English in Mech Engineering For Student PDF

· English in Focus
Series Editors: J. P. B. ALLEN andH. G. WIDDOWSON

Advisory Editor: RONALD MACKIN
ENGLISH IN FOCUS
English in
Mechanical Engineering
ERIC H. GLENDINNING
TEACHER'S EDITION
LONDON
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1974
Editors' Preface
The aim of the English in Focus series is to develop in students who are
entering higher education an ability to handle the kind of written English that
they will be concerned with as an integral part of their specialist subject. The
approach is one which recognizes that learning a language is not merely a
matter of learning sentence patterns and vocabulary but must also involve an
understanding of how people use these linguistic forms in order to com-
municate. Our purpose is to make students aware of the way English is
used in actual written communication, and thereby to help them develop
techniques of reading and to provide them with a guide for their own writing.
The books in this series are based on the belief that intermediate and
advanced students who are studying English as a necessary part of their
specialist studies need a distinctive type of textbook: one which reflects the
nature of the learning problems encountered at this stage, and which presents
the language as an aspect of the subject they are studying. We feel that a
textbook directed at students at this level should attempt to do more than
simply repeat the formulas in elementary language teaching material. Most
courses of English concentrate on teaching the language system and fail to
show how this system is used in communication. As a result, students may
know about such formal items as affirmative sentences or modal verbs, but
not know how these items are put to use in the making of different kinds of
statements and in the production of continuous pieces of discourse.
The principal purpose of the English in Focus series is not to teach more
grammar, but to show students how to use the grammar they already know.
In writing these books two basic assumptions have been made. Firstly, it is
assumed that the students have had a good deal of instruction in grammar and
that they have a considerable dormant competence in English. The books are
directed at activating this competence, and extending it, by leading the student
to relate his previously acquired linguistic knowledge to meaningful realiza-
tions of the language system in passages of immediate relevance to his specialist
studies. Secondly, it is assumed that students already have a basic knowledge
of t:leir specialist subject. The aim is not to teach subject-matter but to
develop in the reader an understanding of how this subject-matter is expressed
through English. It should be emphasized that these books are not designed
to teach either language in isolation or subject-matter in isolation but the
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AND BOUND IN ENGLAND BY

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Contents
Editors' Preface XI
Introduction
Guide to the book XIll
Teaching suggestions xx
Unit 1 Engineering Materials

I: READING AND COMPREHENSION 1
Solutions to the comprehension problems 2
EXERCISE A: Rephrasing 3
EXERCISE B: Contextual reference 3
II: USE OF LANGUAGE 4
EXERCISE A: Classification of engineering materials 4
EXERCISE B: Classification (cont.) 4
EXERCISE C: However, therefore and because 5
EXERCISE D: Language of measurement
(i) Basic metric units 6
EXERCISE E: Language of measurement.
Oi) Derived metric units 8
EXERCISE F: Language of measurement
(iii) Compound metric units 8
nI: INFORMATION TRANSFER 10
EXERCISE A: Describing dimensions 10
IV: GUIDED WRITING 11
Stage 1 : Sentence building 11
Stage 2: Paragraph building 12
V: FREE READING: Corrosion 12
Unit 2 Vectors
vi Contents
EXERCISE C: Relationships between statements 16
II: USE OF LANGUAGE 17
EXERCISE A: Classification of physical quantities 17
EXERCISE B: Making definitions 17
EXERCISE C: Making generalizations 18
EXERCISE D: Lower-level and higher-level generalizations 18
III: INFORMATION TRANSFER 19
EXERCISE A: Changing vector diagrams to written descriptions 19
EXERCISE B: Sentence building 20
Stage 1: The use of the passive in the description of an
experiment 21
Stage 2: Paragraph building 22 .
V: FREE READING: Scales and graphs 22
Unit 3 Force
EXERCISEC: Relationships between statements 27
II: USE OF LANGUAGE V
EXERCISE A: Instructions and results 27
EXERCISE B: Making observations (i) 28
EXERCISE C: Making observations (ii) 28
EXERCISE D: Relative clauses (defining) 28
EXERCISE E: Relative clauses (non-defining) 29
EXERCISE F: Relative clauses (defining and non-defining) 30
EXERCISE G: Noun modification (i) 31
III: INFORMATION TRANSFER 33
EXERCISE A: Mathematical symbols used in engineering 33
EXERCISE B: Greek letters and abbreviations used in engineering 33
Stage 1: Sentence building 34
Stage 3: Using diagrams to illustrate the passage 35
V: FREE READING: Gravity 36
Unit 4 Friction
Contents vii

ll: USE OF LANGUAGE 40

EXERCISE A: Instructions and results 40
EXERCISE B: Making observations (iii) 41
EXERCISE C: Making inductions 41
EXERCISE D: Short-form relative clauses (i) 43
EXERCISE E: Short-form relative clauses (ii) 44
EXERCISE F: Short-form relative clauses (iii) 45
EXERCISE G: Noun modification (ii) 45
lll: INFORMATION TRANSFER 46
EXERCISE A: Making recommendations based on a graph 46
EXERCISE B: Making recommendations based on a table 46
Stage 1: Sentence and paragraph building 48
V: FREE READING: Lubrication 49
Unit 5 Levers
Solutions to comprehension problems 51
ll: USE OF LANGUAGE 54
EXERCISE A: Completing a diagram 54
EXERCISE B: Interpretation of diagrams 54
EXERCISE C: Paragraphs based on diagrams 54
EXERCISE D: Describing the function of an object 56
EXERCISE E: Combining sentences with an -ing clause 56
EXERCISE F: Relative clauses with prepositions 57
EXERCISE G: Noun modification (iii) 58
Ill: INFORMATION TRANSFER 59
EXERCISE A: Making comparisons based on a diagram 59
Stage 1: Writing a report of an experiment 60
Stage 2: Illustrating the report with a diagram 60
Stage 3: Completing the report 61
V: FREE READING: Beams 61
Unit 6 Stress and Strain

viii Contents

0: USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A: Definitions 67
EXERCISE B: If-sentences 68
EXERCISE C: Predictions based on the properties of materials 68
EXERCISE D: Noun modification (iv) 68
EXERCISE E: Prepositions 69
EXERCISE F: Making inductions 70
01: INFORMATION TRANSFER 71
EXERCISE A: Inductions based on diagrams and tables 71
EXERCISE B: Stating laws 72
Stage 1: Sentence building 74
Stage 3: Using diagrams to illustrate the paragraphs 75
V: FREE READING: Factor of safety 76
Unit 7 Ideal and Practical Machines

0: USE OF LANGUAGE
EX E R CIS E A: Predictions based on laws, generalizations and
proven facts 83
EXERCISE B: Predictions based on unlikely suppositions 85
EXERCISE C: Toughen, harden, soften, etc. 86
01: INFORMATION TRANSFER 87
EXERCISE A: Design specifications. be+to, have+to, must 87
EXERCISE B: Design specifications (cont.) 88
Stage 1: Sentence and paragraph building 88
Stage 2: Using diagrams to illustrate the paragraphs 89
V: FREE READING: Cranes 90
Unit 8 The Four-Stroke Petrol Engine

I: READING 92
PAR T 1: The carburettor 92
PART 2: The valves 92
PAR T 3: The four-stroke cycle 93
0: USE OF LANGUAGE 95
EXERCISE A: Cause and effect 95
Contents ix
EXERCISE B; Problems and solutions 95

EX E R CIS E c; -tight, -proof, -resistant 97
III: INFORMATION TRANSFER
EXERCISE A: Describing the shapes of objects 98
Stage 1 : Sentence and paragraph building 100
Stage 2: Using diagrams to illustrate the passage 101
V: FREE READING: The Wankel engine 101
Questions on Free Reading Passages 103
Key to the Exercises 105

xii Editor's Preface
manner in which both combine in meaningful communication. Our belief is

that by relating content and expression in this way, the subject-matter takes
on a new interest and the linguistic difficulties are reduced.
In order to ensure the natural communicative function of language, grading
is by focus rather than by exclusion. Since it is assumed that the readers of
these books already have a fairly wide knowledge of English grammar, and
also have access to a standard dictionary and other reference books, the
authors have been able to avoid an unnatural step-by-step presentation of
grammatical patterns and vocabulary, and instead aim to show how a fiuent
writer uses the whole resources of the language in performing various acts of
communication. At the same time, care has been taken not to overload the
student with new material and complex structures have avoided except
where they are necessary in maintaining a natural use of language. We believe
that the books in the series will prepare the student to cope with greater
linguistic complexity by developing in him a reading strategy which he can
bring to bear on the material in the textb00ks he has to read.
In the exercises an attempt has been made to avoid the more mechanical
types of drill. The users of these books will be people whose minds are directed
towards rational thought and problem-solving and the exercises have been
designed to take this fact into account. Wherever possible, exercises are used
which require the sort of mental activity which students would naturally be
engaged in as part of their specialist studies. It is hoped that this type of
exercise will make the student see the relationship between expression and
content, and will therefore persuade him of the relevance of English learning
to his own specialist field. In the last resort, the authors depend on the
student being prepared to teach himself, to concentrate diligently on the
features of language exemplified in the texts, and to approach the linguistic
content of these books with the same spirit of enquiry and desire for know-
ledge as he would be expected to bring to the study of his speciality.
It is appreciated that, even in a course whose primary concern is with the
written language, the teaching process must inevitably bring in the spoken
form as well. Therefore, in order to assist both teacher and learner, the texts
have been recorded on tape, as also have those exercises containing additional
vocabulary, the pronunciation of which might otherwise pose a problem.
Edinburgh J. P. B. A.
1974 H.G.W.
Introduction
1 Guide to the book

The book contains eight units, each of which is divided into five sections:
I: Reading and comprehension
II: Use oflanguage
III: Information transfer
IV: Guided writing
V: Free reading
Each ofthe five sections follows the same basic pattern. * This is as follows:
I READING AND COMPREHENSION

This section begins with a reading passage within which are inserted sets of
comprehension checks in the form of statements which mayor may not be
correct. The learner has to decide on the correctness of each statement. These
checks are inserted within the reading passage itself rather than at the end
because we want to encourage the learner to think about what he reads as
he reads and to pay close attention. to what is actually expressed in the
passage. Once the learner realizes that his understanding is going to be
systematically checked in this way he is likely to read more attentively for
meaning and to treat his reading not simply as a language exercise .re1evant
only to the English class but as a technique for acquiring information which
will be useful in a wider field of study.
The comprehension checks require the learner to indicate whether a given
statement is true or false according to the passage. But it is important that
he should know why a statement is true or false and be able to recognize
what it is in the passage that leads him to decide one way or the other. This
is why each comprehension check is provided with a solution.
The solutions refer the learner to those features of the reading passage
which provide evidence for the truth or falsehood of the statements in the
* With the exception of Section I in Unit 8 where it was necessary to organize the material
differently in order to give emphasis to the teaching points with which this section is
concerned.
xiv Introduction
comprehension checks. They are explanations in that they point out what the
reader must notice and how he must reason in order to arrive at the correct
decision. Explanations of this kind are of course not necessary for someone
who already has an efficient reading ability in English. At first glance it
might appear that the solutions are sometimes too elaborate and detailed.
But it must be remembered that the learner must be made aware of what is
involved in reading with understanding before this ability can become
habitual. What we aim to do by means of these solutions is to develop in the
learner a reading strategy which he can apply generally to the texts he has
to deal with as part of his study of engineering.
Sometimes a solution may serve simply to remind the learner of the know-
ledge of English he already has. In Unit 3, for example, comprehension
check (c) requires the learner to recognize that the same idea can be expressed
by using different verbs, with appropriate changes in the postverbal structure.
The solution appears as follows:
A force can start something moving.
= A force can cause something to move.
= A force can cause movement.
It is quite likely that the learner will be familiar with sentences of this type,
and that he will have no difficulty in recognizing that 'A force can start
something moving' means the same as 'A force can cause movement'. How-
ever, the ability to recognize whether a given statement is true or not accord-
ing to the passage does not come only from an understanding of the meaning
of individual words and sentences. Very often it is a matter of recovering
information which is implied rather than explicitly stated and of tracing the
way in which what is expressed or implied in one sentence is related to what is
expressed or implied in another. It is the function of many solutions, therefore,
to make such implications explicit and to spell out the relationship between
different statements.
Let us consider an example from Unit 4. Comprehension check (i) presents
the following statement: 'If the mass of a body sliding over another is in-
creased, the sliding friction force between them will also increase'. The
student has to decide whether this statement is true or not with reference to
the reading passage. In order to make this decision it is necessary to relate
what is expressed in two different sentences: 15 and 18. This relating process
is represented in the solution as follows (the symbols on the left indicate the
kind of reasoning which is involved):
This shows that sliding friction is proportional to the reaction

between the surfaces in contact. (18)
i.e. (that is If the reaction between the two surfaces in contact is increased,
to say) sliding friction is also increased.
but We can make the normal reaction between two surfaces in
contact twice as large by doubling the mass carried by one
surface. (15)
Introduction xv
i.e. The reaction between surfaces in contact increases as the mass

carried by one surface increases.
If the mass of a body sliding over another is increased, the
(therefore) sliding friction force between them will also increase.
What solutions of this kind do, then, is to spell out certain reasoning
processes which are employed by the efficient reader as a matter of habit.
Moreover, they are the sort of processes which are overtly employed in many
fields of scientific enquiry. Their use here as a language exercise is intended to
appeal to the particular cognitive inclination of engineering students, and to
make them see that the 'content' and the 'expression' of scientific writing are
dependent upon each other.
The first three exercises following the reading passage are a logical develop-
ment from the solutions. Each focuses on a feature of language use which is
frequently referred to in the solutions and which is particularly to
an understanding of how English is used in written communication.
EXERCISE A Rephrasing
The object of this exercise is to make the student realize that writers commonly
express the same idea in different ways and that "there is no one-to-one cor-
respondence between one linguistic form and one meaning. It is important
that the student should realize this because two phrases may mean the same
thing only within the context of a particular passage and it is therefore only
by studying the context that the equivalence can be established. In Exercise A
the student has to show how different forms function as synonymous ex-
pressions by replacing selected phrases in sentences with words from the
reading passage which have the same meaning. For example (Unit 1, Exercise
A) the following sentence is presented:
Chromium steels resist corrosion.
The student searches the reading passage and discovers the sentence 'Ceramics
are often employed by engineers when materials which can withstand high
temperatures are needed.' In this context resist = withstand, so the sentence
in the exercise can be rephrased:
Chromium steels withstand corrosion.
In the same exercise we have the sentence
Chromium can be included in steel to provide a good cutting edge.
In this case two sentences in the reading passage are relevant: 'Certain
elemenis can improve the properties of steel and are therefore added to it.
For example, chromium may be included to resist corrosion... .' In this
context included in = added to and can = may, so a suitable rephrasing of
the sentence in the exercise is:
Chromium may be added to steel to provide a good cutting edge.
XVI Introduction
EXERCISE B Contextual reference

This exercise draws the ' ' attention to the way pronouns and demon-
stratives are used to refer to something already mentioned and so serve to
relate one statement to another in a text. Very often there is more than one
grammatically possible connection between noun phrases and the reader has
to decide which reference makes sense in the context of the passage con-
cerned. The following example is from Unit 1 :
2 Engineers must also understand the properties of these materials and how
they can be worked.
The student's ability to assign the correct referential value to 'they' is tested
as follows:
In sentence 2, 'they' refers to
(a) the engineers
(b) the materials.
Exercise B, then, obliges the learner to scrutinize the passage to assign the
correct referential value to such anaphoric language items as pronouns,
demonstratives and so on. This exercise is not difficult, and it may sometimes
seem obvious what a given item refers to. But again it must be remembered
that we are not just concerned with getting the learner to recognize the
contextual reference of a particular language item in a particular passage
but with developing a general ability to handle this feature of language use.
The point is that this exercise directs the learner's attention to the way
anaphoric devices work and so prepares him for those cases where identifica-
tion of the referent is not so easy.
EXERCISE C Relationships between statements (Units 2-8)

Expressions like therefore, consequently, however, etc. indicate what function
a particular sentence is meant to fulfil. A sentence which contains therefore
is used to make a statement which follows logically from a previous statement.
Similarly, for example indicates that the sentence is used to make a statement
which illustrates a point made previously. Such expressions are explicit
indicators of the communicative function of sentences. But writers do not use
explicit indicators in every sentence. Very often a writer assumes that the
reader will realize how a particular sentence is to be understood without the
assistance of such indicators. It is of course crucial for the student learning
to read a foreign language to understand which statements are meant to
be illustrations, qualifications, conclusions and so on, and how statements
are logically related to one another. The purpose of Exercise C is to make
the learner aware of such communicative functions and of the way they are
used in the development of written discourse.
In Exercise C the student proceeds in one of two ways. Sometimes he is
provided with explicit indicators in the reading passage itself and he is
Introduction xvii
required to replace these indicators with others which have an equivalent

function. Thus in Unit 2, Exercise C he is given:
therefore (6)
In this case the student has simply to refer to sentence 6 in the reading pass-
age, remove then and replace it with therefore:
Force, then, is a vector quantity
becomes
Force, therefore, is a vector quantity.
But it may not be a matter of simple replacement. Let us consider an example
from Unit 3:
on the other hand (5)
It is possible to replace also in sentence 5 with the given phrase, but commas
must be added and the resulting sentence sounds rather strained:
A force can, on the othe( hand, stop something moving or hinder motion.
A better solution is to put on the other hand at the beginning of the sentence
and to delete also:
On the other hand a force can stop something moving or hinder motion.
In the above examples the student is required to replace one indicator with
another of equivalent function. Elsewhere he is required to insert indicators
so as to give statements an explicitness they would not otherwise have. In
Unit 2 we have the following:
examples of (4)
thus (12)
Sentence 4 of the reading passage is:
Mass, volume and length are scalar quantities.
This can be shown explicitly as an exemplification by inserting the given
indicator as follows:
Mass, volume and length are examples of scalar quantities.
Similarly, sentence 12 can be made explicit as a conclusion deriving from
what has been stated previously:
Thus the line is vertical because the direction of the force it represents is
vertical.
The central purpose of this exercise, then (notice then!), is to bring to the
learner's notice the ways in which sentences are used to perform different
acts of communication and how such acts are related to one another in the
development of a discourse.
xviii Introduction
The exercises in section I are designed to make little demand on the

learner's productive ability. Their is to direct the learner to a
discovery of what is involved in the of written communica-
tion. The exercises in sections II-IV are intended to extend comprehension
into written work.
n USE OF LANGUAGE
The Use of Language section contains a variety of exercises of which two
types call for special comment: statements based on diagrams
practice.
Statements based on diagrams vary from unit to unit but all these exercises
have the same basic aim. This aim is to guide the student to use his under-
standing of the reading passage to perform for himself the communicative
acts which appear to be of particular importance in mechanical engineering.
Thus in Unit 1 the learner is required to complete a diagram according to his
understanding of the reading passage. When the diagram is completed it
serves as a model for writing classifying sentences at various levels of general-
ity. In Unit 2 diagrams are used for producing definitions, classifications and
generalizations, and in the following units other acts of communication are
presented in a similar way.
One type of activity which appears in section II might be called rhetorical
transformation. This involves changing one mode of communication into
another. For example, we see in Unit 2 that the definition:
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude but not
direction
can be changed, or transformed, into a generalization:
A scalar quantity has magnitude but not direction.
Similarly, a pair of sentences of which one is an instruction and one a result
can be transformed into an observation (Unit 3), or one or more observations
can be transformed into a special kind of generalization called an induction
(Unit 4).
As stated above in the editors' preface, it is assumed that the student already
has a knowledge of basic grammar. It is also assumed that this knowledge
will be consolidated during the course of the book as the student experiences
language used in meaningful contexts. For these reasons no attempt has been
made to provide a detailed review of English grammar. Instead, the grammar
exercises in this section are designed to focus on points which are particularly
important in the context of engineering, especially those points which may
represent continuing 'trouble spots' for many students.
III INFORMATION TRANSFER

