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UK data and analysis for shale gas prospectivity

N. SMITH, P. TURNER and G. WILLIAMS

British Geological Survey, Kingsley Dunham Centre, Nicker Hill, Keyworth NG12 5GG, UK
(e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract: Organic-rich shale contains significant amounts of gas held within fractures and micropores
and adsorbed onto organic matter. In the USA shale gas extracted from regionally extensive units such as
the Barnett Shale currently accounts for 6% of gas production and is likely to reach 30% by 2015. Shale gas pro-
spectivity is controlled by the amount and type of organic matter held in the shale, its thermal maturity, burial
history, microporosity and fracture spacing and orientation. Potential targets range in age from Cambrian to the
late Jurassic, within the main UK organic-rich black shales: younger shales have been excluded because they
have not reached the gas window, but they may possess a biogenic gas play. A geographic information system,
showing the distribution of potential reservoir units, has been created combining information on hydrocarbon
shows, thermal maturity, fracture orientation, gas composition, and isotope data to identify potentially prospective
areas for shale gas. Some of these data are shown as graphs and maps, but crucial data is lacking because earlier
exploration concentrated on conventional reservoirs. The prospects include Lower Palaeozoic shale basins on the
Midland Microcraton (a high risk because no conventional gas has been proved in this play), Mississippian shales
in the Pennine Basin (the best prospect associated with conventional fields and high maturity), Pennsylvanian
shales in the Stainmore and Northumberland Basin system (high risk because no conventional gas discoveries
exist) and Jurassic shales in Wessex and Weald basins (small conventional fields signify potential here).

Keywords: shale, gas, maturity, thickness, source rock and reservoir

Organic-rich shale contains significant amounts of gas held within unit is overlain by the Marble Falls Limestone, also of Missis-
fractures and micropores and adsorbed onto organic matter. In sippian age, which is conformable with a thick succession of over-
the USA, shale gas extracted from regionally extensive units such lying Pennsylvanian sediments. Sedimentary structures suggest
as the Barnett Shale accounts for c. 6% of gas production. The that the main shale units were deposited by distal turbidity flows
success of US shale gas exploitation (over 28 000 wells producing in a sediment-starved anoxic basin environment. The Carboni-
c. 380  109 SCF per year) has stimulated significant interest in ferous sequence is truncated by a Cretaceous supercrop above
identifying potential reservoirs throughout the world. The depth the Variscan unconformity. The Ouachita (Variscan) fold belt lies
range of the US shale gas plays extends down to 4500 m at at right angles to the Muenster Arch and impinges on the Fort
present. Selley (1987, 2005), farsightedly, advocated shale gas Worth Basin in the SE.
exploration in the UK, based on Upper Devonian gas fields of the The three main factors controlling prospectivity of the Barnett
Appalachian Basin, which have been producing since 1821. are the thermal maturity, thickness and total organic carbon
However, in the past decade the Mississippian Barnett Shale of (TOC) content of the shale (Zhao et al. 2007). Local and regional
the Fort Worth Basin has become the most productive shale gas structures such as joints, folds and faults control fracture porosity
reservoir in the USA. US shales generally, and the Barnett Shale and thus influence production potential at a variety of scales.
in particular, provide good analogues for potential shale gas plays Most natural fractures are sealed but these can potentially be
in the UK, which has thick Mississippian shales both on and off- exploited by artificial fracturing techniques (Bowker 2007) to
shore; therefore the geology and geochemistry of the Barnett improve flow rates around a well. Siltstone bands and chert
Shale are discussed briefly below. nodules can also affect prospectivity locally.
The Newark East shale gas field lies updip west of the depocentre
of the Barnett Shale in the wedge between the Muenster Arch and
The Barnett Shale
the Ouachita (Variscan) fold belt (Fig. 1; Pollastro et al. 2004).
The Barnett Shale Formation (354 –323 Ma) of the Fort Worth The rest of the depocentre lies under the Fort Worth –Dallas
Basin is up to 300 m thick and underlies an area of c. 13 000 km2 conurbation. The Barnett Shale also produces oil from the area
(Fig. 1). It contains c. 2.5  1012 SCF of proven gas reserves to the NW (Fig. 1), where overlying conventional reservoirs are
held in a low porosity and very low permeability shale matrix. also present.
Permeability is in the micro- to nanodarcy range and porosity In a similar tectonic position the Big Sandy shale gas field in
rarely exceeds 6% (Bowker 2007): consequently the Barnett eastern Kentucky lies over the thickest part of the Devonian
Shale Formation is slightly overpressured, with formation pressures Brown Shale in a foreland basin, which is bounded to the SE by
in excess of 4000 psi (Frantz et al. 2005). the Pine Mountain thrust (Ray 1976) of the Appalachian (Variscan)
The Fort Worth Basin shows a northward-thickening, half- fold belt.
graben-like structure, but is bounded by reverse faults against the
Lower Palaeozoic Muenster Arch (part of the Southern Oklahoma
Aulacogen; Fig. 1). The Mississippian Barnett Shale unconform-
The UK’s closest tectonic analogue
ably overlies Ordovician strata (Viola Formation limit in Fig. 1) Satellite basins of the Worcester Graben (Fig. 2) beneath the
and can be subdivided into two units, the Upper and Lower Bristol Coalfield and in Berkshire to the east (Mississippian
Barnett, separated by the Forestburg Limestone. The upper shale strata are thin in the latter area) provide the closest UK tectonic

