco is a favorite drink of many children.
(d) It is always hygienic to drink mineral water.
(e) Mocha, is my favorite drink.
Allotment of Marks and

Practical Component
Marks Allotment per Semester

Theory : 70 Marks
Internal Assessment : 30 Marks
Practicals : 35 Marks
Practicals Internal Assessment : 15 Marks
Practicals for Paper 3

Practicals : 50 Marks (35+15)
Practical Exam : 35 Marks
Internal Assessment : 15 Marks
Question Paper Pattern
Max Marks: 70
Time: 3 Hours
Section A
1. Subject for given email.
2x2=4
2. Formal Letter
10
3. Paragraph writing.
06
4. Dialogue writing and Filling in the dialogues.
2x5=10
Section B
5. Issue writing
10
6. Argument writing.
10
Section C
7. a) Para jumble
2x5=10
b) Para completion
05
c) Odd Sentence out
05
Question Paper Pattern for Practicals
• Reading Comprehension
2x5=10
• Summary
05
• Email
10
• Picture Interpretation
05
• Logical writing with prompt
05
Model Question Paper

Max.Marks:70 Time:
3 Hours
Section – A
1. Write the appropriate subject for the given mails.
2x2=4
a) To: [email protected]
CC/BCC:
Subject:
Hello Everyone!
This is to inform you guys that an inter-college quiz competition is going

to be held in our college on Nov 25 from 11:30 am in the auditorium.
Everyone is therefore asked to take part in the competition so that our
college can win.
For further queries, feel free to contact me.
Regards
ABC
b) To: [email protected]
CC/BCC:
Subject:
Hello All
The marketing strategy meeting scheduled for this afternoon has been canceled. I
apologize for the late notice, but I know everyone will welcome the extra time back in
their day. We will reconvene at our regularly scheduled time next Wednesday.
Regards
Ram
Senior Marketing Manager
2. You wish to pursue your studies in Australia and you need a student loan.
Write a letter to the manager of a local bank requesting him/her for an
appointment to discuss the formalities for getting a loan.
10
3. Write a paragraph about the uses of a library in about 100 words.
06
4. Fill in the conversation choosing the right sentences given below:
05
Teacher: Why _______________
Chandan: My father ___________________
Teacher: When and where _____________
Chandan: When my father was _____________
Teacher: Oh. ________________
o Did this happen?
o Didn’t you attend the practical examination yesterday?
o I am sorry to hear that.
o Coming back from his office on Tuesday evening.
o Met with an accident.
5. Write a conversation between a child and a mother about the use of mobile
phones. 05
Section B
6. Analyse the below mentioned Issue in about 300 words.

10
“College students should base their choice of a field of study on the
availability of jobs in that field”.
Write a response in which you discuss the extent to which you agree or
disagree with the claim.
7. Analyse the given argument in about 300 words.

10
‘Online payment of money is not safe in India’.
Section C
8. Re arrange the following sentences to form a coherent paragraph.
2x5=10
A) What came out was very large garland made out of currency notes.
B) The unrespecting governor opened the box in full view of the gathering.
C) When the RBI governor came to inaugurate the new printing press, the
local unit of BJP handed him a gift wrapped box.
D) There was a twist- the notes were all as tattered as notes could get.
9. A) Passivity is not, of course, universal.

B) In areas where there are no lords or laws, or in frontier zones where all men
go armed, the attitude of the peasantry may well be different.
C) So indeed it may be on the fringe of the unsubmissive.
D) However, for most of the soil-bound peasants the problem is not whether to
be normally passive or active, but when to pass from one state to another. (E)
This depends on an assessment of the political situation.
(1) BEDAC (2) CDABE (3) EDBAC (4) ABCDE
10. From the given options, choose the one that completes the paragraph in the
most appropriate way.
05
When it comes to vehicular pollution, there is a need to understand why Delhi
has an ever-growing motorised vehicle population. Efficient mobility is
essential for a smooth functioning city. A primary cause for the explosion of
private cars in the city is the____________________________________.
A) Delhi’s vehicular traffic, particularly private vehicles, is not the prime
culprit.
B) higher number of trips by autos and taxis and a larger presence of two-
wheelers.
C) absence of a properly functioning, predictable, integrated public transport
system with efficient last-mile connectivity.
D) a feeder system integrating the different forms of public transport,
synchronised road management system and improved pedestrian facilities.
E) high fines, a hyper-vigilant police force and the short period of
enforcement.
11. Five statements are given below, A, B, C, D and E, among these, four
statements form a coherent paragraph. From the given options, choose the
option that does not fit into the theme of the passage.
05
A. During the framing of the Constitution, the subject of cow slaughter was one
of the most fraught and contentious topics of debate.
B. This dispute over prohibiting the sale of cows and buffaloes for slaughter at
animal markets has a history, which goes back to the founding of the
Republic.
C. The Supreme Court rejected these arguments and upheld the laws, but it did
so by focussing its reasoning entirely on — apparent — economic
considerations.
D. Proponents of a cow slaughter ban advanced a mix of cultural and

economic arguments, invoking the “sentiments of thirty crores of population”
on the one hand, and the indispensability of cattle in an agrarian economy on
the other.
E. Seth Govind Das, a member of the Constituent Assembly, framed it as a

“civilisational problem from the time of Lord Krishna”, and called for the
prohibition of cow slaughter to be made part of the Constitution’s chapter on
fundamental rights, on a par with the prohibition of untouchability.
Paper IV: Language and Basics of Linguistics
Contents
Module 1
The Study of Language
• What is Language?
• Characteristics of Language
• Difference between Human and Animal Communication
• Functions of Language
Module 2
• What is Linguistics?
• Branches of Linguistics
• Relationship between the branches of linguistics
Module 3
• Definition , morph, morpheme and allomorph; inflection versus derivation;
Free and Bound Morpheme
• Morphology as a study of word formation: common word forming processes
• Word formation: compounding, Reduplication, use of prefixes, use of suffixes,
conversion borrowing, acronyms
Module 4
Semantics
• Definition,
• What is meaning?
• Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning
Module 5
Sociolinguistics
• Language, culture and society
• Speech-communities
• language and culture
• language, dialect and idiolect
• sociolinguistic variation
• bi/multilingualism
Practicals – 50 Marks (35+15)

Practical exam to be conducted for 35 Marks.
15 Marks for Internal Assessment.
Analyzing the language techniques in Prose and Poetry.
PAPER 04
LANGUAGE AND BASICS OF LINGUISTICS
MODULE 1 – STUDY OF LANGUAGE
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
Everybody knows the answer to this question but nobody has so far been able to come
out with any standard definition that fully explains the term language. It is a situation
like trying to define the term life. Everybody knows what life is but one cannot
present a satisfactory definition of life. In order to understand a term like ‘life’, one
has to talk of the properties or characteristics of living beings (e.g. motion,
reproduction, respiration, growth, power of self healing, excretion, nutrition, morality,
etc.). Similarly, the term ‘language’ can be understood better in terms of its
properties or characteristics. Some linguistics, however, have been trying to define
language in their own ways even though all these definitions are far from satisfactory.
Here to some of these definitions:
1. Language is a symbol system based on pure or arbitrary conventions….

infinitely extendable and modifiable according to the changing needs and
conditions of the speakers.
As stated here, language conventions are not easily changed, yet it is not
impossible to do so. Language conventions are not easily changed, yet it is not
impossible to do so. Language is infinitely modifiable and extendable. Words go on
changing meanings and new words continue to be added to language with the
changing needs of the community using it. Shakespeare, for example, used to word
stomach to mean courage. Similarly words like laser, sputnik, and astronaut are of
quite recent origin in the English language.
2. Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method communicating ideas,

emotions and desires by means of a system voluntarily produced symbols.
There are two terms in this definition that call for discussion: human non-
instinctive. Language, as Sapir rightly said, is human. Only human language and all
normal humans uniformly possess it. Animals do have communication system but it
is not a developed system. That is why languages is said to be species - specific and
species - uniform.
Also, language does not pass from a parent to a child. In this sense, it is
instinctive. A child has to learn language and he / she learns the language of society
he / she is placed in.
3. Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with
each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.
This definition rightly gives more prominence to the fact that language is
prima speech produced by oral-auditory symbols. A speaker produces some string of
sounds that get conveyed through the air to the listener who, through his ear receives
the sound waves and conveys these to the brain that interpret these symbol to arrive at
a meaning.
4. A language is a set (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and

constructed out of a finite set of elements.
Chomsky meant to convey that each sentence has a structure. Human brain
competent enough to construct different sentences from out of the limited set sounds /
symbols belonging to a particular language. Human brain has a capacity to produce
infinite number of sentences that has never been said or heard.
5. A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human

communication.
6. A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social

group cooperates.
Both the definitions 5 and 6 above prominently pint out the language is a
system. Sounds joint to form words according to a system. The words then join to
form a meaningful words. In a word like knit combinations like/ n-ki-t/ /t.k.ni
/.i.n.k.t/ do not form any meaningful or sensible combinations. Words jointly form
sentences accordingly but one cannot accept a string of words like-‘ a game is a
cricket association glorious’. It is in this sense the language is said to be a system of
systems.
Some More Definitions

8. Languages is a system of conventionally spoken or written symbols by means
of which human being, as members of a social group and participants in its culture,
communicate.
9. Languages are the principal systems of communication used by particular

groups of human beings within the particular society (linguistic community) of which
they are members.
It is clearly evident from all these definitions, none of which completely

defines the term ‘language’, that it is not possible to have a single definition that
brings out all the properties of language. On the basis of these definitions, one can,
however, list out the various characteristics of language. It would, therefore, be better
to list these characteristics and discuss them in detail.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
Language is a Means of Communication
Language is a very important means of communication between humans. A can

communication his or her ideas, emotions, beliefs or feelings to B as they share a
common code that makes up the language. No doubt, there are many other means of
communication used by humans, e.g. gestures, nods, winks, flags, smiles, horns,
short-hand, Braille alphabet, mathematical symbols, Morse code, sirens, sketches,
maps, acting, miming, dancing, and so on. But all these systems of communication
are extremely limited or they too, in turn, largely depend on language only. They are
not so flexible, comprehensive, perfect and extensive as language is. Language is so
important a form of communication between humans that it is difficult to think of a
society without language. It is a carrier of civilization of culture as human thoughts
and philosophy are conveyed from one generation to the other through the medium of
language.
Language is ubiquitous in the sense that it is pressure everywhere in all activities. It
is as important as the air we breathe and is the most valuable possession of man. In
the scheme of things, all humans are blessed with language and it is the specific
property of human only. Language is thus species specific and species-uniform. It is
because of the use of language that humans at called ‘talking animals’.
Animals too have their system of communication but their communication is

limited to a very small number of messages, e.g., hunger , thirst, fear and anger. In
the case of humans, the situation is entirely different. Human beings can send an
infinite number of messages to their fellow beings. It is through language that they
store knowledge, transfer it to the next generation and yoke the present, past and the
future together.
Language is Arbitrary
There is no reason why a female adult human being be called a women in
English, istree in Hindi, aurat in Urdu, Zen in Persian, Femine in French or Tim in
Punajabi ; Selection of these words in the languages mentioned here is purely
arbitrary. It is just like christening a new born baby john or James. But once a child
is given some name is purely arbitrary manner. The name gets associated with the
child for his entire life and it becomes an important established convention. The
situation in the case of language is a similar one. The choice of a word selected to
mean a particular thing or idea is purely arbitrary but once a word is selected for a
particular referent, it comes to stay.
It may be noted that had language not been arbitrary, there would have been
only one language in the world.
The arbitrary nature of language permits or presupposes change. Names once

given are not normally change words in a language are more difficult to change
because a whole society has accepted them. Therefore, while the arbitrary nature of
language permits change its conventionality gives it stability.
There are words in some languages, which do have a relation with a meanings
or ideas they stand for. Onometapoeia is a term used for words that imitate the
sounds they stand for, e.g., bang, thud, buzz, hum. But such words are very few, and
for a same sound, different languages have different words. The words, therefore, do
not invalidate the fact that words in a language are arbitrant selected and that the
relationship between words and their referents is purely arbitrary.
Language is a System of System