Information transfer is essentially a development of the exercises in section II.
It brings the learner's attention to bear on problems which are related both
Introduction xix
to the subject matter and the language use of the preceding reading passage
and exercises. To solve the problems the learner has to call upon his experi-
ence of both English and engineering and in providing a solution he is
necessarily integrating the two areas of knowledge in a meaningful way. The
aim of section III is to give the student practice in transferring information
from one medium to another. For example, the student is asked to write
recommendations based on a graph of a table (Unit 4), or design specifica-
tions based on a diagram (Unit 7). Elsewhere, he has to write inductions
based on diagrams or tables (Unit 6) or, having been provided with appropri-
ate vocabulary, h6 must describe the shapes of various engineering objects
as completely as possible (Unit 8). This kind of exercise is of particular
relevance to students of engineering, who are frequently required to convert
information from tables, diagrams and graphs into verbal form, and the
reverse.
IV GUIDED WRITING
The aim of the guided writing exercises is integrative rather than analytic;
that is, the student uses a wide range of grammatical devices and sees how
they combine to produce an integrated piece of writing. The guided writing
sections vary in design, and become more difficult in the later units. A typical
guided writing exercise is done in three stages. At the first stage the student
examines various groups of words and combines each group into a sentence
by following the clues provided. Some sentences are easy to write, some are
more difficult; this reflects the situation in actual writing, where simple
sentences alternate with more complex structures according to the nature
of the message the writer wishes to convey. At the second stage the student
creates a coherent text by rewriting the sentences in a logical order, deciding
on paragraph divisions and adding various 'transitional' features where
necessary. Thirdly, the student is presented with a number of diagrams which
illustrate the passage. The student labels the diagrams and incorporates them
into the passage, making any changes to the text that may be necessary. The
guided writing is designed to allow some scope for the student to exercise
his own judgement in the choice of words and structures, so there is no reason
why the student's version should be identical to the one given in the key.
If the paragraphs differ, the student should try to evaluate the relative merits
of the two versions. Classroom discussion of these differences should help the
student to develop a sense of style.
V FREE READING
This section consists of a passage of prose which is longer and more difficult
than the reading passage in section I. The reason for including this section is .
to give the student an opportunity to learn for himself. The previous
sections impose a fairly strict control over the student's activities; the free
reading enables him to tryout what he has learnt in his own way and his own
xx Introduction
time. No matter how carefully we develop our teaching procedures, it

appears that learners develop their own individual way of learning, and the
free reading passages are meant to give the reader a chance to think for himself
without being imposed upon.* It is assumed that the reader's interest in the
way language is used in an engineering context will have been sufficiently
aroused in the preceding sections for him to be ready to apply his own inten-
sive reading technique without specific directives in the form of further
exercises. The free reading section provides additional opportunities for word
study and gives the student a chance to try his skill in locating further
examples of the points he has studied in the unit. It is hoped that the final
section of each unit will provide a bridge to more extensive reading beyond
the confines of this book, and that the student will be encouraged to consult
his standard engineering texts as a further source of information about the
way language is used.
2 Teaching suggestions
The following notes indicate how the second unit might be dealt with in the
classroom; the other units can be handled in a similar way. These notes are
intended to be suggestions only. It is expected that the teacher will develop
his own procedures according to the needs of his students. A particular
teacher, for example, may find that he needs to place greater emphasis on one
type of exercise than on another. He may wish to pay more attention to oral
than to written work, or the reverse. It will also be up to the teacher to decide,
according to his own circumstances, how the work is to be divided into class
sessions, and which part of it can most appropriately be done as homework.

(i) Reading the text
Get the class to read sentences 1-7 by themselves.
Do questions (a) and (b) with them so that it is clear what they have to do.
Get the class to do questions (c) and Cd) on their own.
Choose one student. Ask him whether he has written down 'true' or 'not
true' for question (c). Get him to justify his decision with reference to the
appropriate parts of the text. Ask other students whether they agree, and if
not why not. Get the class to turn to the relevant solution. Read it aloud to
the class while the students follow it in their books.
Choose another student, and do the same with question (d).
Read sentences 1-7 aloud to the class, while they follow in their books.
Get the class to read sentences 8-14 by themselves.
Get the class to do questions (e)-(h) on their own, and repeat the process as
for questions (c) and (d).
* For those teachers who prefer to supplement free reading with more formal practice,
a set of comprehension questions for all the free reading passages is provided on p. 103.
Introduction xxi
Read the whole passage aloud to the class, without the questions, while the
students follow in their books.
(ii) Exercises
Get the class to do the exercise in their notebooks.
When the class have finished the exercise, write the first sentence on the
board. Underline the expression which is to be replaced.
Select a volunteer to come to the board and write in the replacing expression
above the words which are underlined.
Ask the class to judge whether the rephrasing is appropriate. Consider
alternatives if necessary.
Bracket together the appropriate replacement(s) with the original expression
as follows:
We {Calculate} mass III
..kIlogrammes.
measure
Do the remaining sentences in the same way.

Ask the class to show which choices they have made in question 1 by putting
up their hands.
Ask students to replace the item indicated with the phrase they have
chosen, and read out the sentence which results. For example, a student
choosing 2(a) will read out 'Scalar and vector quantities have size, or magni-
tude, but only vector quantities possess direction.' A student choosing 2(b)
will read out 'Physical quantities have size, or magnitude, but only vector
quantities possess direction.'
Ask the class to judge which statement is correct.
Repeat the process for the other questions.
EXERCISE C Relationships between statements

When the class have finished the exercise, write sentence 4 on the board.
Select a volunteer to come to the board and indicate the change.
Ask the class to judge whether the change is correct.
Do the remaining sentences.
The following methods of indicating a change may be used:
examples of
Mass, volume and length are " scalar quantities.
therefore
Force, -tl:J:eB. ,is a vector quantity.
xxii Introduction
Although
A Both have size or magnitude, .am only vector quantities possess
direction.
n USE OF LANGUAGE
E XE R CIS E A Classification of physical quantities
Get the class to copy out and complete the diagram, and use it to write out
sentences in their notebooks as instructed.
Put the diagram on the board and complete it with the students' help. Get
. the students to correct their own diagrams.
Get the individual students to read out the sentences they have written.
EXERCISE B Making definitions

Get the students to study the diagram and read the explanation carefully.
Do the sentences orally.
Get the students to write the sentences in their notebooks. While they are
doing this, go round the class and give individual help where necessary.
EXERCISES C and D
Proceed as in Exercise B.

EXERCISE A Changing vector diagrams to written descriptions
Allow the students several minutes to study the example.
Do one or two sentences orally.
Tell the students to write the sentences in their notebooks. They should write
all the sentences, including the ones given in the text.
EXERCISE B Sentence building

Get the students to read the example and write the sentences in their note-
books.
Select students to read out their versions. Use the students' answers to write
a correct version of each sentence on the board.
IV GUIDED WRITING
S TAG E 1 The use of the passive in the description of an experiment
Get the students to read the explanation carefully.
Do one or two sentences orally.
Tell the students to write all the sentences in their notebooks. Give individual
help where necessary.
Taking the sentences one by one, get individual students to read out what
they have written. Write the correct version of each sentence on the board.
Introduction XXlll
S TAG E 2 Paragraph building

Get the students to write a paragraph in their notebooks, following the
instructions. Tell them to label the diagram and include it in the paragraph.
After the students have written their paragraphs, get the class to number the
sentences on the board in the correct order.
Invite one of the students to copy the diagram onto the board and to label it.
Get the class to suggest a suitable title for the paragraph.
Discuss any differences between the students' versions and the version in the
key.
Give the students time to change their own paragraphs where
V FREE READING
Tell the students to read the passage in their own time.
Encourage them to look for points of interest in the text and to relate them
to the exercises in this and other units.
Tell the students to make a note of any unfamiliar words and to look them
up in their dictionaries. Get them to practise using these words in sentences
of their own.
Repeat this process with further passages selected from standard texts used
by the students in their engineering classes.
RECORDING
Recordings of the reading passages and the answers to those grammar ex-
ercises in Section II which contain the most difficult vocabulary are
available on cassette from Oxford University Press.
A useful revision exercise is to play the recordings of the reading passages
while the students follow the text in their books. If it is necessary to develop
the learners' ability to comprehend spoken English, follow this up by
giving comprehension questions orally. (See pages 103-4 for questions
relating to the free reading sections.) Recordings of answers to the
grammar questions will serve as a model if the teacher wishes to do these
exercises orally.
"
1 Engineering Materials
1 Engineers have to know the best and most economical materials to use.
2Engineers must also understand the properties of these materials and how
they can be worked. 3There are two kinds of materials used in engineering -
metals and non-metals. 4We can divide metals into ferrous and non-ferrous
metals. 5The former contain iron and the latter do not contain iron. 6Cast
iron and steel, which are both alloys, or mixtures of iron and carbon, are the
two most important ferrous metals. 7Steel contains a smaller proportion of
carbon than cast iron contains. 8Certain elements can improve the properties
of steel and are therefore added to it. 9For example, chromium may be
included to resist corrosion and tungsten to increase hardness. 10Aluminium,
copper, and the alloys, bronze and brass, are common non-ferrous metals.
Study the following statements carefully and write down whether they are
true or not true according to the information expressed above. Then check
your answers by referring to solutions at the end of the passage. *
(a) Non-metals are used by engineers.
(b) Cast iron contains more carbon than steel.
(c) Chromium improves the properties of steel.
(d) Copper contains iron.
(e) Bronze is an alloy
11 Plastics and ceramics are non-metals; however, plastics may be machined
like metals. 12Plastics are classified into two types - thermoplastics and
thermosets. 13Thermoplastics can be shaped and reshaped by heat and
* The following symbols are used in the solutions:

equals, means the same as
oF does not equal, mean the same as
i.e. that is to say
.. therefore
2 English in Mechanical Engineering
pressure but thermosets cannot be reshaped because they undergo chemical

changes as they harden. 14Ceramics are often employed by engineers when
materials which can withstand high temperatures are needed.
(0 Thermosets can be machined.

(g) Thermoplastics are metals.
(Ii) Ceramics can withstand high temperatures.
Solutions
(a) There are two kinds of materials used in engineering - metals and non-
metals. (3)
- metals and non-metals are used in engineering
metals and non-metals are used by engineers
Non-metals are used by engineers.
(b) Steel contains a smaller proportion of carbon than cast iron contains. (7)
Cast iron contains a larger proportion of carbon than steel.
Cast iron contains more carbon than steel.
(c) Certain elements can improve the properties of steel and are therefore
added to it. (8) For example, chromium may be included .... (9)
i.e. Chromium is an example of the elements which are added to steel and
can improve the properties of steel.
Chromium improves the properties of steel.
(d) Aluminium, copper and the alloys, bronze ano brass, are common
non-ferrous metals. (10)
i.e. Copper is a non-ferrous meta1.
but non-ferrous = does not contain iron
It is NOT TRUE that copper contains iron.
(e) Aluminium, copper and the alloys, bronze and brass, are common non-
ferrous metals. (10)
i.e. Bronze and brass are alloys.
Bronze is an alloy.
(f) Plastics and ceramics are non-metals; however, plastics may be

machined like metals. (11)
may be = can be
Plastics can be machined.
Plastics are classified into two types - thermoplastics and thermosets.
(12)
i.e. Thermosets are a kbd of plastic.
Thermosets can be machined.
Engineering Materials 3
(g) Plastics can be classified into two types - thermoplastics and thermo-
sets. (12)
i.e. Thermoplastics are a kind of plastic.
It is NOT TRUE that thermoplastics are metals.
(b) Ceramics are often employed by engineers when materials which can
withstand high temperatures are needed. (14)
i.e. Engineers use ceramics when they need materials which can withstand
high temperatures.
Ceramics can withstand high temperatures.
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words printed in italics with
expressions from the passage which have a similar meaning.
EXAMPLE
There are two kinds of engineering materials.
There are two kinds of materials used in engineering.
1. Nickel steel is a mixture of iron, carbon and nickel.

2. Chromium can be included in steel to provide a good cutting edge.
3. There are many kinds of steel used in industry.
4. Ceramics are used by engineers where heat-resistant materials are needed.
5. Chromium steels resist corrosion.

1. In sentence 2, 'they' refers to (a) the engineers
(b) the materials
2. In sentence 5, 'the former' refers to (a) ferrous metals
(b) non-ferrous metals
3. In sentence 5, 'the latter' refers to (a) ferrous metals
(b) non-ferrous metals
4. In sentence 8, 'it' refers to (a) steel
(b) iron
5. In sentence 13, 'they' refers to (a) plastics
(b) thermosets
(c) thermoplastics
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A Classification of engineering materials

Draw in your notebook the diagram below and complete it, using the in-
formation from the reading passage.
level
Note that this diagram classifies engineering materials at four levels of

generality. Look at the following sentences:
1. Steel is a ferrous metal.
2. Iron and steel are ferrous metals.
3. Steel is an engineering material.
4. Steel is a metal.
5. Ferrous metals are engineering materials.
6. Metals are engineering materials.
Now write as many sentences as you can like those above based on the com-
pleted diagram.
EXERCISE B Classification (continued)

Draw diagrams to classify the items in the following lists. Each diagram
should have three levels.
1. alloys, copper, brass, pure metals, aluminium, metals.
2. brazing, electric-arc welding, soldering, metal-joining methods, welding,
oxy-acetylene welding.
3. measuring instruments, non-precision instruments, micrometer, vernier
gauge, metre stick, precision instruments, slip blocks, foot-rule.
4. units of area, cubic metre, metric units, millimetre, square metre, linear
units, kilometre, units of volume.
5. milling machines, copy-miller, shaping machines, drilling machines,
vertical shaper, radial arm drill, machine tools.
6. petrol engines, external-combustion engines, diesel engines, heat engines,
steam turbines, internal-combustion engines.
7. grinding, metal cleaning methods, acid cleaning, mechanical methods,
grit-blasting, alkali cleaning, chemical methods.
8. regular shapes, square, triangle, oval, irregular shapes, shapes.
9. adhesive joints, inseparable joints, welded joints, nut and bolt joints,
joints, riveted joints, separable joints.
10. forging, sand casting, die casting, production processes, rolling, casting.
Now use the diagrams you have made to write paragraphs like the following:
EXAMPLE
Metals can be classified as pure metals and alloys. Copper and aluminium
are examples of pure metals and brass is an example of an alloy.
EXERCISE C However, therefore, because

In this book you will meet many words which can be used to connect state-
ments. Three of the most common are:
(1) however (2) therefore (3) because
Look at these examples:

(1) (a)Copper does not rust.
(b)Copper corrodes.
(a + b)Copper does not rust; however itcorrodes.
(2) (a)Cast iron is a brittle metal.
(b)Cast iron is not used to withstand impact loads.
(a+b) Cast iron is a brittle metal, therefore it is not used to withstand
impact loads.
(3) (a) Titanium is used for aircraft frames.
(b) Titanium is light and strong.
(a+ b) Titanium is used for aircraft frames because it is light and strong.
In (1), statement (b) qualifies statement (a)

In (2), statement (b) is a result of statement (a)
In (3), statement (b) gives the reason why statement (a) is true.
Now join each of the following pairs of statements. Write down your answers
in your notebook, using 'however', 'therefore' or 'because' as in the examples.
1. Chromium resists corrosion.

Chromium is added to steels to make them rust proof.
2. Cutting tools are made from high-speed steels.
High-speed steels retain their cutting edge at high temperatures.
(... these steels ....)
3. Under normal conditions aluminium resists corrosion.
Serious corrosion occurs in salt water.
( ... serious corrosion ....)
4. Manganese steel is very hard.
Manganese steel is used for armour plate.
5. Bronze has a low coefficient of friction.
Bronze is used to make bearings.
6. Nylon is used to make fibres and gears.
Nylon is tough and has a low coefficient of friction.
7. Tin is used to coat other metals to protect them.
Tin resists corrosion.
8. Tin is expensive.
The coats of tin applied to other metals are very thin.
( ... the coats of tin .... )
9. Stainless steels require little maintenance and have high strength.
8 Stainless steels are expensive and difficult to machine at high speeds.
10. Nickel, cobalt and chromium improve the properties of metals.
Nickel, cobalt and chromium are added to steels.
EXERCISE D Language of measurement (i): Basic metric units

Study the diagrams and memorize the examples.
linear dimensions A linear dimension is one which we can measure in a straight
line. 3m
.,
(a) length ! I
We can describe the length of this bar in four ways:

The bar is three metres long.
The bar is three metres in length.
The bar has a length of three metres.
The length of the bar is three metres.
(b) width or breadth

We can describe the width or breadth of this driving
belt in four ways:
The belt is sixty millimetres wide/broad.
The belt is sixty millimetres in width/breadth.
The belt has a width/breadth of sixty millimetres.
The width/breadth of the belt is sixty millimetres.
(c) height
We can describe the height of this
support tower in four ways:
The tower is a hundred metres high.
The tower is a hundred metres in height.
The tower has a height of a hundred
metres.
The height of the tower is a hundred
metres.
(d) thickness
We can describe the thickness of this steel I
sheet in three ways:
The thickness of the sheet is three

millimetres.
(e) depth Depth is usually measured vertically downwards from a surface.

This surface is often ground level or the surface of a liquid.
We can describe the depth of this trench in
four ways:
The trench is two metres deep.
The trench is two metres in depth.
The trench has a depth of two metres.
The depth of the trench is two metres.
Other examples of depth;

(i) The depth of the beam is three hundred
millimetres.
(ii) The depth of the screw thread is one

point seven five millimetres.
mass
We can describe the mass of this block in three ways:
The block has a mass of fifty kilogrammes. 50kg
The block is of mass fifty kilogrammes.
The mass of the block is fifty kilogrammes.
EXERCISE E Language of measurement Oi): Derived metric units

Study the diagrams and memorize the examples.
Derived metric units are products of the basic units.
area Area is measured in squared linear units,
for example, square metres - m 2.
We can describe the area of this steel plate in
three ways:
The plate has an area of six square metres.
The plate is six square metres in area.
The area of the plate is six square metres.
volume Volume is measured in cubed linear units, for example cubic
metres - m 3 • The volume of a liquid may be measured in litres and sub-
divisions of a litre.
We can describe the volume of this brick in three ways:

The brick has a volume of 1600 cubic centimetres.
The brick is 1600 cubic centimetres in volume.
The volume of the brick is 1600 cubic centimetres.
capacity Capacity is the ability of a container to hold something. Like
volume it is measured in cubed linear units. For liquids, litres and sub-
divisions of a litre may be used.
I ........
4m
J. 2m
We can describe the capacity of this tank in three ways:

The tank has a capacity of twenty-four cubic metres.
The tank i& twenty-four cubic metres in capacity.
The capacity of the tank is twenty-four cubic metres.
EXERCISE F Language of measurement (iii): Compound metric units

Look again at the diagrams on pages 6-8 and the language used to describe
the diagrams. Copy the following table into your notebook and complete it
by filling in the spaces.
physical quantity typical unit short form
force newton N
time s
kilogramme
length and distance
square metre
m3
Compound units are made up of basic and derived units of measurement.

(a) The stroke j means 'per', and indicates that the unit in front of the
stroke is divided by the unit after the stroke.
(b) Where there is no stroke between two units, the units are multiplied
together.
Now rewrite the following sentences completing them by filling in the spaces.
EXAMPLE
moments The moment of a force is measured in newton metres.
Short form = Nm
The moment of a force is found by multiplying a force by a distance.
1. velocity Velocity is measured in metres per second.
Short form = ...
Velocity is found by ... a ... by a ...
2. pressure Pressure is measured in ... per ...
Short form = Njm 2
Pressure is found by ... a ... by a ...
3. density Density is measured in kilogrammes ... cubic metre.
Short form = ...
Density is found by dividing a ... by .. .
4. stress Stress is measured in newtons per .. .
Short form = Njmm 2
Stress is found by ... a ... by an area
5. acceleration Acceleration is measured in metres per second squared.
Short form = ...
Acceleration is found by ... a ... by a time.
EXERCISE A Describing dimensions

Describe the following objects in as many ways as you can.
2m
I" "I
12m T
>1
i
1 steel rod 3m
.. 4m
11
..I
1m
2 steel plate
25m
3 weight
<4 electricity pylon
f
12cm
r--, 5 oil tank
T-acm
7 beam
1
(cross-section)
500mm .. I
8 concrete block
6 brick
JOg
Ijl tI!
11 steel plate
10 casting
cP25mm t 1.7m
<P30mm
12 crowbar
9 pipe
IV GUIDED WRITING
S TAG E 1 Sentence building

Join the following groups of sentences.to make eleven longer sentences,
using the connecting words printed at the beginning of each group (except
group 6). You may omit words and make whatever changes you think are
necessary in the word order and punctuation of the sentences.
EXAMPLE
BECAUSE/ AND /HOWEVER
Plastics are used widely in engineering.
They are cheap.
They have a resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
Plastics are not particularly strong.
Plastics are used widely in engineering because they are cheap and
have a resistance to atmospheric corrosion; however they are not
particularly strong.
1. AND
There are two types of plastics.
Thermoplastics are plastics.
Thermosets are plastics.
2. AND/WHEREAS/AND "-
Thermoplastics will soften when heated.
Thermoplastics will harden when cooled.
Thermosets set on heating.
Thermosets will not remelt.
3. FROM/TO
Plastics are used to make a. great variety of products.
Plastics are used to make textiles.
Plastics are used to make engineering components.
4. SUCH AS
Plastics are. available in many forms.
Plastics are available in the form of sheets, tubes, rods, moulding powders
and resins.
5. TO
Various methods are used.
These methods convert raw plastic into finished products.
6. Compression moulding is a common method.
Compression moulding is used for shaping thermosets.
7. WITH/WHICH
The equipment consists of a press.
12 Eng/ish in Mechanical Engineering
The press has two heated platens.

