Neoplatonism in Science

Past and Future

(extended version*)
Bruce MacLennan

University of Tennessee, Knoxville

I. Introduction
In this article I argue that modern Neoplatonism can contribute to a revitalization
of science and an improved human relationship to nature. I begin by considering the role
of Neoplatonism in the history of science, considering both ideas that have contributed to
the constitution of contemporary science, and those that have been abandoned by it. Then
I mention two especially Pythagorean developments in contemporary science. Finally, I
turn to the future, to the contributions that I believe Neoplatonic ideas can make toward
the future of science.

II. The Past

Recall the alternative views of nature and science that competed in Europe in the
16th and 17th centuries.1 We may take as our starting point the Aristotelian-Thomistic
cosmology, which resulted from Aquinas’ rehabilitation and Christianization of Aris-
totelian cosmology and Ptolemaic astronomy, and which dominated European thinking
from the thirteenth century. A value system was implicit in this cosmology, which placed
a stationary Earth at the center of the universe, in the center of which was Hell and the
Devil (Easlea 1980, pp. 43, 57–8). In polar opposition was God in His heaven, the active
force outside the circumference of the Primum Mobile. Correlated with this polarity of
good and evil were other oppositions, many of which can be found in the Pythagorean Ta-
ble of Opposites: form / matter, mind / body, active / passive, male / female, heaven /
earth, and so forth (Easlea 1980, pp. 46–50). The causes of these associations and corre-
spondences are complex and not entirely cultural, for they also have psychological and
biological roots, but that is beyond the scope of this article (Hillman 1978, Pt. III; Stevens
1998, pp. 116–23).
As the weaknesses of the Thomistic-Aristotelian philosophy became apparent,
two philosophical orientations presented themselves as the chief contenders for a new
philosophy of nature (Easlea 1980, pp. 89–90). On one hand was the mechanical philoso-
phy, as developed especially by Gassendi and Descartes, and on the other was the (so-
called) magical philosophy, which was advocated in one form or another by Neoplaton-
* Revision of 2006-07-17. This is a slightly extended version of a paper to be published in Metaphysical
Patterns in Platonism: Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern, ed. Robert Berchman & John Fi-
namore, University Press of the South, in press, pp. 241–59.
1. In this brief overview I am indebted to the work of Brian Easlea (1980) and especially to the classic
works by D. P. Walker (1958) and Frances Yates (1964, 1966). The primary sources are very numerous,
but the citations may be found in these works.
 2

ists, alchemists, Hermeticists, adherents of the supposed prisca theologia, and so forth. A
principal difference between the two was their view of nature. In accord with Cartesian
dualism, the mechanical philosophers viewed non-human nature as inanimate and sought
to understand natural processes in terms of mechanical principles, such as shape, position,
and motion, rather than in terms of sensory qualities, which were considered fundamen-
tally illusory. On the other hand, in general accord with Neoplatonic cosmology (stem-
ming ultimately from the Timaeus), the magical philosophers understood nature in terms
of an anima mundi, which vitalizes and governs the material world (Merchant 1980, ch.
4). One consequence of these differences was that mechanical philosophers were stronger
advocates of using mechanistic principles to appropriate and exploit non-human nature
for human benefit, a foundation of the industrial revolution (Easlea 1980, ch. 5). The
magical philosophy, however, entailed a degree of reverence for Nature and implied cir-
cumspection in possessing and exploiting “her” (Easlea 1980, pp. 102–4, 111–12, 139).
Against this background I will mention some Neoplatonic ideas that were either adopted
or abandoned by modern science as it emerged at this time.
As is well known, discussion of the Corpus Hermeticum by Lactantius (Div. Inst.,
I.vi, De ira Dei, XI) led to the impression that these texts were of enormous antiquity,
that Hermes Trismegistus was a contemporary of Moses, and that the Hermetic tracts rep-
resented the prisca theologia, the primordial theology revealed by God. This mispercep-
tion persisted until corrected in 1614 by the textual analysis of Isaac Casaubon. In the in-
terim, the texts’ apparent antiquity and the respect accorded them by Lactantius lent them
considerable credibility. In particular, acceptance of the philosophically oriented Hermeti-
ca encouraged acceptance of the more overtly magical tracts. Thus we have the roots of
Renaissance Hermeticism.
Although the Hermetica are not homogeneous, they are broadly in agreement with
Neoplatonic theory and practice (e.g., Fowden 1986, pp. 188–95), and so Marsilio Ficino
and his followers found little difficulty in crafting a Hermetic philosophy, which they
considered to be consistent with Christianity (Yates 1964, ch. VI). It is the theoretical and
practical core of the magical philosophy, but let us consider its relation to modern sci-
ence.
Aside from its scientific impact, the eventual shift to a heliocentric cosmology
was a development of enormous symbolic significance. The astronomical reasons for this
change are familiar, but it is important not to forget the philosophical background. The
Central Fire—often misinterpreted as the Central Sun—was an idea inherited from an-
cient Pythagoreanism, and Copernicus called his heliocentric model “the Pythagorean
theory” and quoted the Hermetica in its defense (De revol. orb. cael., Thorn ed., 1873, p.
30; Yates 1964, p. 154). Heliocentrism was motivated as much by religious and philo-
sophical considerations as by astronomical ones, for Neoplatonism, Hermeticism, and re-
lated philosophies considered the Sun to be “the visible god,” associated with the Demi-
urge, and a potent symbol for the One and its power, irradiating the material world and
bringing it life (Yates 1964, pp. 153–4). From this perspective, the Sun belonged in the
center of the universe, which thereby became the fountainhead of the Good rather than
the central abyss. Giordano Bruno, in his defense of Copernicanism, referred back to the
solar magic of Ficino’s book De vita coelitus comparanda, his most overtly magical
work.2 Consistently with the heliocentric view, Bruno (Ash Wed. Supper, Dial. I, p. 61)
argued that the Earth, “our perpetual nurse and mother,” as he called her, must move be-