VINING , B. A. & PICKERING , S. C. (eds) Petroleum Geology: From Mature Basins to New Frontiers – Proceedings of the 7th Petroleum Geology Conference,
1087– 1098. DOI: 10.1144/0071087 # Petroleum Geology Conferences Ltd. Published by the Geological Society, London.
 Downloaded from http://pgc.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Toronto on July 15, 2015
1088 N. SMITH ET AL.

Fig. 1. Barnett Shale of the Fort Worth Basin, Texas, USA. The Muenster Arch and Ouachita Thrust Front form the northern and eastern boundaries
of the foreland-type basin (barbed lines). The Barnett Shale lies unconformably on Ordovician strata. The Barnett Shale gas system, the Newark East
Gasfield outline, the western limit of the gas window and other geological features relevant to completion fracturing are shown (Montgomery et al. 2005).

analogues to the Fort Worth Basin. They are small foreland basins with US shales are not deemed necessary to confirm or refute
preserved between the Variscides and the Worcester Graben. The potential. Consequently this contribution considers the main
latter formed in response to extensional faulting during the generic controls on shale gas prospectivity identified in key US
Lower Palaeozoic and inverted during the Variscan Orogeny com- plays (see above) in a regional UK context, before identifying
parable with the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen (Smith 1993; potential exploration targets.
Smith & Rushton 1993). The Bristol depocentre lacks the acreage
of the Fort Worth Basin but contains the Lower Limestone
Shale Group, conformably overlying Devonian and of roughly
equivalent age (359– 327 Ma) to the Barnett Shale Formation.
General characteristics of any potential source rocks
Few wells and no maturity or geochemical data are available Organic-rich sediments have a lower density, lower sonic velocity,
though, and seismic is sparse. higher porosity, higher resistivity and higher gamma ray (GR)
It is important to note, however, that there are significant values compared with sedimentary units of equal compaction and
differences between shale gas plays developed in different basins comparable mineralogy. Potential source rocks can thus be
in the USA (age, maturity, tectonic position). So many black readily identified on well logs, provided they are rich in organic
shale plays are currently being developed there, that whilst the matter. For example, the Arnsbergian Sabden Shale typically
three main factors (above) are paramount, exact comparisons exhibits anomalously low sonic velocity and high GR values in
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UK SHALE GAS 1089

Fig. 2. Outcrops of main potential hydrocarbon source rocks (Lower Carboniferous strata beneath Millstone Grit are not shown). Wells reaching
Tremadoc to Cambrian in England indicate the few provings at this level. Gas fields and discoveries indicate that gas window maturity has been reached.
Hydrocarbon wells, plotted in inset of Northern Ireland, tested a tight gas Carboniferous play in several phases (Griffith 1983) as recently as 2001. Coalbed
methane fields are also shown.

the Pennine Basin (Smith et al. 2005). Classification schemes based The outcrop distribution of key organic-rich shale formations
on wireline logs break down at high water saturations because identified on well logs is summarized in Figure 2. In the UK,
water and organic material have comparable densities: the specific organic-rich shales can be subdivided into three broad strati-
gravity of organic matter is about 0.95–1.05 g cm23 (Stocks & graphic groups belonging to the Lower Palaeozoic (principally
Lawrence 1990). Cambrian), Mississippian and Jurassic (of Liassic, Oxfordian and
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1090 N. SMITH ET AL.