The two heated platens carry an upper and a lower mould.
8. THEN
Powder is placed in the lower mould.
This is moulding powder.
The upper mould is pressed down on the lower mould.
9. TO/WHICH
The pressure and the heat change the powder.
The powder becomes liquid plastic.
The liquid plastic fills the space between the moulds.
10. WHEN/AND
The chemical changes have taken place.
The mould is opened.
The moulding is extracted.
11. BY
Plastic bowls are made.
The compression moulding method is used,

Now group the completed sentences into two paragraphs and give a title to
the passage. Include the example as the first sentence of your passage.
V FREE READING
Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you
do not know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional examples
of the points you have studied in this uhit.
CORROSION
Corrosion attacks all engineering materials, especially metals. Corrosion is
any chemical action which harms tQ..e properties of a material. It reduces the
life of a material and increases the cost of a structure. For example, a steel
bridge must be repainted regularly to protect it from rust. Various metals
have therefore been developed to resist corrosion. Among them are the
stainless steels. These metals contain from 12 to 35 % chromium which
forms a very thin layer or film of chromium oxide on the surface of the
metal. This film protects the metal from corrosion. Alloys made from
copper and nickel are also corrosion-resistant. For example Monel metal,
which contains roughly 60 % nickel and 30 % copper, is resistant to both
fresh and salt water corrosion. It is therefore used for marine engine parts,
and for other surfaces like ships' propellers which are in contact with sea
water. Cupronickels, which contain a smaller proportion of nickel, have a
similar resistance to fresh and sea water. They are mainly used to make
tubes.
When two different metals touch each other in the presence of moisture,
corrosion occurs. This type of corrosion is known as galvanic or electro-
lytic corrosion because it has an electrical cause. The metals and the
moisture act like a weak battery and the chemical action which results
corrodes one of the metals. If, for example, aluminium sheets are riveted with
copper rivets, the aluminium near the rivets will corrode in damp condi-
tions.
No material can be completely corrosion-resistant. Even stainless steels
will corrode. Engineers can, however, fight corrosion. For example, they
can use high-purity metals because these metals are more resistant than
alloys. They can also make sure that two dissimilar metals are not allowed
to touch each other. Finally engineers can protect the surfaces of the metals
in many different ways. One of the most common methods is to paint
them.
2 Vectors
lWe deal with many different physical quantities in engineering. ZThey can
be divided into two groups - scalar and vector quantities. 3Both have size,
or magnitude, but only vector quantities possess direction. 4Mass, volume
and length are scalar quantities. 5Force, which we measure in newtons,
possesses magnitude and direction. 6Force, then, is a vector quantity. 70ther
eXaIllPles are acceleration and velocity.
(a) There are two physical quantities in engineering.
(b) Scalar quantities have magnitude.
(c) Acceleration has direction.
(d) There are only three vector quantities in engineering.
8 Any vector quantity can be represented by a vector. 9The straight line
a-b in the diagram is a vector which represents a force. 1 °lf we calculate its
length we find that it is proportional to the magnitude of the force. 11 The
direction of the line indicates the direction of the force. 1 zThe line is vertical
because the direction of the force it represents is vertical. 13It is important
also to know in what sense of direction the force is acting. 14The arrow-head
on the line shows that the sense of direction of the force is upwards.
b
10N
(e) We can use a vector to represent velocity.

(f) The straight line a-b in the diagramis a force.
Vectors 15
(g) The arrow-head on line a-b shows that the force is acting in
a vertical direction.
(b) The longer !he line a-b, the greater the force it represents.
(a) We deal with many different physical quantities in engineering (1).

i.e. There are many physical quantities in engineering. I
There are MORE THAN TWO physical quantities in engineering.
(b) Both have size, or magnitude, but only vector quantities possess direc-
tion. (3)
i.e. Scalar quantities have size, or magnitude.
and Vector quantities have size, or magnitude.
size = magnitude
Scalar quantities have magnitude.
(c) Other examples are acceleration and velocity. (7)
i.e. Other examples of vector quantities are acceleration and velocity.
Acceleration is a vector quantity.
but Vector quantities have direction.
Acceleration has direction.
(d) Force, then, is a vector quantity. (6) Other examples are acceleration and
velocity. (7)
i.e. Force, acceleration and velocity are examples of vector quantities.
-=!=- Force, acceleration and velocity are the only vector quantities.
It is NOT TRUE that there are only three vector quantities in engineering.
(e) Any vector quantity can be represented by a vector. (8)
but Velocity is a vector quantity. (See (c).)
We can use a vector to represent velocity.
(f) The straight line a-b, in the diagram, is a vector which represents a
force. (9)
i.e. The straight line a-b, in the diagram, is a vector.
The straight line a-b, in the diagram, is NOT a force.
(g) The line is vertical because the direction of the force it represents is
vertical. (12)
i.e. The direction of the line shows that the force is acting in a vertical
direction.
The arrow-head on the line shows that the sense of direction of the
force is upwards. (14)
i.e. The arrow-head shows that the force is acting upwards and not down-
wards . .-
The arrow-head on line a-b does NOT show that the force is acting in a
vertical direction.
(h) If we calculate its length we find that it is proportional to the magnitude

of the force. (10)
The length of the line is proportional to the magnitude of the force it
represents.
The longer the line a-b, the greater the force it represents.
Rewrite the following, replacing the words printed in italics with expressions
from the passage which have a similar meaning.
1. We calculate mass in kilogrammes.
2. The arrow-head indicates the sense of direction of the force.
3. Scalar quantities have magnitude but not direction.
4. The direction of the line shows the direction of the force.
5. The size of the force is 10 N.

1. In sentence 2, 'they' refers to (a) physical quantities
(b) two groups
2. In sentence 3, 'both' refers to (a) scalar and vector quantities
(b) physical quantities
3. In sentence 10, 'it' refers to (a) the length
(b) the force
4. In sentence 10, 'its' refers to (a) the force's
(b) the line's
5. In sentence 12, 'it' refers to (a) the force
(b) the line

Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace and re-
order the words in the sentences where necessary.
EXAMPLE although (3)

Both have size, or magnitude, but only vector quantities possess
direction.
Although both have size, or magnitude, only vector quantities possess
direction.
examples of (4) in addition (11)
therefore (6) thus (12)
for example (9), for this reason (14)
Vectors 17
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A Classification of physical quantities

Copy the following diagram into your notebook and complete it to make a
classification of physical quantities. Use the information from the reading
passage to help you.
Use the completed diagram to make classifying sentences.

EXAMPLE
Volume is a scalar quantity.
EXERCISE B Making definitions

Study the following diagram:
(al a scalar quantity isa
which
We can make a classifying sentence about a scalar quantity by joining (a>

and (b):
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity.
We can then expand the sentence by including (c):
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude but not
direction.
The expanded sentence defines a scalar quantity. It is a definition. Now write
as many definitions as you can using the following table.
a c
a vector quantity can extend a body

a load has magnitude and direction
a tensile force straight line represents a vector quantity
a linear dimension force is a product of basic units
a vector unit can be measured in a straight line
a compressive force dimension can stretch or compress a body
a derived unit physical quantity can compress a body
friction opposes motion
EXERCISE C Making generalizations

When we join (a) and (c) only we make a type of statement calledageneraliza-
lion.
EXAMPLE
A scalar quantity has magnitude but not direction.
Now write as many generalizations as you can based on the table.
EXERCISE D Lower-level and higher-level generalizations

Statements which contain higher-level items are more general than statements
which contain lower-level items. Look at the following example:
Level
(a) Metals corrode
in water.
II ,...--'----, ,...----''------, (b) Ferrousmetals

rust in
saltwater.
III (e) Steel rusts in

sea-water.
IV .----''----, ,...---''----, (d) Steel plates on a

ship's side rust
in sea-water.
Statement (a) is the most general statement. When statement (a) is true,
statements (b), (c) and (d) must also be true.
Vectors 19
Study the following sentences. Column (a) contains statements with lower-
level items. Column (b) contains more general statements with higher-level
items. Write column (a) in your notebook then match each lower-level
statement with a general statement from column (b).
EXAMPLE
Iron rusts. Metals corrode.
a b
1. Iron rusts. Engines consume fuel.

2. Bronze contains copper and tin. Metallic elements are added to
steel to improve its properties.
3. A square metre is made by Compressive forces shorten
multiplying a metre by a metre. bodies.
4. Chromium makes steel corrosion- Metals corrode.
resistant.
S. A load of five tonnes compresses Derived units are products of
a concrete column. basic units.
6. Zirconia heat shields withstand Alloys are mixtures of metals.
temperatures over 2000°C.
7. Vinylite can be shaped in a lathe. Ceramics can resist high
temperatures.
8. Railway lines extend in hot Plastics may be machined.
weather.
9. Four-stroke internal-combustion Metals expand when heated.
engines burn petrol, diesel oil,
and gas.
EXERCISE A Changing vector diagrams to written descriptions

Express the following vector diagrams in words. Write your answers down in
your notebooks as in the example.
EXAMPLE
a-b is a vector.
It represents a force of five newtons.
The force acts in an upwards direction
at thirty degrees to the horizontal.
L y
The force acts vertically upwards.
300N
2. d
180N
5. N
W--+-E
p
s
EXERCISE B Sentence building
Now join each set of three statements into a single sentence.
EXAMPLE
a-b is a vector.
It represents a force of five newtons.
Vectors 21
The force acts in an upwards direction at thirty degrees to the hori-

zontal.
a-b is a vector which represents a force of five newtons acting in an
upwards direction at thirty degrees to the horizontal.
IV GUIDED WRITING
S TAG E 1 The use of the passive in the description of an experiment

Look at this sentence:
(a) Bill and I measured the extension in the steel bar.
We would not normally write this type of sentence in a report on an engIneer-
ing experiment. Instead we would write:
(b) The extension in the steel bar was measured.
Sentence (b) is an example of the passive construction. The passive is
common in scientific writing where the action described is felt to be more
important than the actors.
Look at the following examples of active and passive sentences:
active passive
We suspend a 1 kg mass from a A 1 kg mass is suspended from a
light bar. light bar.
We measured the distance between The distance between the mass and
the mass and the fulcrum. the fulcrum was measured.
We may calculate the moment of the The moment of the force may be
force in two ways. calculated in two ways.
Now rewrite each of the following sentences in the passive.

1. If we place a smooth roller on an inclined plane, it will run down the
plane.
2. Two other forces act on the roller.
3. We can apply this force in any direction providing one component acts
up the plane.
4. We call the third force the normal reaction - R.
5. We can therefore draw a triangle of forces for the system.
6. The diagram shows this force - P - acting parallel to the plane.
(In the diagram, this force ....)
7. To keep the roller in equilibrium we must apply a force to it.
(A force .... )
8. One is the force due to gravity - F g - which we can consider to act

vertically downwards through the midpoint of the roller.
9. We now find that we have an example of a three-force system.
(It ... now ... that we ....)
10. As we assume the roller and plane to be absolutely smooth, this reaction
is at right angles to the surface of the plane.

Draw the following diagram and label the forces P, R, and F g on it. Then
rearrange the passive sentences so that they make a logical paragraph of
which your diagram is the illustration. Sentence 1 is already in the correct
position.
V FREE READING
of the points you have studied in this and other units.
SCALES AND GRAPHS

In engineering it is often necessary to describe quantities and relationships.
We can give a pictorial representation of vector quantities by using vectors
as described in the first reading passage in this unit. Scalar quantities are
simply described by giving their magnitude in a suitable unit of measure-
ment. For example, we can describe the mass of a body as a quantity of
grammes, the capacity of a container as a number of cubic metres and a
period oftime as so many seconds. We can also illustrate scalar quantities
by points or divisions on a scale. Thus, a clock is a scale for measuring
time and the clock hands indicate the passage of time. Similarly a metre
stick is a scale for measuring length and a thermometer is a scale for
measuring heat.
Scales can also be used to make calculations. For example, engineers
use slide-rules for quick multiplication and division. The slide-rule consists
of two logarithmic scales.
When there is a relationship between two sets of observations, we can
often express this as a mathematical formula. We can also use a graph.
Vectors 23
A graph gives a visual representation of the relationship. This is often

more easily understood than a law. For example, if we make a graph to
compare the safe working loads of steel ropes with the circumference of
the ropes, it is easy to see how the safe working load varies with the
circumference. In addition we can use the graph as an information store,
rather like a simple computer. In this way a graph can present at a glance
the information contained in a law or a collection of tables.
A more complex kind of graph is the nomograph. This can show the
relationship between more than two variables. A simple nomograph can
consist of a number of scales arranged in a special shape. For example,
three scales could be placed parallel to each other or in the form of the
letter N, or even in curves. Such a nomograph is read by drawing a straight
line to cut through all three scales. With a nomograph of this type an
engineer could correlate information on the horse-power of a motor, its
speed, and the diameter of driving shaft necessary to transmit the motor's
power.
More complex nomographs are made on special graph paper and may
even be in three dimensions.
3 Force
lWe can describe a force only by its effects. 2It cannot be measured directly
like a length. 3 A force can start something moving. 4If we push against a
small object it moves. 5 A force can also stop something moving or hinder
motion. 6If we brake a moving car it slows down and will eventually stop.
7Suspend a heavy mass from a copper wire. 8The wire extends, showing that
a force can stretch a body. 9Porces may also compress, bend or even break an
object.
(a) Length can be measured directly.
(b) A force can slow down a moving object.
(c) A force can cause movement.
(d) A body can be compressed by a force.
(e) A heavy mass can exert a force.
lOA force can be one of attraction. lIThe force of attraction exerted by the
huge mass of the earth is called gravity. 12If we pick up a stone, then release
it, it falls to the ground because of gravitational force. 13Gravity is an example
of a natural force. 14Whether a force is naturally or deliberately exerted it
cannot exist by itself. 15Porces must always occur in pairs, never in isolation.
16When a force acts on a rigid body it is balanced by an equal reaction force
which acts in the opposite direction. 1 7If a man stands on a slippery surface
and brings a force to bear on a heavy load, the reaction force makes him slide
backwards. 18Similarly if a man fires a rifle, the force which pushes the bullet
forwards will be matched by a force which makes the gun push backwards
against his shoulder.
(f) Gravity is a force.
(g) Deliberately exerted forces can exist alone.
(h) Natural forces are forces of attraction.
(i) When a force acts on a rigid body, the magnitude of the reaction force
depends on the size of the rigid body.
Force 25
(j) The force which pushes a gun backwards when it is fired is a reaction
force.
Solutions
(a) It cannot be measured directly like a length. (2)
i.e. A force cannot be measured directly but a length can be measured
directly.
Length can be measured directly.
(b) A force can also stop something moving or hinder motion. (5)
A force can stop something moving.
and A force can slow down something which is moving.
A force can slow down a moving object.
(c) A force can start something moving. (3)
A force can cause something to move.
A force can cause movement.
(d) Forces may also compress, bend or even break an object. (9)
i.e. An object can be compressed, bent or broken by a force.
an object (here) = ;:t body
A body can be compressed by aforce.
(e) Suspend a heavy mass from a copper wire. (7) The wire extends .... (8)
i.e. The wire extends because the heavy mass is suspended from it.
... showing that a force can stretch a body. (8)
i.e. It is the force exerted by the heavy mass that stretches the wire.
A heavy mass can exert aforce.
({) The force of attraction exerted by the huge mass of the earth is called
gravity. (11)
i.e. Gravity is aforce.
(g) Whether a force is naturally or deliberately exerted it cannot exist by
itself. (14)
i.e. A naturally exerted force cannot exist by itself.
and A deliberately exerted force cannot exist by itself.
by itself = alone
Deliberately exerted forces CANNOT exist alone.
(h) The force of attraction exerted by the huge mass of the earth is called
gravity. (11)
i.e. Gravity is a force of attraction.
Gravity is an example of a natural force. (13)
i.e. Gravity is a natural force.
Gravity is a natural force and it is also a force of attraction.
It is NOT TRUE that natural forces (i.e. all natural forces) are forces of
attraction.
(i) When a force acts on a rigid body it is balanced by an equal reaction

force which acts in the opposite direction. (16) .
i.e. When a force acts on a rigid body there is a reaction force of the same
magnitude as the force which acts on the body.
When a force acts on a rigid body the magnitude of the reaction force
depends on the magnitude of the force acting on the body.
It is NOT TR UE that when a force acts on a rigid body the magnitude of
the reaction force depends on the size of the rigid body.
(j) If a man stands on a slippery surface and brings a force to bear on a
heavy load, the reaction force makes him slide backwards. (17)
i.e. He slides backwards because of a reaction force.
Similarly if a man fires a rifle, the force which pushes the bullet forwards
will be matched by a force which makes the gun push backwards against
his shoulder. (18)
i.e. The gun pushes backwards because of a reaction force.
The force which pushes a gun backwards when it is fired is a reaction
force.
1. A heavy mass may extend a copper wire.
2. Newton investigated the force of attraction exerted by the huge mass of the
earth.
3. The force which pushes a bullet forwards is balanced by a reaction force.
4. A force cannot exist in isolation.
5. Gravity is a naturally exertedforce.
6. Gravitational force is a force of attraction.
7. When a rifle is fired it recoils.
8. When a force is brought to bear on a rigid body there an equal but
opposite reaction force.

1. In sentence 2, 'it' refers to (a) an effect
(b) a force
2. In sentence 4, 'it' refers to (a) a force
(b) a small object
3. In sentence 6, 'it' refers to (a) a moving car
(b) a brake
(b) a naturally exerted force
(b) a rigid body
Force 27

PlaCe the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace and re-
on the other hand (5) for example (13)
for example (6) for this reason (16)
in addition (9) a further example is that (18)
thus (12)
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A Instructions and results

Copy the column of instructions below into your notebook. Then write down
and complete each sentence in the results column using the information from
the reading passage. Sentence 1 has been completed for you.
instruction result
1. Push against a small object. The object moves.
2. Brake a moving car. The car ... .
3. Suspend a heavy mass from a copper The wire ... .
wire.
4. Release a heavy weight from a height of The weight ....
one metre.
5. Stand on slippery ground and push Our feet ....
against a heavy load.
6. Hold a gun against your shoulder and The gun ....
fire it.
7. Apply a force of 500 N to a thin metal The rod ....
rod.
8. Apply a force of 2 kN suddenly to an The casting ....

iron casting.
9. Apply a load of 1 kN to the end of a The upright ....

steel upright.
10. Apply a force to a rigid body. The force is balanced ....