2. Yates (1964, pp. 155, 208–9). See Ficino (1998, Bk. III) for De vit. coel. comp.
 3

cause she is alive and eternal by virtue of her continual self-renewal. It was a tenet of the
magical philosophy, which we find for example in Cornelius Agrippa (1651/1993, II.56),
that the stars and planets are sources of vitality and motion, and therefore that they have
souls and are alive themselves (Yates 1964, p. 243). Similarly Kepler, who was influ-
enced by Agrippa, the Paracelsans, Proclus, and other Neoplatonists, said the earth is a
living being with an anima terrae structured like the anima hominis (Pauli 1955, pp. 156–
77).
Qabalah, in the form in which it emerged in the Middle Ages, incorporated many
Neopythagorean ideas, especially in its decad of Sephiroth or divine emanations (Yates
1964, pp. 92–3).3 Indeed, Scholem (1965, p. 167) has argued that the Sefer Yezirah, a
principal Qabalistic text, was written by a Jewish Neopythagorean, perhaps in the first
centuries CE. The other principal text, the Zohar, was written in Spain in the thirteenth
century, where Ramon Lull was active (Yates 1966, p. 178). Significantly influenced by
the Neoplatonic systems of pseudo-Dionysius and John Scotus Erigena (Yates 1966, pp.
177–8), as well as by the Qabalah, Lull is best known for his system of rotating wheels
labeled with letters corresponding to the dignities of God, which are, in effect, simultane-
ously the divine names of pseudo-Dionysius and the Sephiroth of the Qabalah (Yates
1966, pp. 178–9). To put it in other terms, we have in the Lullian art a system of archety-
pal ideas, whose interrelationships can be explored combinatorially by rotating the
wheels (Yates 1966, p. 178).
It is significant, as Yates has stressed, that in Lull’s art these archetypal ideas were
represented by letters, not by the symbolically rich images used in prior systems for orga-
nizing ideas, such as the magical memory systems of Bruno and Campanella (Yates 1966,
pp. 176–7). In this, Lull is connecting with Qabalistic interpretation of the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet as the atomic constituents, as it were, of the Name of God, and with the
Qabalistic practice of gematria, by which hidden correspondences and connections be-
tween ideas were found by means of the numerical values of the Hebrew letters, and with
Neopythagorean use of the numerical values of the Greek letters for numerological specu-
lation (Yates 1964, p. 92; 1966, pp. 178–9). Although these practices are found primarily
in Gnosticism, they were commonly attributed to the ancient Pythagoreans (e.g., Hippoly-
tus, Refutatio, 6.25, 6.47, 7.14, 8.5-8).
Another important aspect of Lull’s art, as Yates (1966, p. 178) emphasizes, is that
it was intended as a method for discovering and demonstrating truths, specifically the
truths of Christianity. The symbolical and mystical meanings of Lull’s characters were
closely tied to his medieval world-view, but in the seventeenth century, several philoso-
phers were inspired to improve on his idea and to apply it to the discovery, codification,
and demonstration of scientific knowledge.4 Chief among these was Leibniz, who was
deeply influenced by Lull, Bruno, Qabalah, alchemy, and Hermetic philosophy with a
Rosicrucian accent.5 According to Yates (1966, p. 370), he defined his project as:
a general science, a new logic, a new method, an Ars reminiscendi or Mnemonica, an Ars
Characteristica or Symbolica, an Ars Combinatoria or Lulliana, a Cabala of the Wise, a
Magia Naturalis, in short all sciences will be here contained as in an Ocean.