Kimmeridge Clay

Upper Jurassic Corallian

Oxford Clay

Middle Jurassic Great Oolite Group

Lower Jurassic Lias

Mercia Mudstone Group

Triassic Millstone Grit
Group
Sherwood Sandstone Group

Coal Measures
Pennsylvanian

Millstone Grit Group

Mississippian Carboniferous Limestone

Craven Group

Devonian Black Shale in Orcadian Basin

Silurian Black Shale in fold belt

Bowland
Ordovician Black Shale in fold belt High Group

Upper Cambrian White-Leaved-Oak Shales/

Monks Park Shales

Fig. 3. Generalized stratigraphic column for UK onshore shows the main black shale formations (grey shading) and other representative lithologies in a
typical sequence. The Sherwood Sandstone (stipple) lies unconformably on Coal Measures. Some black shales are only found in the Caledonian and
Variscan fold belts (e.g. in the Orcadian Basin, Ordovician and Silurian shales in the Caledonides), which have been largely excluded from this study.

Kimmeridgian age), although such shales occur in other periods proved by the Fowlet Farm and Fownhope boreholes SW of
and groups (Fig. 3). the Malverns (Fig. 2; Earp & Hains 1971). In these boreholes,
c. 68 m of black shale has been intruded by dolerite sills; the
shales have high GR values and represent a potential source rock.
Pre-Carboniferous black shales Outcrop measurements of TOC support this interpretation, with
Black shales are developed in the Upper Cambrian, Upper values of c. 5% recorded by Parnell (1983).
Ordovician and Lower Silurian strata of the UK (Leggett 1980). In Shropshire c. 5 m of black shales with bituminous lime-
Ordovician and Silurian shales are largely restricted to deeper stone concretions are underlain by 20 m of dark grey shale. To
basins and deformed in fold belts, while Cambrian black shale the NE at Lilleshall a small outcrop and the Croft borehole
deposits are also found on the Midland Microcraton. Unexplained (Fig. 2) revealed c. 53 m of black, pyrite-rich shale lying uncon-
gas shows in the Welsh Borderland and Welsh Caledonides may formably on Lower Cambrian strata (Rushton et al. 1988). Unfor-
have been sourced from concealed Lower Palaeozoic black tunately TOC and thermal maturity analyses were not made in
shales. In most US basins conventional gas fields are present this borehole. The Lilleshall deposits may be the erosional rem-
above the shale gas being developed. However this is not the nants of a tilted fault-block high (Middle Cambrian strata are
case with the Cambrian Conasauga Shale in Alabama, where missing; Smith & Rushton 1993), with a half-graben basin deepen-
exploration and some production has been achieved. So-called ing eastwards (Smith et al. 2005).
overmature shales in conventional hydrocarbon terminology, Merevale borehole No. 2 (located on Fig. 5) encountered c. 60 m
often located in tectonic positions where conventional exploration of condensed black mudstone (Monk’s Park Shales; Taylor &
has therefore been deemed unfavourable, may retain potential for Rushton 1971). TOC values exceeded 2% and sulphur content
shale gas. reached 10%; phosphate was present in the form of scattered
Upper Cambrian black shales outcrop in small inliers close to nodules. These deposits may provide some shale gas potential.
zones of uplift, but seismic data suggest that they are widespread Conversely, the Cooles Farm borehole tested part of the Worcester
in the subsurface (Smith et al. 2005). Shales of this age were Graben (Fig. 2). It was drilled into Cambrian strata but did not
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UK SHALE GAS 1091
record the presence of any Upper Cambrian high gamma shale Shale in the USA, which has the lowest values of the US explored
units. Seismic hereabouts reveals many reflectors beneath the shales.
well terminal depth. This play derives encouragement from the Ferguson (1984) measured methane values of up to 46 000 ppb
Cambrian Conasauga Shale in the Appalachians, where production in the Carboniferous Limestone of northern England, near to miner-
has been achieved. alized areas on the Alston Block: there also appeared to be an
Ordovician and Silurian shale units seem to have less potential association between base metal vein mineralization in Derbyshire
as a shale gas play, based on limited drilling. In the Fownhope and the adjacent shale-rich Pennine Basin half-graben (Plant &
well only a short section of Llandovery-age clay approached GR Jones 1989). Ewbank et al. (1993) noted that Alportian –Pendleian
values indicative of a potential source rock. A borehole drilled at mudstones exposed at outcrop in the northern part of the Pennine
Usk (east of the Usk Anticline in Fig. 2) penetrated no potential Basin predominantly contained gas-prone type III kerogen, whereas
source rocks in the Lower Palaeozoic, although minor gas shows mudstone samples from a Widmerpool Gulf well (Arnsbergian age)
occurred in some sandstone units. However this well was drilled and various Visean mudstones were dominated by type II kerogen
on a structural high missing a large section of Llandovery or (gas- and oil-prone).
older sequence where black shales might have formed in
the depocentre beneath the Usk Anticline. A black shale facies of Total organic carbon
Llandovery age is known in the Welsh Caledonides to the west