11. Suspend a brick from a spring balance. The spring ... .
12. Strike a piece of glass with a hammer. The glass ... .
EXERCISE B Making observations (i)

When we state the result of following an instruction, we make an observation.
Look at this example:
Instruction
push against a
small object Observation
If we push against a small
I- object it moves.
Result
the object moves >-
Now write observations like this from each of the instruction-result pairs
in Exercise A.
EXERCISE C Making observations (ii)

We can write an observation in several different ways. Look at these examples:
(a) using when: When we push against a small object it
moves.
(b) putting the result first: A small object moves if we push against it.
(c) using the passive: If a small object is pushed against, it moves.
A small object moves when it is pushed
against.
Now rewrite each of the observations you made in Exercise B using pattern
(a), (b) or (c).
EXERCISE D Relative clauses (defining)

Look at the following sentences:
(a) Loads cause tensile stresses.
(b) The loads tend to pull a body apart.
If the noun phrases in italics refer to the same thing, we can combine the
two sentences into one by using a relative clause:
Force 29
(c) Loads which tend to pull a body apart cause tensile stresses.
Write down a single sentence for each of the following pairs of sentences.
Make the second sentence into a relative clause and insert it into the first
sentence at the place marked by dots.
EXAMPLE
A lever ... can be used to compare two masses.
Such a lever has the fulcrum placed between load and effort.
= A lever which has the fulcrum placed between load and effort can be
used to compare two masses.
1. A strut is a member ...
The member resists a compressive force.
2. The beams ... are welded together.
They form the chassis of the truck.
3. Rust may attack certain metals ....
These metals contain some proportion of iron.
4. We can combine information on the size of a force and the distance it
moves, in a diagram ....
The diagram is called a work diagram.
5. Sir Isaac Newton put forward a law ...
The law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
EXERCISE E Relative clauses (non-defining)

Compare the following sentences:
(a) The mill which produces sheet steel was made in Scotland but the mill
which produces tube steel was made in Sweden.
(b) The mill, which produces sheet steel, was made in Scotland.
In sentence (a) the relative clauses tell us which mill we are talking about.,
In sentence (a) we have two defining relative clauses. In sentence (b) we al-
ready know which mill we are talking about. The clause simply adds some
extra information about the mill. In sentence (b) we have a non-defining
relative clause. Note the use of commas.
In Exercise D you made sentences with defining relative clauses. In this
exercise, make the second sentence into a relative clause and insert it into the
first sentence at the place marked by dots. You will write sentences with
non-defining relative clauses.
EXAMPLE
Brass, ... , is used to make bolts and screws.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, is used to make bolts and
screws.
1. The rectangular block of steel, ... , is fixed to the floor.

The block measures 100 by 200 by 10 mm.
2. The electric motor, ... , is linked to the driying shaft by a belt.
The motor has a mass of 400 kg.
3. Polished steel, ... , is in fact covered with tiny bumps.
Polished steel is normally described as flat and smooth.
4. Friction, ... , dissipates mechanical energy by converting it into heat energy.
Friction is always present in a machine.
S. Stainless steel contains chromium, ....
The chromium makes the steel corrosion-resistant.
EXERCISE F Relative clauses (defining and non-defining)

Now join the following pairs of sentences and state whether the completed
sentences contain defining or non-defining relative clauses.
EXAMPLE
The micrometer screw gauge, ... , consists of a steel frame carrying a
sleeve on which a thimble turns.
The micrometer screw gauge is used by engineers to obtain very
accurate measurements.
= The micrometer screw gauge, which is used by engineers to obtain
very accurate measurements, consists of a steel frame carrying a sleeve
on which a thimble turns. (non-defining)
1. The body is just on the point of sliding at the angle ....
The angle is known as the angle of friction.
2. A railway engine, ... , draws a train of eight coaches, each of mass 17
tonnes, up a gradient of 1 in 40.
The engine has a mass of 80 tonnes.
3. The screw-jack is basically a screw running through a fixed nut ....
The nut is incorporated in the jack.
4. As the cord is wound off the wheel, the load cord, ... , is wound on and
thus overcomes the load.
The load cord is attached to the axle.
S. The gear ... rotates in an opposite direction to the first.
The gear is last in an even series of gears in mesh.
6. Intermediate gears, ... , are often referred to as idlers.
Intermediate gears do not affect the ratio of the gear train.
7. Hoisting winches of the first group, ... , are termed single purchase crab
winches.
These winches employ a simple gear train.
8. This diagram means that the tensile force ... must exceed 3 kN.
The tensile force will cause permanent distortion.
9. Complicated mechanisms . . . are machines just as simple levers are
machines.
These complicated mechanisms make up an aeroplane engine.
Force 31
10. Malleable cast iron, .... , is tougher than grey cast iron.
Malleable cast iron is a ferrous metal.
11. Steels ... are called tool steels.
These steels are used to make tools.
12. The Kariba dam, ... , provides electric power for Zambia.
The dam is situated on the Zambesi.
EXERCISE G Noun modification (i)

If we want to describe an object in greater detail we may use an adjective:
water - hot water
metal - ferrous metal
lever - simple lever
We can also put a noun in front of a noun:
a cylinder - a steel cylinder
a bearing - a brass bearing
a filter - an air filter
Many grammatical relationships are possible in Noun+Noun constructions,
or noun compounds. Look at the following examples:
(a) a diesel engine an engine which uses diesel oil
(b) a brass bearing a bearing which is made of brass
(c) carbon steel steel which contains carb()n
(d) a capstan lathe a lathe which has a capstan
Find further examples of each type in the following list. Mark each phrase
(a), (b), (c) or (d).
EXAMPLE
phosphor bronze (c)
air motor electric drill
turret lathe metal casting
chromium steel concrete bridge
steel plate heat engine
wing nut aluminium alloy
What new relationships can you discover in the following list? Rewrite each
combination to show the relationship between the two nouns.
EXAMPLE
a foot brake a brake which is operated by foot
Wankel engine test piece
heat treatment water tube
force system fuel gas
hand pump instrument lathe
needle valve gear lubricant
dockside crane mushroom valve
SYMBOL EXAMPLE MEANING IN FULL
3·14159 three point one four one five nine

+ u+v uplus v
v-u v minus u
1 tonne = 1,000 kg one tonne is equal to one thousand
equals kilogrammes
=1= x=l=y x does not equal y
equals not
x mass x velocity mass multiplied by velocity
times
no sign momentum = mv momentum equals m multiplied by v
between two times
quantities
8-;-.2 eight divided by two
one quantity d distance speed equals the ratio of distance to
over another spee = time taken time taken
speed equals distance divided by time taken
over
20km/h twenty kilometres per hour
- 1 mm vertical == 5 N one millimetre vertical is equivalent to
five newtons
- 60 km/h 17 mls sixty kilometres per hour is
approximately equal to seventeen metres
per second
oc stress oc strain stress is proportional to strain
2:1 two to one
% 0·4% zero point four per cent
.,;- ";5 the square root offive
root five
2 3
two squared three cubed
4- -5
ten to the power ten to the power
four minus five
> >18mm greater than eighteen millimetres
< <20mm less than twenty millimetres
;:a mm ;:a 100 mm greater than or less than or equal
equal to forty to one hundred
millimetres millimetres
± ±2kg plus or minus two kilogrammes
° 90° 349°C ninety degrees three hundred and
forty-nine degrees
Centigrade
6° 32' six degrees thirty-two minutes
Force 33
EXERCISE A Mathematical symbols used in engineering

Study the table on the opposite page. Now write out the following mathe-
matical expressions in full:
1. force oc mass X acceleration
work done
2. power =
time taken
3. 1 rad =:=: 57·3°
·
4 . efficlency =
useful
.
output
' X
100%0
mput
5. ±0·15 mm on all dimensions
6. 6,820 mm 2 = 6,820 X 10- 6 m 2
7. air: petrol = 15: 1
8. g =:=: 9·81 m/s 2
9. 400 mm 2 area == 50 J
10. power = Fv
EXERCISE B Greek letters and abbreviations used in engineering

The following Greek letters are used in engineering:
IX alpha f.! mu
f3 beta 11: pi
Y gamma L(J sigma
(j delta 'l: tau
8 epsilon ¢ phi
11 eta OJ omega
e theta
The following abbreviations are used in the mathematics of engineering:
abbreviation in full
sin sine
cos cosine
sec secant
cosec cosecant
tan tangent
cot cotangent
Now write out the following expressions in full:
1. tan ¢ = f.!
2. 1 radian = 180° 57·3°

11:
3. power absorbed by brake = J.tR X 2nrnW

<5s
4. average speed between P and Q = '-
<5t
5. R =
6. pitch = 2h tan tcf;
ffi ·
7 . eClency M.A .
= 11 = - -
V.R.
8. force required to hold the body at rest = mg sin eN
9. v = tnr 3 cot (X
10. () = rot+!at 2
11. b = tp sec tP
12. y = 26° 34'
IV GUIDED WRITING

Join the following groups of sentences to make 12 longer sentences. Where a
connecting word is given at the beginning of a group, use it to join the sen-
tences. Where there is no connecting word, use a relative clause. Make any
punctuation changes you think are necessary.
1. We can think of the weight of a body as acting at one point.
This point is known as the body's centre of gravity.
2. ALTHOUGH
A body will always act as if its mass were concentrated at its centre of
gravity.
Its centre of gravity need not be within the body itself.
3. SUCH AS
The centre of gravity of some regular shapes can be found by inspection.
A cube is a regular shape.
4. FOR EXAMPLE
It is easy to make such regular shapes stand upright.
A cylinder will stand on its base.
S. If a body is to stand upright, the line of action of its weight must act
through the base.
The line of action of its weight passes through its centre of gravity.
6. AND THEREFORE
If a rectangular solid is placed on one face its weight will act through the
centre of the base.
The solid will stand upright.
Force 35
7. BUT
If the solid is tilted slightly, the line of action of its weight will move
towards the edge of the base.
It will still fall within the base.
8. THEREFORE
If the solid is tilted further, the line drawn vertically downwards from
its centre of gravity will fall outside the base.
The solid will topple over.
9. WHEREAS
If a body returns to its original position after a slight disturbance it is
said to be stable.
If a body moves into a new position after a slight disturbance it is said
to be unstable.
10. BECAUSE
Unstable structures can be dangerous.
They have to be stabilized.
11. Cranes are normally stabilized by a large counter-weight.
This counter-weight ensures that the total mass of the crane and its load
always acts through the crane's base. .
12. so THAT
Cranes often have a warning device which operates when the safe load
is exceeded.
The crane is never in danger of toppling over.

Now group the completed sentences into two paragraphs. You will have to
add 'For example' at the beginning of sentence 6, 'For instance' at the begin-
ning of sentence 11 and 'In addition' at the beginning of sentence 12. Give
the passage the title 'Stability'.
S TAG E 3 Using diagrams to illustrate the passage

Here are three sketches to illustrate the passage.
Label the sketches Diagram 1, Diagram 2 and Diagram 3 and insert references
to them in the completed passage. For example,
See Diagram 2
As in Diagram 1
This is illustrated by Diagram 3
V FREE READING
GRAVITY
A force of attraction exists between every body in the universe. It has been
investigated by many scientists including Galileo and Newton. This
gravitational force depends on the mass of the bodies involved. Normally
it is very small but when one of the bodies is a planet, like the earth, the
force is considerable. Everything on or near the surface of the earth is
attracted by the mass of the earth. The greater the mass, the greater is the
earth's force of attraction on it. We call this force of attraction gravity.
Because of gravity, bodies have weight. We can perceive weight only
when a body resists gravity. For example, when we pick up a stone there
are two forces involved. One is the lifting force we exert and the other is
the force of gravity which attracts the stone downwards and thus gives it
weight. When a body escapes from the influence of the earth's gravitational
pull, it can become 'weightless'. For example, the centrifugal force of a
spacecraft spinning in orbit round the earth cancels the effect of gravity.
The crew therefore experience weightlessness. One of the minor dis-
advantages of weightlessness is that normal pens will not write because the
ink is not attracted by gravity to flow out of the pen.
If the space crew land on the surface of the moon, they experience the
much weaker force of gravity exerted by the moon. On the moon they
weigh less than on the earth. Special training is necessary to help them to
walk on the moon's surface.
To simplify engineering calculations, it is assumed that gravity is the
same everywhere on the earth's surface, and that for every kilogramme of
mass the earth exerts a force of 9·81 newtons on a body. In fact gravity
differs slightly from place to place because of the shape of the earth. It is
greatest at the poles where the earth is flattest and is least at the Equator.
4 Friction
lWhenever one surface moves over another, a force is set up which resists
the movement. 2This force, which we call friction, always opposes motion.
31t exists in every machine. 4It can be reduced by lubrication but never
completely removed. sIn general, the force opposing motion is slightly greater
before one surface starts moving over another surface than after movement
has started. 6This slightly greater force is called static friction. 7The force
which must be overcome to keep one surface moving over another is known
as sliding friction. aStatic friction is greater than sliding friction.
(a) Friction always occurs when there is movement between surfaces.

(b) We can remove all sliding friction by lubricating moving surfaces.
(c) To start a body moving requires a greater force than to keep it moving.
(d) Sliding friction opposes motion.
(e) Friction is a force.
9The value of sliding friction depends on the nature of the two surfaces
which touch each other. lOThus friction between two rough planks can be
lessened if they are made smooth. 11Sliding friction is independent of the
area of surface in contact. 12In theory a small brake pad will exert as much
braking force as a large one of greater surface area. 13In practice a small pad
will wear down more quickly and therefore is not used. 140ne other law of
friction should be noted. 15We can make the normal reaotion between two
surfaces in contact twice as large by doubling the mass carried by one surface.
16If we do so we find that sliding friction between the surfaces is also doubled.
1 7If we halve the mass carried, sliding friction is also halved. 18This shows
that sliding friction is proportional to the reaction between the surfaces in
contact.
(f) When the area of surfaces in contact is increased, sliding friction between
them is increased.
(g) Large brake pads are used instead of small ones because they exert a
greater braking force
(h) Sliding friction between rough planks is greater than between smooth
planks.
(i) If the mass of a body sliding over another is increased, the sliding friction
force between them will also increase.
0) Ifwe halve the area of surfaces in contact, we will halve the sliding friction
between the surfaces.
Solutions
(a) Whenever one surface moves over another, a force is set up which
resists the movement. (l)
whenever = always
i.e. When there is a movement between two surfaces a force is always set up.
This force, which we can friction .... (2)
i.e. The force which is set up is called friction
Friction always occurs when there is movement between two surfaces.
(b) It can be reduced by lubrication but never completely removed. (4)

i.e. Friction can be reduced by lubrication but never completely removed.
Friction (here) = static friction and sliding friction
i.e. We can reduce sliding friction by lubrication but we can never remove all
sliding friction.
We CANNOT remove all sliding friction by lubricating moving surfaces.
(c) In general, the force opposing motion is slightly greater before one
surface starts moving over another surface than after movement has
started. (5)
i.e. The force which must be overcome to start one surface moving over
another is greater than the force which must be overcome to maintain
movement.
To start a body moving requires a greater force than to keep it moving.
(el) This force, which we call friction, always opposes motion. (2)
i.e. Friction opposes motion.
Friction (here) = static and sliding friction.
Sliding friction opposes motion.
(e) This force, which we call friction, always opposes motion. (2)
i.e. Friction is aforce.
(f) Sliding friction is independent of the area of surface in contact. (11)

i.e. Increasing the area of surfaces in contact will not increase the magnitude
of sliding friction between the surfaces.
Friction 39
It is NOT TRUE that when the area of surfaces in contact is increa:sed,

sliding friction between them is also increased.
(g) In theory a small brake pad will exert as much braking force as' a large
one of greater surface area. (12)
i.e. Theoretically, small brake pads will exert as much braking force as large
ones.
but In practice a small pad will wear down more quickly and therefore is not
used. (13)
i.e. Large pads are used in practice because they do not wear down so
quickly.
It is NOT TRUE that large brake pads are used instead of small ones
because they exert a greater braking force.
(b) Thus friction between two rough planks can be lessened if they are made
smooth. (10)
i.e. Friction must be greater when the planks are rough than when they are
smooth.
Friction (here) = static and sliding friction
Sliding friction between rough planks is greater than between smooth
planks. .
(i) This shows that sliding friction is proportional to the reaction between
the surfaces in contact. (18)
i.e. If the reaction between the two surfaces in contact is increased, sliding
friction is also increased.
but We can make the normal reaction between two surfaces in contact
twice as large by doubling the mass. carried by one surface. (I 5)
i.e. The reaction between surfaces in contact increases as the mass carried
by one surface increases.
If the mass of a body sliding over another is increased, the sliding friction
force between them will also increase.
(j) Sliding friction is independent of the area of surface in contact. (11)

i.e. If we halve the area of surfaces in contact we will not affect sliding friction
between them.
If we halve the area of surfaces in contact we will NOT halve the sliding
friction between the surfaces.
1. Friction always resists motion.
2. Friction can be lessened by oiling the moving surfaces.
3. The force which must be overcome to keep one surface moving over another
is smaller than static friction.
4. Moving surfaces which touch each other must be lubricated.
5. If the areas in contact are made twice as large the force of sliding friction
will remain the same.
6. Friction opposes movement.
/
1. In sentence 2, 'this force' refers to (a) the force which resists the move-
ment
(b) the force which moves one sur-
face over another
2. In sentence 3, 'it' refers to (a) friction
(b) motion
3. In sentence 4, 'it' refers to (a) a machine
(b) friction
4. In sentence 10, 'they' refers to (a) the two surfaces
(b) two rough planks
(c) sliding and static friction
5. In sentence 12, 'one' refers to (a) braking force
(b) brake pad
'c) a law of friction

order the words in the sentences where necessary. Where two sentences are
indicated, join them using the expression given.
on the other hand (7) although (12+ 13)
whereas (6+ 7) however (13)
in more general terms (8) similarly (17)
for instance (10) we can conclude (18)
therefore (12)
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A Instructions and results

Copy the column of instructions below in your notebook. Then write down
and complete the results column using the information from the reading
passage. Sentence 1 has been completed for you.
Friction 41
instruction result
1. Place a smooth roller on an The roller rolls down the plane.
inclined plane.
2. Push a table across a rough floor. A force is set up which ....... .
motion.
3. Double the forces pressing two Sliding friction between the two
moving surfaces together. surfaces is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Lubricate two moving surfaces. Sliding friction ............. .
5. Grease the surface of a shaft Sliding friction ............. .
rotating in a bearing.
1kg wooden block
the block
friction board
carrier + masses
6. Measure the force required to We find that the force ....... is

start the block moving greater than the force ........ .
and
measure the force required to
keep the block moving.
7. Lay the block on side A and We find that the force ... is ....
8. Add a 1 kg mass to the block and We find that the force ... is ....
9. Substitute a glass sheet for the We find that the force required to
friction board and measure the keep the block moving ....... .
force required to keep the block
moving.
EXERCISE B Making observations (iii)

Combine the instructions and results in Exercise A to make observations
(refer to Unit 3 Exercise C, p. 28).
EXERCISE C Making inductions

From one or more observations we can make a special kind of generalization
called an induction. Look at the following example:
Instruction
push against a small
object
Result if we pUISh against a

the object moves small otlject it moves
this shows that

I
I
Induction
when a force acts on a
. body it may cause itto
move
There are a number of generalizations in the reading passage which can act
as inductions. You will find them in sentences 2, 4, 8, 9, 11 and 18. Make
your own table as below and write these inductions in your column (b).
a b
1. ............................ . Friction o 0·0 • 0 • 0 ...... 0 0 '0 •• (2)
2............................ .. Friction .................. . (4)

. . . . . . . . . . . .. by lubrication.
3............................. . (8)
4 ............................. . (9)
5•........•........•••••.•.•..• . ........................ " (11)
6............................. . Sliding friction ............ " (18)
Now write in each space in column (a) of your table one of the observations
which you made in Exercise B. Make sure that the inductions and the observa-
tions match. Then combine the observations and inductions.
EXAMPLE
If we push against a small object it moves. This shows that when a force
acts on a body it may cause it to move.
Friction 43
EXERCISE D Short-form relative clauses (i)

We have seen (Unit 3) that if two sentences each contain a noun phrase, and
the noun phrases refer to the same thing, then the sentences can be joined
together by a relative pronoun like which.
EXAMPLE
The block is resting on a plane.
The plane is inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
The block is resting on a plane which is inclined at an angle of30° to the
horizontal.
We can make this sentence shorter by omitting which is:
The block is resting on a plane inclined at an angle of 30° to the
horizontal.
In the same way we can omit which is from the following sentence:
The plane which is flying at an altitude of 2,140 metres is subjected to
pressures of 80 kilonewtons per square metre.
The plane flying at an altitude of 2,140 metres is subjected to pressures
of 80 kilonewtons per square metre.
Now join the following sentence. pairs omitting which wherever possible.
In each case indicate whether the relative clause is a defining or a non-
defining clause.
1. Steels ... are known as alloy steels.
These steels are mixed with one or more metallic elements.
2. Tests . . . are of two kinds - tests to destruction and tests within the
elastic limit.
These tests are applied to materials.
3. The power developed by the generator ... is 20 kW.
The generator is revolving at 1,000 rev/min.
4. A dockside crane, ... , has a safe working load of 3 x 10 3 kg.
The crane is mounted on a set of rails.
S. The distance ... is plotted on a graph against time taken.
The distance is travelled by a moving load.
6. These forces constitute a tensile stress, ... , which acts around the cir-
cumference of the cylinder.
This stress is known as hoop stress.
7. The force ... was found to be 1,200 N.
The force was exerted on the clamps.
8. Bridges, roof trusses and cranes are structures ....
Such structures are designed to resist forces.
EXERCISE E: Short-form relative clauses (ii)

The steel beams are welded together.
The beams form the chassis of the truck.
We can join these two sentences in two ways:

(a) The steel beams whichform the chassis of the truck are welded together.
or (b) The steel beams forming the chassis of the truck are welded together.
In sentence (b) we have made the relative clause shorter by omitting which
and changing the verb to its-ing form. What kind of relative clause does
sentence (a) contain - defining or non-defining?
If the relative clause contains which+a verb in the simple present we can omit
which and change the verb to its -ing form. This rule can be applied if
(a) the clause is a defining one
or (b) the verb is a verb of state
Verbs of state describe states not actions like 'work' or 'run'. The most
common verbs of state in engineering are
measure contain
weigh hold
consist form
Now join the following sentence pairs omitting which wherever possible.
In each case indicate whether the relative clause is defining or non-defining
and underline verbs of state.
1. XY is a steel shaft . . . .
It carries a 300 mm diameter eccentric gear.
2. A flywheel, ... , has a diameter of 1·6 m.
The flywheel consists of a cast iron rim which is connected to a boss by
spokes.
3. The driving belt, ... , is 9 mm thick.
It transmits power to the pulleys.
4. The towers, ... , support the main section of the bridge.
The towers weigh a thousand tonnes each.
5. The tapping head has a spring clutch, ....
The clutch allows the tap to slip without breaking when the load becomes
excessive.
6. Grooving tools, ... , are made of high-speed steel.
Grooving tools cut slots or keyways.
7. The main shaft of the lathe drives the lubricant pump, ....
The pump supplies cooling fluid at the tool cutting tip.
Friction 45
8. Bronze ... is called phosphor bronze.