3. A good example of Neopythagorean treatment of the decad is pseudo-Iamblichus’ Theologumena arith-

meticae (ed. de Falco, 1922; tr. Waterfield as The Theology of Arithmetic, Phanes, 1988).
4. Yates (1966, ch. 17, esp. pp. 356–7, 361–2, 364–5); see also Ong (1958) and Rossi (2000).
5. Yates (1966, pp. 367, 372–3). For more, see Coudert (1995) and Rossi (2000).
 4

In particular Leibniz developed a system in which ideas were represented by num-

bers and reasoning was accomplished by calculation, for which he designed a mechanical
calculator. Like many others of his time, he also attempted to design a universal rational
symbolic language, in which the truths of science and philosophy might be expressed
with precision (Yates 1966, pp. 364–73; Rossi 2000, ch. 8). There is a direct line of de-
scent from the ideas of Leibniz and his contemporaries for formal knowledge-representa-
tion languages and mechanized reasoning, through the development of symbolic logic
and formalized mathematics, to the computational models of knowledge and cognition
used in artificial intelligence and cognitive science, but that is outside the scope of this
paper. It suffices here to observe that the Lullian vision affected the pursuit of method,
which occupied many seventeenth-century philosophers, including Descartes, Bacon, and
Leibniz, for this pursuit was redirected toward a methodology of abstract relationships
among monadic ideas (Ong 1958; Yates 1966, ch. 17; Rossi 2000, ch. 5). Although this
drive reached its apex in the logical positivist philosophy of the early twentieth century, it
still survives in the preference for mathematical abstraction in all scientific theories.
It is interesting to recall that contemporary with the Lullian art, there were other
systems for organizing ideas, dating to classical antiquity, used for memory, spiritual con-
templation, or magic, which (in contrast to Lull’s art) made use of symbolically rich im-
ages rather than abstract characters (Bolzoni 2001; Carruthers & Ziolkowski 2002; Yates
1966; Rossi 2000). These systems also had roots in Neoplatonism, and had applications
in religion, alchemy, and other spiritual disciplines. They arose from a confluence be-
tween the ancient art of memory, attributed to Simonides of Ceos, and the Platonic expla-
nation of knowledge as recollection. The art of memory, as known primarily through the
Ad Herennium, recommended placing vivid, active symbolic images for ideas (imagines
agentes) in distinct spatially-organized visualizable places (loci), so that their relation-
ships could be recalled (Yates 1966, ch. 1). Platonic epistemology, in comparison, under-
stood the Forms or Ideas to have an eternal structure and fixed relationships.
Already in the Pythagorean revival of late antiquity memory was connected with
spiritual practices, and biographers attributed a prodigious memory to such figures as
Pythagoras and Apollonius of Tyana (Yates 1966, p. 56). Also beginning in antiquity was
the use of cosmologically significant structures, such as the zodiac, decans, and planetary
spheres, to organize ideas and their images (Yates 1966, p. 54). In this way the art of
memory allowed the macrocosm to be reflected in the microcosm of the individual mind.
In the Middle Ages there was increasing use of the art of memory to internalize
religiously significant ideas, such as the articles of faith, the virtues and vices, and the
paths to salvation and damnation (Yates 1966, pp.67–9). (Recall also the Tablet of Cebes,
named for a famous Pythagorean and described as a dedication of a follower of the
Pythagorean and Parmenidean way of life.) Albertus Magnus said that the images of the
virtues, for example, contained their own intentiones, which were efficacious for impart-
ing the virtues (Yates 1966, p. 76). Further, Aquinas introduced a devotional focus into
the art of memory by suggesting that the images should be contemplated with solicitude
and affection (Yates 1966, pp. 83–7). (Contributing to this development was the me-
dieval practice of Ars Notaria, a magical art of memory, attributed to Pythagoras, in
which one sought illumination by contemplating esoteric figures while reciting magical
prayers; Yates 1966, pp. 56–7.)
In the Renaissance these developments reached their culmination in the spiritual
magic of Ficino and Pico, who took practices from the Asclepius and other Hermetica for
 5