(Leggett 1980). Namurian marine shales have generally higher TOC values (over
UK Lower Palaeozoic black shales often show preferential 4%) compared with non-marine shales (Spears & Amin 1981),
enrichment of various heavy elements including As, Co, Cr, Cu, which have an average value of around 2% (Fig. 4). Maynard
Mo, Ni, Pb, S, U and V (Leggett 1980; Jones & Plant 1989). This et al. (1991) found that two Namurian black shale marine bands
is particularly true of the Upper Cambrian interval and appears had a TOC content of between 10–13%, whereas values within
to be associated with organic matter. The presence of these min- interbedded strata ranged between 2 and 3%. The Namurian
erals may be useful proxies for high TOC shales, where mining Holywell Shale, source rock for the southern East Irish Sea
exploration data is available. and Formby hydrocarbon fields, has TOC values ranging from
A few samples from the Withycombe Farm borehole (between 0.7– 5%, with an average of 2.1% (Armstrong et al. 1997). The
Cooles Farm and Twyford; Fig. 2) suggest a porosity of 5–10% lower part of this formation gave an average of 3% TOC and pyr-
survives down to a depth of 1000 m in Lower Cambrian (Poole olysate yields of 7 kg/t21. These values are comparable with
1978). In many places these rocks have been subjected to US shales.
significant compaction, intrusion and tectonism and primary
porosity would be expected to be very low. There is, however, Thermal maturity
scope for induced fracture permeability in these rocks. These Vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) measurements at outcrop and in bore-
few porosity values are comparable with US shales being holes provide a widely accepted proxy for thermal maturity and
developed currently. hydrocarbon generation. These are shown for the nearest value to
In contrast to the Appalachian Basin in the USA, there are no the basal Namurian (Fig. 5; at Knutsford it is probably within the
Devonian black shale sequences in the Variscan foreland of the Westphalian D). Maturity zones can be divided into immature for
UK. Lacustrine shale deposits are present in the Middle Devonian oil, within the oil window, within the gas window and overmature
of the Orcadian Basin in Scotland: TOC values typically average for hydrocarbons. The oil window is normally considered to fall
c. 1.4%. Thermal maturity is variable, but these rocks largely between 0.6 and 1.3% Ro, although it varies according to kerogen
fall within the oil window or are overmature (in the vicinity of type. There is no agreement on the lower limit of the gas
underlying intrusions), and offshore they probably helped charge window, which has variously been put at 2% Ro (Landes 1967),
the Beatrice Oilfield (Hillier & Marshall 1992). Two boreholes 3% Ro (Dow 1977), 3.2% Ro (Dow & Connor 1982) and 5% Ro
drilled at Dounreay proved up to 150 m of interbedded high (Hood et al. 1975). In this study a value of 1.1% Ro has been
gamma shale beds. used to differentiate maturity levels above and below the gas
window (Fig. 5), because this value defines the limit of the
Newark East gas field in the Barnett Shale (Pollastro et al. 2004
Carboniferous black shales and see Fig. 1).
Mississippian shale units (Fig. 3) offer the best potential for
shale gas exploration in the UK because they have sourced hydro- Porosity, permeability and fracture porosity
carbons, have high TOCs (Armstrong et al. 1997) and were
deposited in deep half-graben, within the Pennine Basin in northern Limited porosity data from BGS boreholes in the southern
England (Fraser et al. 1990). The younger (Namurian) of these Midlands suggest that porosities of 5–10% survive to a depth of
shales are more widely deposited as the extensional half- 1000 m in Upper Palaeozoic shales (Poole 1977, 1978). Coal
graben subsidence was transforming to a more regional thermal Measures mudstones, seat-earths and siltstones have measured
subsidence. permeability values in the range 4.34  1026 to 7.1  1023 mD
(Oldroyd et al. 1971).
Joints, developed in the limestone platforms of Derbyshire and
Gas content and kerogen type the Askrigg Block (Moseley & Ahmed 1967), are predominantly
The gas content of Coal Measures strata was measured by the sub-vertical and perpendicular to bedding. Joint development
National Coal Board (Creedy 1989). Carbonaceous mudstones preceded the main phase of movement on the main fault zones
(including marine bands) contained 0.18–0.63 m3/t (6.3– and they are frequently mineralized. Well bedded marine shales
22.2 SCF/t) gas; whereas non-carbonaceous mudstones contained tend to have a high joint density, in contrast to mudstones and
0.009– 0.1 m3/t (0.3–3.5 SCF/t). Budge (1932) reported methane sand-rich shale units. Minor joints are more difficult to distinguish
adsorption of 1.8 m3/t (63.6 SCF/t) in carbon-rich Coal Measures in argillaceous rocks, but master joints persist strongly with a high
mudstone and 0.25 m3/t (8.8 SCF/t) in black shale from the fracture density (0.6–3 m spacing).
South Wales Coalfield. These values in Westphalian strata are The predominant NW trend of the main Carboniferous joint
comparable with the reported values in the Cretaceous Lewis sets is coincident with the present-day maximum horizontal stress
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1092 N. SMITH ET AL.