Language is not an amorphous, disorganised or chaotic combination of sound. Any
brick may be used anywhere in a building, but it is not so with sounds graphic
symbols standing for the sounds of a language. Sounds are arranged in certain fixed
or established systematic order to form meaningful units or words. Similarly, words
are also arranged in a particular system to frame acceptable meaningful sentences.
These systems operate at two levels phonological and syntactical.
At the phonological level, for example, the sounds of a language appear only
in some fixed combinations. There is no word, for example, that starts with bz - lr -
or zl - combination. Again, while there are several English words having an initial
consonant cluster with three consonants (e.g. spring / string), there are no initial
tetraphonemic consonant clusters a string four consonants in the same syllable in
English. Words too combine to form sentences according to certain conventions (i.e.
grammatical or structural rules) of the language. The sentence ‘The hunter shot the
tiger with a gun” is acceptable but the sentence “hunter the tiger a shot gun with the”
is not acceptable as the word order in the latter sentence does not conform to the
established language conventions.
Language is thus called a system of systems as it operates at the two levels

discussed above. This property of language is also termed duality by some linguists.
This makes language a very complex phenomenon. Every human child has to master
the conventions of the language he or she learns before being able to successfully
communicate with other members of the social group.
Language is Primarily Vocal

Language is primarily made up of vocal sounds only, produced by a
physiological articulatory mechanism in the human body. In the beginning, it must
have appeared as vocal sounds only. Writing must have come much later, as an
intelligent attempt to represent vocal sounds. Writing is the graphic representations of
the sounds of the langauge. The letters k or q represent only the /k/ sound. Graphic
symbols had to be invented for the sake of some sounds.
There are a number of languages which continue to exist, even today, in the spoken
form only. They do not have a written form. A child learns to speak first; writing
comes much later. Also during his life time, a man speaks much more than be writes.
The total quantum of speech is much larger than the total quantum of written
materials.
It is because of these reasons that modern Linguists say that speech is primary
writing is secondary. Writing did have one advantage over speech - it could be
preserved in books or records. But, with the invention of magnetic tapes or audio
cassettes, it has lost that advantage too. A number of modern gadgets like the
telephone, the tape recorder, the Dictaphone, etc. prove the importance of speech over
writing in the present time.
Language Differs from Animal Communication in Several Ways

Language is primarily human. It is humans alone that posses language and use
it for communication. Language is, in that sense, species specific - it is specific only
to one set of species. Also all human beings uniformly posses language. It is only a
few deaf (and therefore dumb) persons who cannot.
Language is species-uniform to that extent. Animals also have their own system of
communication but communication between them is extremely limited to a very small
number of messages.
Animal communication is different from human communication in the following
ways :
a) Language can convey a large number, rather an infinite set, of message

whereas the number of messages conveyed through the animal communication
is very limited. Animals, for example, are able to convey to their animals if
they are hungry or afraid. A bee, by its dance, it able to convey about the
distance or the direction of the source of nectar, but it cannot convey how
good or bad this honey is. Similarly, a bee cannot tell another bee that the
same honey is 10 metres to the left, or at a point of 15 metres to the right.
Language conveys messages along several directions whereas, in the case of
bees, message are differentiated along two dimensions only i.e., direction and
distance from the honey. it is known to produce a number of (not more than 9
to 10) messages only to express fear, aggression, anger, love etc. but these
messages too are extremely limited in number.
b) Language makes use of clearly distinguishable discrete, separate identifiable

symbols while animals communication systems are often, continuing or non-
discrete.
One can clearly distinguish between /k/, / ӕ/ and /t/ in the word cat, but
cannot identify different discrete symbols in the long humming sound that a
bee produces or the ‘caw-caw’ sound of a crow.
c) Animal communication systems are closed system that do not permit any
change, modification or addition. A bee’s dance or a cock’s craw is today the
same that it was 200 years ago. It is not so in the case of language. Language
is changing, growing everyday, and new words continue to be added to it in
the course of time. Words like sputnik, laser, video, software did not, for
example exist anywhere in English language 300 years ago. Language in thus
open ended modifiable and extendable.
d) Human language is non instinctive in the sense that every human do has to
learn language from his elders or peers in society. This process of learning
plays an important part in the acquisition of language. On the other hand, bees
acquire their skill in dancing as humans acquire the skill to talk. They are
sometimes seen to make hexagonal hives. They do not learn any geometry.
Their knowledge is inherited, inbuilt It is not so in the case of human beings
who have to learn a language.
(e) Displacement. Animal communication, as in the case of communication

system in birds, dogs, monkeys, insects etc., is limited to or related to their
immediate time and place, here and now or near about. It does not contain any
information about the past or the future or about the events taking place in the
distant multidimensional set-up.
When your pet animal produces a sound, 'a cat mews or a dog barks, you understand
the message as relating to your immediate present and place at the moment. It
cannot tell you where it was two days ago for where it would be in the evening
or what it was up to in the next few minutes. Human language users are
capable of producing messages pertaining to the present, past or future, near
or distant places, i.e. in a multidimensional setting.
This property is called displacement. It allows the users of language to talk

about things and events which are not present in the immediate environment of the
speaker. Animal communication lacks this property.
Even if some animals do display this property of displacement in their

^communication system, the messages are extremely limited. A honeybee can, for
"example, convey the distance and the direction of the source of nectar, but it ! cannot
tell another bee that it should first turn right for a distance of 10 metres and then fly
across the left wall into a well in the rose garden on the east,
The property of displacement in human language enables us to talk even of
things, persons or events that are non-existent or imaginary or are likely to be found
on other planets. We can talk of a superman, test-tube babies, artificial limbs, havocs
of war, fairies, angels, demons, the spider man, Santa Claus and the life. It is this
property of displacement that allows humans to create for example. Literature,
fiction, fantasy or the steam of consciousness stories.
Language is a Form of Social Behaviour

As already stated above, language has to be learnt. This learning is possible only in
society. A human child learns to speak the language of the community or the group in
which he or she is placed. A Chinese infant, if placed in an Indian family will easily
learn to speak an Indian language. He or she picks up the language of the social setup
in which he or she grows. Language is thus a form of social behavior.
WHY STUDY LANGUAGE?

Having outlined the various characteristics of language, one may like to ask: why
study or learn language at all? An answer to this question can be easily derived from
a consideration of the situation this world was in before language came into existence.
One can easily imagine that man must then have been a denizen of the forest very
much like anyone of the other animals, viz, horse, cow, tiger, elephant and dog. The
entire human progress, in fact everything that distinguishes human from animals,
depends on language only.
Language is today, a medium of Literature science and technology, computers and
cultural exchanges between social groups and the most powerful, convenient and
permanent means of communication in the world. It is ubiquitous, present
everywhere in all human activities through dreams., prayers, meditations and
relations. It is only through language, out knowledge and culture are stored and
passed on from generation to generation. Thus, all human civilization and knowledge
are possible only through language.
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. What are the various definitions of the term language?

2. List the various characteristics of language. Explain any two of these.
3. How does language differ from animal communication?
4. Write short notes on the following:
a) Language is arbitrary.
b) Language is a system of systems.
c) Speech is primary, writing is secondary.
d) Language is open-ended, modifiable and extendable depending on the
needs of the people using it.
e) Language is a means of communication.
f) Language is species-specific and species uniform.
5. Fill up the blanks:
a) There is _______ one to one correspondence between a word and the thing
it stands for.
b) Human language is discrete, while animal communication is ______
c) Speech is ____________ but writing is ____________
d) Language is a system of systems. This property of language is also called
____________
e) Languages does not automatically pass on from one generation to the other.
It has to be ____________ by practice.
MODULE 2- LINGUISTICS
Introduction
Linguistics is the scientific study of Language. The word ‘language’ here means of
language in general, not a particular language. If we were concerned with studying an
individual language, we would say ‘I’m studying French or English or whichever
language we happened to be studying. But linguistics does not study an individual
language. They study ‘language’ in general.
It is no way of studying language' without referring to and taking examples from

particular languages. However, even while doing so, the emphasis of linguistics is
different. Linguistics does not emphasize practical knowledge or mastery of a
particular language. Linguistics may know only one language, or may know several,
or may even study a language they do not know at all. They try to study the ways in
which language is organized to fulfill human needs, as a system of communication.
There is a difference between a person who knows many languages (called a

polyglot), and A linguist, who studies general principles of language organization and
language behavior, often with reference to some actual language or languages. Any
language can be taken up to illustrate the principles of language organization,
because all languages reveal something of the nature of language in general. (Of
course, it may be of help to a linguist to know more languages so that differences and
contrasts as well as similarities between the languages can also be studied in a better
way.
We can say that linguistics is learning about language rather than learning a language.
This distinction is often explained at the difference between learning how a car works
and learning how to drive a car. When we learn how to drive a car, we learn a set of
habits and do some practice - that is similar to learning how to speak a language.
When we learn how the car works, we open up its mechanism study it and investigate
the relationship of its parts to one another. This is a similar to what we do in a
scientific study of language or linguistics we investigate to mechanism of language,
its parts, and how all these parts fit together to putting particular functions, and why
they are arranged or organized in a certain means. Just a while driving a car we are
using its various components, while speaking a language we are using the sounds,
words etc. of that language, behind that uses is the mechanism which enables us to do
so. We study language because is important for us to understand this mechanism.
Every language is a system, so it does not matter which language we are up to

illustrate, the working of ‘language’ in human life. In earlier times, the study of
language was considered to the study of the grammar of some prestigious or classical
language such as Latin. Sanskrit or Greek. Today we consider all languages as fit
objects of language study.
In this unit we will trace the historical development of linguistics, and study about the
different levels of linguistic analysis and the related disciplines that have emerged.
This we hope will give you a thumbnail sketch of what we have come to understand
as linguistics today. By the end of this unit therefore you should be able to:
A) Identify the different branches of linguistics, and
B) Trace the historical development of linguistics
Branches of linguistics
In this section I shall try to give you a fair idea of the major concerns of linguists by
acquainting you with different dimensions of linguistics, with different levels at which
linguistic analysis can be made with several interdisciplinary fields relating to
linguistics.
Dimensions of linguistics
Linguistics can be studied from different perspectives. Some of these dimensions of

linguistics are represented below:
Dimension of Linguistics
descriptive
synchronic diachronic
theoretical comparative
Applied
LINGUISTICS
These dimensions can be distinguished, depending on the focus and interest of the
linguist. We therefore have diachronic and synchronic linguistics- developed as result
of the distinction introduce by Ferdinand De Saussure (discussed later in section 2.3).
Diachronic linguistics is the study of language change. It is concerned with historical
development of the language through time. A study of the history of the Hindi
language will be diachronic study. Synchronic linguistics is the study of language
states, regardless of their history.
That is a study of language as it exists at a particular point of the time. Hence if we a
make a study of French as it was spoken in the 1960’s or of the English language of
Chaucer’s time, it would be synchronic study.
When linguists try to establish general principles for the study of all languages, they
are set to be practicing theoretical (or general) linguistics. When they concentrate on
establishing the facts of a particular language system, they practice descriptive
linguistics. When the focus is on the similarities and the differences of the languages,
the subject is often referred to a comparative (or typological) linguistics. And the
application of the concepts and methods used in linguistics to other areas like
language teaching, translation or testing is called applied linguistics.
Levels of linguistic analysis
The speakers of the language are able to produce and understand the unlimited
number of utterances, including many that are novel and unfamiliar. In other words,
languages have the unique characteristic called creativity and productivity. However
when we talk from the point of view of human beings, this linguistic is called
linguistic competence. (You will read more about this is the units dealing with
sociolinguistics). It is the linguistic competence, which constitutes the central subject
matter of modern linguistics. In investigating linguistic competence, linguists focus on
the mental system which allows one to form and interpret the words and sentences of
one’s language. This system is also known as the “grammar” of that language.
Major components of this “grammar” are as follows:
Component Responsibilities
Phonetics The articulation and perception of speech
sounds
Phonology The patterning of speech sounds
Morphology The formation of words
Syntax The formation of phrases and sentences
Semantics The interpretation of words and sentences
These components are all inter-related and have been set up for doing linguistic
analysis. These are often referred to as different levels of linguistic analysis. A brief
definition of these levels is given below
Phonetics is the study of articulation, transmission and reception of speech sounds.
Phonology is the study of the organization of the units of the sounds of speech into
syllables and other larger units. The phonology of the language is a description of the
systems and patterns of sound that occur in that language.
Morphology is the study of words.
Syntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences.
Semantics is concerned with the study of meaning in all its aspects.
Interdisciplinary fields of linguistics