the “ensouling” (e)myu&xwsij, animatio) of images, and synthesized them with the art of
memory, the astral magic of the Picatrix, and the Neoplatonic theurgy of Iamblichus and
Proclus. In this art properly structured memory images were regarded as “inner talis-
mans,” which through their theurgic power could draw down celestial influences and
unite the divine part of the human mind with the divine powers of the cosmos (Yates
1966, pp. 149–62).
However, these symbolically rich images did not lend themselves so well to the
newborn mechanical philosophy, with its emphasis on quantifiable size, shape, and mo-
tion in preference to phenomenological qualities (Yates 1966, pp. 360–5). Indeed, the
imagistic systems were more suited to expressing psychological structures than physical
relationships, and so they have been used, especially by Jungian psychologists (von Franz
1974, chs. 10, 11; Jung 1969a, chs. XIII, XIV). In summary we may say that the new sci-
ence took up the more formal, logical, and abstract aspects of Neoplatonism, but left the
more concrete, imaginative, and symbolic aspects to the magi and their successors.
The Neoplatonic-Hermetic cosmology viewed the universe as an integrated organ-
ism, an emanation of the One through the World Mind and World Soul to the World
Body, and so the magical philosophy was holistic, whereas the mechanical philosophy, in
its pure form, divided the material world into disjoint objects and the spiritual world into
disjoint souls. In this sense the mechanical philosophy was reductionist, for everything
was reduced to atoms, indivisible units of material stuff or soul stuff. In the end, the pure
mechanical philosophy proved inadequate even as a scientific theory, and it had to be
augmented with ideas, such as action at a distance and fields, that are more at home in the
magical philosophy (Easlea 1980, ch. 4).
Another aspect of Neoplatonic philosophy that influenced the new science was the
idea that there are hidden causes behind the phenomena of the sensible world. That is, all
change in the phenomenal world is an effect of an eternal structure of abstract ideas. Thus
the reality we ordinarily experience is not the true, or most fundamental reality; it is
rather an image, shadow, or reflection, in fact, an illusion. True reality is an immaterial
abstract structure, imperceptible to our senses, accessible only through reason and indi-
rect experimentation.
This reductionist perspective is already apparent in Newton’s explanation of color
as wavelength. His division, on the basis of wavelength, of the continuous spectrum into
seven colors, explicitly analogized with the seven tones of the diatonic scale, is just one
example of Newton’s intentionally Pythagorean approach, in which the hidden quantities
are real, and the manifest qualities, illusions (Bortoft 1996, pp. 38–40, 192–212; Gage
1993, ch. 13, esp. p. 232). Indeed, the reduction of experiential qualities to imperceptible
quantities has been typical in physics ever since the development of atomic theory. How-
ever, modern science understands the hidden causes to be abstract and mathematical,
whereas Neoplatonism and the magical philosophy understood them to be living, psychi-
cal, and divine actions of the World Soul (a contrast already apparent in the Kepler-Fludd
controversy; see Yates 1964, pp. 440–4; Pauli 1955).
The Renaissance magi understood that different material objects might be irradiat-
ed by the same archetypal idea, and that this hidden connection was the cause of sympa-
thies and antipathies between material objects (Easlea 1980, pp. 92–4). The doctrine of
cosmic sympathy originated with the Stoics (Wallis 1972, pp. 70–1, 110), but the Neopla-
tonists adopted it, and Agrippa, for example, cites Iamblichus, Proclus, and “the Platon-
ists” as authorities on “occult virtues” (e.g., Agrippa 1651/1993, I.22, 38, III.59; 1694, ch.
 6

44).
Although the notion that there might be occult affinities between objects was
anathema to the mechanical philosophers, it was essential to the theory of gravity. New-
ton protested hypotheses non fingo, but his acceptance of occult forces no doubt facilitat-
ed his mathematical description of gravitational force in the absence of mechanical inter-
actions (Easlea 1980, pp. 90, 111, 164–83); in fact, he thought Pythagoras had already
discovered the inverse-square law by means of his harmonic theory (White 1997, pp.
348–9). As a closet alchemist and Hermetic philosopher, Newton believed that universal
gravity demonstrated the active presence of God in the world, whereas the mechanical
philosophers generally believed that God had left the physical world alone since the end
of the Age of Miracles (Easlea 1980, pp. 22, 182).
However, due to the hidden nature of the causes, these sympathetic relations were
difficult to determine by reason alone (Easlea 1980, p. 93). Therefore, practicing magi,
such as Paracelsus, that is, those who, among other things, were actually trying to cure
the physical and mental ills of humankind, were forced to resort to experiment to discover
the occult sympathies in the material world (Easlea 1980, pp. 100–3; see also Webster,
1982). As the limitations of a purely rationalistic approach to the mechanical philosophy
became apparent, some philosophers, such as Francis Bacon and Robert Boyle, began to
adopt these empirical methods (Easlea 1980, pp. 90, 126–9, 194–5, 202). Boyle, of
course, had been an alchemist and Hermetic philosopher with Rosicrucian sympathies
(Easlea 1980, pp. 136–9). However, he abandoned, along with his Hermetic ideas, the no-
tion that the natural world is divine, saying (Inq. Vulg. Rec. Notion Nature), “the venera-
tion, wherewith men are imbued for what they call Nature, has been a discouraging im-
pediment to the empire of man over the inferior creatures of God” (Easlea 1980, p. 139).
Thus he enunciated an attitude that has contributed to our environmental crisis.
Similarly Bacon, with metaphors that would have warmed the cockles of Freud’s
heart, enthused that the experimental method would allow men to “penetrate further,”
through “the outer courts of nature,” to “find a way at length into her inner chamber,” in
order to find the “secrets still locked in Nature’s bosom” (Easlea 1980, p. 129). By the
“trials and vexations” of experiment, Nature would be put on the rack and compelled to
answer (Easlea 1980, p. 128). Nature and all her children would be men’s slaves, Bacon
promised (Easlea 1980, p. 129). Nor was he alone. Many of the adherents of the new
“Masculine Philosophy” (as they called it) saw Dame Nature as a subject of torture, dom-
ination, and exploitation (Easlea 1980, pp. 128–9, 213–14, 236, 241–52). Surely it is not
coincidental that these remarks were made during the culmination of the witchcraze (see
also Merchant 1980).
Of course, like the mechanical philosophers, the magical philosophers were also
interested in practical results, but their understanding of nature as having a soul and being
divine led them to take a more cooperative and less dominating stance toward her (Easlea
1980, pp. 94, 103, 112). Also, the magical philosophers understood themselves to be a
part of this same nature, a unified emanation of the One, whereas Descartes had taught
the mechanical philosophers that human souls were essentially separate from a soulless
nonhuman world. So also, the magical philosophers understood themselves as partici-
pants in nature (Yates 1964, pp. 31–2), whereas the mechanical philosophers took the
stance of observers separate from the object of their observation, a view that has inter-
fered with scientific understanding in areas as disparate as quantum mechanics, ecology,
psychology, and sociology.
 7