10

6
%TOC

0
Duffield
Gleaston

Gainsborough 1

Stonehaugh
Marshall

Holme Chapel
Roosecote

Roddymoor

Beckermonds
Knott Coppy

Rotherwood
Ferneyrigg

Holywell Shale
Eyam
Wardlow Mires 2

Tansley
Well / Outcrop

Fig. 4. Variation of TOC contents in the Carboniferous of northern England. Gleaston borehole is in south Cumbria; Ferneyrigg, Stonehaugh and Marshall
Meadows are in the Northumberland Trough; Roddymoor is on the Alston Block; and Beckermonds is on the Askrigg Block. The other boreholes are in the
Pennine Basin.

direction (145/325o; Evans & Brereton 1990). Rogers (2003) (,5%) when the gas has been exclusively derived from coal-rich
predicted that the stress-induced fracture permeability is likely to strata, is biogenic or overmature. Jarvie et al. (2004) typified two
be higher along this trend in the current UK stress field. gas samples in the Barnett Shale as overmature dry gas, with gas
wetness values of around 5%: in contrast, oil-associated gas had
Mineralogy values over 12%. In the Carboniferous of the UK, high values
measured at Welbeck Colliery are associated with oil shows, but
The Al2O3 content of UK Carboniferous mudstones ranges between at nearby Thoresby Colliery (also associated with oil) the gas is
12 and 38%, with an average of around 25% (Ramsbottom et al. rich in methane and was probably sourced from the Coal Measures
1981). Marine and non-marine shales in the Tansley borehole (Challinor 1990).
(Fig. 2) have average Al2O3 contents of 20.6 and 17.9% respect- Insufficient gas composition and carbon isotope data were
ively, with clay minerals making up 59 and 56% of the shale available to resolve the migration directions in most gas fields.
matrix (Spears & Amin 1981). The Barnett Shale has a relatively Carbon and hydrogen isotope data from methane samples accompa-
low clay content (c. 27%; Jarvie et al. 2004) compared with other nying water flows within shallow tunnels in Namurian strata
shales. The presence of significant amounts of quartz (45%) and (Fig. 7) suggest that the methane either had a biogenic (modern)
carbonate (10%) in the shale matrix imparts brittleness to the origin or formed through CO2 reduction (Bath et al. 1988). The
rock, facilitating artificial fracturing. US Antrim Shale and New Albany Shale (Fig. 7; Illinois
Quaternary-hosted gas) have late generation biogenic gas systems
Gas fields and discoveries related to glacial meltwater ingress via fractures (Shurr &
Ridgley 2002). US exploration has used stable isotopes to con-
The presence of conventional gas fields in Carboniferous and firm source, maturity and hydrocarbon generation zone (Fig. 7).
Jurassic basins (Fig. 2) demonstrates that gas has been generated.
In a few cases there is unambiguous evidence of the source being
Namurian shales (e.g. the Elswick Gasfield; Fig. 2), because Coal
Principal source rocks
Measures are absent in the subcrop (Fig. 5; Smith 1985). In some Two lithostratigraphic units from the Mississippian represent
gas fields migration could have occurred from either a Coal potential shale gas plays in the UK: these are the Craven Group
Measures source or from Namurian strata uplifted in an inverted found in the Pennine Basin (Fig. 3) and the Lower Limestone
basin (e.g. Nooks Farm; Fig. 2). Along the southern margin of Shale around the Mendips (Fig. 2). The Craven Group comprises
the Cleveland Basin (Marishes to Malton gas fields; Fig. 2) a a thick sequence of interbedded limestone and shale. The Pennine
third migration direction, along east –west faults, from the Southern Basin formed to the north of the Wales –Brabant Massif: this
North Sea, is also a possibility. geological and tectonic setting is not a direct tectonic analogue to
Gas wetness (percentage of non-methane gas) values (Fig. 6) are the Barnett Shale. Conversely the Lower Limestone Shale was
high when gas is associated with oil in the source rock and lower deposited in a similar tectonostratigraphic setting to the Barnett,
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UK SHALE GAS 1093

Fig. 5. Vitrinite reflectance percentage values obtained nearest to the base Namurian. Yellow spots are immature for hydrocarbons, green represents early part
of oil window, orange late part of oil window (cf. Barnett Shale top of gas window), red the gas window and grey overmature (conventional hydrocarbon zones).
The overmature areas should not be ruled unprospective for shale gas. Most existing hydrocarbon wells were drilled on structural highs and are likely to possess
lower maturity than the potential source rock.

in the foreland of the Variscan Front, west of the Worcester Graben. Formation. The latter has a high TOC content in Duffield borehole
It thickens southward from c. 35 m north of the Severn Estuary to c. (Figs 5 & 8), but the GR values are low (Aitkenhead 1977).
170 m in the Mendips (Kellaway & Welch 1948) and is also present Younger shale gas targets include the Bowland (Edale) Shales
south of the Bristol Channel. and the Sabden Shales (both Namurian). The condensed black
The Pennine Basin has been the focus of extensive coal and Bowland Shale sequence outcropping in the Derbyshire Peak
hydrocarbon exploration in the past, producing a comprehensive District is thin and immature for hydrocarbon generation, but
database, available to evaluate shale gas potential in the region. these units thicken to the east and represent the main source
The Craven Group (Mississippian) ranges in thickness from rocks that charged the East Midlands hydrocarbon system. In the
.1450 m in the Craven sub-basin to .5000 m in the Widmerpool Tansley borehole (Fig. 2), TOC content averaged 4.48% in
Gulf (Waters et al. 2007; Fig. 2). The mudstones were deposited marine bands and 2.66% in non-marine shale sequences (Fig. 4).
in distal slope turbidite and hemi-pelagic environments in rela- A GR peak is found close to the base of the Arnsbergian sequence,
tively narrow, deep depocentres within the Pennine Basin (e.g. extending down into the Pendleian. In the nearby Uppertown
Craven and Widmerpool; Fig 2). Individual shale units that might borehole this interval coincides with phosphatic nodules and
represent potential source rocks include (Table 1) the Worston collophane, in a sequence of dark grey shale, containing abundant
Shale Group, the Long Eaton Formation and the Widmerpool fossilized plants. Ponsford (1955) recorded higher than average
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1094 N. SMITH ET AL.

Fig. 6. Gas wetness ratio of analysed gases. The gases associated with oil fields have higher gas wetness values (a greater percentage of higher hydrocarbons).
Welbeck Colliery has a high gas wetness, suggesting perhaps some gas from sources other than Coal Measures. These values suggest that source rocks, which
have sourced the gas, exist in strata other than Coal Measures. However potential shale gas is likely to be nearer to dry methane within deeper parts of the
half-graben.

Wyresdale Tunnel
Carbon v hydrogen isotope of methane
Kimm 1 CB oil
Hydrogen isotope 13

Wytch F BPS oil

0 –50 –100 –150 –200 –250 –300
–100
Wytch F SSG oil
–90

–80 Arreton 2 LLI OM

–70
West Leigh
13

–60
C a rbon isotope

Notts Coalfield DPSC

–50

–40 Barnsley Coal

–30
SNS well
–20
Illinois QT
–10

0 Southern North Sea wells

Fig. 7. Carbon and hydrogen isotope ranges in various methane gases. The d13C values 0 to 220‰ are probably abiogenically derived (e.g. Fischer– Tropsch
reactions with hydrogen). The d13C values of 220 to about 255‰ represent thermogenic methane. The gas field methanes (Lokhurst 1998) are migrated gases.
Coal field gases (Hitchman et al. 1989) might be more depleted than the migrated gases, with biogenic and CO2-reduced gases (Bath et al. 1988) even more
depleted. BC, Barnsley Coal; BPS, Bridport Sandstone; CB, Cornbrash; SSG, Sherwood Sandstone Group; LIAS, lower Lias organic matter; Arreton NC,
Nottinghamshire Coalfield deep soft coal; SNS, Southern North Sea; WL, West Leigh; WT, Wyresdale Tunnel, Illinois; QT, Quaternary.
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UK SHALE GAS 1095

Table 1. Names of main black shale formations and their equivalents

Formation Equivalents Stages Basin

Kimmeridge Clay Kimmeridgian Weald

Oxford Clay Callovian–Oxfordian Weald
Lias Hettangian– Toarcian Weald
Sabden Shales Arnsbergian Pennine
Upper Bowland Shale Edale Shale Pendleian Pennine
Lower Bowland Shale Widmerpool Formation Brigantian Pennine
Worston Shale Hodder Mudstone Chadian–Holkerian Craven
Long Eaton Formation Chadian–Asbian Widmerpool
Other names
Holywell Shale Pentre Chert, Bowland Shale Namurian NE Wales
Craven Group All local named formations Mississippian– Namurian Pennine

The Craven Group is a new term, extending from Courceyan to Yeadonian stages which has rendered a lot of the local names in the Carboniferous obsolete
for stratigraphic purposes (Waters et al. 2007).

radioactivity in these shale units in this area. The gross thickness of subcrops (Fig. 1): this latter configuration makes artificial fractur-
the Upper Bowland Shale (Namurian), together with the net thick- ing of the Barnett more difficult.
ness of high-gamma shale layers, is shown for most of the hydro- The Sabden Shales are characterized by anomalously low
carbon wells (Fig. 9). The Upper Bowland Shale typically has a density and velocity on wireline logs, which might be indicative
GR profile which shows a higher value basal section, overlying of high organic matter content. Overpressure caused by disequili-
Mississippian limestone: this type of profile is also seen in the brium compaction or volume expansion related to hydrocarbon
Haynesville Shale of Louisiana, USA. The presence of underlying generation (Osborne & Swarbrick 1997) can also cause anomalous
limestone is also similar to the Barnett Shale. In the latter the velocity –density trends. Core samples indicate that the unit predo-
Ordovician Viola– Simpson provides an impermeable barrier. This minantly comprises hard, dark grey to black micaceous mudstone
is eroded southwards where the Ellenburger Limestone, an aquifer, with abundant plant fossils. The presence of interbedded coal

%Ro

Fig. 8. Range of TOC contents and vitrinite reflectance in the BGS Duffield borehole, Widmerpool Gulf. NAM, Namurian; DIN, Dinantian; Ro%, vitrinite
reflectance. The high Ro% near the base is caused by igneous sills but may lead to gas window maturity near or below terminal depth.
 Downloaded from http://pgc.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Toronto on July 15, 2015
1096 N. SMITH ET AL.

Fig. 9. Upper Bowland Shale (UBS): gross thickness of mudstones and net thickness of high gamma mudstones.

seams in some places suggests that at least part of the sequence may mature for gas generation and small gas accumulations (dubbed
be gas-prone. TOC measurements in the Knott Coppy borehole ‘enigmatic’ by Butler & Pullan 1990) occur on the margins of the
(Figs 4 & 5) are in the range 1–3%, making these shale units poten- Weald Basin and are associated with oil at Wytch Farm in the
tial hydrocarbon source rocks; however in this borehole TOC-rich Wessex Basin (Fig. 2). In northern England the Lias is within the oil
shales do not always correspond to high gamma intervals. window in the Cleveland Basin. The Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays
contain organic-rich formations and might also prove to be poten-
tial source rocks in onshore basins, but not for thermogenic gas.
Jurassic black shales Porosity and permeability values are likely to be higher in
Black shales are found in the three main Jurassic mudstone for- Jurassic shale units because they have not been subject to as
mations: the Lias, Oxford Clay and Kimmeridge Clay (Figs 2 & much compaction as Palaeozoic shale formations. Jurassic mud-
3). Liassic shales form the main source rocks for the Wessex and stones encountered in shallow (,30 m) engineering boreholes
Weald oil fields (Ebukanson & Kinghorn 1986). These shales are have porosities in the range 30 –40%. Organic-rich shale units
 Downloaded from http://pgc.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Toronto on July 15, 2015
UK SHALE GAS 1097
are preferentially enriched in Cu, Ni, V, Ag and Mo (Gad et al. Dow, W. G. 1977. Kerogen studies and geological interpretations. Journal
1969) in common with shales of Palaeozoic age. Exploration of a of Geochemical Exploration, 7, 77–79.
number of Cretaceous and Jurassic shales is underway in the Dow, W. G. & O’Connor, D. E. 1982. Kerogen maturity and type by
USA, for example the Haynesville Shale of Texas and Louisiana. reflected light microscopy applied to petroleum exploration. In:
Staplin, F. L., Dow, W. G. et al. (eds) How to Assess Maturation
This formation lies above the concealed Ouachita fold belt in a
and Paleotemperatures. Short Course No. 7. Society of Economic
similar relationship to the Weald Basin Jurassic shales, which Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Tulsa, OK, 133– 157.
overlie the Variscan fold belt. Earp, J. R. & Hains, B. A. 1971. The Welsh Borderland. British Geological
Survey, London, British Regional Geology Memoirs.
Ebukanson, E. J. & Kinghorn, R. R. F. 1986. Oil and gas accumulations and
Conclusions their possible source rocks in southern England. Journal of Petroleum
Geology, 9, 413– 428.
At the regional scale the Mississippian Bowland Shale Formation Evans, C. J. & Brereton, N. R. 1990. In situ crustal stress in the
provides the most prospective shale gas play. The Bowland Shale United Kingdom from borehole breakouts. In: Hurst, A., Lovell,
is a proven source rock mature for gas production. Those shales, M. A. & Morton, A. C. (eds) Geological Applications of Wireline
which have not sourced conventional hydrocarbons, need to be Logs. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 48, 327– 338.
carefully evaluated to see if they can make a contribution. Ewbank, G., Manning, D. A. C. & Abbott, G. D. 1993. An organic geo-
Locally, shales of Lower Palaeozoic (principally Upper Cambrian) chemical study of bitumens and their potential source rocks from
the South Pennine Orefield, central England. Organic Geochemistry,
and Jurassic age might prove suitable targets. The small size of
20, 579– 598.
basins and the lack of overpressure, relative to the USA, make it
Ferguson, J. 1984. The methane content of some Carboniferous limestones
unlikely that a large potential exists onshore UK, unless these from the northern Pennines and its relationship to mineralisation.
older shales are proved to be prospective. However, additional Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society, 45, 67– 69.
data are required to minimize exploration risk. In particular, Frantz, J. H., Waters, G. A. & Jochen, V. A. 2005. Operators re-discover
isotope studies of gas source provenance and more information shale gas value. E&P, 1 October 2005.
on joint and fracture densities are required. Not all the organic-rich Fraser, A. J., Nash, A. J., Steele, R. P. & Ebdon, C. C. 1990. A regional
shale sections occur where there are high GR values. Shale gas is assessment of the intra-Carboniferous play of northern England. In:
most likely to occur in the sub-basin depocentres of the Pennine Brooks, J. (ed.) Classic Petroleum Provinces. Geological Society,
and Weald basins. Previous conventional hydrocarbon exploration London, Special Publications, 50, 417–440.
Gad, M. A., Gatt, J. A. & Le Riche, H. H. 1969. Geochemistry of the
wells tested structural highs and fault traps, with the result that
Whitbian (Upper Lias) sediments of the Yorkshire coast. Proceedings
some entirely missed source rocks known from other wells or
of the Yorkshire Geological Society, 37, 105– 139.
interpreted from seismic. Drilling wells in the depocentres and Griffith, A. E. 1983. The search for petroleum in Northern Ireland. In:
the greater attention to shales required for this unconventional Brooks, J. (ed.) Petroleum Geochemistry and Exploration of
exploration are likely to lead to a new surge in subsurface geo- Europe. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 213–222.
logical knowledge of the UK. Hillier, S. & Marshall, J. E. A. 1992. Organic maturation, thermal history
and hydrocarbon generation in the Orcadian Basin, Scotland.
This paper is published with the permission of the Executive Director of the Journal of the Geological Society, London, 149, 491– 502.
British Geological Survey (NERC). We thank S. Holloway, M. Stephenson, Hitchman, S. P., Darling, W. G. & Williams, G. M. 1989. Stable Isotope
H. Johnson and A. Doré for improving drafts and D. Entwisle for providing Ratios in Methane Containing Gases in the United Kingdom. BGS
porosity data. Technical Report, WE/89/30.
Hood, A., Gutjahr, C. C. M. & Heacock, R. L. 1975. Organic metamorphism
and the generation of petroleum. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, 59, 986– 996.
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