This bronze contains 0·8 %phosphorus.
EXERCISE F Short-/orm relative clauses (iii)

When the relative clause contains which+have we can shorten it in two
ways. Look at the following examples:
Two steel sheets which have a thickness of 3 mm each are joined by
rivets.
(a) Two steel sheets having a thickness of 3 mm each are joined by rivets.
or (b) Two steel sheets with a thickness of 3 mm each are joined by rivets.
Now join these sentence pairs and omit which where possible:
1. Grey cast iron is a soft close-grained cast iron ....

This cast iron has a relatively low melting point.
2. A diesel engine . . . is called a slow-speed diesel.
This engine has a running speed of 75 to 250 rev/min.
3. A dockside crane ... is mounted.on a set of rails.
The crane has a safe working load of 2,000 kg.
4. A milling machine ... is known as a universal milling machine.
This machine has a swivelling table.
EXERCISE G Noun modification (ii)

In Unit 3 we studied a number of noun compounds. Another common way
of modifying a noun can be seen in the following example:
The load is distributed uniformly.
= It is a uniformly distributed load.
Now rewrite the following sentences in the same way:
1. The load was applied suddenly.

2. The forces are perfectly matched.
3. The bar is fixed rigidly.
4. The material corrodes easily.
5. The surface treatment was developed recently.
6. The crane hook is stressed heavily.
7. The salt bath furnace is heated externally.
8. The force was exerted deliberately.
9. We work the forging plastically.
10. The tool drum is controlled automatically.
EXERCISE A Making recommendations based on a graph

Study the following graph, which shows recommended speeds for carbon
steel drills on soft steel:
200
;
'i 160 \
1
III
.§ 120
\ 1\
;
1.
I 80
1 ---- ---- ----

:I
I
I
I
I
o 10 20 30 40 50
diameter of drill in millimetres
When we make recommendations we use should or ought to.
EXAMPLE
For 40 mm drills a speed of 60 rev/min should be used.
For 40 mm drills a speed of 60 rev/min ought to be used.
Now, using the graph, write similar sentences giving the recommended speeds
for drills of the following diameters.
1. 20mm 4. 12·5 mm
2.25mm 5.30mm
3.50mm 6.15 mm
EXERCISE B Making recommendations based on a table

The table opposite shows recommended shaft -limits for ball bearings of
different bores:
Friction 47
Shaft limits
Bearing mm
bore
mm Heavy Light
loading loading
-12 - +0·003
-0,005
12·1-30 - +0·005
-0·003
30,1-50 - +0·007
-0·003
50·1-75 +0'018 +0·013

-0-003 -0·000
75,1-100 +0-023 +0'016

-0,005 -0·003
100,1-120 +0'028 +0·020

-0·010 -0,005
We can use this table to write recommendations.

EXAMPLES
The shaft limits for a ball bearing of 15 mm bore should be 15·005 mm and
14·997 mm.
The shaft limits for a ball bearing of 80 mm bore ought to be 80·023 mm
and 79·995 mm for a heavily loaded shaft and 80·016 mm and 79·997 mm
for a lightly loaded shaft.
Now write similar sentences giving the recommended shaft limits for the
following:
1. a bearing of 10 mm bore
2. a bearing of 30 mm bore
3. a bearing of 60 mm bore for a lightly loaded shaft
4. a bearing of 110 mm bore for a heavily loaded shaft
5. a bearing of 65 mm bore for both a heavily loaded and a lightly loaded
shaft
IV GUIDED WRITING
S TAG E 1 Sentence and paragraph building

Join the following groups of sentences to make eight longer sentences.
You are given some, but not all, of the connecting words which you will
need. You may omit or change words where you think it is necessary, and
you should provide appropriate punctuation. When you have finished, the
eight sentences should make a logical paragraph.
1. ALTHOUGH/WHEN
The surface of a block of polished steel may seem perfectly flat.
We examine the surface with a powerful microscope.
We see that the surface is covered with tiny 'hills and valleys'.
2. IF
We bring two steel surfaces together.
The surfaces will touch at only a few points.
These points are where one set of 'hills' meets another set.
3. BECAUSE/SO •.. THAT
The total mass of the steel is concentrated at these points.
The pressure on the points is great.
The pressure causes the points of contact to weld together.
4. We apply a force to make one block of steel move over another block.
We must first break the tiny welds.
The blocks will move.
5. FOR THIS REASON
To start a surface moving over another surface requires a force.
This force is greater than the force required to keep the surfaces in motion.
6. The greater force represents static friction.
The smaller force represents sliding friction.
7. One block slides over another.
The two surfaces scrape against each other.
This breaks off tiny pieces from each surface.
8. HOWEVER, IF
We lubricate the two surfaces.
Oil fills the tiny valleys.
The surfaces do not weld together.
One block can -!Dove over the other.
Now turn to the Free Reading passage and the paragraph you have
written with the second paragraph in that passage.
Friction 49
V FREE READING
Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you do
not know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional examples
LUBRICATION
Friction can be useful. For example, the screw-jack depends on friction
between the body of the screw and the jack to prevent it running back
under heavy loads. Belt drives depend on friction to prevent slipping.
Brakes and vices are further examples of useful applications of friction.
On the other hand, friction in machines causes loss of power. Twenty per
cent of the power of a motor car is wasted in overcoming friction. Engi-
neers try therefore to reduce friction as much as possible by good design.
They can also use materials with a low coefficient of friction for devices
such as bearings. The third method used for reducing friction is lubrication.
Although the surface of a block of polished steel may seem perfectly
fiat, when we examine it through a powerful microscope we see that it is
covered with tiny 'hills and valleys'. If we bring two steel surfaces together
they will touch at only a few points where one set of 'hills' meets another
set. Because the total mass of the steel is concentrated at these points, the
pressure on them is so great that it causes the points of contact to weld
together. ,When we apply a force to make one block of steel move over
another, we must first break these tiny welds before the blocks will move.
For this reason, to start a surface moving over another surface requires a
force greater than that required to keep the surfaces in motion. This greater
force represents static friction whereas the smaller force represents sliding
friction. When one block slides over another the two surfaces scrape against
each other, breaking off tiny pieces from each surface. However, if we
lubricate the two surfaces, oil fills the tiny valleys so that the surfaces do
not weld together, and one block can move over the other.
Lubrication, then, reduces friction and because the surfaces do not
scrape against each other it reduces wear on the material. Although dry
friction can be eliminated in this way, some power will still be lost depending
on the thickness of the lubricant used. Thus if the oil is too thick the
lubricant itself will offer some resistance to motion. Selection of the correct
lubricant depends on many factors, chief among which are the operating
speeds of the machinery which is lubricated and the temperature range
within which the machine must operate.
5 Levers
1 When a force acts on a body it may cause it to move in a straight line or to

turn about a point or to do both. 2 A force can make a body rotate around a
point which is not in its line of action. 3If we push against the handle side of
a door it will turn on its hinge and open. 4The size of the turning effect of a
force depends on the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance
between its line of action and the point about which the body turns. 5We
can this point the fulcrum. 6The turning effect of a force about a fulcrum is
known as the moment of the force. 7It is the product of the force and the
distance at right angles between its line of action and its fulcrum.
(a) A hinge is a fulcrum.
(b) A force may make a body rotate about a point and move in a straight
line at the same time.
(c) The greater the perpendicular distance between a point and the line of
action of a force, the greater the turning effect of the force about that
point.
(0) If we multiply length y by force F, we will obtain the moment of the
force about point P
force
(e) The moment of a' force = ------------
perpendicular distance between
line of action and fulcrum
8The lever is one application of the principle of the moment of a force
about a point. 9The lever is a simple machine. lOAn example is the crowbar,
which is used to move large loads by means of smaller efforts. 11 Diagram 1
Levers 51
shows a crowbar being used to lift a heavy block. 12The mass of the block is
the load, the heel of the crowbar is the fulcrum and the force exerted by the
man down at X is the effort. 131n the diagram a and b represent
respectively the perpendicular distance between the effort and the fulcrum
and the perpendicular distance between the load and the fulcrum. 14By the
principle of moments we can say that the man will just balance the load when
effort X a= load xb
15 Any increase in the effort will raise the load further and may eventually
cause it to overbalance.
1
fulcrum
(f) The lever is the only application of the principle of the moment of a force
about a point.
(g) The crowbar is a simple machine.
(h) Simple machines can use small efforts to move larger loads.
16Levers can be divided into three groups or orders. 17They are classified
according to the relative positions of the load, the effort and the fulcrum.
18 The positions are as follows:
first order: fulcrum between load and effort

second order: load between fulcrum and effort
third order: effort between fulcrum and load.
(i) A crowbar is a lever of the first order.
(j) With a crowbar, effort and load move in the same direction.
(k) All levers belong to a particular order.
(I) This diagram represents a third-order lever.
load effort
cs; t
fulcrum
Solutions
(a) If we push against the handle side of a door it will turn on its hinge and
open. (3)
i.e. The hinge is the point about which the door turns.
but ... the point about which the body turns. (4) We call this point the
fulcrum. (5)
i.e. The point about which a body turns is a fulcrum.
A hinge is a fulcrum.
(b) When a force acts on a body it may cause it to move in a straight line
or to turn about a point or to do both. (1)
i.e. A force may make a body (i) move in a straight line
(ii) turn about a point
(iii) move in a straight line and turn about
a point
turn = rotate
A force may make a body rotate about a point and move in a straight line
at the same time.
(c) It is the product of the force and the distance at right angles between its
line of action and its fulcrum. (7)
It = the turning effect of a force
the distance at right angles = the distance
fulcrum = the point about which a body turns
i.e. The turning effect of a force is the product of the force and the per-
pendicular distance between its line of action and the about which
it turns.
The greater the perpendicular distance between a point and the line of
action of a force, the greater the turning effect of the force about that
point.
(d) It is the product of the force and the distance at right angles between its
It = the moment of a force
Point P is the fulcrum of force F.
Length x is the distance at right angles between the line of action of force
F and point P.
i.f!. The moment of force F about point P is x times F.
If we multiply length y by force F we will NOT obtain the moment of
the force about point P.
(e) It is the product of the force and the distance at right angles between its
It = the moment of a force
i.e. The moment of a force is equal to the force multiplied by the per-
pendicular distance between its line of action and its fulcrum.
The moment of a force is NOT equal to the force divided by the per-
pendicular distance between its line of action and its fulcrum.
(f) The lever is one application of the principle of the moment of a force
about a point. (8)
=1= the only
Levers 53
It is NOT TRUE that the lever is the only application of the principle of
the moment of a force about a point.
(g) The lever is a simple machine. (9) An example is the crowbar, which is
used to move large loads by means of smaller efforts. (10)
i.e. The crowbar is an example of a simple machine which is a lever.
The crowbar is a simple machine.
(h) An example is the crowbar, which is used to move large loads by means
of smaller efforts. (10)
but The crowbar is a simple machine.
Simple machines can use small efforts to move larger loads.
(i) first order: fulcrum between load and effort (18)

Diagram 1 shows that the crowbar has its fulcrum between the load and
the effort.
A crowbar is a lever of the first order.
0) Look at diagram 1.
An effort pressing down at X will raise the load.
i.e. Effort and load move in opposite directions.
With a crowbar, effort and load do NOT move in the same direction.
(k) Levers can be divided into three groups or orders. (16)

Every lever is either a first-, second- or third-order lever.
All levers belong to a particular order.
(I) third order: effort between fulcrum and load (18)

This diagram shows load between effort and fulcrum.
i.e. This diagram represents a second-order lever.
This diagram does NOT represent a third-order lever.
1. A force may cause a body to turn about a point.
2. The crowbar will cause the load to overbalance.
3. The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance between its line of action and the point about which the body
turns.
4. We measure the perpendicular distance between the force's line of action
and its fulcrum.
5. The moment of a force is a vector quantity.
6. Levers are used to lift heavy blocks.
7. Levers may be divided into members of the first, second and third orders.

1. In sentence 3, 'it' refers to (a) a handle
(b) a door
2. In sentence 4, 'its' refers to (a) the force's
(b) the turning effect's
3. In sentence 5, 'this point' refers to (a) the point about which the body
turns
(b) the line of action of the force
4. In sentence 7, 'it' refers to (a) the moment of a force
(b) the fulcrum
(c) the magnitude of the force
5. In sentence 15, 'it' refers to (a) the effort
(b) the crowbar
(c) the load
6. In sentence 17, 'they' refers to (a) load, effort and fulcrum
(b) three orders
(c) levers
this means that (2) since (14+15)
thus (2) it follows that (15)
for example (3)
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A Completing a diagram

Copy out the table opposite and fill in the spaces in parts 1 and 2, using the
information from the reading passage.
EXERCISE B Interpretation of diagrams
Look at the drawings underneath the table opposite. Decide which kind of
lever each drawing represents. Then fill in part 3 of your table, listing as many
examples as you can.
EXERCISE C Paragraphs based on diagrams

Now use your completed table to write paragraphs.
EXAMPLE
Levers which have the fulcrum placed between load and effort are known
as first-order levers. A crowbar is an example of a first-order lever.
.
levers which have
Levers 55
I
1 .1 1
Part 1
the fulcrum
placed between
load and effort
I I I
I
called
are termed
known as
I
Part 2
I I I
first-order levers
Part 3
examples examples examples
1 1 1 crowbar
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4
etc. etc. etc.
2 human forearm
3 engine-indicator tracing
point
F c¢::=:v==
4 steam safety valve

5 crowbar
6 meter hand
F
E
E L
7 pump handle
8 'beam balance
9 aneroid barometer·
pointer
56 English in Mechanical Engifleering
EXERCISE D Describing thefunction of an object

1. Study the following diagram'
modify the action of
a large force by a
smaller force
apply a force remote

from a point where an
effort is made
second-order
lever
-----------j ................
$
I
I magnify a movement
first-order I maybe I two masses

lever
1 used to r
I move a large force
I
third-order
lever
................ L ____________ with a smaller force
2. Write as many sentences as you can based on the diagram.
EXAMPLE
A third-order lever may be used to magnify a movement.
3. The sentences you made from the diagram describe the function of the
different kinds of levers. We can describe the function of an object in
three ways: .
(a) A third-order lever may be used to magnify a movement.
(b) A third-order lever may be used for magnifying a movement.
(c) A third-order lever may be used as a means of magnifying a movement.
Now rewrite the sentences you made in section 2, using pattern (b) or (c).
4. Look back at the drawings on page 55. Decide in which way each levef
is used and write a sentence for each drawing.
EXAMPLE
A crowbar is an example of a first-order lever used as a means of moving
a large force with a smaller force.
EXERCISE E Combining sentences with an -ing clause

Look at the following sentences:
(a) Belt drives are not so positive as gear drives.
(b) Belts tend to slip on high loads.
These can be combined into one sentence:
(c) Belt drives are not so positive as gear drives, belts tending to slip on high
loads.
Combine each of the- following pairs of sentences into one sentence by using
an -ing clause in the same way:
Levers 57
1. A chain drive is similar to a belt drive except that the chain passes over
sprockets on the chain wheel.
This arrangement ensures that no slip takes place.
2. When a resultant force acts on a body an acceleration is produced.
Its value depends on the mass of the body.
3. The length of the steel increases in proportion to the forces applied.
Its cross-sectional area is unchanged.
4. The screw-jack is a screw revolving in a fixed nut.
The screw thread provides a means of converting circular motion to
motion in a straight line.
5. Work done by a force can be represented by a work diagram in the form
ofa graph.
The vertical axis represents the force and the horizontal axis the distance
moved.
6. The wheelbarrow is an example of a second-order lever.
The load is carried between the fulcrum and the effort.
7. When a force is applied to the edge of a door it will turn.
The hinge forms a fulcrum for the door.
8. Pressure is measured in newtons per square metre.
The word 'per' implies that the force in newtons is divided by the area
in square metres.
9. A crowbar is a first-order lever.
The fulcrum is the heel of the crowbar.
10. The human forearm is a lever.
The effort is provided by the muscle joining the upper arm to the forearm.
EXERCISE F Relative clauses with prepositions

In books about engineering we find many relative clauses with a preposition
before which. Such clauses are formed in the following way:
The shaft runs in brass bushes.
The pulley is mounted on the shaft.
The shaft on which the pulley is mounted runs in brass bushes.
Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence containing
a relative clause beginning with a preposition+which:
1. The main bearings consist of steel shells lined with aluminium.
The shaft runs in the bearings.
2. The point is called the fulcrum.
The body is free to rotate about the point.
3. The piers resist the load by a reaction of 5,000 N each.
The bridge rests on the piers.
4. The points are 600 mm apart.
The one kilogramme masses are suspended from the points.
5. The position of the arms of the lever will depend on the angle.
The forces are required to act at the angle.
6. The rope passes over one pulley in the upper block.
The lower block is attached to the rope.
7. The distance is double the displacement of the load.
The effort moves through the distance.
8. Since earliest times man has tried to devise methods.
A small effort can move a large load by the methods.
9. The efficiency of most machines rises quickly to reach a maximum value
near those loads.
The machine is designed for those loads.
10. A gear box is a unit.
A compound gear train which can be altered by engaging different gears
is housed in this unit.
EXERCISE G Noun modification (iii)

Some Noun+Noun combinations used in engineering contain a noun formed
from a verb. Often the verb indicates the function of the object described.
EXAMPLE
object: air-compressor
function: to compress air
We can.express this information in a sentence:
An air-compressor is used to compress air.
Write similar sentences to indicate the function of the following objects.
Note that some of the nouns end in -er and some in -or.
speed governor oil cooler
mass carrier pressure regulator
casing liner steam condenser
gas generator shock absorber
air heater hardness tester
What are the names of the following objects? Check the spelling in your
dictionary.
a device used to reduce the speed (of a motor)
a device used to indicate the level of oil (in a gear box)
a device used to grind the surface (of a metal plate)
a device used to inject fuel (into petrol or diesel engines)
a device used to filter oil (for an engine)
The information given in brackets does not form part of the name of the
object.
Levers 59
EXERCISE A Making comparisons based on a diagram