Against the development of modern science, I must mention a notable dissenting

6
voice. Goethe’s well-known campaign against Newtonian science (Sepper 1988) was
rooted in a different conception of the proper role of science in human life (Heisenberg
1974b). His view has much in common with Neoplatonic and Hermetic philosophy,
which is not unexpected since he was influenced by Neoplatonic ideas, by alchemy, by
Boehmist mysticism, and so forth (Gray 1952, Pt. I; Raphael 1965, Pt. I).7 Whereas mod-
ern science can be characterized as analytic, observational, and reductive, Goethe’s ap-
proach is empathetic, participatory, and holistic (Barnes 2000; Bortoft 1996, pp. 3–26,
49–76, 321–30; Goethe 1995, pp. 12, 22, 28, 41, 48; Pauli 1955, pp. 205–6). In essence
it recognizes our kinship with the rest of the natural world, and accesses the universal
archetypes within our minds to facilitate our assimilation to, and our empathetic under-
standing of, nature (Bortoft 1996; Goethe 1995, pp. 22–4, 103–109). In more Platonic
terms, “like knows like” and intuitive understanding comes with participation in the en-
ergeia of the archetypal forms. Let me explain.
Goethe’s scientific methodology is essentially phenomenological (Barnes 2000;
Bortoft 1996; Goethe 1995, p. 11; Seamon 1978; Seamon & Zajonc 1998). First, it focus-
es on the qualities of things as experienced by the whole person, that is, by the senses,
emotions, reason, intuition, and all the other faculties of the observer, rather than on ab-
stract quantities hypothesized to lie behind an effectively illusory sensory world (Bortoft
1996, II.4, III.3–4; Goethe 1995, pp. 9–11, 17–20, 28–30, 36, 64; Heisenberg 1974b).
Thus we may contrast Newton’s theory of color, which reduces it to a single quantity,
wavelength, with Goethe’s, which embraces the full range of color phenomena, such as
experienced by a painter, poet, or sensitive naturalist (Bortoft 1996, II.2, III.4; Goethe
1995, p. 18; Pauli 1955, p. 206). But Goethe is emphatic that his approach is not subjec-
tive (Bortoft 1996, p. 34–5; Goethe 1995, pp. 34, 37–8). Rather, by sensitive observation
of, experimentation with, and participation in nature, the mind of the naturalist achieves a
kind of harmony, or empathetic attunment, with natural phenomena (Goethe 1995, pp.
11–12, 24, 33, 48).8 Understanding arises from a coincidence of inner form and outer fact.
That is, the mind of the Goethean scientist participates in the same archetypal idea—
which Goethe called the Urphänomen—as does the natural process (Bortoft 1996, pp.
22–3, Pt. III, ch. 5; Goethe 1995, ch. 7; Heisenberg 1974b). Like knows like.
Goethean science has been described as both Platonic and anti-Platonic (Bortoft
1996, III.5; Dieckmann 1972, p. 8; Goethe 1996, pp. 11–12; Heisenberg 1974b), a para-
dox that can be explained as follows. On the one hand, Goethean science stays focused on
direct experience of nature, and seeks to understand natural phenomena in themselves, es-

6. Goethe (1988) includes some of Goethe’s most important writings on the philosophy of science, whereas
Goethe (1996) has shorter, often aphoristic, extracts; the commentary in both collections is useful. Bortoft
(1996) analyzes Goethe’s philosophy of science from a phenomenological perspective. Seamon & Zajonc
(1998) collect recent articles on Goethean science.
7. Goethe was more directly influenced by alchemy and Hermeticism than by Neoplatonism, but he
claimed the latter was the foundation of his religious beliefs and that he had read the Enneads by the time
he was fifteen; later he studied Iamblichus and Bruno (Gray 1952, pp. 49–50, 105).
8. Pauli (1955, pp. 205–6) compares Goethe’s criticism of Newton to Fludd’s criticism of Kepler. In both
cases the former has an intuitive-feeling personality with a holistic (synthetic) orientation, whereas the lat-
ter has a sensation-thinking personality with an analytic orientation. The types are complementary and
both are necessary for a comprehensive understanding. (Pauli notes the relation to ancient theories of
beauty: the holistic theory of Plotinus (focusing on the whole) vs. the analytic theory of the Stoics and Aris-
totle (focusing on the parts). Heisenberg (1974c) explores the role of these complementary notions of
beauty in the history of science.)
 8

chewing theories couched in terms of hidden realities supposed to be the ultimate causes
of the visible world. Understanding is rooted in sensory experience, and in this sense it
can be described as anti-Platonic. On the other hand, by seeking the Urphänomene,
Goethean science is directed toward discovering the objective archetypal ideas that simul-
taneously structure nature and our possible experience and understanding of it. Therefore,
these objectively existing archetypal ideas organize existence and are the foundation of
any understanding of being, and so in this sense Goethean science is Platonic, for the
archetypal ideas define the sensory world. Indeed Nisbet (2002) argues that Goethe’s
archetypal ideas are specifically Neoplatonic, in particular Plotinian, because they are
“not transcendental entities, but immanent principles active within the natural world.”