When we talk of branches of linguistics what we also have in mind are the
interdisciplinary fields that have developed since the inception of linguistics.
David Crystal (1987) in his encyclopedia called The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
language has categorized some of these under different interdisciplinary fields of
linguistics. A brief introduction is also given along with each discipline.
Applied linguistics:
The application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to the elucidation of
language problems that have arisen in other domains. The term is especially used with
reference to the field of foreign language learning and teaching, but it applies equally
to several other fields, such as stylistics, lexicography translation, and language
planning, as well as to the clinical and educational fields below.
Biological linguistics:
The study of the biological conditions for language development and use in human
being, with reference to both to the history of language in the human race and to child
development.
Clinical linguistics:
The application of linguistic theories and methods to the analysis of disorders in

spoken, written, or signed language.
Computational linguistics:
The study of language using the techniques and concepts of computer science,
especially with reference to the problems posed by the fields of machine translation,
information retrieval and artificial intelligence.
Educational linguistics:
The application of linguistic theories and methods for the study of teaching and
learning of a language (especially a first language) in schools and other educational
settings.
Ethno-linguistics:
The study of language in relation to ethnic types and behavior, especially with
reference to the way social interaction proceeds.
Geographical linguistics:
The study of the regional distribution of languages and dialects, have seen in relation
to geographical factors in the environment.
Mathematical linguistics:
The study of the mathematical properties of language, using concepts from such fields
algebra, computer science and statistics.
Neuro-linguistics:
The study of the neurological basis of language development and use in human being,
especially of the brain’s control over the process of speech and understanding.
Philosophical linguistics:
The study of the role of language in the elucidation of philosophical concepts, and of
linguistic theories, methods and observations.
Psycho-linguistics:
The study of the relationship between linguistic behavior and the psychological
processes (e.g., memory, attention) thought to underlie it.
Socio-linguistics:
The study of the interaction between language and the structure and functioning of
society.
Statistical linguistics:
The study of the statistical or quantitative properties of language.
Theo-linguistics:
The study of the language used by biblical scholars, theologians, and others involved
in the theory and practice of religious belief.
LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE
Linguistics can be understood as a science, in both general and specific terms.

Generally, we use the term 'science’ for any knowledge that is based on clear
systematic and rational understanding. Thus we often speak of the ‘Science of polities'
or statecraft, or 'the science of cooking'. However, we also use 'science' for the term
‘science for systematic study of phenomena, enabling us to state some principles or
theories regarding the phenomena. This study proceeds by examination of publicly
verifiable data obtained through observation of phenomena and experimentation; in
other words, it is empirical and objective. Science must also provide explanation after
adequate observation of data, which should be considered i.e. there should be no
contradiction between different parts of the explanations or statement
Let us apply these criteria of science to linguistics. Linguistics studies language. It is

a phenomenon which is both objective and variable. Like natural phenomena in the
physical world, like organisms in the living world, it has a concrete shape and
occurrence. In the same way as a physicist or chemist takes materials and measures
their weights, densities etc. to determine their nature, and in the same way as a
biologist takes a specimen of some form of life and examines it under a microscope,
the linguist studies the components of language, e.g. observing the occurrence of
speech-sounds, or the way in which words begin at end. Language, like other
phenomena, is objective because it is observable with the senses.
Linguistics observes the features of language, classifies these features into sound
features of particular type or words belonging to particular classes on the basis of
similarity or difference with other sounds and words.
But while linguistics shares some of the characteristics of empirical science, it is also
a social science because it studies language which is a form of social behaviour and
exists in interaction between human beings in society. Language is also linked to
human mental processes. For these reasons, it cannot be treated always as objective
phenomena.
In empirical sciences, the methods of observation and experimentation are known as

inductive procedures. This means that phenomena are observed and data collected
without any preconceived idea or theory, and after the data are studied, some theory is
formulated. This has been the main tradition in the history of western science. But
there is also the opposite tradition—the tradition of nationalism - which holds that the
mind forms certain concepts or ideas beforehand in terms of which it interprets the
data of observation and experience. According to this tradition, the deductive
procedure is employed in which we have a preliminary hypothesis or theory in our
minds. We try to prove this hypothesis by applying it to the data. This procedure was
considered to be unscientific according to the empirical scientists because they felt
that pre-existent ideas can influence the kind of data we obtain, i.e. we search only for
those pieces of data that fit our theory and disregard others and, therefore, it is not an
objective method. On the other hand, it has been observed by some thinkers (such as
Karl popper) that no observation can be free of some theory; it cannot be totally
neutral:
We can, however, reconcile these two procedures. There are aspects of language
which we can observe quite easily and which offer concrete instances of objective and
verifiable data. At the same time, we need to create a tentative or working hypothesis
to explain this data, which we may accept, reject or modify as we proceed further.
With such an open attitude, we may collect more data. This alternation of inductive
and deductive procedures may help us to arrive at explanations which meet ail the
requirements of science, i.e. they are exhaustive, consistent and concise.
Thus, linguistics is both an empirical science and a social science. In fact,it is a

human discipline since it is concerned with human language, so it is part of the study
of humanities as well. This includes the study of literature, and appreciation of the
beauty and music of poetry. In understanding language, humankind can understand
itself. Moreover, since every branch of knowledge uses language, linguistics is central
to all areas of knowledge. The traditional sanctions of science, art and humanities are
not relevant for linguistics.
SCOPE OF LINGUISTICS
Linguistics today is a subject of study, independent of other discipline. Before

twentieth century, the study of language was not regarded as a separate area of study
in its own right. It has considered to be a part of studying life history of language or
the philosophy of language, but as philosophy. So, 'Linguistics' is a modern name
which defines a specific discipline, in which we study language not in relation to
some other area such as history or philosophy, but language as itself, as a self-
enclosed and autonomous system
The main concern of modern linguistics is to describe language, to study its nature,
and to establish a theory of language. That is, it aims at studying the components of
the language system and to ultimately arrive at an explanatory statement on how the
system works. In modern linguistics, the activity of describing the language system is
most important, and so modern linguistics is generally known as descriptive. But
linguistics has other concerns as well, which fall within its scope, and these include
historical and comparative study of language. These differ from the descriptive
approach in their emphasis; otherwise, these approaches also involve description of
language. They are discussed in detail below.
Relationship between branches of Linguistics

We can understand the extension of the scope of linguistics to its various branches
with the help of which also helps us to see the interconnection between these
different and yet interrelated areas of study.
The levels of linguistic analysis, corresponding to the levels of language structure

are : Phonetics and Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, which take sounds,
words, sentences, and meanings respectively as discrete units. Discourse is the level
of language beyond the sentence.
As modern linguistics has developed, it has grown from an autonomous discipline to

one linked with various other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, philosophy,
literary studies etc. Thus, many branches of linguistics have developed, such as
sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, language pathology, anthropological linguistics,
dialectology, literary stylistics, and so on. Research in all these areas has facilitated
the application of insights from linguistics in language teaching and planning of
language education and policies.
MODULE 3 -MORPHOLOGY
DEFINITION
According to the traditional linguistic theories, grammatical description largely

operates on two important units; the word and the sentence. These two units form the
basis of different writing systems in various languages of the world. This section is
intended to examine the term word and the smaller elements that constitute words.
A word is a single unit of language, which means something and can be spoken or
written. The English word unkind is made up of two smaller units un and kind.
These are minimal units that cannot be further sub-divided into meaningful units.
Such minimal, meaningful units of grammatical description are generally referred to
as morphemes. A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria.
1. It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning.

2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its
meaning or without meaningless remainders.
3. It secures in differing verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.
The word unlikely has three morphemes while the word carpet is a single morpheme.
The words car and pet are independent morphemes in themselves, but the word carpet
has nothing to do with the meanings of car and pet. Carpet is a minimal meaningful
unit by itself. Again, the word garbage is a single morphene while the words garb
and age are independent morphemes by themselves. A systematic study of
morphemes or how morphemes join to form words is known as morphology.
The terms ‘morpheme’ and morph’ are thus comparable to the terms ‘form’ and
substance’ given by F. de saussure. The morpheme is an element of form which may
be represented directly by phonological (or orthographical) segments with a particular
‘shape’ (i.e. by morphs). It is customary to represent morphemes between inns. For
example the word went (phonologically / went) which cannot be segmented into
morphs, represents the combination of two morphemes go and past.
Sometimes, a particular morpheme may be represented not by the same morph but by
different morphs in different environment. Such different representations of a
morpheme are called allomorphs.
The plural morpheme in English (which combines with a noun morpheme to form a
plural) is represented by three allomorph /s/ /h/ and /z/ in different environments
(which are phonologically conditioned).
Plural morpheme
Allomorphs
Similarly, the present tense morpheme [-e(s)] has three allomorphs /s/, /z/
and /z/ e.g. packs / paks / digs / digz, washes / wp/z/. The past tense morpheme of
English [-e(d)] has also three different (phonologically conditioned) allmorphs h, /d/
and /s/. The rule that governs these allomorphs is as follows :
Past morpheme
The relationship between the terms morph, allomorph and morpheme is
similar to the between phone, allophone and phoneme. The term ‘morph’ means
shape. Any minimal phonetic form that has meaning is a morph. The /s/ /h/ …… are
all morphs. Those morphs which belong to the same morpheme are called allomorphs
of that morpheme. Thus /s/, /h/ and /z/ are allomorphs of the plural morpheme (e(s)).
This is just like a phoneme which is a minimal, distinctive unit in the sound system of
a language.
A phoneme may sometimes occur in more than one phonetic form called allophones.
These phoneme function is the same. They however never occur is the same phonetic
environment and are said to be in complementary distribution. Similarly, allomorphs
as the in complementary distribution. The phonemes /p/ /h/ and /s/ for example have
two phonetic forms each i.e. [p] and [pb], [1] and [t], [k] and [k h]. Here [p] and [ph]
are the allophones of the phoneme /p/. All the speech sounds (phoneme as well as
allophones) are called phones.
It may be noted that in some language words can generally be segmented in
parts (morphs) while this is not so in other. Similarly, there are language in which the
morph tends to represent a single minimal grammatical unit (a morphene).
We can now clearly bring out both the grammatical similarly and be formation
difference between such words as brought and played, or were and taller. Both the
regular and the irregular forms can be handled alike.
Brought = (bring) + (ed); played = [play] + (ed)