Study the following diagram. Then read the comparison of mild steel and low
carbon steel which is based on the information contained in the diagram.
low
catbon medium
steel miklsteel catbon steel high catbon steel
hard steel spring.grades tool steel
railway rails,
ship and crank pins,
tin boiler plates, connecting locomotive tyres, metal cutting
plate, structural rods, woodcutting tools, and forming
wire, sections, axles, crusher rolls, car springs, tools,
rivets, turbine rotors, gears, hammers, tap drills, drills,
pipes marine shafts gun barrels hand chisels ball races wire dies
0.08 0.15 0.35 0.55 0.85 1.05 1.20

% carbon
Properties and applications of carbon steels
Low carbon steel contains between 0·08 and 0·15 % carbon whereas mild
steel contains between 0·15 %and O' 35 %carbon. Mild steel is stronger and
harder than low carbon steel but itis less ductile. Low carbon steel is used
to make tin plate, wire, rivets aJId pipes while mild steel is used for struc-
tural sections, turbine rotOl:s,fuarine shafts and for ship and boiler plates.
Now write out and/oomplete the following comparison of high and medium
carbon steels using the information in the diagram.
High carbon steel contains between ... and ... carbon whereas medium
carbon steel .... High carbon steel is ... and ... than ... steel, but its
strength ... slightly when its carbon content is ... than 0·83 %. In addition .
. . . steel is less ... than ... steel. Medium carbon steel is used for ....
High carbon steel with a ... content up to ... is used to make woodcutting
tools, .... Car springs ... are made from ... with between ... and ...
while metal cutting ... are made from ... with between ... and ... .
IV GUIDED WRITING
S TAG E I Writing a report of an experiment

Here are a set of instructions for a simple experiment. Change the instructions
into a report of the experiment as in the first example, and write the report in
your notebook.
instructions report
1. Pivot a metre stick at its centre 1: A metre stick was pivoted at
point 0 so that it balances. its centre point 0 so that it
balanced.
2. Attach a cord to a I kg mass 2............................ .
and suspend it from a point P
on the side OX, 200 mm from
the centre point.
3. Note what happens (the metre 3. It was noted that ........... .
stick turns in an anti-clockwise
direction).
4. Suspend a second mass of I kg 4 ............................ .
mass from a point on the side OY.
S. Adjust the distance between 0 S............................ .
and the mass until the stick
remains in a horizontal position.
6 .. Measure the distance between 6............................ .
o and the second mass. and was found
to be 200 mm.
7. Replace the second I kg mass 7.
with a O·S kg mass.
8. Note what happens (the metre 8. It was noted that ........... .
stick turns anti-clockwise).
9. Move the O'S kg mass along OY 9............................. .
until the stick again balances.
10. Measure the distance between 0 10............................ .
and the point S where the O'S kg .......... and was found to be
mass is suspended. 4oomm.
S TAG E 2 Illustrating the report with a diagram
The followil)g is a list of the apparatus which was used in the experiment.
a metre stick with a hole at its centre
a stand
pieces of cord
one O'S kg mass
two 1 kg masses
Levers 61
Refer to the list and draw a diagram to illustrate the experiment. Label the
points 0, P, S, X and Y. Label the other point mentioned inthe report and
mark it in the diagram.
S TAG E 3 Completing the report

State the aim of the experiment and write ,down the two conclusions to
complete the report. If you have difficulty you will find the two conclusions
in the reading passage.
conclusions
(i) The turning effect of a force depends on ... .
(ii) The turning effect of a force depends on ... .
V FREE READING
Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you do
not know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional examples
BEAMS
When choosing a beam it is important to know its bending strength. The
bending strength of the beam is the beam's resistance to bending moments.
Diagram 1 shows a beam supported at both ends and carrying a load at its
mid-point. The load makes the beam bend slightly. If we imagine the beam
to consist of a number of longitudinal layers we can see that the top layer
will be compressed by the load, and the bottom layer will be stretched as
the beam bends. At the centre there will be a neutral layer which is neither
stretched nor compressed.
The beam is subjected to bending moments because the reaction at the
supports causes clockwise and anti-clockwise moments as shown in the
sketch. If the beam fails, the top layers will be crushed and the bottom
layers torn. This failure will occur at mid-span where the bending moment
is greatest.
LOAD 10000N
moment .
_______________ ________------l anti-clockwise
bending
moment
5000x3Nm :::or-----------......------------r:::JJ 5000x3Nm
:15000Nm 3m 3m =15000Nm
1
f
REACTION 5000N REACTION SOOON
As most of the stress occurs at the top and bottom of a beam most of
the material is concentrated at the top and bottom in the flanges. Material
at the neutral layer is wasted as far as bending strength is concerned. In
some girders, therefore, material is removed from the web. Diagram 2
shows a castellated girder, which is made by cutting a girder in two as
shown, then reversing the ends and welding the two halves together. The
result is a stronger beam for equal amounts of steel.
The depth of a beam is important in deciding what the resisting moment

of the beam will be. The resisting moment of a beam resists the bending
moment which tries to destroy the beam. The force produced by the tension
offhe top layers and the force produced by the compression of the bottom
layers form a couple across the depth of the beam to provide a resisting
moment. The deeper the beam, the longer the lever arm of the couple and
hence the greater the resisting moment. In fact the beam's bending strength
increases proportionally to the cube of the depth.
The reasons for the shape of the familiar I-section rolled steel beam now
become dear. The flanges contain a lot of steel to resist compression and
tension. The web of the beam is thin because it is not s.ubjected to these
stresses. The beam is deep compared to its width because its depth gives
it a greater moment of resistance to offset bending moments.
6 Stress and Strain
1 A body is in stress when forces are applied to it which cause its size and
shape to change. 2In other words, stress causes distortion. 3The intensity of
stress depends on the size of the force and the cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) of
the body which resists the force. 4That is,
applied force
stress = ---"--"'------
c.s.a. of the body
5Distortion due to stress is called strain. 6Different forces will distort bodies
in different ways. 7 A tensile force will lengthen a body. BOne subjected to a
compressive force will contract. 9If a body has a uniform c.s.a., that is, if it
has the same c.s.a. throughout its length, we calculate strain as
. change of length
st ram = ---:--''--:-:--=-:-
original length
(a) Stress on bar x is greater than stress on bar y
SOON SOON
100mm2 150mm2
(b) A tensile force can cause distortion.

(c) For this bar of steel, strain is equal to 1,000'4
1,000
Original length ====10=O=O=m=m=====
New length 1000'4mm
10kN <J- =========:::1 -1>10kN
(d) Tensile forces and compressiw forces have opposite effects on bodies.
(e) Distortion causes strain.
l°Most materials used in engineering are elastic. 11 A material which has
the property of elasticity will return to its original size and shape when the
forces producing strain are removed. 12However, if these forces go beyond
a certain limit, called the elastic limit, an elastic material will not regain its
original dimensions. 13If we take a bar of uniform c.s.a. of an elastic material
like mild steel, and apply gradually increasing tensile forces to it, it will
extend. 14If we measure each extension produced by each increase in force,
we will find that the bar's increase in length is in proportion to the increase
in force. 15In other words, strain is proportional to stress. 16 A graph of stress
against strain would therefore be a straight line like that in Diagram 1:
stress
1 strain
17 Another way of expressing this is:

stress
-- = a constant
strain
l8The value of this constant is different for each elastic material. 19It is called
the Modulus of Elasticity. 2°If we exceed the elastic limit, then strain is no
longer proportional to stress and there is permanent deformation. 21 These
findings illustrate Hooke's law which states that within the elastic limit, the
strain produced is proportional to the stress producing it.
(f) All engineering materials are elastic.
(g) Mild steel is an elastic material.
(b) Elastic materials cannot be in a state of stress.
(i) A mild steel bar will always extend in proportion to the forces which
extend it.
(j) Within the elastic limit, if we double the stress on a body we will double
the strain produced.
(k) The value of the Modulus of Elasticity varies according to the stress an
elastic material is subjected to.
(I) Mild steel has a uniform c.s.a.
Solutions
(a) st ress = applied force
---"'--=-----
(4)
c.s.a. of the body
800 800
i.e. stress on bar x = - Njmm 2 and stress on bar y = - Njmm 2
100 150
Stress on bar x is greater than stress on bar y.
Stress and Strain 65
(b) A tensile force will lengthen a body. (7)

i.e. A tensile force will change the size and shape of a body.
A tensile force can cause distortion.
(c) strain = change of length (9)

original length
For this bar of steel, original length = 1,000 mm.
new length = 1,000'4 mm.
change of length = 0-4 mm
0·4 1000·4
For this bar of steel, strain = - - NOT - ' - -
1,000 1,000
(d) A tensile force will lengthen a body. (7)
i.e. A tensile force will make a body longer.
One subjected to a compressive force will contract. (8)
i.e. A compressive force will make a body shorter.
Tensile forces and compressive forces have opposite effects on bodies.
(e) Stress causes distortion. (2)

Distortion due to stress is called strain. (5)
i.e. stress causes distortion and this distortion is called strain
It is NOT TRUE that distortion causes strain.
(f) Most materials used in engineering are elastic. (10)
most =ft all
It is NOT TR UE that all engineering materials are elastic.
(g) Ifwe take a bar of uniform c.s.a. of an elastic material like mild steel, ...
(13)
i.e. mild steel is an example of an elastic material
Mild steel is an elastic material.
(b) If we take a bar of uniform c.s.a. of an elastic material like mild steel,
and apply gradually increasing tensile forces to it, it will extend. (13)
i.e. If a tensile force is applied to an elastic material, it will extend.
If a tensile force is applied to an elastic material, its size and shape will
change.
Elastic materials CAN be in a state of stress.
(i) If we measure each extension produced by each increase in force, we will
find that the bar's increase in length is in proportion to the increase in
force. (14)
i.e. The mild steel bar extends in proportion to the forces which extend it.
but If we exceed the elastic limit, then strain is no longer proportional to
stress and there is permanent deformation. (20)
i.e. A mild steel bar will extend in proportion to the forces which extend it so
long as those forces do not exceed the elastic limit for mild steel.
It is NOT TRUE that a mild steel bar will always extend in proportion to
the forces which extend it.
(j) Within the elastic limit, the strain produced is proportional to the stress
producing it. (21)
i.e. Within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain.
Within the elastic limit, ifwe double the stress on a body we will double the
strain produced.
(k) The value of this constant is different for each elastic material. (18)
It is called the Modulus of Elasticity. (19)
i.e. the Modulus of Elasticity is a constant
The value of the Modulus of Elasticity does NOT vary according to the
stress as elastic material is subjected to
(I) If we take a bar of uniform c.s.a. of an elastic material like mild steel, ...
(13)
i.e. The bar has a uniform c.s.a., not the steel.
Only a shape can have a c.s.a. Mild steel can have many different shapes
with different c.s.a.'s.
It is NOT TRUE that mild steel has a uniform c.s.a.
Rewrite the replacing the words in italics with an expression from
the text which has a similar meaning.
1. A tensile force of 2 kN applied to a bar of steel will cause its size and shape
to change.
2. The shaft has a uniform c.s.a.
3. Copper is a material which has the property of elasticity.
4. An increase in length of 0·003 mm was found in a bar subjected to a force
of 1·5 kN.
5. A body which undergoes a tensile force will lengthen.
6. When compressive forces go beyond the elastic limit permanent distortion
results.
7. The body will not then return to its original dimensions.
8. Elastic materials regain their original shape and size.

1. In sentence 1, 'it' refers to (a) stress
(b) a body
2. In sentence 1, 'its' to (a) the force's
(b) the body's
3. In sentence 8, 'one' refers to (a) a body
(b) a tensile force
4. In sentence 9, 'its' refers to (a) the body's

(b) a force's
5. In sentence 12, 'its' refers to (a) the elastic limit's
(b) an elastic material's
6. In sentence 16, 'that' refers to (a) the graph
(b) the straight line
7. In sentence 19, 'it' refers to (a) a constant
(b) an· elastic material
8. In sentence 21, 'it' refers to (a) the strain
(b) the stress

Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace or re-
in more general terms (2) for instance (13)
for example (7) such as (13)
whereas (7+8) in more general terms (15)
in contrast (8) for this reason (16)
we can conclude that(2l)
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A Definitions
Make a definition for each item in column (a)
EXAMPLE
An organic material is a material which is based chemically on carbon.
a b c
a stainless steel can be drawn out into wires

a non-ferrous metal contains iron
a formable metal is based chemically on carbon
an abrasive substance substance can lengthen a body
a ferrous metal metal resists corrosion
a compressive force steel does not contain iron
a ductile metal material can shorten a body
an organic material force can be shaped into, forms
a tensile force can be used to wear away a softer
material
EXERCISE B If-sentences
From each of the definitions in Exercise A, we can make an if-sentence.
definition: An organic material is a material which is based chemically on
carbon.
if-sentence: If a material is organic, it is based chemically on carbon.
Sentences like this consist of two parts joined by if:
PART I PART 2
I F a material is organic, I it is based chemically on carbon
Now make if-sentences like this for each of the definitions you have written
in Exercise A.
EXERCISE C Predictions based on the properties of materials

When we know what the properties of a material are we can predict how it
will behave under different conditions. To make predictions of this type, we
use an if-sentence with will in part 2. Look at this example:
If a material is flexible, it will bend easily.
Now write similar predictions for materials which have the properties listed
in column (a). Match each property in column (a) with an appropriate
expression from column (b). '
a b
elasticity will not bend easily

plasticity will resist abrasion, deformation and indentation
toughness , will resist wear
corrosion-resistance will regain its original dimensions after the forces
which have caused deformation are removed
rigidity will tend to fracture under impact loads
wear-resistance will bend easily
brittleness will not return to its original dimensions after the
forces producing strain are removed
hardness . will not fracture when indented or scratched
flexibility "'will resist fracture when subjected to an impact load
softness ".' will resist corrosion
EXERCISE D Noun modification (iv)

Here is another common way of modifying a noun in engineering.
(a) a bracket with a pin joint
= (b) a pin-jointed bracket
Rewrite each of the following expressions as in example (b):

a metal tube with thin walls
a roller with a flat bottom
a polygon with six sides
a cutting tool with mUltiple edges
a follower with a knife edge
a rivet with a copper face
Describe each of the following objects as in example (a):

a four-sided indentor
a stellite-tipped cutting tool
a wire-jacketed hose
a square-threaded screw
a round-headed rivet
a stub-nosed tool
EX ERe IS E E Prepositions
Rewrite the following sentences, filling in the spaces with a preposition from
the list. You will have to use some of the prepositions more than once.
away of
between on
from to
in with
into
1. The crank gear meshes ... a second gear to which the winding drum is
rigidly fixed.
2. Two masses are suspended ... the metre stick at points X and Y.
3. A single point tool consists ... a tip made of high-speed steel and a plain
carb"n steel shank welded to the tip.
4. The screw runs in a fixed nut incorporated ... the jack.
5. The worm is prevented ... axial movements by its bearings.
6. Whether the load extends or compresses the spring depends ... the type
of balance.
7. The calculations necessary in designing gear wheels are based ... the
pitch circle diameter.
8. Vector a-b was converted ... a force of 60 N.
9. Fluid is applied to cutting tools to cool and lubricate them and to wash
... chips and swarf.
10. Brake linings are often made ... an asbestos compound.
11. We can distinguish '" high pressure laminates and low pressure
laminates.
12. Vernier calipers are provided ... a vernier scale to ensure accuracy in
measurement.
13. A hammer with one end ball-shaped and the other end slightly domed, is
referred ... as a ball-pein hammer.
14. A single vector quantity can be resolved ... any number of components
in an infinite variety of ways.
EXERCISE F Making inductions

We have seen (Unit 4) that in mechanical engineering it is necessary to make
inductions from observations. These observations are often written in the
form of if- or when- sentences.
EXAMPLE
Observation
when we push a table across a rough floor,
a force is set up which opposes motion
I
this shows that
I
Induction
friction always opposes motion
Write down sentences 2, 7, 8,11, 15, and 20 from the reading passage in your
notebook. Using these sentences to help you, complete in your notebook
the inductions which follow each of the observations below.
1. If a bar of iron is subjected to a force of 2 kN, it bends.
This shows that ....
2. When a rod of mild steel has a compressive force of 5 kN applied to it, it
contracts by 0·889 mm.
This demonstrates that ....
3. If a weight of 6 kg is attached to a wire of uniform c.s.a., the wire extends
by 0·05 mm.
4. When a load of 30 kN is applied to a steel bar, it lengthens by 0·250 mm.
If the load is increased to 60 kN, the bar lengthens by 0·50 mm.
These findings show that ....
5. When the load of 60 kN is removed from the steel bar, it regains its original
proportions.
This demonstrates that ....
6. If the load exceeds 60 kN, the bar does not return to its original size and
shape when the load is removed.
HI INFORMATION TRANSFER
EXERCISE A Inductions based on diagrams and tables

In the Use of Language section we learned how to make inductions from
observations. In engineering we also have to make inductions from infor-
mation contained in diagrams and tables. With the help of sentences 2, 7, 8,
11, 15, and 20 which you have written in your notebook, make inductions
from the following diagrams and tables.
1.
stress
strain
This graph shows that ....

40kN
20kN 20kN
2. length of member PR off load = 330 em .

length of member PR under load = 329·6 cm
These figures demonstrate that ....
3. length of member PQ off load = 600 cm
length of member PQ under load = 601 cm
These figures demonstrate that ....
4.
applied force extension
(-stress) (-strain)
kN mm
3 0·02
6 0·04
9 0·06
These figures show that ....

5,
tensile test results for mild
steel
stress Njmm 2 extension mm
1,000 0·00066
2,000 0-00133
4,000 0·00265
6,000 0·00400
12,000 0-00795
12,100 0·09000
These results demonstrate that ....
EXERCISE B Stating laws

Inductions which are based on many observations are called laws. In Unit 4
some of the inductions you made were the laws of friction. These laws are
written in column (b) opposite. Tables A and B contain results from a number
of simple experiments on friction using the apparatus illustrated. Using the
information contained in these results, write down and complete the observa-
tions in column (a). Make sure that each observation you write matches the
law of friction opposite it.
apparatus
block
friction board
" additional masses
mass carrier
results
TABLE A
nature of area of sliding

result surfaces in surfaces in friction
number contact contact force
mm N
1 wood on wood 200 10·4
2 wood on wood 100 10·4
3 wood on glass 100 6·3
TABLE B
force required force required

result reaction between to cause to maintain
number the surfaces movement movement
N N N
4 9·81 3·2 2·8
5 19·62 6·4 5·6
6 29·43 9·6 8·4
a b
observations laws
1. Results 4, 5 and 6 show that when Friction always opposes motion.
one surface slides over another
surface, there is a force which
must be overcome before.
movement can occur.
2. Results 4, 5 and 6 show that if we Static friction is greater than
compare ... with the force sliding friction.
required to maintain ... we find
that the former is ... .
3. Results ... 3 show that the Friction between two surfaces
sliding friction force for wood on depends on the nature of the
wood is ... than the .... surfaces in contact.
4. Results 1 and 2 show that if the Sliding 'friction is independent of
. . . is halved, sliding friction the area of surface in contact .
force .. ','
5. Results ... show that if the Friction is directly proportional
reaction between two surfaces in to the reaction between the
contact is doubled, the force .. . surface in contact.
and the force ... are also ... .
Now combine each observation and law.
EXAMPLE
Results 4, 5 and 6 show that when one surface slides over another surface
there is a force which must be overcome before movement can occur. This
demonstrates that friction always opposes motion.
IV GUIDED WRITING

Join each of the following groups of sentences to make eleven longer sentences.
You are given some, but not all, of the connecting words which you will
need. You may add, omit or' change words where you think it is necessary,
and you should provide appropriate punctuation.
1. THUS
From 0 to P the specimen extends.
This is in proportion to the force applied to the material.
This illustrates Hooke's law.
2. The material reaches its elastic limit.
This happens soon after point P.
The elastic limit is marked on the graph.
The elastic limit is marked as point E.
3. After the yield point there is a rapid extension.
This is an extension of the specimen.
This rapid extension occurs with each increase in load.
This extension continues until point U is reached.
4. WHEN
The specimen will regain its original length up to point E.
The forces are removed.
The forces cause tension.
5. THAT
This is what waisting means.
The cross-sectional area of the specimen narrows.
This happens at some point in the specimen's length.
6. WITHOUT
U represents the maximum load the specimen can undergo.
Up to this load there is no change in the specimen's cross-sectional area.
7. AFTER
The point of maximum load is reached.
The specimen undergoes 'waisting'.
8. HOWEVER
If the elastic limit is exceeded.
The specimen will not regain its original length.
9. ALTHOUGH/BECAUSE OF
The stress continues to increase.
Note the decrease in cross-sectional area.