III. The Present

Modern science, especially physics, has continued on the trajectory established by
Newton and is becoming more Pythagorean. For example, the most promising current
scientific account of reality reduces everything to multidimensional strings vibrating har-
monically in various patterns (e.g., Greene 1999). Truly, a Pythagorean vision! Since long
before the arrival of string theory, however, the scientific perspective has been that the
true structure of reality is very different from our sensory experience of it. Famously, the
eminent physicist John Archibald Wheeler (1994) proposed the ontological maxim “it
from bit” to express the idea that all the fundamental laws of physics are formal informa-
tion relationships; there is no “stuff” that they are about, or to put it differently, the appar-
ent stuff (such as strings, wavefunctions, fields, and particles) is constituted entirely by
formal mathematical relationships. “Everything is number,” indeed.
Another example of Pythagoreanism in contemporary science is complex systems
theory, which attempts to find mathematical laws of emergence and self-organization
throughout nature (e.g., Solé & Goodwin 2000).9 The same laws are found to operate at
many different levels, from atoms, to neurons, to embryological development, to social
behavior and communication, to evolution, both cosmic and terrestrial. To put it different-
ly, we find the same archetypal forms actualized in many different natural systems, and
these archetypes govern the formation and transformation of these systems in space and
time. These are laws dealing with the dynamics of opposites: expansion and contraction,
cooperation and competition, uniformity and diversity, randomness and order, definite-
ness and indefiniteness, discreteness and continuity, and so forth. That is, Pythagorean
ideas of unity, duality, conjunction and mediation, balance and equilibrium, and so forth,
are found to be the fundamental principles at all levels of the cosmos, and so the structure
of these Pythagorean archetypes is the structure of the universe, at least insofar as we can
understand it.

IV. The Future

Next I will discuss several areas in which Neoplatonism can contribute to the fu-
ture development of science by righting some of its imbalances and opening new paths
for its progress.
In MacLennan (2005) I argued that Neoplatonism, Jungian psychology, and evo-

9. I do not claim that developments in complex systems theory were motivated in any direct way by
Pythagorean or Neoplatonic philosophy. My point is that complex systems theory is Pythagorean in spirit,
in that processes throughout nature are governed by a few fundamental mathematical archetypes, such as
we find in Pythagorean philosophy.
 9

lutionary psychology are mutually consistent and mutually informative, so I will not re-
peat that discussion here (see also MacLennan 2003, 2006, in press). However, I will
mention the following. On the one hand, Jungian psychology uses psychoanalytic tech-
niques to investigate the archetypal structures common to the experience of all people, so
its perspective is interior and phenomenological. On the other hand, evolutionary psy-
chology (e.g., Buss 2004) seeks to explain various perceptual and behavioral structures
common to all humans in terms of the evolution of Homo sapiens adapting to its histori-
cal environment; thus it explains these archetypal structures from an external perspective,
that is, in behavioral or neuropsychological terms (Stevens 2003, chs. 1, 4). Both arrive at
archetypal structures similar to those discovered by Neoplatonists and described in terms
of gods, daimones, and archetypal numerical structures.
The mutual consistency of these perspectives is a consequence of the fact that the
human genome defines the neural structures common to all people, and that these struc-
tures shape perception, experience, and behavior in ways that have proved providential
for our species. These archetypal structures are not innate images, but “active living dis-
positions, ideas in the Platonic sense” (Jung 1969b, ¶154); indeed, many of them behave
as autonomous personalities (gods, daimones), others as numinous structures and pro-
cesses, such as triads, mandalas, and spiritual transformations (e.g., Jung 1969b, 1970,
1972). The deepest archetypes are the psychical correlates of neurophysiological and
physical processes ultimately coextensive with nature itself (Jung 1968, ¶291, 1969b,
¶420; von Franz 1974, chs. 1–3; Jung & Pauli 1955; Stevens 2003, pp. 80–5). Thus they
are the ultimate and unchanging ground of existence and of transpersonal meaning in our
souls and in the universe. Neoplatonists know the various forms of them as the Ideas,
“intellectuals,” “intelligibles,” henads, etc. (MacLennan 2005).
Furthermore, various psychoanalytic practices, such as “active imagination,”
which have proved valuable in the process of psychocognitive integration, have signifi-
cant similarities to theurgy and other Neoplatonic spiritual practices (MacLennan 2005, in
press). They are also consistent with shamanic and initiatory practices, which evolution-
ary psychologists explain in terms of their selective advantage for our species (Ryan
2002; Stevens 2003, ch. 10; Winkelman 2000).
The evolutionary Jungian perspective allows the insights and discoveries of Neo-
platonists to make a positive contribution to the modern world-view, and to benefit from
it in turn. On the one hand, evolutionary psychology can contribute to both Jungian psy-
chology and Neoplatonism. It expands our understanding of the archetypal ideas and the
process of psychological integration by placing them in their evolutionary context and by
providing an approach to investigating their neurological correlates; in this way Jungian
psychology may be coordinated with contemporary biology and neuroscience without
abandoning its valuable and essential phenomenological orientation (Stevens 2003). Sim-
ilarly, understanding the neurological correlates of Neoplatonic archetypal structures sup-
plements the dialectical and phenomenological investigations of historical Neoplatonism
with new, empirical techniques and insights from other scientific disciplines, which will
revitalize Neoplatonism by resolving long standing problems and by suggesting new di-
rections for its development (MacLennan 2005).
Conversely, Jungian psychology and Neoplatonism complement the primarily be-
havioral orientation of contemporary evolutionary psychology by contributing a phe-
nomenological perspective, which takes seriously peoples’ subjective experiences; thus it
does not negate spiritual experiences in its attempt to explain them. The one-sided, pri-
 10