Worse = (bad) + (er); taller (tall) + (er), etc.
FREE AND BOUND MORPHEMES

In words such as unhappy, disregarded, boyhood etc. morphemes such as happy
regard and boy can stand on their own as independent words. Such morphemes are
called free morpheme. On the other hand, morpheme like up, dis el-hood etc., cannot
stand on their own as independent words. They are always attached to a free
morpheme or a free form. Such morpheme are called ‘soul morpheme’. Morpheme
such as dis-, un-, ed, -hood are also called affues. The form to which an affix is
attached is called a base. Here is a tree diagram showing the morphological analysis
of the word unknowingly.
The stem that cannot be further split up is also called the root.
Affixes may be divided into prefixes (which appear at the beginning of the base) and
suffixes (which appear at the end of the base).
Set A Set B
Prefix Base Base Suffix
unhappy unhappy friendship friend -ship
Immobile immobile boyhood boy -hood
enable enable boys boy -s
illegal illegal nicely nice -ly
On another dimension, affixes are classified as inflectional affixes and derivation
affixes. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to express its relation to
other words in the sentence. Derivation, on the other hand, is the process by which
new words are formed from existing words. Derivation is class-maintaining if the
original word and the new word belong to the same class (e.g. boy and boyhood, both
nouns, play and replay, both verbs) and is class-changing if the two words belong to
different categories (e.g. able and enable: verb from adjective; season and seasonal:
adjective from noun; sing and singer: noun from verb). Properties of the Inflectional
suffixes:)
i) Inflectional suffixes do not change the class of the word, e.g.

slide slides (both verbs)
hot hotter (both adjectives)
girl girls (both nouns)
play playing (both verbs)
ii) They come last in a word and appear only as suffixes. (It may be noted that
derivational affixes can be prefixes as well as suffixes).
iii) They do not pile up (only one ends a word), e.g. pens, higher, laughing,
written.
STRUCTURE OF WORD
Considered from the point of view of their morpheme constituents, there are mainly
three types of words: Simple words, complex words and compound with
i) Simple words. They consist of a single free morpheme followed, or not, by

an inflection suffix, e.g. play, plays, stronger.
ii) Complex words. They consist of a base and a derivational affix, e.g.
goodness, enable, boyhood, determination.
VARIOUS WAYS OF WORD FORMATION
The users of a language have to be conversant with the myriad ways in which words
are formed. A simple word like happiness, for example, is formed by adding the
suffix-ness to the base word happy. While happy is an adjective, happiness is a noun.
The word ‘happiness has thus been derived from the word happy.
This most important method of word formation is known as affixation i.e. by adding a
prefix or a suffix to a base called stem. Any form to which at affix (either prefix or
suffix) is added is called a stem. A stem is called a root when all affixes are removed
from it. Every stem can, however, be a base. The stem cannot be further broken up
into two separate morphemes.
NEOLOGISM – (The act or instance of coining new words)
Apart from affixation, there are several other ways in which new words are formed.
Also, words are used in different ways for different meanings or connotations. The
world of words in any language is a wonderful world. A user of a language who
masters the art of using words or manipulating words becomes a wizard with the
language and proves to be a master in the skill of communication. It would be quite
pertinent, therefore, to briefly list some of the different ways in which words are
formed.
USE OF PREFIXES
Prefixes are used to coin new words of various types
(a) Negative Prefixes
Prefix Base word New word

In- Possible / mortal Impossible / immortal
inevitable
In- Evitable
insensitive
Un- Sensitive
unstable
a- Stable
unlike
non- Like atheist
amoral
theist
non-entity
dis- moral
non-violence
entity
dispassionate
violence
ill- disservice
passionate
illogical
service
ir- illimitable
logical
irrational
limi table
irrelevant
de- rational
defrost
relevant
deforestation
frost
mis-
misinterpret
fores tation
misrepresent
interpret
pseudo- pseudosecular
represent
secular pseudoreligious
religious
(b) Prefixes of number

mono - syllabic monosyllabic
logue monologue
Uni- Laterial unilateral
cellular unicellular
Bi- Lingual bilingual
lateral bilateral
di- Pole dipole
ode (electrode) diode
urnal diurnal
tri- Weekly triweekly
angle triangle
Tetra Cycle tetracyclic
multi/poly- Syllabic polysyllabic
racial multiracial
pronged multiponged
lingual multilingual
c) Prefixes of degree or size

super - Man superman
natural supernatural
out - Run outrun
live outlive
under - state understate
cooked undercooked
hyper - active hyperactive
critical hypercritical
ultra - Modern ultramodern
simple ultrasimple
Mini- (midi-/maxi) Bus Minibus
over- Skirt overactive
active oversmart
smart subhuman
Sub- Human subhuman
zero subzero
arch - standard substandard
bishop archbishop
angel archangel
d) Other prefixes

auto - biography autobiography
start autostart
neo - Rich neorich
classical neoclassical
semi - Circle semicircle
nude seminude
pan- Indian Pan-Indian
e) Class-changing prefixes
Here are examples of some prefixes that change the class to which a word belongs:
Prefix Word Class New word Class

be - head noun behead verb
friend noun befriend verb
en - able adjective enable verb
trust noun entrust verb
a- float verb afload adjective
heat noun ahead adjective
de - form noun deform verb
frost noun defrost verb
Use of Suffixes
The suffixes may be broadly divided into two categories; class maintaining and class-
changing. Here are a few examples
Suffix Word Class New word Class

-ship friend noun friendship noun
-hood boy noun Boyhood noun
Ite hindu adjective hinduite adjective
-er London noun Londoner noun
ess- tiger noun tigress noun
-dom king noun Kingdom noun
-ery machine noun machinery noun
(b) Class-changing suffixes
(i) Noun to adjective

-ian India noun Indian adjective
-ese China noun Chinese adjective
-ful beauty noun beautiful adjective
-less Harm noun harmless adjective
-ly friend noun friendly adjective
-like child noun childlike adjective
-ish child noun childish adjective
-al accident noun accidental adjective
-ous virtue noun virtuous adjective
ii) Adjectives to noun

-ity able adjective ability noun
-ness happy adjective happiness noun
-ry brave adjective bravery noun
iii) Nouns to verbs

-ify fort noun fortify verb
-en length noun lengthen verb
-le top noun topple verb
(iv) Verbs to nouns

-er drive verb driver noun
-ment govern verb government noun
-age drain verb Drainage noun
-ant pollute verb pollutant noun
-ee pay verb Payee noun
-ation condemn verb condemnation noun
-al withdraw verb Withdrawal noun
-or act verb Actor noun
v) Verbs to adverb

-ily sleep verb sleepily adverb
-fully play verb playfully adverb
vi) Adjectives to adverbs

-ly nice adjective nicely adverb
-wards back adjective backwards adverb
Conversions
a) Some words can be used as nouns, verbs, adverbs, or adjectives without any
change in the form of the word, without the addition of an affix or prefix. This
process of derivation is called conversion. Here are some examples.
Light Switch on the light (noun)

Light the lamp (verb)
Round The earth is round like a ball (adjective)

The principal went on a round (noun)
You must round all the sharp concerns (verb).
Back He is carrying a bag on his back (noun)

You must back me up (verb)
The plane flew back in no time (adverb)
He left by the back door (adjective).
b) In come words of two syllables, change of accent from the first to the second
syllable changes a noun / adjective to a verb:
Noun / Adjective Verb

‘conduct con’duct
‘subject sub’ject
‘object ob’ject
‘present pre’sent
‘contrast con’trast
c) There are some words, in which there is a change in the meanings of words if the
final consonant is voiced (either by a change in spellings or without it); for example
Word Final Sound Word Final Sound

advice (n.) /s/ advise (v) /v/
thief (n.) /f/ thieve (v) /v/
house (n.) /s/ house (v) /z/
Compound Formation
Compounds are formed by joining two or more bases. These bases are, in some cases,
separate by a hyphen, while in other cases, the hypen appears to have disappeared
with the passage of time. There is no rule governing the presence or absence of the
hypen. Here are some examples of compound words
a) Noun + Noun
motor cycle hair breadth
teargas goldfish
girl-friend television fan
bread-piece block-head
fire-engine pot-belley
paper+back
b) Noun + Adjective
trustworthy beautify conscious
home sick brickred
duty free sea-green
c) Adjective + Noun
Paeface yellow press
red light
fathead greenhorn
d) Compounds with verbs / adverbials / verbal nouns

sight-seeing man-eating
birth-control heart-breaking
record-player easy-going
brain-washing baby-sitting
walking-stick lip-read
Reduplication
Some words are formed out of two such elements as are almost alike. These elements
may either be identical or only slightly different.
Examples
criss-cross pooh-pooh hush-hust
doodle-doo kit-kat see-saw
wishy-washy hanky-panky hurry-worry
trin-trin hanky-panky sing-song
walkie-talkie humdrum goodyg-goody
Borrowing
One of the most common source of new words in English is the process imply
labelled borrowing, that is, the taking over of words from other languages.
(Technically, it’s more than just borrowing, because English doesn’t give them back).
Through its history the English language has adopted a vast number of words from
other languages, including these examples :
dope (Dutch) piano(Italian) tattoo (Tahitian)

jewel (French) pretzel (German) tycocon (Japanese)
glitzy (Yiddish) ski (Norwegian) Yogurt (Turkish)
illac (Persian) sofa (Arabic) Zebra (Bantu)
Sometimes a new sound comes along with new words. The voiced fricative /s/
became part of English through borrowed French words can as measure and rouge.
Other languages, of course, borrow terms from English as in the Japanese use of
sumpaa or suupamaaketto (“supermarket”) and taipuraitta (“typewriter”). We can
also hear of people in Finland using a sekki (“check”) to pay their bills, Hungarians
talking about sport, klub and futbal, or the French discussing problem of le stress,
over glass of le whisky, during the weekend)
Review questions
1. What is morphology?
2. Define Morph, morpheme and allomorph with examples?
3. What are free and bound morphemes?
4.Describe allomorphy?
5.Explain major morphological processes?
6.Explain the word formation process.
7. How many morphemes does the following sentence contain.
There`s one thing about baldness, i`ts neat.
8.Write down the free and bound morphemes of the following words
1.disappear
2.relay
3.illegal
4.inaccurate
5.vividly
6.government
7.Hunter
8.distribution
9.Identify the root prefix and stem in the following forms.

1.musical 2.porous 3.possibility 4.denationalise 5.manliness 6.incompetent
7.unfriendliness 8.impolite
10. Explain Inflectional affixes and derivation affixes with examples.
11.Give two examples of compounding from your mother tongue and English.
Example: Hindi “ Lambodar”- “long tummy”- “Lord Ganesha”
MODULE 4- SEMANTICS
DEFINITION
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. We know that language is used to
express meanings which can be understood by others. But meanings exist in our
minds and we can express what is in our minds through the spoken and written forms
of language (as well as through gestures, action etc.).
The sound patterns of language are studied at the level of phonology and the
organization of words and sentences is studied at the level of morphology and syntax.
These are in turn organized in such a way that we can convey meaningful messages or
receive and understand messages.
It is the most abstract level of linguistic analysis, since we cannot see or observe
meaning as we can observe meaning, as we can observe and record sounds. Meaning
is related very closely to the human capacity to think logically and to understand. So
when we try to analyze meaning, we are trying to analyze our own capacity to think
and understand our own ability to create meaning.
Semantics concerns itself with 'giving a systematic account of the nature of meaning”
(Leech, 1981)
WHAT IS MEANING?
Philosophers have puzzled over this question for over 2000 years. Their thinking
begins from the question of the relationship between words and the objects which
words represent. For example, we may ask; what is the meaning of the word 'cow'?
One answer would be that it refers to an animal that has certain properties that
distinguish it from other animals, which are called by other names. Where do these
names come from and why does the word 'cow’ mean only that particular animal and
none other? Some thinkers say that there is no essential connection between the word
'cow’ and the animal indicated by the word, but we have established, this connection
by convention and thus it continues to be so Others would say that there are some
essential attributes of that animal which we perceive in our minds and our concept of
that animal is created for which we create a corresponding word.
According to this idea, there is an essential correspondence between the sounds of
words and their meanings e.g., the word ‘buzz’ reproduces ‘the sound made by a bee’.
It is easy to understand this, but not so easy to understand how ‘cow’ can mean ‘a
four-legged bovine’ – there is nothing in the sound of the word ‘cow’ to indicate that,
(Children often invent words that illustrate the correspondence between sound and
meaning; they may call a cow ‘moo-moo’ because they hear it making that kind of
sound).
The above idea that words in a language correspond to our stand for the actual
objects in the world, it applies only to some words and not to others, for example,
words that do not refer to objects, e.g. ‘love’, ‘hate’.
This fact gives rise to the view held by later thinkers, that the meaning of a word is
not the object it refers to, but the concept of the object that exist in the mind. As de
Saussure pointed out, the relation between the word (signifier) and the concept
(signified) is an arbitrary one i.e. the word does not resemble the concept (signified) is
an arbitrary one, i.e., the word does not resemble the concept. Also when we try to
define the meaning of a word we do so by using other words. So if we so, if we try to
explain the meaning of table we need to use other words such as ‘four’, ‘legs’ and
‘wood’ and these words it turn can be explained only by means of the words.
L.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards made an attempt to define meaning. When we use the
word ‘mean’, we are it in different ways, ‘I mean to do this is’ a way of expressing
our intention. The red signal means stop is a way of indicating what the red signal
signifies. Since all language consists of signs, we can say the every word is a sign
indicating something – usually a sign indicates other signs. Ogden and Richards give
the following list of some definitions of meaning. Meaning can be any of the
following: -
1. An intrinsic property of something.

2. Other words related to that word in a dictionary.
3. The connotations of a word (that is discussed below).
4. The thing to which the speaker of that word refers.
5. The thing to which the speaker of that word should refer.
6. The thing to which the speaker of that word believes himself to be referring.
7. The thing to which the hearer of the word believes is being referred to.
Taking up some of the above definitions of meaning, we can discuss the different
aspects of meaning of a word as follows:
1. The logical or denotative meaning
This is the literal meaning of a word indicating the idea or concept to which it refers.
The concept is a minimal unit of meaning which could be called a ‘sememe’ is
the same way as the unit of sound is called a ‘phoneme’ and is like the
‘morpheme’ in its structure and organisation. Just as the phoneme /b/ may be
defined as a bilabial + voiced + plosive, the word ‘man’ may be defined as a
concept consisting of a structure of meaning ‘human + male + adult’
expressed through the basic morphological unit ‘m + z + n’. All the three
qualities are logical attributes of which the concept ‘man’ is made. They are
the minimal qualities that the concept must possess in order to be a
distinguishable concept, e.g. if any of these changes, the concept too changes.
So ‘human + female + adult’ would not be the concept referred to by the word
‘man’, since it is a different concept.
2. The connotative meaning

This is the additional meaning that a concept carries. It is defined as ‘the
communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to over and
above its purely conceptual content’ (Leech, 1981). That is, apart from its
logical or essential attributes, there is a further meaning attached to a word,
which comes from its reference to other things in the real world. In the real
world, such a word may be associated with some other features or attributes.
For example, the logical or denotative meaning of the word ‘woman’ is the
concept, ‘human + female + adult’. To it may be added the concept of
‘weaker sex’ or ‘frailty’. These were the connotations of values associated
with the concept of ‘woman’, thus connotative meaning consists of the
attributes associated with a concept. As we know, these associations come
into use over a period of time in a particular culture and can change with
change in time. While denotative meaning remains stable since it defines the
essential attributes of a concept, connotative meaning changes as it is based on
association made to the concept.
3. The social meaning

This is the meaning that a word or a phrase conveys about the circumstances
of its use. That is, the meaning of a word is understood according to the
different style and situation in which the word is used e.g. though the words
‘domicile’, ‘residence’, ‘abode’, ‘home’ all refer to the same thing (i.e. their
denotative meaning is, the same), each word belongs to a particular situation
of use – ‘domicile’ is used in an official context, ‘residence in a formal
context, ‘abode’ is a poetic use and ‘home’ is an ordinary use. Where one is
used, the other is not seen as appropriate. Social meaning derives from an
awareness of the style in which something is written and spoken and of the
relationship between speaker and hearer – whether that relationship is formal,
official, casual, polite, or friendly.
4. The thematic meaning

This is the meaning which is communicated by the way in which a speaker or
writer organizes the message in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis. It is
often felt, for example, that an active sentence has a different meaning from its
passive equivalent although its conceptual meaning seems to be the same. In
the sentences;
Mrs. Smith donated the first prize

The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith
The thematic meaning is different. In the first sentence it appears that we

know who Mrs. Smith is, so the new information on which is laid in ‘the first
prize’. In the second sentence, however, the emphasis is laid on ‘Mrs. Smith’.
SOME TERMS AND DISTINCTIONS IN SEMANTICS
Lexical and Grammatical Meaning
Lexical or word meaning is the meaning of individual lexical items. These are of two
types: the open class lexical items, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, and
the close class items such as prepositions, conjunctions and determiners. The open
class items have independent meanings, which are defined in the dictionary. The
closed class items have meaning only in relation to other words in a sentence this is
called grammatical meaning, which can be understood from a consideration of the
structure of the sentence and its relation with other sentences. For example, in the
sentence. ‘The tiger killed the elephant', there are three open class items: tiger, kill,
elephant. Out of these, two are nouns and one is a verb. There is one closed class item
— 'the' — which occurs before each noun it has no independent reference of its own
and can have meaning only when placed before the nouns.
This distinction may help in understanding ambiguity. Thus, if there is ambiguity in a

sentence, this can be a lexical ambiguity or a grammatical ambiguity For example, in
the sentence:
I saw him near the bank.
There is lexical ambiguity, since the-item ‘bank’ can mean (a) the financial institution
or (b) the bank of a river.
Sense and Reference
It has been explained earlier that signs refer to concepts as well as to other signs. A
sign is a symbol that indicates a concept. This concept is the reference, which refers
in turn to some object in the real world, called the referent. The relationship between
linguistic items (e.g. words, sentences) and the non-linguistic world of experience is a
relationship of reference.
The objects in the real world are referents, the concept, which we have of them in our
minds in the references and the symbol we use to refer to them is the word, or
linguistic item.
We can explain the meaning of a linguistic item by using other words. The
relationship of a word with another word is a sense relation. Therefore, sense is the
complex system of relationships that holds between the linguistic items themselves.
Sense is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations, i.e. relations within the system
of the language itself, such as similarly between words, opposition, inclusion and pre-
supposition.
Sense Relations include: Homonymy, Polysemy, Synonymy and

Antonymy.
Homonyms are different items (lexical items or structure words) with the same
phonetic form. They differ only in meaning, e.g. the item ‘ear’ meaning ‘organ of
hearing' is a homonym of the item 'ear' meaning 'a stem of wheat’. Homonymy may
be classified as:
a) Homography: a phenomenon of two or more words having the same
spellings but different pronunciation or meaning, e.g. lead/led/ = metal;
lead/li:d/ = verb.
b) Homophony: a phenomenon of two or more words having the same

pronunciation but different meanings or spelling, e.g. sea/see, knew/new,
some/sum, sun/son.
It is difficult to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy

as in polysemy the same' lexical item has different meanings, e.g. 'bank*’, ‘face*’;
Two lexical items can be considered as synonyms if they have the same denotative,
commutative and social meaning and can replace each other in all contexts of
occurrence. Only then can they be absolutely synonymous. For example 'radio' and
‘wireless’ co-existed for a while as synonyms, being used as alternatives by speakers
of British English.
But now, 'wireless' is not used frequently what we consider as synonyms in a
language are usually near-equivalent items or descriptive items. For example,
'lavatory toilet', 'WC', 'washroom' are descriptive or near-equivalent synonyms in
English.
Antonyms
Are lexical items which are different both in form as well as meaning. An antonym of
a lexical item conveys the opposite sense e.g. single married, good-bad. But this gives
rise to questions of what is an opposite or contrasted meaning. For example, the
opposite of ‘woman’ could be ‘man’ or ‘girl’. There can be nearness of contrast of
remoteness of contrast. Thus ‘man’ or ‘girl’ is contrasted to ‘woman’ but less
contrasted than ‘woman’ and ‘tree’. In this sense, ‘woman’ and ‘man’ are related, just
as ‘girl’ and ‘boy’ are related in spite of being contrasted.
Other meaning-relations of similar nature are mare/stallion, cow/bull, all based on

gender distinctions. Another set of meaning relations can be of age and family
relationship; father/son, uncle/nephew, aunt/niece.
Another kind of sense-relationship is Hyponymy.

Hyponymy is the relation that holds between a more general and more specific
lexical item. For example, ‘flower’ is a more general item and 'rose', 'lily', etc. are
more specific. The more specific item is considered a hyponym of the more general
item – ‘rose’ is a hyponym of ‘flower’. The specific item includes the meaning of the
general. When we say ‘rose’, the meaning of ‘flower’ is included in its meaning.
‘Rose’ is also hyponymous of ‘plant’ and ‘living thing’ as these are the most general
categories.
The combination of words to produce a single unit of meaning is also a part of sense-
relations in a language. Compounds are made, which often do not mean the same as
the separate words which they consist of. Thus, while 'black bird' can be understood
to mean 'a bird. Which is black’, ‘strawberry’, cannot be understood to mean to mean
'a berry made of straw'. Collocations such as 'heavy smoker' and 'good singer' are not
mere combinations of heavy + smoker meaning 'the smoker is heavy' or ‘good +
singer. They mean 'one who smokes heavily' or 'one who sings well’. The collocated
unit has a meaning which is a composite of both that is why we cannot say 'good
smoker' and 'heavy singer'. All these sense-relations are peculiar to a language and
every language develops its own system of sense-relations.
Key points
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is the level at which we attempt to
analyze how meanings are expressed and understood. The first problem is that of
defining meaning.
Meaning lies in the relationship between words and the concepts for which these
words stand. These relationships can be of various types. Some of these types of
meaning are:
1. Denotative meaning: The logical meaning, which indicates, the essential

qualities of a concept which distinguish it from other concepts.
2. Connotative meaning. The additional or associated meaning, which is
attached to the denotative, conceptual meaning. It consists of associations
made with a concept whenever that concept is referred to.
3. Social meaning. It is the meaning that a word possesses by virtue of its use in
particular social situations and circumstances.
4. Thematic meaning. It lies in the manner in which a message is organized for

emphasis.
SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS
Human life encompasses three worlds of experience; the cognitive, the physical and
the linguistic. We include both ‘real’ and imaginary’ experience as part of the
physical experience. Corresponding of these words we have three concepts which
constitute a triangle IDEA, ITEM and LABEL.
The physical world gives us items, actions, responses, qualities, etc. The cognitive
world conceives them in terms of ideas and also associates from with other items.
The linguistic world labels the items as conceived by our cognitive world.
The idea is represented by the label and the label signifies the item. The item realizes
the idea. The idea manifests itself in the item and the idea is fixed in our minds by the
label; the use of the labe;l is reinforced by the item. These are mutually defining
relationships among the three different but complementary worlds of experience. It is
important to note that meaning cannot be assumed to exist independent of the
conceptualization which is shared by the members of a speech community.
Elements of meaning
Meaning in a general sense takes care of almost everything that transpires between the
encoder (sender) and the decoder (receiver) of a message through a code (medium, i.e.
language). Geoffrey Leech breaks down ‘meaning’ into seven types.
i. conceptual meaning.
ii. Connotative meaning
iii. Stylistic meaning
iv. Affective meaning
V. reflected meaning
vi. Collective meaning
vii. Thematic meaning.
Conceptual meaning (or denotation) deals with the core meaning of expressions. It
refers to the relationship we have mentioned above between the three worlds of
experience. Conceptually ‘cow’ is an adult female bovine animal. Connotative
meaning is the meaning which is attributed to a given expression by its users. So it is
not part of what is conceived; it is part of what is perceived. For example the fact that
a cow is a sacred animal is part of connotative meaning.
Stylistic meaning is the meaning conveyed by an expression regarding the

sociocultural backdrop of the users of a language. It is the sum total of the social
circumstances in which a piece of language is used. For example, the ‘informality’
associated with the word ‘buck’ for a dollar or rupee is the stylistic meaning of the
word. Affective meaning comprises the personal feelings of the encoder including his
/ her attitude to the decoder and to the topic of discourse.
Reflected meaning is the effect of one meaning on another meaning of the same
word. Let us take the word ‘simple’ which has several meanings; for example natural,
naïve (easily deceived). In a sentence like his responses are simple and straight, the
encoder may be using ‘simple’ to mean’, ‘natural’ but the other meaning, i.e. ‘naïve’
may be reflected on the intended meaning.
Collocative meaning consists of the meaning acquired by a word under the influence
of word(s) which it cooccurs with. For example the meaning of ‘strong’ gets
specified by the word it cooccurs with e.g. ‘strong coffee’ and ‘strong argument’.
Thematic meaning is the meaning conveyed by the structure of the discourse where
concepts like topic of discourse and focus of discourse are identified. For example, in
the following sentences ‘dog’ is the topic (T) of the discourse and ‘died’ is the focus
(F) of discourse.
1. The dog (T) died (F).

2. It was the dog (T) that died (F)
3. The dog (T) it was that died (F).
Sources of meaning
Let us now have a look at the different sources of meaning. The major part of the
meaning of what we say or write is located in the worlds we use. This type of
meaning is called lexical meaning. The choice and organization of grammatical items
also contribute to the meaning of a sentence. This type of meaning is called
grammatical (syntactic) meaning. When we utter a sentence, we use a specific
intonation pattern to go with it. The meaning encoded by intonation is called
intonational pattern to go with it. The meaning encoded by intonation is called
intonational meaning. Sometimes a phonological feature like nasalization may
encode a meaning. Let us call this phonological meaning which includes international
meaning. In writing, punctuation reflects international meaning to a large extent.
When we use language we also draw upon the sociocultural meaning which we share
with other members of the speech community. Let us take an example:
1. Lalita slapped Hari?

2. Hari slapped Lalitha?
3. Lalita slaped Hari.
4. Hari slapped Lalitha.
Sentences (1) and 2 are questions. This information we get from the question mark
(?) in writing, and a rise tone in speech. The meaning so encoded in the form of a rise
tone, is intonational meaning. The difference between sentences (1) and (2) and
sentences (3) and (4) is reflected in their different word order. This kind of meaning is
grammatical meaning. The words used in these sentences give us lexical meaning.
Sentences (1) and (2).can also express ‘disbelief’ and 'disapproval'. This kind of
meaning is sociocultural meaning, where the speaker and hearer share the information
that neither Hari nor Lalita is supposed to ‘slap' the other person.
Lexical, syntactic and phonological meanings have their source in the code
(language) itself. Sociocultural meaning has its source in the coder (language user).
This distinction is significant. The minimal unit of code-based meaning is called
sememe. The minimal unit of coder-based meaning is pragmeme. Look at the
following examples:
MAN WOMAN GIRL BOY

+ HUMAN + HUMAN + HUMAN + HUMAN
- FEMALE + FEMALE + FEMALE + FEMALE
+ ADULT + ADULT - ADULT - ADULT
PATRIARCHAL RESPONSIBLE TALENTED MISCHIEVOUS
The meaning features shown in vertical boxes are sememes. These meaning features
are part of the lexical meaning of the words in English. The features shown in
horizontal boxes are programs. These features are attributed to the referents by the
language users. These are part of the users’ perception whereas sememes are part of
the users’ conception. Perceptions are formed by the speakers as part of their ‘nature’
and ‘nurture’.
Meaning relations
Let us now look at different meaning relations that exist among, different words. To
discuss these relations let us make use of the classification proposed by John
Lyons. Lyons classifies meaning as follows:
i) Descriptive meaning.
ii) Expressive meaning.
iii) Social meaning.
Social meaning refers to the use of language to establish and maintain social roles
and social relations. This kind of meaning is also called phatic commutation which
means ‘communication by means of speech’. For example greetings like ‘Good
Morning’ do not provide any information; they just establish a rapport between
interlocutors. Expressive meaning refers to what is reflected as the speakers’
feelings, attitudes, beliefs and personality. This meaning include what literary critics
call emotive meaning. When we associate ‘compassion’ and ‘sacrifice’ with the word
mother what we have is expressive meaning. Descriptive meaning refers to
propositional or experiential meaning. The gods drink ambrosia expresses
imaginary experience whereas the sun rises in the east expresses real experience.
Lyons says that lexemes are completely or absolutely synonymous if they have the
same descriptive, expressive and social meaning. This kind of absolute synonymy is
actually very rare. Descriptive synonymy is quite common. For example ‘father’,
‘daddy’ and ‘dad’ are descriptively synonymous. They cannot however be used in all
contexts as substitutes. That’s why we say that they are partially synonymous.
Synonymy refers to the phenomenon of more than one form having the same
meaning. For example prison and ‘jail’ are synonyms. Polysemy, on the other hand,
refers to the phenomenon of the same form having more than one meaning. For
example ‘eye’ refers to a part of animal body and to the hole of a needle. These two
meanings constitute the polysemy of ‘eye’.
Polysemy is different from homonymy. Homonymy is the likeness of different words.

Bank (the side of a river) and bank, (‘financial institution’) are homonyms because
they are pronounced and spelt alike. Sometime two words are pronounced alike but
spelt alike. Such words are called homophones. For example ‘quay’ and ‘key’ are
pronounced alike (/K/). Similarly ‘sweet’ and suite are pronounced alike. On the
other hand there are some words which are spelt alike but pronounced differently.
Such words are called homographs. For example lead (v) and lead (N) (a metal) are
spelt alike but pronounced differently.
Sometimes it becomes difficult to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy. If

the words in question are derived from different words of an earlier stage of the
language or different languages, they are considered homonyms. This historicity is
accessible to scholars but not to lay speakers. They may consider the words to be
polysemous. For example most dictionaries register two entries with the same
spelling ‘meal’. One of them is derived from old English ‘meal’ and denotes ‘food
taken at a given time’. The other is derived from Old English ‘melu’ and denotes
‘grain ground to powder. Some native speakers might treat them as related meanings
of the same word.
Metaphor illustrates how a particular meaning feature of a word is extended to refer

to the quality of another referent. That’s why sometimes we hear people adding
‘metaphorically speaking’. For example ‘gold’ is metaphorically used to mean
anything valuable or genuine. Metonymy is the use of an item to refer to some other
item by association. For example ‘the chair’ is used to refer to ‘the person who is in
the chair’.
Let us now look at some other types of meaning relationship. Antonymy is

‘oppositeness of sense’. Antonymy of the type found in ‘tall vs short’ is absolutely
antonymy. Antonymy is some cases depend on the dimension one has in mind. For
example:
5. I) man x boy (+ adult)

ii) Man x beast (+ human)
iii) Man x woman (+ female)
Some linguists consider incompatibility a more comprehensive term and prefer it to

antonymy.
While incompatibility refers to ‘meaning exclusion’ hyponymy refers to meaning
inclusion. A specific item is hyponymous to a general item. For example ‘mango’ is
hyponymous to fruit. The specific item is subordinate to the general item, also called
a hyponymy or superordinate item.
Review questions
1.What is semantics?
2.What is pragmatics?
3.Explain elements of meaning
4.Give the conceptual and associative meanings of the following words
Mouse,insect,snake,lion,ant,rose,banana
5.Explain different sources of meaning?
6.What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning.
7.Identify the source of meaning difference(whether it is lexical, grammatical,
phonological , phonological or pragmatics) in the following pairs of sentences.
1. a. Mohan bought a pair of scissors.
b. Mohan bought a pair of socks.
2. a. He is a fool
b. Is he a fool?
3. a. Raj doesn`t trust him.
b. Raj doesn`t trust him?
4. a. She went home yesterday.
b. She will go home tomorrow.
5. a. These are high school boys.
b. Boys are after all boys.
8.Explain meaning relations?
9.Explain descriptive expressive and social meaning with examples.
10. Explain meaning relation of the following
1.synonymy 2.Antonomy 3.polysemy 4. Homonymy 5. Homophones
6.metaphor 7.hypernym
11.Identify the meaning relations in the following
Say whether each of the following is an instance of homonymy, metaphor
metonymy
1.iron
2.board
3.Crown
4.male
5.mouse
6.snake
MODULE 5 - SOCIOLINGUSTICS
What is Sociolinguistics?
We all use language every day. But how many of us stop to think about the relevance
or significance of language in our lives? Is language not unique to only humans? Is it
not something that makes us distinct from animals? Are we all not creative in our use
of language? Do we not use language in a variety of ways for a variety of purposes?
Well, language is actually a great, mystery. And perhaps that is why we need to think
about it more deeply and carefully. The mysterious nature of language will begin to
unfold itself once you realize that it cannot be studied in isolation. It is used in society
and therefore, we need to study language in relation to society. Language is what
members of a society speak. But what is a society? A society comprises of a group of
individuals who are normally drawn together for a certain purpose or purposes.
Whatever may be the purpose, the use of language is undoubtedly an integral part of
being human. In fact, an inability to use language appropriately or adequately can
affect one's status in society, and may even alter one's personality.
Language cannot exist and develop outside society. What lyrics are to music,
language is to society? The relationship between the two is that of interdependence.
To ignore the influence of language on society or of society on language would give
only an incomplete picture of the relationship that language and society share. The
main concern of sociolinguistics is to example this complex relationship between
language and society.
Some of the questions that sociolinguists investigate are:
 Is language static or variable?

 To what extent are social factors responsible for language variation?
 How is it that people are able to communicate despite variation?
 Are standard languages different from dialects?
 Why should each social context be examined in its own right?
 Are there any homogenous societies in reality?
 Can language initiate a social change?
 Why do languages change?
Although all the questions will not be addressed in this lesson, some of the theories,
which will be discussed in the following sections, will deal with these issues. since
the 1960's that sociolinguistics has expanded considerably and become an
independent field of academic research.
The widespread interest in this field arose primarily because of a growing
dissatisfaction with the Structural and Chomsky's perspectives on language. While the
former were interested in examining the structural properties of language, the latter
are main concern has been an ideal speaker- learner in a completely homogenous
speech community who know their language perfectly.
As a result, linguists have been engaged in characterizing the abstract knowledge or
the competence that native speakers of a language possess to the total exclusion of the
social context in which language is learnt and used. Apart from considering language
as a system of grammar, sociolinguists find it equally important to study its usage and
functions in various situations.
Sociolinguistics is a meeting ground for linguists and social scientists. However,
many a times there have been diametrically opposite views on the relationship
between language and society. While some have perceived social reality in terms of
language, others have believed that the form and function are determined by social
factors. Nevertheless, diverse orientations as these may be, they help us to reflect on
the nature of both language and society and realize how in reality the relationship
between the two is inextricably interwoven,
Sociolinguists examine the variable nature of language. They believe that language is
not a static entity but is dynamic. Just as a piece of currency keeps evolving and
changing, so do. Languages. Language variation can be investigated at any of the
levels: phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic or discourse. Variation
may be due to a number of factors like geographical separation, sex, age, education,
social class, caste etc. or because of style and register differences.
Language can also vary according to the situation or the social context. Sociolinguists
try to examine and explain linguistic variation in terms of personal, geographical or
social reasons. The social context is considered to be of utmost importance in
sociolinguistics.
The Introduction to sociolinguistic reality of a relatively homogenous society of
America is very different Sociolinguistics from the heterogeneity of India. The fact
that as many as 1,652 languages are spoken in India is in itself a good enough reason
to believe that there is a great deal of diversity. Yet, despite this diversity and
linguistic variation, there seems to be some kind of underlying unity, which enables
communicator~ to take place quite easily.
It is not unusual for an individual in India to maintain multiple identities. For
example, a Guajarati speaker in Delhi may be speaking in Guajarati at home with his
family members, English in his office, Hindi with his friends’ md yet another
language in another context. What is important is to remember that each social
context should be examined in its own right. Social scientists tend to categorize
human groups into convenient discrete units such as 'community'.
Community implies certain shared characteristics observable to the outsider, as well

as, tacitly acceptable to the members of the community. Human groups or
communities may, thus, share cultural traits such as customs, manners, food-habits,
dress, belief-systems, etc., and the members of such groups may perceive themselves
as belonging to one community as distinct from another community. Traditionally,
religion and occupation have provided two universally acceptable bases of
demarcation of communities. Thus, one may talk in terms of the Christian or the
Hindu, community, an agrarian or shepherd community or the business community,
etc. For the linguist, another major basis for the demarcation of communities is
language (or speech).
Hence the notion 'of "speech community", or a human group whose members share
among other things a language. In the following sections we shall examine this notion
in some detail and discuss some of the problems that this apparently simple notion
leads us into.
Speech Community
The terms 'speech community refers to a group of people who share a set of linguistic
norms and expectations regarding the use of language. Who might be said to speak
the same language (or dialect or variety). While theoretical linguists like to use this
term to denote a completely homogeneous group in which all members speak the
same language (with perhaps the same degree of competence and fluency) with hardly
any individual, differences, for the sociolinguist the term denotes a 'real' group of
people living in a 'real' world. Such a 'real' group would obviously consist of
individuals who are different from one another in several respects such as age, sex,
education, social class, etc.
All these impinge on language and, hence, these individuals would differ from one
another in the matter of language too. And yet, despite all these differences, all these
individuals like to identify themselves with this or that speech community. Such a
group or community may be simply defined as "all the people who use a given
language (or dialect)"
According to Charles Hockett (1958) – A speech community is one where "each

language defines a speech community: the whole set of people who communicate
with each other, either directly or indirectly, via the common language". The
following definition above focuses on common language and communication.
A further dimension is added by another definition, according to which a speech

community- is "any human aggregate characterized by regular and frequent
interaction by means of a shared body of verbal signs (language/dialect/variety) and
set off from similar aggregates by significant differences in language use".
(Gurnperz, 1968).
From the foregoing it is clear that the three major components for any definition of a
speech community are:
a) A common language b) Frequent interaction and communication
c) Distinguishable from other communities/groups.
Thus, any group of people who perceive themselves as belonging to one community
on the basis of some shared values, customs, manners, etc. may qualify to be called a
speech community if they also share a common language and see themselves as being
different from speakers of other languages. Hence, one may talk about the English
speech community, the Spanish speech community, the Hindi speech community, the
Telugu community, the Bangla speech community and so on.
BI / MULTlLINGUALISM
A general belief that each language defines and delimits a speech community. The
general equation that seems to be operative is "one language - one community". We
have already seen some of the problems inherent in the notion of one language or a
common language.
Now we turn to another question: how do we determine and name a speech
community that operates with and uses two or more languages? Canada is on
excellent example. There most of the people learn, use and function with French and
English. Do we then call a community of such people, the French speech community
or the English speech community (that is if we share the belief that each language
defines and delimits a speech community)?
Within the Indian context, widespread societal bilingualism (a state of things in which
bilingualism is a feature of whole groups or societies rather than a matter of individual
accomplishment) is the norm rather than an exception. Large sections of populations
in India operate with two or more languages or dialects. 'thus, it is not uncommon to
meet people in Delhi who know Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi and English, or people in
Tamilnadu who how Tamil, Kannada, Hindi and English and so on.
While, obviously, such people cannot be said to constitute the English speech
community, what name or label would be most appropriate for such groups or
communities. One way of taking care of such a situation could be to variously name
the Delhi population as Hindi speech community (which also knows and uses -
Punjabi, Urdu and English), Punjabi speech community (which also knows and uses
Hindi, Urdu and English), and Urdu speech community (which also knows and uses
Hindi, Punjabi and English). But this indeed would be a very tedious way of dealing
with the notion of speech community.
One would, in defence of such a labelling, suggest the notion of 'mother tongue' of
'native language' and say that it is the mother tongue or native language which defines
a speech community.
But even the notion of mother tongue is problematic since we know of many people
within our Indian context who do not know how to speak, read or write their so-called
mother tongue, while they are quite proficient in several other Indian languages
including English (and, indeed, even proficient in some foreign languages).
It is not rare to meet a Malayalee who does not know Malayalam, a Gujarati who
doesn't know Gujarati and a Punjabi who doesn't know Punjabi. How can they then
qualify to be members of the Malayalee, Gujarati or Punjabi speech communities.
It might be more sensible then, to think in terms of bilingual or multilingual speech

communities where two or more languages serve the communicative and
interactional needs of large groups of people. For doing this, one would of course,
have to suspend one's belief in the 'one- language: one community' equation’. In the
light of the foregoing it may be reasonable to suggest that speech communities may or
may not be co-terminus with one or the other language.
Each group of people, each social aggregate has to be viewed as operating not just
with one language but with a verbal repertoire. ( the speech varieties which an
individual knows)
Sociolinguistic Variations
Varieties due to language contact:

It often happens that a language comes in contact with another language. This gives
rise to new varieties of language that continue to co-exist along with the original
language. In modern socio-linguistics, these are also known as ‘transplanted’,
‘nativized’ or ‘indigenized’ varieties. Some of the varieties of English are:
(i) Indian English
Indian English is the general term that applies to any variety of English, spoken in any
regions of India, e.g., Tamilian English, Maharashtrain English, Bengali English and
so on. There is no uniformly consistent standard Indian English spoken all over the
country. That is why good or educated speakers in English in India try to
approximate, as far as possible, to Received Pronunciation (RP) of UK. It is in this
process that a variety of regional English have come up, all vaguely termed Indian
English.
LEXICAL Indian English British English

Bed tea morning tea
Hill station hill resort
Bus stop bus station
Cousin Brother Cousin
biodata curriculum vitae
Indian English includes hybrid compounds, such as those made out of a combination
of English and Hindi, eg. Policewallah, brahminhood, etc.
Syntactic
Word order of questions remains unchanged, e.g. “Where you are going?” instead of
“Where are you going?” In Hindi questions are marked by change in intonation, not
by syntactic change.
Invariant question tags, e.g. ‘You are going tomorrow, isn’t it? Instead of ‘aren’t you?
These are some features that show that Indian English is well on the way to becoming
a variety of English with a distinct structure at all levels. However, no standard
dictionary has so far been written for any General Indian English. This is why even
some educated speakers of English in India think that the term Indian English stands
for a mixed language made up of several regional varieties(In respect to sound, syntax
or usage) of English.
(ii) Pidgin Language

‘Pidgin Language’ is a special language with a a very limited vocabulary and limited
structures, used for purposes like trade, etc. by those people who have no common
language between themselves. Such pidgin languages have come up to be used at
several places where speakers of two different languages meet for specific purposes,
e.g., fish traders of India and Sri Lanka; in habitants of West Indies and Pacific
islands.
Such pidgin languages were also called ‘bazzar’ languages. In the islands of West
Indies and the pacific, pidgins continue to be the languages spoken even when the
initial purpose of trade no more existed. Some examples of pidgin are: I go go
markets (Cameroon pidgin) ‘I chowchow’ for ‘I eat’ (Chinese pidgin), ‘plenty man’
for ‘many men’ (Melanesian pidgin).
(iii) Creole
When a pidgin language comes to be used for a long period by a community as a
whole and it develops its own vocabulary and structures, it becomes a Creole. It is the
product of the two different languages originally used by the speakers.
A creole may arise when a pidgin becomes the first language of the community, and
begins to be used in a wider range of communicative functions. It becomes a new,
restructured system, though it may still be used in very formal contexts. Examples
are: Jamaican creole, etc. New words appear in creoles, e.g., “zozo” for “bird”,
‘fingafoot’ for ‘toe’, ‘pikin’ for ‘child’ and so on.
Varieties of Dialect
The variety of a language according to the user is called Dialect. It is determined by a

speaker’s (user’s) social and geographical background. Language may vary on the
geographical plane from one region to another. This is why it is difficult to talk about
a single entity called British English. In Britain, there are numerous dialects of
English according to the area where these are spoken, e.g. the Lancashire dialect, the
Scottish dialect, the Yorkshire dialect, and so on. The same is true of American
English too.
Dialect variations are also determined by social hierarchy and social class. The
aristocrat in London, for example, uses one variety of English and the lower class uses
another variety. The so-called RP (Received Pronunciation) used to be the dialect of
the upper class society of England, although it has now expanded its regional and
social boundaries. Dialects are at times conditioned by religion and caste also. Also,
within the same religion, ‘dialectal’ differences are conditioned by caste, for example,
the Namboodri (the highest Hindu, Brahmin of Kerala) dialect.
This means that within a given language we have a number of dialects. Between two
dialects there may be grammatical, lexical and phonological differences, even though
they may have the same core system of language in common, e.g. General American
English and RP are two different dialects of English. They differed in many ways, as
the examples below show:
1. Phonological level differences

RP General American
Last /lɑːst/ /læst/
Dance /dɑːns/ /dæns/
Missile /ˈmɪsʌɪl/ /ˈmɪsl/
Class /klɑːs/ /klæs/
Vitamin /vɪtəmɪn/ /ˈvaɪtəmɪn/
2. Differences at the level of Syntax

US British
Different than different from
Check that out check up on that
To talk with somebody to talk to somebody
3. Lexical differences
Gas Petrol
Candy Chocolate
Elevator Lift
Jelly Jam
4. Morphology
Dive-dove dive-dived
(Past) (Past)
5. Graphology (spelling)
Program programme
Color colour
Realize realise
DIALECT MAP
On the basis of such differences in phonology, morphology, syntax, etc., it is possible

to draw imaginary boundaries separating the geographical areas using divergent
linguistic items. The boundary line that separates the user of one area using a
particular linguistic item from the area using the other linguistic item is called
Isogloss.
We can draw a number of isoglosses in a similar fashion. All such isoglosses may not
coincide. A large number of such isoglosses may overlap and form a sort of bundle.
The phenomenon is called bundling. A bundle of isoglosses is considered dialect
boundary.
DIALECT DICTIONARY
Since dialects are now being studied in greater detail (dialectology), the lexicons of
these dialects have been compiled. Such a lexicon is called a dialect dictionary.
SOCIOLECTS: A social dialect or a class dialect used by the members of a
particular group of a speech community is called Sociolect. For example, slang, used
by young people.
DIGLOSSIA: Sometimes a speech community uses two dialects, but there is a strong
tendency to use one of these for special, prestigious or formal occasions. This
prestigious dialect is called high, and the informal, commonly spoken dialect is called
low. These two are not allowed to intermingle. Such a use of two dialects by a speech
community is called Diglossia, e.g., ‘high’ and ‘low’ Tamil, ‘high and ‘low’ Arabic.
IDOLECT: Within a given dialect one may find differences of speech between
individuals. No two speakers speak exactly alike. The term ‘idiolect’ is used to refer
to the idiosyncrasies of an individual speaker.
These peculiarities can be those of pronunciations, grammar. Vocabulary, etc.
“Idiolect is the individual’s personal variety of the community language system”
(Crystal). Language variations are present in individuals as much as in societies, and
they can become regular and systematic in terms of the individual’s own use of and
the linguistic code.
Though the notion of idiolect and style may overlap, idiolect is different from style in
the sense that style is more often a matter of choice. A person’s style can vary in
different situations of speech and writing, e.g. a poet may choose one type of style for
poem and another style for other poems.
Idiolect is consistent over the whole of an individual’s use of the language and is
often like an unconscious mannerism. For example, Uriah Heep’s repeated use of he
word ‘humble’ in Dickens’ David Copperfield is an instance of that character’s
idiolect: the character is identified by the use of that item of speech.
LANGUAGE AND DIALECT
It is sometimes very difficult to say whether A and B are different languages or just
different dialects of the same language. The partial solution to this problem is
provided by the concept of mutual intelligibility. If two speakers are mutually
intelligible, they are using the same language even if they are using different dialects.
If they are not intelligible to each other, they are using different languages. It is, in
fact, difficult to draw rigid boundary lines between languages. At times dialects of the
same language may be so divergent that speakers of the same language may find each
other mutually unintelligible.
A dialect rises to that status of a language when a community speaking a certain

dialect is politically and socially powerful. The speaker may manage to force the
government to acknowledge their variety as a separate language (that is why it is often
said that a language is a dialect with an army and a navy). The Hindi dialect popular is
Western UP became the national language of the country (India) because an
influential group of leaders in the free belonged to that area.
REGISTER
The same individual uses different varieties of a language depending upon the
situation. This language according to the situation is called register.
The ki9nd of language that a lecturer uses in a classroom is not the kind of English
that he uses in the kitchen, talking to his wife or the kind of English he uses on the
stage in a convocation function. One uses different registers in talking to one’s wife,
one’s colleague, and one’s boss. Consider Mr John speaking to his wife, then to a
colleague, and then to his boss:-
To wife: Met that fool Jolly today. Wants his job back, can you imagine?
To colleague: Do you remember Jolly Smith? I met him today and he said he’d like
his job back. I think he is too optimistic, do you?
To boss: I met Mr Jolly Smith yesterday, sir, who used to work in the stores. He asked
me to find out if he could again join his post. I only said I’ll pass on your request and
find out the position. Should he have any hopes, sir?
These are there different registers used by Mr John. He uses an informal register
while talking to his wife, but a formal register while talking to his boss. We talk of
formal register, the informal register, the register of linguistics the register of law, the
literary, the register of commerce, science and so on.
CLASSIFICATION OF REGISTERS
(i) register according to the field of discourse (or the purpose and the
subject matter of communication)
Such registers include the register of science, the register of law, register of
religion, the register of journalism, etc. Some examples are listed.
The register of science: Equal volumes of all gases, under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure, contain equal number of molecules.
The register of journalism: Girish 46, and his wife 39, residents of lovers’ lane,
Ludhiana, escaped with minor injuries when a powerful bomb planted in their
garage exploded seconds after the couple locked the garage soon after sunset
yesterday.
The register of religion: O lord our heavenly Father! We pray to Thee to have
mercy on thy people.
(ii) Register according to the mode of discourse
These refer to the register variations determined by the medium (spoken or

written) used. We can talk about different varieties of language in a telegraphic
message, telephone conversations, and a mobile message, a radio, television or
newspaper. We can also have difference between the spoken language and the
written language.
LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
Dell Hymes initiated the study of ethnography of communication in the 1960's-He

was concerned that both linguists and anthropologists were missing a large and
important area of communication by not considering speech as an activity in its own
right. Anthropologists were concerned primarily with conducting ethnographic studies
of different aspects of cultures, such as kinship systems, but were completely ignoring
language.
Linguists on the other hand, were concerned only with language as an abstract system
and were not addressing issues of how somebody used one of those sentences in
actual situations. By focussing exclusively on 'competence' in 'a language',
'communicative competence' was being ignored.
'Ethnography of speaking/cornmunication examines the role of language in the
'communicative conduct of communities' - i.e. the study in which language is used in
diverse cultures. It examines the functions and uses of styles, dialects and languages,
and explores the way in which speech acts are interpreted and carried through in
particular cultures and societies.
The ethnography of communication was therefore, proposed to fill the gap between
what is usually described in ethnographies and in grammars. Although both the
anthropologists and the linguists use speech as evidence of other patterns, neither
brings it into focus.
The ethnography of communication is actually a question of what a child internalizes
about speaking, beyond rules of grammar and a dictionary, while becoming a full-
fledged member of its speech community. It is also a question of what a foreigner
must learn about a group's behaviour in order to participate appropriately and
effectively in its activities. An individual speaker can in fact simultaneously belong to
several speech communities.
Hymes felt that children acquire knowledge of a set of ways in which sentences are
used. From a finite experience of speech interaction, they develop a general theory of
speaking which is appropriate in their community. This knowledge is just like any
other form of tacit cultural knowledge, which they acquire in conducting and
interpreting social life. Therefore, in learning to speak, one also learns to 'talk' in the
sense of communicating in those ways, which are considered as appropriate by the
group to which the child belongs. Since these ways differ from group to group or from
one language to another, one must learn new ways if he/she wishes to fit into that new
group or new language.
The study of address or form, usage for example, tells us quite a bit about how the
speakers of a particular language, in a particular community, organize their social
relationships. In Hindi, for instance, the use of 'tu', 'tum' and 'a:p' can convey a great
deal about the way people organize their relationships. It is interesting to note that
while 'tu' may be used in intimate relationships, it is also used in talking to people
who are perceived as belonging to low class like the maids who work at home,
vegetable vendors, drivers etc. 'turn' may be used amongst friends, workmates, etc.,
and 'a: p’ is reserved for formal relations, like talking to a boss or a teacher and when
talking to elder people.
Therefore, the use of language is related to social and cultural values of a community,
situations and uses. In order to study the communicative behaviour of a speech
community, units of interaction like the situation, speech events and speech acts have
to be studied through participant observation and introspection. But, we will not go
into details.
Review questions
1.What is sociolinguistics
2.What are the different regional and social language variations?
3.What is speech community?
4.What is standard language?
5.Explain dialect,isolect,idolect,sociolect with examples?
6.Distinguish between bilingualism and multilingualism with examples.
7.Distinguish between dialect and register/
8.Define the following
Dialect,dialect map,dialect boundardy,isolect,sociolect,isolect,social variations of a
dialect,diglossia.
9.Define Pidgin and Creole with examples.
10.Write a note on influence of culture on language.
Language and basics of linguistics
SEMESTER II PAPER IV 70 marks
I. Write the following in a sentence or two.

5X2=10
II. Answer the following in 80-100 words
2x5=10
III. Answer the following in 150-200 words(essay questions).
1x10=10
IV. Pick out bound morpheme in the following sentence : 05
V. Draw tree diagram for the following words (2x 2 and half marks ) 05
VI. Identify the syllable structure for the following words: 05
VII. Mark the stress in the underlined words: 03
VIII. Mark the nuclear stress in the underlined sentences: 02
IX. Answer the following: 10
1. Give 2 synonymy for ________
2. Give 2 antonyms for________-
3. Give hyponymy for_________ and _______
4. Give homonymy for _______ and_________
5. Give 1 example of homograph/Homophony.
X. Fill in the blanks 05
XI. True or false 05
Practicals
1.Read the following passage and answer the questions given below (10) marks
a)Comment on the central idea of the passage. In which sentence(s) 3
does the central idea occur?
b) Write a short paraphrase of the entire passage. 3
c) What is the structure of the paragraph and the link between the two paragraphsin terms of
ideas and structural devices used? 4
2. Language analysis in poetry 25 marks
Words,rhyme pattern structure ( stylistics)

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Word and Image

Paper III: Reading Comprehension and Composition

Bengaluru CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

Word and Image 1: Communicative English Handbook for I

Foreword (Vice Chancellor)

Members of the Board of Studies

Dr. Chitra Panikkar

1. Dr. Ramadevi . M. Government Arts College Dr.

7. Dr. N.S. Gundur

Members of the Textbook Committee

Shirisha Kumari Balagam

Paper 4: Language and Basics of Linguistics

• .To understand what constitutes language and we as teachers of English,should

Practicals – 50 Marks (35+15) .

Tone, Topic sentence, Supporting sentence and Concluding sentence:

4. It has been shown that without the pocket calculators

5. Some people criticize computers because they

II. Give short answers

2. Read throughh this newspaper article and answer the questions.

4. Why can't the sports goods complex be used?

3. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

II. Answer briefly

4. Read through the paragraph and answer the questions.

5. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

1. pillar of balance could refer to

6. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

8. What does the author highlight in this passage?

2. What affects the nature of muscle fibres?

5. What happens to your body due to physical exercise?

8. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

10.Read the following passage and answer the questions.

3. If one responds with insight to the mood of the desert, it evokes

11. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

a) An electric kettle b) A safety razor

12. Read the following passage and answer the questions.

Letter is a written conversation between people. It is an important means of

3. Inside address/ Recipient’s address:

6. Body of the letter

7. Closing/sign off/ complimentary close

Date: 06th November, 2019

Body of the letter

06th November, 2019

Sub: Requisition for opening a savings bank account

Kindly open a savings bank account in my name.

Sample 02: Enquiry about advertised goods

17th October, 2019

Parts of a formal Email:

Sample 01: Job application

To whom it may concern:

I am attaching a copy of my resume in pdf format.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Sample 02: Meeting Notification

Dr. Mahesh .M.

Chairperson, Department of English

Sample 03: Applying for internship

I am a student of journalism, now in my third year B A (sixth semester), at

As I hope to work in the electronic media after completing my studies , I would be

The most suitable times would be from early March to mid-October.

Please find enclosed my CV.

Making requests - could you please _ - Can you ?