The load falls.
10. WHEN
The specimen lengthens further.
It lengthens until point F.
The specimen finally fractures.
11. FOR
At Y the specimen increases in length.
Y is the yield point.
This is a sudden increase.
There is very little corresponding increase in force.

Now rearrange the sentences you have written into a number of logically-
ordered paragraphs. Begin your first paragraph with sentences 1 and 2.
S TAG E 3 Usingdiagrams to illustrate the paragraphs

The passage you have written is intended to accompany a graph. Here is an
introduction to the passage followed by the graph itself:
One of the most important mechanical tests is the tensile test to destruction
in which a specimen is subjected to increasing tensile forces until it fractures.
A specially prepared test-piece with a simple cross-sectional area, for
example 100 mm 2 , is normally used in this test. For a mild steel specimen
a graph of load against extension for a tensile test may have the following
appearance :
load
extension
Although six points are marked on the graph they have not been labelled.
Label them Y, F, 0, P, U, E using the information from the paragraphs you
have written.
Here are three sketches to illustrate the description. Label the sketches
'Diagram 1', 'Diagram 2' and 'Diagram 3'. Refer to your description and
decide where the illustrations should be inserted into the text. Make a refer-
to each illustration at an appropriate place in the description, e.g.:
See Diagram 1
As shown in Diagram 1
As in Diagram 1
Q=u
Q []
[1:=:lc=O
Now rewrite the entire passage, including the graph and the illustrations and
any other changes you have made. Give the completed description a suitable
title.
V FREE READING
FACTOR OF SAFETY
Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to a suspension
bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses they expect the structure to
bear. They must also have a good understanding of the properties of
materials. In the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of knowledge
of the properties of materials has led to disaster. For example, the first
Tay Bridge in Scotland collapsed, killing 77 people, because no allowance
was made for wind pressure. Even with today's testing equipment errors
are sometimes made in calculating the safe loads a structure can carry.
For instance, a number of box girder bridges have collapsed during con-
struction.
To safeguard structures, designers normally work within a factor of
safety so that materials are kept within their permitted working stress.
Working stress is the greatest stress to which a part of a structure is ever
subjected. It is calculated by dividing the ultimate strength of the material
by a factor of safety. The former is the stress at which the material fractures.
The latter is the product of four main factors.
The first factor is the ratio of ultimate· strength to the elastic limit of the
material. The elastic limit can be obtained from a tensile test. Normally
this ratio is approximately 2.
The second factor depends on the nature of the stress involved. For
example, a body may be exposed to one constant stress, or to variable
stress, or even to compound stress, that is, where several stresses act on it
at the same time. A constant stress of one kind is given a factor of 1.
Variable stress is more complex. Under frequently repeated stresses a metal
will fracture at a much lower point than its ultimate strength. Metal
fracture caused by such stresses is commonly called 'metal fatigue'. For
simply repeated stresses ranging from zero to a maximum and back to
zero, a factor of 2 is allowed. For alternating stress, which not only varies
in size but also in direction, for example from tensile to compressive, a
factor of 3 is necessary.
The third factor concerns the application of the load. A factor of 1 may
be allowed for a gradually applied load, 2 for a suddenly applied load and
greater factors for shock loads.
The last factor is the most difficult to determine. Sometimes it is called
the 'factor of ignorance'. If aU the conditions of service are known, this
factor can be low. Where the conditions of service are severe, where there
is a danger of an overload or where the materials are imperfect, a factor as
high as 10 may be necessary. For example, bridge builders may allow for
freak winds and in earthquake zones special allowances must be made
when designing tan buildings.
The following example illustrates how the factor of safety for a forged
steel connecting' rod in a diesel engine is calculated. The first factor is 2.
As the rod is subjected alternately to both compressive and tensile stresses,
the second factor is 3. When the fuel mixture ignites it imposes a suddenly
applied load on the rod, hence the third factor is 2. The conditions of
service of an engine are well-known, therefore the last factor is 1-!-. The
factor of safety is thus 2 X 3 x 2 X 1-!-, which equals 18.
Because of weight restrictions, aircraft are manufactured to much lower
factors of safety - between 1·1 and 1·75. These extremely low factors
require exacting material and production specifications and highly accurate
design calculations.
In advanced design work, especially in designing skyscraper blocks,
loadings up to the plastic state of metals are now used. In such design
work there can be no 'factor of ignorance' and extreme accuracy in cal-
culating the stresses on the structure is essential.
7 Ideal and Practical Machines
1A machine is any device which allows work to be done more conveniently.

2 A machine has an input member to which an effort is applied and an output
member which moves a load. 3The advantage of a machine is that the effort
applied can be very much smaller than the load to be overcome. 4The measure
of tl:!is advantage is the ratio of load to effort and is known as the Mechanical
Advantage (M.A.)
M.A. = Load
Effort
SIn a practical machine energy is lost because of friction. 6The M.A. of a,

practical machine changes as the load it carries changes because the percent-
age of effort required to overcome friction depends on the size of the load.
7For very small loads a large percentage of the effort is needed to work
against friction whereas with larger loads the fraction is less. 8 A graph of
load against effort has the shape shown in Diagram 1:
effort
load
9In the above diagram, a is the effort required to overcome friction.

<a) The M.A. of a practical machine is a constant.
(b) A practical machine requires more effort to move small loads than large
loads.
<e) A machine can lift a large load with a smaller effort.
Ideal and Practical Machines 79
(d) This is a graph of load against effort for a practical machine.
load
IOTo obtain a high M.A. a machine must be designed so that the distance
moved by the effort is much greater than the output displacement of the load.
llThe ratio of the two distances is termed the Velocity Ratio (V.R.) that is:
V.R. = distance moved by the effort
distance moved by the load
12The V.R. of a machine depends on its design and has a fixed value for
each machine. 13In other words it is a constant.
14 We can think of the effort which is applied to the machine as the work
input. 15The work done by the machine on the load is the work output.
16The efficiency of the machine is then the ratio of the work output to the
work input, that is:
.
Efficlency work output
= -------"---
work input
1 7In practice the work output is always less than the work input because
some energy is lost inside the machine in overcoming friction. 18Thus the
efficiency of a practical machine can never reach 100%. 19Efficiency tends
to increase sharply with load, then flatten out as it reaches a limiting value
as shown in Diagram 2:
efficiency
2 load
(e) The YR. of a machine varies according to the work output.

(f) The efficiency of a practical machine is not a constant.
(g) The work input of a practical machine is greater than its work output.
(b) Efficiency is proportional to load.
2°Mathematically it can be shown that
.
Efficlency M.A.
=,--
V.R.
21 An ideal machine has no friction. 2 2Since an ideal machine is frictionless,

its M.A. would not vary with the load but would be a constant. 23 A graph
of load against effort would have the shape shown in Diagram 3:
3 load
24If it were possible to build an ideal machine, there would be no loss of

energy within the machine. 25 Thus we could say that
work input = work output
i.e. ExDE = LxD L
where E = effort, DE = distance moved by effort, L = load, and DL = dist-
ance moved by load. 26An ideal machine would have an efficiency of 1 or
100%. 27As efficiency is equal to the ratio M.A./V.R. the M.A. of an ideal
machine must equal its V.R.
(i) A machine with an M.A. of 5 and a V.R. of 5 is an ideal machine.

(j) For an ideal machine, efficiency would increase as the load increased.
(k) The work done by a machine on a load is equal to the load times the
distance moved by the load.
(I) Frictionless machines exist.
Solutions
(a) The M.A. of a practical machine changes as the load it carries changes.
(6)
The M.A. of a practical machine varies with the load.
The M.A. of a practical machine is NOT a constant.
(b) For very small loads a large percentage of the effort is needed to work
against friction whereas with larger loads the fraction is less. (7)
i.e. A practical machine requires a larger percentage of the effort to move
small loads than to move large loads.
It is NOT TRUE that a practical machine requires more effort to move
small loads than large loads.
(c) The advantage of a machine is that the effort applied can be very much
smaller than the load to be overcome. (3)
i.e. The advantage of a maclline is that it can overcome a load with a very
much smaller effort.
e.g. A machine can lift a large load with a smaller effort.
(d) A graph of load against effort has the shape shown in Diagram 1: (8).
effort
load
but in the graph in the question, the line passes through the origin.
i.e. There is no effort required to overcome friction.
i.e. The graph in the question is a graph of an ideal machine.
The graph shown is NOT a graph of load against effort for a practical
machine.
(e) The V.R. of a machine depends on its design and has a fixed value for
each machine. (12) In other words it is a constant. (13)
i.e. TheV.R. of a machine does not vary.
It is NOT TR UE that the V.R. of a machine varies according to the work
output.
(f) Efficiency tends to increase sharply with load, then flatten out as it
reaches a limiting value as shown in Diagram 2. (19)
i.e. Efficiency depends on the load.
The efficiency of a practical machine is not a constant.
(g) In practice the work output is always less than the work input because
some energy is lost inside the machine. (17)
For practical machines, the work input is greater than the work output.
i.e. The work input of a practical machine is greater than its work output.
(b) Efficiency tends to increase sharply with load, then flatten out as it
reaches a limiting value as shown in Diagram 2: (19)
efficieflCY
load
If efficiency were proportional to load, the graph would be a straight line.

Efficiency is NOT proportional to load.
(i) Mathematically it can be shown that
Efficiency = M.A. (20)

V.R.
the efficiency of the machine == 1 or 100%

5
but An ideal machine would have an efficiency of 1 or 100%. (26)
A machine with an M.A. of 5 and a V.R. of 5 is an ideal machine.
(j) An ideal machine would have an efficiency of 1 or 100 %. (26)
i.e. For any load the efficiency of the machine would be 100%
For an ideal machine, efficiency would NOT increase as the load increased.
(k) work input = work output
i.e. ExDE = LxDL
where E = effort, DE = distance moved by effort, L = load, and
DL = distance moved by load. (25)
i.e. Work output is equal to load times distance moved by load.
but The work done by the machine on the load is the work output. (15)
The work done by a machine on a load is equal to the load times the distance
moved by the load.
(I) If it were possible to build an ideal machine ... (24)
if it were possible (here) = it is not possible
i.e. It is not possible to build an ideal (frictionless) machine.
Frictionless machines do NOT exist.
Rewrite the following, replacing the words in italics with an expression from
the text which has a similar meaning.
1. The ratio of load to effort is termed the Mechanical Advantage.
2. Part of the effort is needed to overcome static and sliding friction in the
machine.
3. A large fraction of the effort is used to overcome friction.
4. The output displacement of the load is less than the input displacement of
the effort.
5. The Velocity Ratio of a machine is a constant.
6. The effort which is applied to the machine is greater than the work output.
7. The work output of the machine is the product of the load and the distance
moved by the load.
8. An ideal machine is frictionless.
9. The efficiency of a practical machine varies with the load.
EXERCISE B 90ntextual reference

1. In sentence 2, 'which' in the phrase
'to which' refers to (a) a machine
(b) an input member
(c) an output member
2. In sentence 6, 'it' refers to (a) the Mechanical Advantage

(b) the load
(c) a practical machine
3. In sentence 12, 'its' refers to (a) the Velocity Ratio's
(b) a machine's
(c) a value's
4. In sentence 13, 'it' refers to (a) the Velocity Ratio
(b) each machine
(c) a machine
5. In sentence 19, 'it' refers to (a) a practical machine
(b) an ideal machine
(c) a load
(d) efficiency
6. In sentence 27, 'its' refers to Ca) an ideal machine's
(b) efficiency's
(c) a machine's

Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace or re-
since (6) because (22)
for instance (7) consequently (23)
on the other hand (7) for this reason (25)
since (17) therefore (26)
hence (18) therefore (27)
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EX E R CIS E A Predictions based on laws, generalizations and proven facts

In Unit 6 we practised 'if-sentences' which were predictions. These
predictions were based on the properties of different materials and the
sentences' contained will in column (b). We can also make predictions
based on laws, generalizations and proven facts.
EXAMPLE (based on the law 'Friction always opposes motion')

We push a table across a rough floor.
The motion will be opposed by friction.
= If we push a table across a rough floor, the motion will be opposed
by friction.
Now write in your notebook predictions based on the sentences in column

(a). The sketches will help you to complete column (b) of each prediction.
Theba, .b ........ .
f f
<1---; !--£>
2. VVe place a roller on a smooth inclined plane. The roller ......... .
3. VVe apply an effort at E. The block ........ .
\lri'
4. VVe subject a strut to compressive forces. The strut
--[>! KI-
5. VVe move the effort by 1 metre. The load ......... .
VR-I
6. VVe attach a load to a spring balance. The spring ........ .
i
7. VVe move the effort by 50 centimetres. The load ......... .
VR-2
8. VVe move the effort by 1·80 metres. The load ......... .
VR=3 E
L
Now use the facts given in the table to write predictions based on the follow-
ing suppositions:
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
surfaces J.t
bronze on bronze dry 0·20

bronze on bronze lubricated 0·05
steel on brass dry 0·35
steel on cast iron dry 0·40
leather on cast iron 0·55
plastic on cast iron 0·18
rubber on asphalt 0·65
rubber on concrete 0·70
9. We lubricate two bronze moving Friction ................ .

surfaces in contact.
10. We replace,the brass bushes in Friction between shaft and
which a steel shaft is running with bushes ................. .
cast iron bushes.
11. We compare braking distances for We will find ............. .
a car on asphalt roads and on
concrete roads.
12. We replace a leather belt driving a The plastic belt will ..... under
cast iron pulley with a plastic belt. heavy loads.
EXERCISE B Predictions based on unlikely suppositions

Another kind of if-sentence is used to make predictions where the supposi-
tion is unlikely to happen.
EXAMPLE
we build an ideal machine
it will have no energy loss due to friction
= lfwe built an ideal machine, it would have no energy loss due to friction.
Now make predictions based on the following suppositions. First you will
have to match each supposition to the appropriate sentence in column (b).
Remember to change the verb in the supposition to the past tense form, and
will in column (b) to would.
a b
1. We compare work output to work It will be a constant.

input for an ideal machine.
2. We make a perfectly smooth It will be a straight line passing
surface. through the origin.
3. We measure the efficiency of an We will find they are equal.
ideal machine.
4. We draw a graph of load against It will be frictionless.
effort for an ideal machine.
5. We prepare two perfectly smooth We will find it is 100%.
surfaces:
6. We calculate the M.A. of an ideal We will find they are equal.
machine.
7. We compare the M.A. and the It will require an effort of 20 N
V.R. of an ideal machine. to raise a load of 200 N.
8. It requires an effort of 10 N to They will have a zero coefficient
raise a load of 100 N with an ideal of friction with each other.
machine.
EXERCISE C toughen, harden, soften, etc.

Rewrite the following sentences using the verbs from the list.
roughen lengthen sharpen
harden loosen strengthen
soften ensure shorten
enlarge weaken lessen
tighten lighten widen
EXAMPLE
Drills can be made sharp with grinding stone.
= Drills can be sharpened with grinding stone.
1. The 5 kg mass was removed to make the load on the test piece lighter.
2. A reamer can be used to make drill holes larger.
3. Repeatedly flexing copper wire makes it hard and thus makes it easy to
break.
4. A torque wrench should be used to make the bolts tight on a cylinder
head. .
5. A tensile force will make a body longer.
6. Wing nuts can be made loose easily by hand.
7. A compressive force will tend to make a body shorter.
8. The surface should first be made rough using a coarse file.
9. Solvents can be used to make coatings soft.
10. The gap between tailstock and spindle nose can be made wider by rotating
the hand wheel.
11. Friction between two rough planks can be made less if they are planed.
12. Piston rings make sure that the piston makes a gas-tight seal with the
cylinder wall.
13. Extra struts will make the framework stronger.
14. Dirty materials may make reinforced concrete weak.
HI INFORMATION TRANSFER
EXERCISE A Design specifications: is to, have to, must.

When we write about design specifications we often use is to.
EXAMPLES
The pulley wheel is to have a diameter of 120 mm.
The pulley-wheel is to be mounted on a power transmission shaft.
When we want to stress the importance of a design specification we use
have to or must.
EXAMPLES
The width of the shoulder on the transmission shaft has to be not less than
9·7mm.
The width of the shoulder must not exceed 10·3 mm.
Study these design specifications for a pulley wheel and the method of
mounting it to a power transmission shaft:
thread M 20 for
a minimum
length of 25mm
material: die cast cJ>120mm pulley ,-"'td:::=ll-''"''''''''.......'''''''''.......'''''''I

aluminium alloy bore
finish: as cast .p20mm
tolerance: ±O'50 mm
on all dimensions key to shaft
except where other-
wise stated
40mm
48mm
Now write down and complete the following sentences using the information
contained in the diagram:
1. The pulley wheel ... die cast aluminium alloy.

2. The pulley wheel ... wide.
3. The end of the shaft ... M20 ... of 25 mm.
4. The distance through the boss of the wheel ... greater ... mm.
5. The diameter of the bore ... exceed ... mm.
EXERCISE B Design specifications (continued)

Study these design specifications for a compression spring:
,.
working length 1
*max.outsidedia. 3.45cm
1.92cm '"
,..jl
f-ol---.. working length 2
I 3.10cm
mean dia. \\ _ __
1.67cm
I.. free length 4.80c"! I

,. min. inside dia.
1.42cm
Specification
Material spring steel Type of ends closed and ground
Wire size 0·250 Wound L.H. or R.H. L.H.
*Load to be supported at Treatment stress relieve
working length 1 14 kg ± 1kg Finish cadmium plate
*Load to be supported at 0'0005 em/min.
workin\t length 2 42 kg ±2'4 kg Note. The spring diameters may be varied
Total number of coils 11 within the limits stated. The number of coils
Number of tree coils 9 may be altered if necessary providing the
*Max. solid length 2'600 cm conditions starred thus * are maintained.
Now write nine senfences about the spring using is to or have to/must
where appropriate.
EXAMPLE
At working length 2 the spring has to support a load of 42 kg.
IV GUIDED WRITING
S TAG E I Sentence andparagraph building

Join the following groups of sentences to make eleven longer sentences de-
scribing a screw-jack. You may add or omit words where you think it is
necessary, and you should provide appropriate punctuation and paragraph
divisions.
1. The wheel and axle, the lever, and the inclined plane are machines.
Man has used simple machines for over 2,000 years.
2. Most machines are based on simple machines.