marily mechanistic and materialistic, orientation of evolutionary psychology will be com-

pleted by the psychospiritual dimension necessary for a humane understanding of the hu-
man psyche that is both intellectually and emotionally satisfying (MacLennan 2006).
Thus, combining Neoplatonism with evolutionary Jungian psychology promises
to unite our understanding of mind and matter in a theory transcending Cartesian dualism,
which has perpetuated the intellectual and cultural hostility between science and spiritual-
ity. Perhaps it is not too optimistic to hope that this could help heal the widening rift be-
tween scientific and spiritual values in our culture.10
Balaguer (1998) analyzes the arguments for and against Platonic and anti-Platonic
philosophies of mathematics, that is, of approaches to the ontological problem of the exis-
tence of mathematical objects. Of course, there are many variants of each of these
philosophies, but Balaguer concludes that only one version of each is viable. In the anti-
Platonic camp, fictionalism is the view that mathematical statements are fictions, that is,
either false or vacuous in a strict sense, but nevertheless, just as statements about fictional
characters in a novel can be true or false, likewise mathematical propositions can be true
in a particular fictional context, such as a mathematical theory. On the Platonic side is
plenitudinous or full-bodied Platonism, which is—roughly!—the idea that “all logically
possible mathematical objects exist” (Balaguer 1998, p. 5), or, as he says (p. 6), “that the
ordinary, actually existing mathematical objects exhaust all of the logical possibilities for
such objects.” Balaguer concludes that both full-bodied Platonism and anti-Platonic fic-
tionalism are defensible, in that there are no sound arguments against either of them. He
draws the further conclusion that there is no “fact of the matter” as to which view is cor-
rect, and indeed that there is no such fact of the matter for any abstract objects. Certainly,
the latter conclusion can be considered a weakness of Platonism—and of anti-Platonism
too—but I believe that additional sources of evidence can be found in support of Platon-
ism.
Jungian psychology provides a different perspective on mathematical objects from
that which is typical in the philosophy of mathematics, for Jungian psychologists have es-
tablished that certain numbers and shapes are psychologically potent independently of
any cultural or personal associations (Card 1996; von Franz 1974; Robertson 1989, 1995,
ch. 19). For example, the number two has, in addition to its familiar quantitative proper-
ties, a qualitative aspect encompassing psychological experiences of duality, opposition,
complementarity, and so forth. That is, Two, in its qualitative aspect, corresponds to the
Pythagorean Dyad. Further, the ideas of separation and union, which are fundamental to
Neoplatonic philosophy, also occur in alchemy, Taoism, and many other systems of
thought, Eastern and Western, ancient and modern (Jung 1970). Similarly, certain shapes,
such as circles, triangles, crosses, squares, and stars, have universal psychological charac-
teristics in addition to their abstract mathematical properties. For example, as Jung (1972)
showed, mandala figures are common to all cultures and have similar meanings of whole-
ness. (I have already mentioned the use of such figures as abstract scaffolds for knowl-
edge in the memory systems of Bruno and others at the dawn of modern science.)
What is the foundation of the universal qualities of numbers, shapes, and other
mathematical objects? Many of these are universal because they are rooted in the neu-
ropsychology common to all humans. For example, our psychological reactions to sym-

10. So also Card (1996) argues for a Jungian archetypal philosophy of nature, in the tradition of nine-
teenth-century Naturphilosophie, which was inspired by Goethean science and further developed the Neo-
platonic concept of the anima mundi.
 11

metric and balanced figures arises from the neural structure of our visual system, which is
“tuned” to structures such as these (e.g., Shepard 1990, pp. 198–211). Similarly, I think it
is likely that the qualitative character of the numbers, especially in their more dynamical
aspects, can be found in the neurodynamics of the nervous system (von Franz 1974, p. 7;
Jung 1969b, ¶420; MacLennan 2006). For example, neurodynamical processes underlie
our experiences of clear differentiation, cognitive dissonance, and so forth, which are part
of the qualitative experience of the dyad. So also experiences associated with unity, such
as mental coherence and settling on a conclusion, are rooted in neurological processes.
Indeed, Lakoff and Núñez (2000) have shown that many mathematical concepts, even in
such abstract systems as set theory, are rooted in our embodied interactions with the phys-
ical world, for which our nervous systems have been adapted by evolution.
Therefore, a Neoplatonic or, more precisely, a Neopythagorean approach to the
foundations of mathematics that is understood in the context of evolutionary Jungian psy-
chology offers potential advantages over the usual philosophies of mathematics, for it
will expose the neurophenomenological foundations of mathematical concepts in their
psychological fullness, that is, their qualitative aspects as well as the quantitative (von
Franz 1974). From this perspective, mathematical objects, like the other archetypes, are
both psychical and objective, for they reside in what Jung called the objective psyche, the
network of psychological structures common to all humans (Stevens 2003, p. 65).11
Since contemporary science is essentially mathematical, such an enriched under-
standing of mathematics can help us to understand the unconscious cognitive-emotional
structures that condition all of our scientific enterprises (Pauli 1955, pp. 208–9). It may
help us to understand criteria of symmetry, beauty, and elegance by which mathematical
and scientific theories are judged, which contribute to their acceptance, and which moti-
vate the search for confirming evidence (Curtin 1982; Heisenberg 1974c). It may help ex-
plain the, essentially non-scientific, sources of scientific hypotheses and models, especial-
ly when they are mathematical in form. Thus, in a previously unpublished paper, Pauli
argues for “a future description of nature that uniformly comprises physis and psyche,”
and that to achieve such “it appears to be essential to have recourse to the archetypal
background of scientific terms and concepts” (Meier 2001, p. 180). At a more fundamen-
tal level, this unified description may deepen our understanding of the psychological
components of scientists’ preference for quantification, clear and distinct mathematical
structures, definite standards of proof, abstraction and formalism, and other features of
contemporary scientific practice that are familiar but not inevitable. Therefore Pauli
(1955, p. 208) argues that henceforth the only acceptable scientific view will be “the one
that recognizes both sides of reality—the quantitative and the qualitative, the physical and
the psychical—as compatible with each other, and can embrace them simultaneously.”12

V. Conclusions
As modern science emerged in the seventeenth century and displaced the magical
philosophy, it incorporated a number of ideas from the Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean
tradition, including the notion that there is a hidden structure of abstract, and especially
mathematical, ideas underlying reality and giving rise to visible phenomena. However,

11. Interestingly, Kepler attributes to Proclus (“his favorite author”) the idea that innate archetypes, espe-
cially of mathematics, are instincts (instinctus) (Pauli 1955, pp. 162, 165).
12. See Card (1996) for the prospects for a future archetypal philosophy of nature and its application in
several scientific disciplines.
 12

these notions were imported into a dualist framework in which an inanimate, or soulless,
mechanical world is opposed to man—and I use the gendered term intentionally—as ob-
server and exploiter. Over the past four hundred years, the self-reinforcing processes of
science and society have widened this gap, and an increasingly remote and abstract rela-
tion to physical reality has led scientists, technologists, and consumers to withdraw from
empathetic participation in living nature. Further, with the advance of materialist, quanti-
tative science the human soul has, of course, been pushed further and further into the mar-
gins, alienating many people from science.
I think that some of these disharmonies among ourselves, and between humans
and the rest of nature, may be eliminated by returning to the Neoplatonic well, which has
already nourished science, and by drinking deeply from it again. For Neoplatonism can
unite with evolutionary Jungian psychology to reveal the objective archetypal Ideas,
which inform our relations to each other, to the natural world, and to the spiritual realm,
but which also underlie our scientific concepts and our most abstract theories. In particu-
lar, by acknowledging the psychological and phenomenological reality of our experience
of these archetypal Ideas, we transcend the Cartesian gap, not by reducing all phenomena
to inert matter, but by recognizing the equally objective psychical and physical aspects of
a unitary reality.
For these archetypal Ideas are not abstract, inert quantities, but qualities full of the
richness of human experience, living and dynamic, brimming with symbolic meaning,
emotional and spiritual as well as intellectual. From this perspective, even the most mate-
rialist of issues are understood to have an equally valid and objective spiritual aspect, ac-
cessible to empirical investigation, in the broad sense. Materialist values are not complete
in themselves, but must be complemented by non-materialist, but nevertheless objective,
values.
Certainly, the goal of such a Neoplatonic renewal of science and technology is not
to replace current approaches to science, but to expand the human relation to nature in
ways that will enrich our understanding, and to lay a foundation for an environmentally
sensitive technology. As a consequence we may also anticipate the continued evolution of
Neoplatonism as a living philosophy.
 13

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