The screw-jack is based on the inclined plane.
3. Cut a triangle out of paper.
The triangle is right-angled.
The purpose of the triangle is to represent an inclined plane.
4. Wrap the paper triangle round a cylinder.
The inclined edge of the paper makes a spiralling line round the cylinder.
5. The spiralling line becomes the thread of the screw.
The spiralling line is known as a helix.
6. A screw forms the main component of the screw-jack.
The screw has a square thread.
7. Square threads are used for power transmission.
Square threads offers less frictional resistance than vee-threads.
8. The screw is free fo rotate.
The screw rotates in a fixed nut.
The fixed nut forms part of the body of the jack.
9. The screw rotates.
This raises the load.
An effort is applied to the effort bar.
10. The screw makes a full revolution.
The load is raised by a distance.
The load is lowered by a distance.
The distance is equal to the pitch of the screw.
11. The pitch is a distance.
The distance is between the same points.
The points are on adjacent threads.
S TAG E 2 Using diagrams to illustrate the paragraphs

Study these two drawings, then make a third drawing to show how a helix
is formed from a triangle and a cylinder:
Use the following drawing to show what the pitch of a screw is:
90 English in Mechanical Engineeri'!-g
Refer to your description, and detide where the illustrations should be

inserted. Make a reference to each of the four illustrations a.t an appropriate
place in the description. Rewrite the description and include the illustrations
and any other changes you have made.
V FREE READING
Read the following passages in your own time. If there are any words you
do not know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional
examples of the points you have studied in this and other units.
;'"
CRANES
We can define a crane as a machine which lifts heavy loads and displaces
them horizontally. In other words, a crane can lift loads and move them
to a different position in the plane, unlike a hoist which is only
a lifting device. We can divide cranes into two main classes. These are jib
cranes and overhead travelling cranes. Jib cranes have a jib, or arm, from
which the load is suspended. The jib allows the load to be raised or lowered
and then deposited at any point within the radius of the jib. Movement of
the jib in the vertical plane is known as derricking. The rotation of the jib
in the horizontal plane is called sltwing.
The commonest kind of non-revolving crane is the overhead travelling
crane. Such a crane is illustrated in the diagram below. It consists of a
\'Fi'==;;===;;;;=:5if!IiiF!Sii==;;='R.J.Loverhead
gantry
rails
load girder
horizontal section called a load lirder, made up of a number of steel

I>eams, resting on end carriages which run on overhead gantry rails. A
trolley to carry the crane hook in turn runs on top of the load girder.
Cranes like this are found in workshops where heavy machinery has to be
transported from place to place oIi the shop floor for different stages in its
manufacture.
,The three movements of the overhead travelling crane are as follows.
It can lift a load to the height of the load girder, it can traverse the width
of the shop floor with it, and it can move the load along the length of the
workshop. As the body of the crane is mounted overhead it does not affect
,Ideal and Practical Machines
work on the shop floor as it moves. Cranes with a span of 40 metres and a
maximum lifting capacity of 400 tonnes made. For use outside a factory,
for example in timber yards, a similar crane, termed a goliath crane, is
used. The load girder of a goliath crane is supported not on gantry rails
but on legs running on rails mounted on the ground.
There are many varieties of cranes ttr special purposes. They may be
fixed, portable or mobile. A portable crane must be transported, whereas
a mobile crane is either self-propelled or mounted on a truck chassis or a
railway wagon. Cranes use different forms of power, for example electric
power, diesel power, hydraulic power, steam power and even hand power
are used depending on the type of and its application.
An example of a crane with a partlcular application is the shipyard
crane. This is a heavy, fixed crane with a slewing cantilever mounted on a
latticed tower which is firmly anchored in In addition to the
main load trolley the crane may be fitted with a small jib crane running
on the cantilever. Such cranes are necessary in shipbuilding because when
a ship is being fitted out, heavy machillfry, such as the engines, has to be
lowered into the vessel. These cranes mllst be capable of placing the loads
inside the ship with great accuracy. For this reason some form of fine
electrical control is normally employed.
Another example is the dockside crane which is used to unload and load
ships. It is usually mounted on rails which run the length of the quay and
is often fitted with a grab instead of a flook. A grab has two jaws which
open and close like a clamshell. It is designed to handle bulk cargoes like
iron ore and gravel. One variety of dockside crane, known as a kangaroo
crane, feeds bulk cargoes directly into a hopper at its base. From the hopper
the cargo is weighed and discharged into trucks and railway wagons.
8 The Four-Stroke Petrol
Engine
I READING
PAR TIThe carburettor

Complete the labelling of the diagram using the words in italics in the
passage. Write down the labels in your notebook against the letters a-j.
a······················
g .............. .
e··········· ............. .--ir---- h········· ......... .
j ...•....•.....•.....
f··························----'
to accelerator pedal
j .............. .
lThe carburettor is a device which provides the engine with an air and petrol
mixture in the correct proportions for aU running conditions. 2This simplified
diagram shows how it operates. 3 Petrol enters the float chamber via the feed
pipe and the fuel inlet. 4When the chamber is filled to the correct level, the
float and needle-valve rise, cutting off the fuel supply. 5When the piston
moves down the cylinder it reduces the pressure within the cylinder. 6The
pressure of the atmosphere then pushes air in through the carburettor where
it mixes with a fine jet of petrol from the float chamber to produce finely
divided fuel droplets. 7The quantity of this atomized fuel which enters the
cylinder is controlled bya throttle valve. SIn a motor car the throttle valve is
opened and closed by operating the accelerator pedal.
The Four-Stroke Petrol Engine 93
PAR T 2 The valves

Complete the passage using the information in the diagram. Write down a
list of the missing words against their sentence numbers.
rocker
/
tappet - - -'-_"...."
cylinder head
1--t7':77--valve guide
induction - - - t l - - 11--t'7'n-va1ve stem
manifold
"'----- valve seat

pushrod-- cylinder head
cam - - - I camshaft
9The function of the valves is to open and close at the correct time when the
engine is running so that fuel can enter the cylinder and the exhaust gases
escape. lOThe valve illustrated is an inlet valve. 11 It is fitted into the ....
12 Fuel from the ... enters the ... through it. 13The ... is ground so that it
fits the ... exactly, forming a gas-tight seal. 14The ... slides through a
... , which is a sleeve of bronze tapered at one end so that it can be driven
tightly into the cylinder-head.
15The inlet valve is kept closed by means of a . . . . 16The ends of the
spring are held between two .... 170ne collar is set in the cylinder head
while the upper collar is attached to the valve stem.
18The valve is opened at the right moment by means of a ... mounted on
a . . . . 19This shaft is driven by the engine crankshaft. 20 As the cam turns
it pushes up the ... which in turn raises one end of the .... 21 The other end
presses down on the valve stem and the valve opens. 22 A small screw, called
the ... , is provided at one end of the rocker to allow slight adjustments to
be made in the proportion of the lift from the cam being imparted to the
valve.
PAR T 3 The Jour-stroke cycle

Read the following passage carefully and write down a list ofthe missing words
against their sentence numbers. Use the diagrams on page 94 to help you.
These diagrams represent the four strokes in the cycle. They are not in the
correct order and they are not named. Write down the names of each of the
strokes represented.
23In the four-stroke petrol engine there is a sequence, or cycle of events

which is completed in four strokes of the piston. 24The events which take
place in each stroke are as follows: '
induction stroke 25With the ... open and the exhaust valve shut, the piston
moves down the cylinder creating a partial vacuum. 26This partial vacuum
draws in the atomized fuel from the: .. into the cylinder.
compression stroke 27With both th, inlet and exhaust valves closed, the ...
moves up the cylinder, compressing'the fuel mixture. 28Just before the end
of the stroke, an electric spark across the points of the ... ignites the petrol
and air mixture.
power stroke 29Both valves remain closed. 30During the tiny interval of
time required for the flame to establish itself, the piston has reached its
highest position in the .... 3IThe generated by the burning fuel now
expands rapidly, driving the piston down the cylinder. 32This downward
push is converted into a rotary movement by the connecting rod and ....
33A ... contained within the cylinder wall helps to conduct away the heat
generated during this burning and thus keeps the engine cool.
exhaust stroke 34The exhaust valve opens but the inlet valve remains shut.
35The piston moves up the cylinder,t)Ushing the exhaust gas out through the
. . . . 36With the completion of the exhaust stroke the cycle begins again.
sparking plug
/, exhaust
........"ft...,.....- / ' manifold
cylinder -
1 2
inlet valve
/
water
0 jacket
".
"'
.'1;
i 4 crankshaft
•
II USE OF LANGUAGE
EXERCISE A Cause and effect

We can sometimes use an -ing clause to link a 'cause' and an 'effect'.
EXAMPLES
cause: The piston travels up the cylipder.
effect: The piston compresses the mixture.
The piston travels up the cylinder, compressing the mixture.
cause: The gas expands suddenly.
effect: This drives the piston down fte cylinder.
The gas expands suddenly, driving the piston down the cylinder.
Now join the following cause and effect pairs in the same way:
cause effect
1. The piston moves down the This creates a partial vacuum.
cylinder,
2. The inlet valve opens. This allows the fuel mixture to
enter the cylinder.
3. The rocker tilts to the right. It pushes the valve down.
4. A poppet valve drops after two The valve shuts off the fuel supply.
milliseconds.
5. The worm-gear revolves once. This turns the wheel a distance
equal to the lead of the worm.
6. A tensile force is applied to the bar. It stretches the bar by 0·09 mm.
7. The screw revolves once. It raises the load by 30 mm.
8. The drum unwinds 100 metres It lowers the pit-cage at a
in 20 seconds. I velocity of 5 m/s.
9. The brakes are applied when the . They reduce its speed to 20 km/h.
car has a speed of 54 km/h.
10. As the governor spins, the This raises the shaft collar and
weights pun outwards. reduces the fuel supply to the engine.
EXERCISE B Problems and solutions<

problem solution E
Raise the load. Apply a force at E greater than 10 N.
10N
We can join the 'problem' and the 'solution' in various ways:

(a) To raise the load, apply a force at E greater than 10 N.
(b) We raise the load by applying a force at E greater than 10 N.
(c) The load is raised by applying a force at E greater than 10 N.
Now write down a solution for each of the following problems. Then com-
bine problem and solution in a sentence, using pattern (a), (b) or (c).
Rotate gear B clockwise.
2. Lower the load.
/
effort bar
3. Open the throttle.
4. Raise the bucket in

the well.
5. Reverse the direction

of rotation of pulley B.
6. Apply the brake.
7. Rotate gear B at
40 rev/min.
- - B
80 teeth
8.Cfl0 Rotate gear B clockwise.
Raise load L.
n
OJ
E
Rotate gear B at
10. 50 rev/min anti-clockwise.
100teeth 50 teeth
EXERCISE C -tight, -proof, -resistant

The ending -tight is used to describe joints, and the endings -proof and
-resistant describe materials which have certain properties.
EXAMPLES
an air-tight connection
a connection which air cannot pass through
a heat-resistant material
a material which is not damaged by heat
-proof has two meanings:
a moisture-proof coating
a coating which moisture cannot. pass through
an acid-proof cement
a cement which is not damaged by acid·
Now describe the following materials and joints:
a gas-tight seal a sound-proof engine cladding
an oil-proof cement a rust-proof surface
a water-resistant grease a shock-proof mounting
a light-proof coating a corrosion-resistant steel
a water-tight connection a weather-proof surface
EXERCISE A Describing the shapes of objects
SHAPE NOUN ADJECTIVE SHAPE NOUN ADJECTIVE
2 dimensional 3 dimensional
0 circle circular
()
..'.:,",.:
sphere spherical
semi-circle semi-circular cube cubical
D square square rectangular
I I rectangle rectangular
t!f!!!!'
," .,
cylinder cylindrical
D triangle triangular
48
lines
":,"
cone conical
-
ellipse elliptical straight
curved
edges
0 hexagon hexagonal fa', & a. round

b. pointed
When an object has a regular geometric shape we can use one of the adjectives
from the table above to describe it.
D
EXAMPLE
a square faceplate
When the object has no recognized geometric shape but does resemble a
well-known object or a letter of the alphabet, it may be described in one of
the following ways:
EXAMPLES
T
a mushroom-shaped valve
a valve shaped like a mushroom
a V-shaped cut [j
Now describe the shapes of the following objects as completely as possible.
1. piston
2. slot for a turbine blade
3. rivet head
4. side plate
5. caliper gauge @
6. nut @
7. Wankel engine piston
e
8. pulley belt - cross-section •
9. furnace combustion chamber
10. spray from a fuel injection nozzle
11. groove in the block
12. face plate

13. the point of the lathe centre
14. cross-section of a wooden beam
IT
15. cross-section of a steel beam
16. cross-section of a steel beam
IV GUIDED WRITING
S TAG E 1 Sentence and paragraph building

Write a description of pistons based on the following notes. Combine the
sentences in any way you wish, adding or omitting material where you think
it is necessary. You should divide your description into several paragraphs.
Pistons are cylindrical.
Pistons are cup-shaped.
Pistons are cast from steel or aluminium alloy.
Aluminium conducts heat well.
This helps the pistons to cool quickly.
The upper end of the piston is called the crown.
The upper end is closed.
The walls of the piston are known as the skirt.
These are machined to fit the cylinder closely.
The crown forms the lower part of the combustion chamber.
It is normally flat.
It can be domed.
It can be dished.
The piston walls are grooved.
There are several grooves near the top.
There is one groove near the bottom.
The grooves are for piston rings.
Piston rings are circles of grey cast iron.
The rings have a small gap in them.
The rings have a larger diameter than the cylinder when they are unstressed.
When they are stressed they make a tight fit with the cylinder walls.
The rings have two functions.
The top rings keep gas from escaping from the combustion chamber.
The bottom ring is called the oil-control ring.
The bottom ring keeps the flow of oil to the minimum necessary.
The oil lubricates the rings and the pistons.
The bottom ring clears surplus oil from the cylinder walls.
A hole through the piston holds the gudgeon pin.
The gudgeon pin connects the piston and the connecting rod.
The gudgeon pin should be of the floating type.
The gudgeon pin should be hollow.
The piston must be well designed.
The piston is subjected to compressive stress.
The piston must withstand repeated impact loads.
The piston must withstand heat.
The piston must move up and down at an average speed of 13 mls in
automobile engines.
S TAG E 2 Using diagrams to illustrate the passage

Copy the following diagram into your notebook, label it and use it to illus-
trate your description.
V FREE READING
don't know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional examples
THE WANKEL ENGINE

The Wankel engine is a form of heat engine which has a rotary piston.
In other words, instead of going up and down the Wankel piston rotates
in the cylinder. Both cylinder and piston are quite different in shape from
those of conventional engines. The Wankel piston is triangular with curved
sides and the cylinder is roughly oval in shape. The piston has an inner
bore which is linked through an eccentric gear to the output shaft. The other
end of the bore is toothed and engages with a stationary gear fixed to the
cylinder end. This arrangement ensures that the piston follows an elliptical
path round the cylinder so that the apexes of the piston, which carry gas-
tight seals, are always in contact with the inside surface of the cylinder.
The piston thus forms three crescent-shaped spaces between itself and
the cylinder wall, which vary in size as the piston rotates. Fuel enters the
cylinder through the inlet port when one of these spaces is increasing in
size. The fuel trapped in this section is then compressed by the turning
piston and ignited by the sparking plug. The expanding gases subject the
water jacket
sparking plug - -
4 stationary gear
gas-tight seal
--exhaust port
cylinder
piston to a twisting moment which makes the pIston revolve further until
the exhaust gases escape through the exhaust port. A fresh charge is then
induced into the cylinder. Meanwhile the same process is being repeated
in the other two spaces between the piston and the cylinder.
The Wankel engine has many advantages over the reciprocating piston
engine. Fewer moving parts are necessary because it produces a rotary
movement without using a connecting rod and a crankshaft. Because of this
rotary movement it has no vibration. In addition it has no valves, it is
smaller and lighter than conventional engines of the same power, and it
runs economically on diesel and several other fuels.
QUESTIONS ON FREE READING PASSAGES
UNIT 1 Corrosion
1. What is corrosion?
2. How does corrosion make a structure more expensive?
3. How do stainless steels resist corrosion?
4. Why is Monel metal used for marine engine parts?
5. What are cupronickels and what special properties do they have?
6. What is electrolytic corrosion caused by?
7. How can corrosion be controlled?
UNIT 2 Scales and Graphs

1. What is a vector used for?
2. How can we describe a scalar quantity?
3. In what way is a thermometer a scale?
4. Name two uses of scales.
5. What is a slide-rule and what is it used for?
6. Name two ways in which a relationship between two variables can be
shown.
7. Describe the advantages of a graph.
8. Give one difference between a graph and a nomograph.
UNIT 3 Gravity
1. What kind of force is gravity?
2. What is weight?
3. When does weightlessness occur?
4. Why won't normal pens write in weightless conditions?
5. Why do people weigh less on the moon?
6. What error do we make in assuming that gravity always exerts a force
of 9·81 N on a body for every kilogramme of its mass?
UNIT 4 Lubrication
1. Explain how a screw-jack depends on friction.
2. Why is it important that friction is high between a belt and a pulley
wheel?
3. What are the disadvantages of friction?
4. Why do two polished steel surfaces weld together only at a few points?
5. Why is static friction between steel surfaces greater than sliding friction?
6. How does oil reduce friction?
7. Why cannot power loss be eliminated by lubrication?
8. What factors influence the choice of a lubricant?
UNIT 5 Beams
1. What effect does a load have on a horizontal beam?
2. What kind of stress stretches a material?
3. If the beam shown in Diagram 1 were two metres longer, what effect
would this have on the bending moments?
4. Why is it not necessary to have a lot of steel in the web of a beam?
5. How is a castellated girder made?
6. What advantage does a castellated girder have over a normal beam?
7: Why is the depth of a beam important?
UNIT 6 Factor of safety

1. What is working stress?
2. How is the elastic limit of a material calculated?
. 3. In calculating the second factor, what kind of stress requires the smallest
factor of safety?
4. What causes metal fatigue?
5. Describe alternating stress and give an example of a common piece of
machinery which is subjected to it.
6. When estimating the 'factor of ignorance' what must the engineer
consider?
7. Why does the third factor have a value of 2 for the connecting rod?
8. Why are aircraft manufactured to low factors of safety?
UNIT 7 Cranes
1. What is the difference between a hoist and a crane?
2. What are jib cranes?
3. What are the two horizontal movements of an overhead travelling
crane?
4. What is a goliath crane?
5. Why do shipyard cranes require fine electrical control for raising and
lowering the crane hook?
6. Describe the operation of a kangaroo crane.
7. When is a grab used instead of a hook?
8. Explain the difference between a mobile and a portable crane.
UNIT 8 The Wankel engine

1. How is the output shaft connected to the piston?
2. How are the combustion chambers formed?
3. What happens in a Wankel engine when the fuel mixture is ignited?
4. Why does a Wankel engine not vibrate?
5. Write a comparison of the Wankel engine and the conventional internal-
combustion engine in not more than 100 words.

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· English in Focus

Series Editors: J. P. B. ALLEN andH. G. WIDDOWSON

ISBN 019 437512 9 (Student's Edition)

© Oxford University Press 1973

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

AND BOUND IN ENGLAND BY

Unit 1 Engineering Materials

EXERCISE B: Contextual reference 40

ll: USE OF LANGUAGE 40

Unit 6 Stress and Strain

EXERCISE B: Contextual reference 66

Unit 7 Ideal and Practical Machines

Unit 8 The Four-Stroke Petrol Engine

EXERCISE B; Problems and solutions 95

Questions on Free Reading Passages 103

Key to the Exercises 105

manner in which both combine in meaningful communication. Our belief is

1 Guide to the book

I READING AND COMPREHENSION

This shows that sliding friction is proportional to the reaction

i.e. The reaction between surfaces in contact increases as the mass

EXERCISE B Contextual reference

they can be worked.

EXERCISE C Relationships between statements (Units 2-8)

required to replace these indicators with others which have an equivalent

The exercises in section I are designed to make little demand on the

III INFORMATION TRANSFER

time. No matter how carefully we develop our teaching procedures, it

I READING AND COMPREHENSION

EXERCISE B Contextual reference

EXERCISE C Relationships between statements

EXERCISE B Making definitions

III INFORMATION TRANSFER

EXERCISE B Sentence building

S TAG E 2 Paragraph building

I READING AND COMPREHENSION

* The following symbols are used in the solutions:

pressure but thermosets cannot be reshaped because they undergo chemical

(0 Thermosets can be machined.

(f) Plastics and ceramics are non-metals; however, plastics may be

1. Nickel steel is a mixture of iron, carbon and nickel.

EXERCISE B Contextual reference

EXERCISE A Classification of engineering materials

Note that this diagram classifies engineering materials at four levels of

EXERCISE B Classification (continued)

EXERCISE C However, therefore, because

(1) however (2) therefore (3) because

Look at these examples:

In (1), statement (b) qualifies statement (a)

1. Chromium resists corrosion.

EXERCISE D Language of measurement (i): Basic metric units

We can describe the length of this bar in four ways:

(b) width or breadth

The thickness of the sheet is three

(e) depth Depth is usually measured vertically downwards from a surface.

Other examples of depth;

(ii) The depth of the screw thread is one

EXERCISE E Language of measurement Oi): Derived metric units

We can describe the volume of this brick in three ways: