Vocal and Instrumental

Sacred and Secular

By

ERNEST PAUER

Price $LOO

1712
MT
58
P28
1878b
c. 1
MUSI
 Presented to the

LIBRARY of the
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
from the

ARTHUR PLETTNER
ISA McILWRATTH
COLLECTION
 Vocal and Instrumental
Sacred and Secular

By...

ERNEST PAUER

4444
Price $1.00

c/

1712

PRINTED IN THE U. S. A.
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

IT is a common remark that musical amateurs talk of different

musical forms with a very vague and uncertain notion of their
meaning. It cannot be denied that in this respect musical instruc-
tion is deficient, when compared, for instance, with the study of the

different forms of poetry, respecting which, in general, our knowledge

is more precise and accurate. And yet our delightful musical art by
no means t.wes its existence to mere accident and chance; many
illustrious men have devoted their best energy and closest attention
to the consolidation of that wonderfully organized structure which we
may well be proud to recognize in musical writing. Neither can it be
denied that the taste for music is innate in a greater number of people
than that for painting, sculpture, and poetryand it might almost be ;

assumed that people sang before they spoke, and tha.t for this reason
Music may justly be called the oldest art, although in regard to
development and perfection it is the most modern. The very general
distribution of musical talent by bountiful nature amongst all classes

of human society may in some measure account for the absence of

technical knowledge of the different musical forms. An accurate

acquaintance, however, with the essential conditions and the necessary

structure of a certain piece, will undoubtedly tend to a just appre-
ciation of the degree of merit it contains; and consequently will help
to form a just estimate of composer. My purpose is to explain, in
its

this little book, the respective forms of Vocal and Instrumental Music,

and at the same time to point out what composers have excelled in
each of these forms.
I beg to thank the Rev. T. Helmore, M.A., Chaplain-in-Ordinary to
the Queen, for kindiy revising and supplementing the Sacred Forms
of Vocal Music.

E. PAUER.
8, ONSLOW HOUSES, LONDON, S.W., 1878.

(2)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

FOE M IN MUSIC.
rrr. Ac-cent Metre Rhythm Style Figure Melody The Period and to
wtustructiou Thematic work.

FORM WITH REGARD TO THE RELATION OF SEPARATE PAETrf

OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC.
Ojunterpomi Double Counterpoint Fugue Canon.

MUSICAL FOEMS.
(Forms of Movements, etc., of Musical Works.)

VOCAL MUSIC.
I. SACRED FORMS.
Antiphony Hymn Ambrosian Hymn Anthem Motet Mass or Requiem
Introit Gradual Offertory Stabat Mater Miserere Lamentations Can-
ticum (Magnificat) Lauda Sion Salvatorem Laudes Laudes Episcopi
;<.^ani crpirituali Oratorio Passion-Music Choral The Figured Choral
Psalmody Concerto da chiesa.

FORMS BELONGING TO SACRED AND SECULAR VOCAL MUSIC.

Recitative Aria Arietta Arioso Cavata Cavatina Coloratura Duet-
Dialogue Chorus Cantata Cantatina Quodiibet.

II. SECULAE FORMS.

Song Chanson Maggiolata Ballad National Songs Couplet Madrigal-
Glee Rounds and Catches Obsolete Forms of Songs Pastoral Liefer-
spiel Masque Burletta Opera Intermedium Intermezzo.
(3)
 TABLE OP CONTENTS.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.
Introductory remarks Older forms of instrumental music : Prelude (Voluntary)
Toccata Invention Ricercata Fugue Symphony Intrade Concerto
grosso Aria with or without doubles Ground Suite Partita.

I. CYCLICAL FORMS.
Sonata String quartet Cassazione Serenade Divertimento Notturno Sym-
phony Concerto Concertino Concertstiick Overture.

II. SINGLE FORMS.

Fantasia CapriceCapriccio The Variation March Songs without
Scherzo
words Etude (Study) Idyll Eclogue Villanella Rhapsody Impromptu
Intermezzo Sketch (Esquisse, Sk'izze), Potpourri, Quodlibet, Melange,
Pasticcio.

DANCE MUSIC.
I. OLD DANCES.
Allemande Courante(Corrente) Bourr^e Gavotte Cebell Sarabande Gigue
Angloise Brawl Chaconne Minuet Passacaglio Passamezzo Passe-
pied Pavan Galliard Rigaudon Siciliano The old dance movements
classified with respect to their time and rhythmical expression.

II. MODERN AND NATIONAL DANCES.

German dances English dances Norwegian and Swedish dances Wallachian,
Moldavian and Roumanian dances Italian dances Spanish dances French
dances Bohemian dances Russian dances Polish dances Hungarian
dances Concluding remarks.

, APPENDIX.
Melodrama Monodrama Duodrama Chamber-Music Drawing-room Music-
Descriptive Music : I. Tone-painting II. ; Programme-MusicRobert Schu-
mann's Fancy-Pieces Obsolete forma.
 MUSICAL FORMS.
FORM IN MUSIC.

FORM.
Music, when portraying feelings or emotions, assumes various forms
and undergoes various modifications; and, being the representation
of a passing feeling or emotion, has a definite outline, a commence-
ment, development, and ending.
As feelings of a very different nature are sometimes developed in a
very uniform way, one and the same musical form for instance, aria
or sonata may have the same general outlines, and yet express very
various feelings, because the style of the movement may present great
varieties within the same boundaries. But all feeling must associate
itself with certain mental ideas to obtain a concrete existence, for
without relation to an object it would not even realize its general
intention as pleasure or pain; neither love nor hatred is felt, unless
it is excited by some object; but the feelings are modified in the most
various ways by the nature and construction of the object or impulse,
and by the co-operation of various circumstances. But with all the
freedom that is thus allowed, the form into which musical sounds are
moulded must be sufficiently precise to direct the attention of the
hearer and awaken in him the impression of a definite and distinct
idea. Such ideas cannot, however, be entirely individual and special:
in their nature they must be general a kind of reflex of what we
imagine to have been the intention of the composer, except where the
music is associated with the text, which gives a more accurate defini-
tion to our conceptions. For instance, a musical composition can
very well awaken in us the idea of a hero, but hardly of an individual
hero, unless other circumstances assist our general feeling. For
musical form, after all, must be based upon natural laws, and in the
end is but the reproduction in tone-language of the feeling in the
mind of the composer, who (sometimes philosophically, as with
Beethoven; sometime^ instinctively, as with Haydn) expresses that
feeling according to a ;ule based upon nature and reason.

ACCENT.
Accent is a stress luid upon certain notes in a series with two
separate effects. In thj first instance the accented notes merely bind
the others into definite groups in the second instance they produce
;

a particular and strengthened expression. The former of these

constitutes the grammatical or metrical, the latter the oratorical accent.
(5)
ft MUSICAL FORMS.

Grammatical accentuation is tne fundamental and natural one,

which no ordered sequence of tone can dispense with, for without it
the sequence would lack organic cohesion in reference to measure of
time, and would, accordingly, be unintelligible.
Oratorical accentuation is not an artificial one in contrast to the
former, the natural one, for both must agree in their essence and may
not stand in contradiction to each other; and its main features, a
correct oratorical accentuation, must at all times likewise be a correct
grammatical one, in spite of certain freedoms allowed for the sake of
particular expression. Yet it extends beyond the simple regularity
of the grammatical order of accent, and appears as a higher and
artistically free development, forming an essential element of ex-
pressive performance. A passage may be played with perfectly
correct grammatical accentuation, and yet in a very stiff and expres-
sionless manner, where the vivifying power of the oratorical accentua-
tion is wanting. With the latter, however, we have less to do here
than with the grammatical system of accents, of time and its
components.

1. The Grammatical Accent. This may be most practically illustrated

in the following manner. Let the reader imagine to himself a series
of pulsations or beats without any order or regulated sequence,
following each other quite monotonously, and, whether they unite
together into a confused noise or are separately audible, exhibiting
nothing that could represent a division or a grouping that would result
from certain resemblances recurring at stated intervals; such a
sequence of pulsations would be inorganic and unintelligible. But
slightly removed above this would be a series of entirely regular
pulsations, following each other without any kind of change; such a
sequence would show only a mechanical order without any inner life,
and is just as uninteresting and unattractive as if we were to place
instead of it merely the time-signature. By a natural impulse, however,
we could hardly imagine or bear such a sequence of pulsations without
dividing it life and attraction to
into certain definite groups, to give
it, and this would be done according
to a higher rule of order, involv-
ing the resemblance of each of these groups to the rest with regard to
the regularity of their sequence. Our natural feeling for recurrence
or periodicity would form these groups by giving prominence to the
first beat or pulsation of each group of a certain number of beats by a

greater stress. This stress is the accent, and the group of pulsations
over which it dominates constitutes the musical metre, the time. The
accent gives connection to the whole series of beats by bringing the
separate members of the series into definite relation with each other,
for without it, they have no connection with or reference to each
other; each one is isolated and has no relation to its predecessors or
successors; each is a beginning without a continuation. But the
accentuated beat involves the expectation that it will be succeeded
by an unaccented one, as the unaccented beat, on the other hand,
prepares us to expect an accented one to follow. The duration of the
unaccented beat is fixed according to the preceding accentuated one.
Such a group of several notes, consisting of alternate accented and
unaccented members, is really only the order to which the higher
rhythmical life of the melody must be subject, so that its various parts
may be recognizable, and, through the alternation of rise and fall, may
 FORM IN MUSIC. 7

become manifold and animated this is no longer an outward mechan-

;

ical division,but real development; the beats are evolved from one
another; each is the consequence of its predecessor and, again, the
cause of its immediate successor. Such an intimate connection,
however, is only possible in a series of beats, arranged in the simplest
manner, in which a single rise follows a separate fall, as in the follow-
ing example
A A A
J J J J J J
but this simple sequence of an alternate rise and fall is sufficient for
the formation of the different metres, even for the triple time, as we
shall see it must also be remembered at the outset that our musical
;

accent is not bound to any specific duration of the sound, and exerts
the same influence whether it falls on a long note or on quite a short
one.
The Bar and its Accentuation. The bar may be considered as a
recurrence of a certain number of beats, identical in duration, the
first of these beats in each group having always the principal accent,
while the others are accented less strongly or not at all. In notation
these equal groups are separated by perpendicular lines, called bar
lines

but not the bar-line that defines the bar, but the accent the bar-
it is :

line only an arrangement for the easier comprehension of the whole

is

rhythmical and metrical division of the melody. The first beat of the
bar, which has the chief accent, is called thesis, or the downward beat,
or the strong and heavy position ; the unaccented is called arsis, the
raising, the upward beat, or the weak, light position. In the Latin
and Greek metrical science, however, we find the meaning of arsis
and thesis reversed; arsis, the raising of the voice or of the foot in
marking, being considered as the strong thesis, the falling of the
voice or foot, the weak position. In this acceptation the words are
also used by some musical authors therefore, setting aside the words
;

arsis and thesis, it is better to keep close to the idea of the strong
position as associated with the downward, and the weak position with
the upward beat.*
In the division of the beats of a bar there occur, besides the chief
accent that marl's the whole bar, other accents of a subordinate kind.
It is well known that in music every length can be divided into any
number of shorter lengths, equivalent to it in their sum. The kind
of note according to which the time is named, for instance, the
crotchets in 2-4 time, the quavers in 6-8, must be called divisions
(members) of time; the smaller notes of different kinds into which
these members can be broken up form the subdivision. When the
members of the bar are resolved into a number of subdivisions, the

* This "
point is critically explained in detail in Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary
of Musical Terms," pp. 37-38, Article "Arsis."
8 MUSICAL FORMS.

same condition offalling and rising which combines the divisions is

repeated on a smaller scale in. the subdivisions. If we divide the
members of the following bars, which are marked as a duple time

A A
J J I J J I

into a number of subdivisions corresponding to it in value, for instance,

into quavers

or into semiquavers
nn nn
the claim of periodicity is felt in these smaller subdivisions, and.
divides the subordinate parts by means of secondary accents of a
lower grade into similar groups, with an alternate rise and fall, like
the whole series of crotchet beats in the larger form through the chief
accent :

In the foregoing accentuation the grouping of the subordinate parts

has been accomplished, but the fundamental series of crotchet beats
is still unrecognizable, because not denned by an especial accent. To
make this series of beats intelligible an accent of the next higher grade
is necessary, through which every two pairs of subordinate members
are united into a division of the next higher order :

So far as the two divisions of the bar are concerned, the crotchets
should have the divisional accent in addition to their own accent as
members of a subdivision, and are distinguished by a double weight
from the simply accented subdivisions. The crotchet beats are now
recognizable, but are not yet united, that is to say, they are not yet
distinguished as thesis and arsis of the bar, for they have both only
the same subordinate accent. The beat in the larger measure still
appears monotonous, without connection, and not yet recognizable as
the two-four time. Accordingly a further grouping is necessary,
 FORM IN MUSIC.

which is effected by the chief or ft'w,e-accent of the first class, given to

the first division of every complete bar :

The time-accent, therefore, marks the time and divides the whole
series into a number of groups, each containing an equal number of
beats. The divisional accent of the second class marks the divisions
of time, in contradistinction to their subordinate division, and the
accent of the subordinate divisions unites these latter into groups of
alternate foiling and rising, as the second accent unites the subordinate
pairs and the time-accent the chief divisions. If we draw together
the semiquavers of the foregoing example, the order of accent is con-
tracted in the following manner :

drdndrir
The first crotchet of every bar has the principal or time-accent, the
second crotchet has the secondary accent, in reference to its subordi-
nate part; the third accent (that of the subordinate division) has
vanished in the absence of a division into semiquavers. The same
thing happens with the secondary accent, when the quavers are
drawn together into crotchets :

A A
J J i J J I

Thus this order of accent, originating with the separation of beats into
bars, extends over all the greater and smaller divisions. It need hardly
be observed, however, that these accents, and very frequently the
time-accent also, are not always marked in the performance; on the
other hand, in many cases the expressive declamatory execution of
the melody requires an audible emphasizing of the second and tertiary
divisions. Invariable rules cannot be given in this matter, but an
educated artistic taste will recognize what should be done in each
separate case.
We have now to turn to common time. This consists of four distinct
divisions, and not of two contracted bars of two divisions each, changed
into one of four divisions by the omission of the bar-line that parted
them. Its system of accent can be easily recognized on the principle
explained in reference to the two-four time. If we imagine the
crotchets of a bar in common time (C), divided into semiquavers, the
10 MUSICAL FORMS.

first semiquaver of each couple of semiquavers would have the accent

of the third class

thefirst semiquaver of each crotchet would have the accent of the

second class :

as only a single rise can follow each separate fall, the third crotchet as
well as the first has a distinctive accent of the higher order, whereby
the second and fourth crotchet become a rising inflection in contra-
distinction to these other two accents thus they are weak parts of the
;

time as opposed to the others, which are strong :

Beyond this the first member of the bar has the bar accent which
marks the rise or fall of the whole series in general :

If this division is contracted

'

*
. f f f f II
r r
there remains for the first note of the bar the chief accent, but for the
third also a weaker accent, which the bar requires on account of its
breadth, as three unaccented notes cannot be attached to a single
accented one but the fact that the secondary accent is weaker than
;

the chief accent distinguishes the real common-time bar (C |) from

two contracted two-four bars :.

f r r r i r r i r r i

The double fall and rise gives it weight and breadth, the diminished
strength of the second, in comparison with the first, gives variety with
regularity.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 11

A bar of three members (g, I, f, triple time) has a chief accent; but
as only one unaccented member is regulated by an accent, it has also
a weaker secondary accent in the second member. If we represent a
three-four bar in quavers, each first member of the three pairs of
quavers has the secondary accent, and the first quaver of the bar has
the principal accent in addition :

LT L
If these quavers are contracted into crotchets the third crotchet
transfers its accent to the second which, however, as it already has a
;

secondary accent of itsown, would appear too weighty with a double

one, and, therefore, throws back one accent upon the first crotchet,
keeping the other for itself, as follows :

A A
r r r i f f r i
.

The last crotchet of the bar is thus entirely without an accent, com-
pletely weak, but the second cannot be altogether unaccented, as it is
the first number of a pair (the second and third crotchets), and has
the secondary accent in reference to the third crotchet. But this
accent of the second crotchet can only be weak because it is attached
as arsis to the thesis of the bar. An entirely similar order of accents
is seen where the members are divided into groups of three :

Of these groups each concluding note is entirely without accent, the

middle one has the tertiary accent, in relation to the third as the first
member of a pair; every member of the bar as it consists of several
parts has the secondary accent with reference to its parts, but that of
the second group has a stronger accent than that of the third, as the
first member of the second group comprising the bar. The first
member of the bar has the bar accent in addition.
Thus the plain sequence of a rise after a fall is the foundation of all
arrangement of accent. In the same way all descriptions of time are
only derivations from the two-four, three-four, and common time;
thus the six-four or six-eight in its fundamental form is a two-fold or
a three-fold time, according to the accent given

rrrrrrrrrn
and the nine-four, nine-eight, is a three-fold; the twelve-four, twelve-
eight, twelve-sixteen, twenty-four-sixteen, a four-fold one.
Transposition of the Accent. For the sake of special effect a deviation
often takes place from the established order of the accent by trans-
posing it. The accent is transferred from the thesis to the nearest
 MUSICAL FORMS.

arsis there are various kinds of transpositions of accent, but all are
:

based on the same principle namely, that the accent is moved from
the thesis to the arsis, the latter obtaining the stress, while the former
loses its weight. (Ex. I.) Very frequently this accentuation occurs
when the note that has the arsis is longer than the thesis note. (Ex.
Ex. I.A A

Ex. II.

But this transition of the accent must not continue too long, for if so,
the accented arsis would usurp the place of the thesis and would no
longer be intelligible merely as a transposition. For if the following
line
A A A A A A
r r i r r i r r i r. r i r ft r r
j

were long continued, our rhythmical instinct would very soon reduce
this transposition of the accent to a natural simple order of accent by
receiving the accentuated arsis as the thesis, because the natural and
universal always asserts itself over the artificial and the special :

A A | A
|

fTT~T~TT~iTT~f~
or

_ A I A I A_
r~l r I T i rTTTT
Two orqers of accents, of which the one is natural and the other the
transposition, may encounter at the same time :

V V V
or

r
A r
A
i
I

& ^
I |

A <J A
rHrrrrrrr
I

v v
In the former of these last two examples each of the two members
of the bar has a heavy accent, and such marcato figures may be very
 FORM IN MUSIC. 13

effective in places where a very weighty emphasis is required. Still

they cannot be used for any length of time together, as they would
become heavy and cumbersome. The accentuation on the second
example, with the accent on the first and second crotchets of the
three-four bar, is sufficiently general but then the accent on the first
;

member is generally taken somewhat lighter as a secondary accent-^

and the figure is in fact only an inversion of chief accent and second-
ary accent in the three-four bar

I ! n r rT~
The secondary accent of the three-four bar is transposed from the
second member to the third ; thus instead of

r r TIT rr the foii wing

rrnTTT
the third member thus appears as a stronger up-beat in preparation
for the next bar.
The bar of two members is mingled with that of three members, the
so-called tempo rubato (stolen time) :

A^ & A^ ^ ^ -F- -(- -P- -i-P-^^

A A A A

The two-four () time mingles with the three-four (I), but in another
manner. Three two- four (f) bars occupy the place of two three-four
(|) bars:
14 MUSICAL FORMS.

GRAUN.

-3, -J -1
r -l -J
r --j I 1
r-l 1 -1*-r

For the Lord's com-mand is en - dur -

ing, en -

I I
I I

r r r r r
dur -
ing, en - dur -
ing, is en - dur -
ing.

In reality these three two-four bars, which may also appear divided
into members of bars, are nothing more than a three-four bar, the
value of whose notes has been doubled, to give them weight and em-
phasis. Such passages are firmly accented and somewhat broadly
enunciated, and occur in phrases of three-four time, and lively move-
ments, generally towards the conclusion of a piece. Especially with
the older composers, we find this kind of transposition frequently
enough, generally in the form of three imperfect breves (d) in the
tempus perfection instead of two perfect ones. In Handel's works (as
"Susannah," St. John's Passion, etc.) it is found frequently enough,
and also in six-eight time. From our present music, this very effective
declamatory and rhythmical turn has almost entirely vanished.
Syncope is the union of a thesis and arsis into a member of a bar
wherein the accent is pushed forward from the thesis to the arsis,
which was originally unaccented :

A A A A A
+
r*
ii
? P| F
infillW p* I

In thissyncopation the second and fourth members are accented

instead of thefirst and third. But as a separate rhythmical sequence
syncope soon ceases to be intelligible as a transposition, because, as in
the former case, the accented arsis is soon understood by feeling as
a thesis. If a syncope is to maintain itself for any time as a pure
unison, it must be interrupted in bars or in longer intervals by an
accented thesis, which always recalls the natural accent to the
memory :
 FORM IN MUSIC.

. A . A
J J J J J
or

A A A A A A A
J J J . ,N J J
But where the syncope occurs, as it usually does in a passage where
there are various voices, can be continued at pleasure without
it

becoming unintelligible, because the other voices always meet it with

the counterpoise of the natural order of accent :

i*
16 MUSICAL FORMS.

The discord is always accentuated its preparation and solution are

;

unaccented. The conclusions always fall on an accented member of

the bar, which need not, however, always be the tirst in the bar, but
in common time may be the third, and through the deferred accent
(in the three-four
time only) may be the second. But in any case it
must be a member of the bar, bearing an accent in reference to the
other members.
In vocal compositions the accented syllables of the text or the
emphasized words must always fall on the accented notes of the music,
and it will be understood that in syncopation the spoken accent moves
with the musical note. To put unaccented syllables to accented notes,
or the reverse, is a twisting of language, and may be reckoned among
the greatest errors of taste that a vocal composer can commit.

2. Oratorical Accent. By oratorical accent we understand a certain

declamatory character imparted to a performance by the emphasizing
of certain parts, the procedure being founded on the natural system
of accentuation. As in reciting a piece of poetry the effect would be
lame and flat if the speaker were to rigidly adhere to the metre, so in
a vocal or instrumental performance a pedantic maintenance of rhythm
and accent would result in sameness and monotony. A certain license
is therefore allowed to the performer, whose taste should indicate what

parts of the composition may be emphasized to give a greater meaning

to the whole; but great care must be taken that oratorical accent
does not degenerate into egotistical mannerism.

ECCLESIASTICAL ACCENT*
"
In Plain-song, the term accent or accentus ecclesiasticus was used
' '

to designate that system of movement of the voice, by learning the

principles of which (modus legendi choraliter) a chanter could read
collects, epistles, gospels, etc., from an unnoted book. Hence it
resolved itself into a series of rules relating to the inflexions or intona-
tions of the voice on reaching a comma, semicolon, colon, full stop,
and also a note of interrogation. But perfect uniformity is not to be
found in these regulations regarding the puncta. According to its
position in the sentence, or the interval covered by the movement of
the voice, accent was said to be (1) immutabilis, (2) medius, (3) gravis,
(4) acutus. (5) moderatus, (6) interrogativus, (7}finalis. The following are
examples of these different species :

immutabilis. medius.

T
!C-ti-o E-pis-to-laeSanctiPau-li et o - pe - ra-tur vir-tu-tes in vo-bis:

gravis. acutus.

B*+Jt*J-1 "
"-^Y^-g-XrTjj*=y-r-T-
Be - ne - fi-centur in Te omnes Cum tu
gentes. Spi
- ri - coe -
pe - ri - tis nunc,

* Extracted from Stainer and Barrett's "

Dictionary of Musical Terms," p. 4.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 17

moderatus. interrogativus.

cumfi-de-li, ex o -
pe - ri- bus le -gis, an ex au-da-tu fi -
de -
i?

finalis.

A - ni - ma me - a ad Te De - us.

"
But according to some authors, the epistle should be on monotone,
except at a point of interrogation, e.g. :

Lec-ti - o li - bri Sa -
pi
-
en - ti -
se Be - a -
tus vir qui in-ven-tus

est si - ne ma - cu -
la, etc. Quisesthic et laud - a - bi - mus e-um?

"But in some countries the epistle is chanted with the greatest

elaboration, the note above the reciting note being introduced before
the full stop, and the whole of an interrogative sentence being recited
on a note below the ut. But as these uses differ not only in various
places,
but according to the Church seasons, an exhaustive account
is impossible.
"
In chanting the gospel, an accentus medius takes place at the fourth
syllable from a full stop, or thereabouts, and also the accentus interro-
gativus :

Se-quen-ti
- a Sanc-ti Ev-an -ge - li - i se-cundum Matthaeum.etc. In il - lo

tem-po-re dix-it Si-mon-Pe-trus ad Jesum, etc. quid er-go e - rit no -bis? etc.

Et vi tarn se - ter - nam pos - si -

de - bit.

"In the chanting of collects, a fall from ut to la, or from fa to re

takes place at a punctum principale, and from ut to si, or .fa to mi once
only at a semipunctum.
"The accentus ecclesiasticus of lections and prayers must not be con-
fused with those inflexions which tradition assigns to other parts of
the service, such as confessions, proper prefaces, and lections of the
2
18 MUSICAL FORMS.

Passion all of which are to be found noted in authorized books. It

;

should be remarked that the Belgian and French uses often differ
much from that of the Romans, although uniformity in such things is
without doubt desirable."

METRE.
"Metre is the rhythmical arrangement of syllables into verses,
stanzas, strophes, etc. ; poetical measure depending on number, quan-
tity, and accent of syllables, rhythm, measure, verse." (WEBSTER.)

TABLE OF DIFFERENT METRES, AS APPLIED IN MUSIC.

DISSYLLABLES.
TROCHEE ( ~), long (heavy), short (light).
1. Simple.

2. Varied.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 19

etc.

IAMBIC (^ ), short (light), long (heavy).

1. Simple.

o ^~F~~P~^~" II T-T-Tp" n L. 1 n

r^r* ^ 'I

2. Varied.
20 MUSICAL FORMS.

SPONDEE (
-- ), two long.

PYRRHIC (^ ~), two short.

Combined with ^ it becomes an Amphimacer

combined with ^ it becomes a Trochee

and combined with it becomes a Dactyl :

TRISYLLABLES.
AMPHIBRACH (^ ^), short (light), long (heavy), short (light).

:t2-
 FORM IN MUSIC'. 21

ANAPAEST (^ v ), two short (light), one long (heavy).

.^2- t

i
----h- --y

DACTYL (
>-
^), one long, two short.

"

BACCHIC ( *-"), two long, one short.

HANDEL.

BEETHOVEN (" Egmont").

 MUSICAL FORMS.

CRETIC (
~ ), long, short, long.

BEETHOVEN (" Eroica"X

ANTIBACCHIC (^ -- ) one short, two long.

i i

MOLOSSUS ( ), three long.

SCHUBERT (Op. 163).

H 1 &---\ H-*---I-- m p-i 1 <^-H r*

TRIBRACH (^ ^ ^-), three short.

BEETHOVEN.

^ -10- ^-^
^ ^_ S
-P- -^- -R- -^-
H i 1
!
-^-
1
^
^ 1
.jL-o.
I 1 . F -+-
I 2^ ^

In Beethoven's Seventh Symphony we find the following metres

applied :

HEAVY SPONDEES.
Introduction.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 23

DACTYLS.
Allegro.

HEAVY DACTYLS AND SPONDEES.

Andante.

DACTYLS AND TRIBRACHS.

Scherzo.

HEAVY SPONDEES.
Finale.

KHYTHM.
"Rhythm is the actual perception of the unity of a succession of moments in
evolution." (APEL, Metrik, Leipzig, 1814-1816). "The principle of rhythm is
founded in the reciprocal effect, or in the condition of cause and effect." (HERR-
MANN, Leipziger Musikzeitung, vol. x, p. 289). "The rhythm, winch is in itself
pleasing and beautiful, lies in the change of the succeeding parts ot time, accord-
ing to the Jaw of exertion and rest, in which we have again to recognize a more
forcible and a weaker exertion." (HOFFMAN). "Rhythm is the united sum of
different parts of time into a unit." (HAND, ^Esthetics of Music). "Rhythme
c'est, dans sa definition la plus generale, la proportion qu'ont entre elles les
parties d'un meme'tout ; c'est en musique, la difference du mouvement qui resulte
de la vitesse ou de la lenteur, de la longueur ou de la bre vete de temps." ( ROUSSEA u,
" "
Dictlonnaire, vol. ii, p. 242, Article Rhythme.") Rhythm, a division of lines
into short portions by a regular succession of arses and theses, or percussions and
remissions of voice on words or syllables the harmonious flow of vocal sounds. In
;

the widest sense, a dividing of time into short portions by a regular succession of
motions, impulses, sounds, etc., producing an agreeable effect, as in music, the
"
dance, or the like." (WEBSTER). Rhythm, movement in musical time, or the
periodical recurrence of accent; the measured beat which marks the character
and expression of music." (MOORE).

We recognize in music three kinds of time-measure a-nd order first,

time, the grouping of a succession of portions by the accent (see
5{4 MUSICAL FORMS.

Accent) ; the position of the principal notes of a rneiody as metrical

heavy notes, that of the secondary notes as metrical light ones;
secondly, we recognize further the movement (tempo], the relative
degree of quickness of a piece; thirdly, the rhythm, under which head
we again understand two separate things (a) the joining of similar
or different metrical feet into various figures the sections of these
:

figures are with regard to weight of time accented or unaccented, with

regard to length of time they are either long or short, of higher or
lower degree; through the bar (measure) and bar-accent they are
collected into firmly united perceptible groups and time pictures. In
this sense, each motive
(theme) which consists of several notes or of
notes and rests, and which is divided by a caesura, either in a firm or
light manner, is a rhythm. (6) Furthermore, we understand rhythm
as the forming of these smaller rhythms or time-pictures into larger
forms (periods and groups of periods) according to the rule of
symmetry and proportion, the relation of the single melodious parts
of a period to one another with regard to the nature of the division of
time, the proportion of the first to the second part, the relation of each
single part to the whole, and the proportions of movement of the
single periods within the entire group of periods.
caesuras, and sections of the period, as well as of the
The rhythmical
whole piece, result in firm and decided forms as comprehensible and
satisfactory to our ear, just as the sight of a symmetrical and well-
ordered structure affords pleasure to our eye. The development of
one part out of another, the orderly grouping of the various periods,
the support which one part receives through the other, indeed the
systematic organic growth of the whole, regulated as it is by the rhyth-
mical order, of which the human intelligence and feeling perceives,
intuitively, the absolute necessity all thiscontributes to the possibility
of surveying and conceiving many single parts as constituting a whole.
The rhythmicalconstruction of a musical piece cannot be definitely
fixed according to a pattern or an arbitrary rule. The law that has to
be obeyed does not restrict freedom of fancy and feeling; variety is
necessary as well as unity. Rhythm is, indeed, the outward manifes-
tation of the inner life; and the more harmonious, flowing, and
rounded the inner movement is found, the more comprehensive,
intelligible, and satisfactory will be the outward form.
The order and symmetry of rhythmical movement must never be stiff
or too often repeated, as this would result in monotony: combined
with order there must always be freedom. Bhythm may well be com-
pared to the pulsation of the blood in the human frame and just as
;

such pulsation is accelerated or retarded by the emotions of the soul,

so must the rhythmical life and expression change according to the
character that it is the office of music to represent. Although rhythm
will heighten the beauty of a melody, it can, even when used with the
greatest cleverness, never succeed in ennobling vulgarity or triviality
in music. In Greek and Latin poetry rhythm was developed and
elaborated in the most artistic manner, and was employed as an ex-
ceedingly valuable means of strengthening and characterizing expres-
sion. But neither in music nor in poetry must rhythm be made the
principal object, for it can never supply the place of inventive genius.
t

Rhythm may be described as the art of the versifier necessary, but

yet only supplementary, to the genius of the poet
26 MUSICAL FORMS.

gracefulness of form.* The chief divisions of style in music, as indeed

in poetry, are the epic, lyric, and dramatic style. In the epic style,
the description is most prominent; feeling and representation are
founded on an event, which has to be narrated in a poetical manner.
The musical art cannot be said to possess such strictly epic works as
we find in poetry the epic style is in music merely an element,
; as
exhibited in the oratorio, opera, cantata, in choruses, ballads, sym-
phonies, or wherever the lyric expression assumes a broader and more
pictorial character. In the lyric style the feeling is not objective, but
subjective (personal) here expression and warmth of feeling are the
;

chief ingredients of the music; but in so far as feeling is the chief

promoter of music, the lyrical element must in some degree also
influence the dramatic style. The dramatic style realizes, through
visible action on the stage, the conception of events and actions; this
visible action is performed by persons representing well-defined and
positive characters. The dramatic style comprises the oratorio, opera,
cantata; the chief forms of instrumental music, on the other hand,
belong to the lyric style. We find, further, a difference between the
secular and sacred style. The secular style, again, is subdivided into
chamber and concert music, and into theatrical or dramatic style.
According to certain more prominent characteristic features which
belong to works of art of different periods, musical history distinguishes
periods as characterized by an artistic, grand, beautiful style, and so
on. The period of the great school of the Netherlands that of a Dufay,
Ockenheim, and Josquin de Pro's, until Willaert and Palestrina is
generally called the period of the artistic style in so far as the art of
writing for several voices was particularly developed by the above-
mentioned masters; the period of Palestrina and of the Roman school
is known as that of the grand style the period of the great Neapolitan
;

masters as that of the beautiful style. From the national peculiarities

of the different musical nations arose modifications of style, which we
designate as the Italian, German, and Frencn. From the different
categories of the beautiful arise the tragic, grave, solemn, passionate,
comic, cheerful, sympathetic, graceful, lofty style, etc., which, accord-
ing to their nature, appear in works of arts of various kinds; and it
need hardly be observed that the comic and passionate style must be
excluded from sacred music, and can only appear in secular works.
Style varies also according to the material, which, as it were, is the
channel of expression; for example, sometimes voices, at others,
instruments, and again according to the manner in which the material
is treated, that is, the connection and relation of tones to each other,

by which the expression is variously influenced. Here there are two

kinds of style, which are used sometimes separately and sometimes
mingled with each other namely, the rigorous and the free style. The
rigorous style is founded upon the laws of vocal music and pure vocal-
ism, and is known by a grave working out of the melody with a quiet
progression and frequent ligaturas. We have here a stricter mainte-
nance and working out of a principal subject, which must always be kept
in view, and is transferred from one voice into another, whereby each
voice obtains the character of a principal voice. This is the polyphonic
method. (By polyphonism we understand multiplicity in sound thus, ;

musically, a composition in parts or contrapuntal composition ) It is

* Compare the Primer on the " Elements of the Beautiful in Music.""

 FORM IN MUSIC. 27

also distinguished by a frequent use of the prepared and resolved

discords, by which the separate parts of the harmony are more closely
intertwined, and by strict observance of the rule of rigorous writing.
The highest forms of the rigorous style are the Canon and the Fugue,
in which the arts of imitation and of counterpoint rind especial appli-
cation in the widest manner.
The free style, formerly also called the elegant style: here the
movement of the melody and the treatment of the harmony with
respect to the discords and th 3 strict modulation of the keys are free,
the voices are not all principal voices, for either there is only one
principal melody prevailing th/oughout, which is merely accompanied
by the other voices (this is the hornophonic style; homophony ex-
presses sameness of sound or singing in unison in opposition to
polyphony) or if these other voices take part in the development of
the principal melody or subject, this is not continuous; here a single
principal melody does not rule so strictly, for it is varied in different
ways by different subordinate subjects. The chorus can be treated
either in the rigorous or in the free style according to circumstances ;
in the opera it is generally treated freely, although operatic choruses
may be found worked out entirely in the contrapuntal or imitative
manner, and the same may be said of arias and other forms.
Older designations of styles are the following:
Stilus coraicus, the dance style of the minuets, gavottes, sarabandes, etc.
Stilus ecdesiasticus, especially adapted for church music.
Stilus familiaris, the simple style, used by Josquin de Pres in his so-
called "Messe familiari."
Stilus hyporchematicus, the theatrical dance style, including certain
lyrical songs accompanied by instruments and dance.
Stilus legatus, the connected legato style.
Stilus madrigalescus, in the style of a madrigal.
Stilus melismaticus, the ornamented style, with variations and elabora-
tions of the melody.
Stilus moteticus, in the style of a motet.
Stilus fantastieus, to which fantasias, capriccios, toccatas, etc., belong.
Stilus redtativus, the dramatic style, especially adapted to portray
the passions and emotions of the mind.
Stilus syllabicus, in which every syllable of the text has one note, as
in recitatives.
Stilus symphoniacus, for instruments, with modifications for each
separate instrument; quartets, symphonies, great overtures, etc.,
belong to this style.

FIGURE.
(Ital. Fiqura.)

Figure is a group of notes which results \_*om the dissolution of

melodious principal notes into diminished notes, or notes of a lesser
value, on the same harmonious foundation. If the principal notes of
a melody are dissolved into such figures, we call it a figured melody
(figuratus); we accordingly speak also of figured style,
a or manner. The
cantus figuralis, although it may also occur as figured song, means
more strictly, like the cantus mensuralis, the old manner used in the
twelfth century, to sing notes of different value whilst the cantus
;

in notes of the same value.

planus (choral melody) proceeded only
28 MUSICAL FORMS.

The principal notes may be figured in different manners (a) by

notes belonging to the same harmony, as

E3EE
1 1 l-l
| ^ 1
^ 1 U ^ 1

~
*
^K ^_ *
^K _ _, j

by using melodious discords namely, suspensions, passing notes,

and appoggiatura notes (nota cambiata, Wechselnoteri) with the notes
belonging to the principal harmony :

i i ^
i,-ji=rrr*-rr~H^-vp-ffg=g^?+
H-i ^^M^^ I-
1
i i I I 1

* A remarkable example of these consecutive fifths is to be found in Bach'

Toccata in D minor for the Organ.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 29

Such figures were applied before the invention of the piano-forte,

particularly in the compositions for keyed instruments such as
harpsichords, spinets, clavichords, also for the viol di gamba, and
were called manners, graces, agrements, galanterien, etc. Our
niodern composers apply them much more sparingly. The student
is advised to compare Emanuel Bach's
"
Versuch iiber die wahre Art
das Clavier zu spielen " Couperin and Champion de Chambonniere's
;

"Tables d'agremens."

MELODY.
Melody a succession of tones. The term " melody " is used (a) for
is
tone succession, or connection of tones, as differing from harmony, a
concord of tones, or the sounding of several tones together (6) for a ;

particular succession of tones, which succession is regulated by artistic

and aesthetic rules and requirements.
(a) Every melody, even the simplest, must possess a certain, if ever
so slight, connection between its single tones this connection shows it-
;

self in (1) the proportion of the tones with regard to intervals (2) their ;

relation to the key and harmony; and (3) their vocal or singing
quality. The intervals, as melodious parts of a succession of tones,
must be considered from the point of lesser or greater difficulty for
intonation :

Easy.

Difficult.

The augmented intervals, such as augmented fourths, fifths, etc.,

are not admissible in church music, as their characteristic expres-
sion lacks the quietness and evenness of the ordinary intervals. This
rule is, however, only applicable to sacred music in the alia cappella
style.

Succession of intervals. An interval, in itself quite easy for singing,

may become difficult by repetition ; any one will find it easy to sing

fffy i ~"~1 '>

but will experience the greatest difficulty to sing such
*P-.g-*-
tones in succession as :
30 MUSICAL FORMS.

Equally difficult and unvocal is zntEEEizn or a succession

of thirds :

* i* at-**

Just as unvocal are all kinds of skips such as :

All these remarks apply, however, to the melody as sung without

the support of harmony a judicious application of harmonious sup-
;

port will make them comparatively easy and even well sounding :

The relation of the melody to the key and harmony ought tc be

always natural; the melody ought to move within the scale, and
ought not to apply to notes foreign to the scale, as for instance :

Foreign notes may, however, possess importance as belonging to a

distinct harmony, and thereby occasioning a modulation

-ki
 FORM IN MUSIC. 31

I
r
or they are
a actually chromatic alterations of diatonic notes ;
such
do not affect the harmony
notes dc :

The chief elements of a correct and natural progression of tones is

best to be studied through counterpoint.
(6) Melody, in a special sense, is artistically constructed song,
following the rules of melodious modulation, keeping in certain and
definite relation to a key, proceeding in a rhythmical order, and
exhibiting in tones a special feeling that has been aroused by certain
impressions or passions The invention of a beautiful, singing, and
expressive melody is one of surest signs of genius; but even the
greatest genius will be anxious to purify, strengthen, and vary the
melody by means of art and science and in this respect no composer
;

bestowed more pains and troubles on the perfection of his melodies

than Beethoven did ; his melodies are almost in every instance simple
32 MUSICAL FORMS.

in point of progression, natural with regard to modulation, and

highly interesting in point of rhythm. To cite only one example:

Allegro.

=3^^2\
'-J^=&

etc.

It will be observed that each of the six bars contains a distinct

rhythmical figure.
National melodies offer a delightful study for learning to construct
natural and simple melodies. With respect to patriotic hymns or
melodies intended to be sung by a great mass of people, it will be
observed that they proceed mostly in the scale, or in the interval of a
third, fourth, fifth or sixth, and that their modulation is of the
simplest kind.
"GOD SAVE THE QUEEN."

'AUSTRIAN HYMN.'
 FORM IN MUSIC.

RUSSIAN HYMN.'

LITERATURE. Nichelmann (Christoph.), 1717-1761, "Die Melodie nach ihrem

Wesen, scTvOhi als nach ihren Eigenschaften." " Reicha (Antoine), "Traite de
Meiodie;" Paris, 1814. Santucci (Don Marco), Dissertazione sulla Melodia;"
Lucca, 1828.

THE PERIOD AND ITS CONSTRUCTION.

The Period is a form which is limited by a certain rhythmic,

melodious, and harmonious order. The period can be in itself a small
piece, or, combined with other periods, it may constitute a member
of a longer piece. The order in which the different periods are united
in a comprehensible and weli regulated manner is called the con-
struction of periods.

(1) Although the period must be clear and precise to be easily

understood, the composer is not restricted to a stiff and rigorous
scheme with regard to rule but he may here, as in other parts of
;

the composition, show his originality. We

speak here of periods and
their construction, appertaining to the domain of instrumental music,
as vocal music is subject to the rules of poetry, which, however, are
also governed by the same laws. A
free and expanded movement of
instrumental music could never be understood without a strict
application of rules with regard to the construction of the period and
of a well arranged systematic order, in which they succeed each other,
and are, as it were, symmetrically distributed.

(2) As in the construction of the entire movement, so in the period,

unity and at the same time variety are required. A
movement which
lacks variety becomes monotonous ; it is deficient in development, it
does not show different phases and features, which, spite of their
variety, keep up a close connection with the principal idea. If the
different periods were each the beginning of a new idea or motive,
the result would be chaos, or might be compared to a pattern card.
- 1
(3) Taking the following simple no---- of eight bars :

3
34 MUSICAL FORMS.

Ex. I. BEETHOVEN (Op. 28.)

3 4

r *i i i
i

_i

7 8

Ex. II. BEETHOVEN (Op. 2, ii.)

in both examples we find a repetition of the same figure. In Ex. I.

bars 5 and 6 are rhythmically the same as bars 1 and 2 in point of
melody they are related to each other; in Ex. II. bars 1, 2, 5, and 6
contain the same only on different intervals. In both periods
figure,
we find certain figures,which form the chief material; these little
figures, containing the germ of larger development, are called (4)
motives. In Ex. II. the motives are more clear and precise than in
Ex. I. With respect to the number of motives, a melody may
possess very few, nay, it may even be restricted to a single one, and
may yet be good; too many motives of different design would even
endanger the clearness of the construction.
(5) In both periods we remark larger groups occasioned by
the
change and return of the motives; after every second bar we perceive
the caesura, which again determines the smaller groups called sections.
The larger groups are divided into a preceding (first) and concluding
(second) part. The preceding part generally contains the chief
material of the motives of the period; the concluding part continues
this material until it changes it in a freer manner towards the close.
it begins and closes
(6) The order of modulation
is the following :

on the tonic (Ex. II.), the first part makes either a half cadence on
the dominant or in a parallel key of the tonic. The second part
begins either on the tonic or dominant, or in a related key.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 35

(7)The period begins on the tonic and closes (in major) on the
dominant (in minor), on the minor dominant, or in the parallel major
key. The cadence of the first part follows either on the tonic or on
f.he dominant, or in a related key, if the period begins on the
dominant, passes and closes in the tonic, or in a related key. The
close of the period on the dominant (or major parallel of the minor
key) of course necessitates a repetition of the period itself with its
close on the tonic, or a further elaboration.
(8) This simple period may undergo variations, either by alteration
of its inner construction, or by an expansion or compression,
(a) Alteration of the inner construction

Ex. BEETHOVEN.

(the second part is new and not developed from the first) ;

(b) The grouping and symmetry of bars is altered:

Ex. IV.

This melody consists of eight bars, but in groups of twice three and a
concluding group of two bars.
Expansion of the period is produced by (1) the imitation, or
repetition of single motives:

Ex.V.
 MUSICAL FORMS.

(2) By the imitation of the first two bars, the period of four bars is

expanded into one of six bars:

Ex. VI.

fj ^^^% ^*^r
By interpolation of the last two bars, a period often bars is produced.
(3) By the addition of a short appendix, lormed out of one of the last
motives of the period, a proceeding which strengthens and completes
the expression :

'

! !
'
m m

(4) By putting an introductory motive that leads into the actual period,
which motive, however, is in itse!f an independent idea, and recurs in
symmetrical order:

Ex. VIII.
Largo. Al
 FORM IN MUSIC. 37

Adagio.

Largo.

By compression, the first bar of the second part is wedged into the
last bar of the first part, like (6) as compared with (a):

r-p -i
^-F-4-r-
->
R- H
1

-le-FS
I

^ * ^ ^
-
F= Pi==-"-t2-Ft==
-pej

E^EE^t^EE^

This process was formerly called bar-stifling (Takterstickung):

Ex. X.

Compound periods result (1) from the repetition, with slight

alterations of the same period, and (2) from a combination of different
periods (group of periods). This latter method is shown in many
beautiful instances in the sonatas and quartets of Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven, excellent models with regard to symmetry, taste, and
correct feeling. The most distinct and practical period is always that
of eight bars. The best description of the period and its construction
" Die
is to be found in the works of Dr. Bernhard Marx, Lehre von
der rnusikalischen Composition," vol. ii., and J. C. Lobe, "Compositions
lehre."
38 MUSICAL FORMS.

THEMATIC WORK.
Thematic work is the logical development of the material of which
the principal subject consists, and of which a piece is constructed into
new periods, phases, features, etc., in such a manner that, notwith-
standing alteration, the relation and connection of the new matter
with the old is still recognizable. The means of thematic work are
manifold. The following are the most important * ;

(1) The motive or principal subject is transformed rhythmically,

whilst its harmony and melody remain undisturbed in other words, ;

the value of the notes is altered, the notes are multiplied or dimin-
ished, long notes are compressed into short ones, short notes expanded
into long, the accentuation is altered, rhythmical changes (Riickungen),
syncope, anticipations, etc., are introduced, the time is transformed
from common into triple, (| into f f into f and so on), and the speed
, ,

is altered by retardation or acceleration.

(2) MeHdious alteration with unaltered harmony and rhythm,

partial variations of the members constituting the melody, application
of changes of direct movement into counter-movement, and vice
versa; elaboration and ornamentation of parts of the principal
melody, application of appoggiatura and passing notes, suspensions,
melismas, or on the other hand the simplification of the melody by
the withdrawal of all such ornaments. In these instances the con-
nection with the principal air will be maintained by the rhythmical
movement, inasmuch as through the elaboration of the melody the
harmony will necessarily at times undergo a slight change.
(3) Alteration of harmony and melody, the rhythm being left
intact; by the rhythm in this case is maintained the only resemblance
with the principal motive.
(4) Alteration of the harmony ; application of different successions
of chords; transposition from major into minor key, and vice versa,
which, of course, also affects the nature of the melody.
(5) Alteration of melody and rhythm; thus the thematic resem-
blance with the principal motive is vested in the harmony, which, of
course, must consist of a very strongly pronounced and characteristic
succession of chords.
(6) Alteration of the accompaniment; alteration of polyphonic style
into a more simple one, and the reverse; variation of the supple-
mentary accompanying parts in a characteristic manner.
(7) Variety of the contrapuntal treatment imitative ana canonic
;

treatment; transposition of the motive into other parts: inversion by

means of double counterpoint.
(8) Alteration of force and coloring of sound change of the different
;

degrees of force; augmentation or diminution of the instrumental

masses; alteration of instrumentation.
(9) Alteration of register; transposition of the melody from the
upper into the lower or middle register, and vice versa.
(10) Alteration of expression with regard to legato, staccato,
portamento, etc.

* The limits of this book will not admit of

any examples, but the student will
do well to seek for the practical test of the present remarks in any of Beethoven's
sonatas, quartets, or symphonies.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 39

It will be seen that thematic work is founded on logical and

economic principles. In seeking to draw all possible logical sequences
from the principal subject chosen for work, the composer develops
the very rich material he has in hand to work with and, again, by
;

economy in using this material, and by a wise distribution of it

throughout the work itself, a never-ending variety and great and
unfailing charm can be obtained. Moreover, the listener experi-
ences a feeling of satisfaction, as the order, system, gradual
appearance and disappearance of a melody, harmony, or rhythm,
will be for him an object of and gratification.
curiosity, interest,
Thematic work is a musical maxim that is based on the laws of nature
herself; it is identical with the law of organic production. This law
demands that every product of the animal or vegetable world must
develop itself according to a fixed economic order, and the nature of
the germ contained within it. The instrumental works of Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven, and others of our best composers display a
thoroughly logical and systematic development, which gradually
unfolds itself from the germ or first idea to the point we technically
call the climax. But just as we find that every animal or flower
develops itself and receives its color and shape according to the given
law, so do we detect in these great instrumental works that every
part of the apparatus of the symphony, quartet, sonata, etc. be it
accompaniment, harmonization, imitation, rhythmical figure is
exactly suitable to the one subject treated; and thus it receives the
stamp of perfection. The most ingenious writer would be unable to
improve anything by alteration in a quartet, sonata, or symphony of
Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven; such a work could not be curtailed,
lengthened or altered in the score; in short, every part of it is an
absolate and logical necessity. Such is the nature of a piece in which
the system and art of thematic work is carried out in its entirety it ;

is, in fact, the product of natural genius, of spontaneous inspiration,

regulated and governed by the might of intelligence, suffused by
science in its brightest aspect. Our illustrious masters, following out
the rules and dictates of natural order, never forget that not only by
intellectual and scientific means such glorious results mig\t be
achieved, but that they must at the same time be seconded and
sustained by the feelings of a warm heart and the simplicity of a pure,
unselfish, and genuine enthusiasm. Thematic work, in its best
example, is therefore to be considered as the greatest triumph
musical art can achieve.
Although we find germs of thematic works in Sebastian Bach's
suites and partitas, sonatas and concertos and it may be asserted
that the strictest thematic work is to be found in the fugue the real
inventors of thematic work in our modern sense of the word are
Haydn and Mozart, as shown in their string quartets and in some of
their symphonies. Beethoven, however, brought this system to the
greatest perfection. To name only three examples, we should cite
the first movement of the Pastoral Symphony, the first movement of
the Quartet in F, Op. 59, i., and the first movement of his grand Trio
in B flat, Op. 97.
The student is strongly advised to examine and analyze the second
parts of those movements. In most of the instruction books, thematic
work was formerly called the development (Durchfiihrung) of the
principal motive or subject; it is only within the last twenty-five
40 MUSICAL FORMS.

years that thematic work has been systematically and methodically

treated by Dr. Bernhard Marx, and with still greater clearness and
"
completeness by J. C. Lobe, in his Lehrbuch der musikalischen
Composition," vol. i. pp. 306-382. Very"interesting material for study
is also to be found in A. von Dommer's Elemente der Musik," p. 158.

FORM WITH REGARD TO THE RELATION OF SEPARATE

PARTS OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC.

COUNTEKPOINT.
"
THE term its broadest sense, may be defined as
Counterpoint," in
" "
the art of adding one or more parts to a given melody (canto fermo) ;
"
in its more limited sense as the art of harmonizing a theme by adding
parts which shall be in themselves melodious." The terms, "subject,"
"melody," "canto fermo," and "theme," are synonymous.*
Counterpoint is simple or double. There are five species of simple
counterpoint.
(1) When the added part is note against note of the subject:
Counterpoint (sopra il soggetto).

Canto fermo.

Canto fermo.

Counterpoint (sotto il soggetto).

(2) "When the added part is two notes to one of the subject:
Counterpoint.

Canto fermo.
r ~~r
r p i i

* About rules and regulations, see " Counterpoint " Primer, or Stainer and
"
Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms," pp. 112-119.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 41

(3) When the added part is four notes to one of the subject :

Counterpoint.

Canto fermo.

r r ;

EE -*=*=ti=t=l=*'=f
*-[$*-* *-

(4) When the added part is in syncopation to each note of the

subject:
42 MUSICAL FORMS.

Counterpoint.

_jg-C-p
i i_

p_p_p_ nz| pzg

,
i
,

zzjul: |
-

\- .

Canto fermo.

~C^" ~
~G^" "CJ^"

(5) When the added part is free, or has a florid accompaniment to

each note of the subject :

__ ^y j^ i
*"*

Canto fermo in the middle part.

-F* h-3 F
!^^; i :E ^zznEEiizi^ I

g* =b_^=:E^-

DOUBLE COUNTERPOINT.
This has been well described as a kind of artificial composition,
where the parts are inverted in such a manner that the" uppermost
becomes the lowermost, and vice versa, or in other words, the art of
making melodies grammatically convertible at certain intervals.
If the melodies are interchanged at the interval of an octave, the
double counterpoint is said to be at the octave; but if the inverted
melody is transposed one note, the other melody remaining untrans-
posed, the double counterpoint is said to be at the ninth, and so on.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 43

The following table shows the effects of the inversion :

44 MUSICAL FORMS.

"First choose a subject suitable to the key you intend to compose in,
and write down your part in that part wherewith you intend to begin.
This done, and having first examined your subject, to see that it be
conformable to your key, repeat the same notes in the second part,
either in the fourth or fifth and while the second part imitates the
;

first wherewith you have begun, put such notes in the first part as
will agree with your imitating part, according to the directions given
in the figurative or florid counterpoint; and after having continued
your melody for some bars, regulate the parts thus that the first
cadence may be made on the fifth of the key. Then resume your
subject mostly in the same part you have begun with, but by another
interval, after having first put a rest of a whole or half bar, which,
hovyever, may be omitted in case there should be a great skip instead
of it.After this endeavor to bring in your second part, after some
rest, and that before the first part draws to a conclusion, and having
carried on your subject a little longer, make your second cadence in
the third of the key. Lastly, introduce your subject again in either
part, and contrive it so that one part may imitate the other sooner
than at first, and if possible after the first bar, whereupon both parts
are to be united, and the fugue finished by a final cadence."
The following are the various forms of the fugue Fuga authentica,
:

a fugue in which the notes of the subject proceed upwards; Fuga a

due o tr& soggetti, a fugue with two or three subjects; Fuga recta or
composita, a fugue where the subject proceeds by tones; Fuga con-
traria, or per motum contrarium, in which the answer or imitation is
already from the beginning in the inverted style Fuga doppia, or
;

double fugue; Fuga homophona, in which the answer and imitation

of the subject are in unison. The Fuga impropria or irregularis does
not follow the strict rules. In the Fuga incomposita the subject pro-
ceeds by jerks. The Fuga libera, soluta, or sciolta, has free episodes or
interpolated phrases. The Fuga obbligata unfolds itself according to
absolute and logical rules. In the Fuga per augmentationem the imi-
tation shows itself in augmentation; that is, if the subject is written
in quavers, the first imitation is in crotchets, the second in minims,
and so on. The Fuga per diminutionem, follows this example in the
opposite way.
Besides these, however, there are various other forms of fugues.
No great oratorio or sacred work has yet been written, in which the
composer was not anxious to provide a good fugue. The fugue is a
kind of guarantee and importance given to the work, a testimony of
legitimacy and genuineness, without which the work could not appear
complete and perfect in the judgment of connoisseurs. All the rules
accepted for instrumental fugues apply equally to vocal fugues. It is
a matter of course that, owing to the more simple means and resources
of the voice, the vocal fugue can never be so varied, brilliant, or com-
plicated as one intended for instruments. Every composer of note,
whether of old or modern times, has written fugues; but no composer
has ever been able in this branch of our art to approach Sebastian
Bach, whose Forty-eight Fugues and other numerous organ and choral
fugues are monuments of constructive genius. He understood how
to unravel all the scientific and artistic mysteries, to throw life, fluency,
grace, and charm into his fugues, and he alone was able to present an
almost unceasing variety of subjects, while he possessed inexhaustible
means of enriching and enhancing the beauty and power of his themes.
 FORM IX MUSIC. 45

FUGA A 3 Voci.

GIACOMO ANTONIO PERTI (1656-1747).

& r =^~
<
I
m -
i;

-. J 4 rJ 1 ^^j

'^r^^^'-rrP'rt^
:=t::

r T
^!
Li X-V
I
,X^ ^V
:g,z=^i^-g'--^j^=Hzrr=j.-7^^^=^i^^z=:pq=i=7-qz: L
^p3^^^^S^^3HE=5^^i^^S ^
|

-P- -^r^r^f-,^- -j*^-

#r
^
46 MUSICAL FORMS.

-_^_C^_ _^' L_
^_^_ l^_ E-^y^-i

-JETS'

^^ ^ z^^^g^^
-^'L ^ C* i j L l*~~l ^i ^
* ^.^
 FORM IN MUSIC. 47

CANON.
A Canon (from the Greek word meaning rule) is a musical composi-
tion, in which the voices begin one after another, at regular intervals,
successively taking up the same subject; as each voice finishes, it
commences anew, thus forming a continuous movement.
The canon was formerly also called fuga canonica, legata, inconse-
quenza, Integra, totalis. The canon is a particular contrapuntal form.
The point for starting the voice that succeeds the principal or initiating
voice is not restricted to a fixed rule and in the same way the choice
;

of the interval in which the succeeding part begins is left to the com-
poser's choice; thus we have canons in the second (Ex. III.), third,
fourth, and so on the composer must, however, adhere strictly to a
;

rigorous and exact imitation of the principal or initiating voice. An

exception to this rule is found in the so-called free canon, in which
major intervals may be imitated by minor intervals, and vice versa;
another exception is the so-called false or mock (Schein) canon, gener-
ally used in instrumental compositions (symphonies) and in operas;
this kind of canon is called canone sdolto. According to the manner
in which the close of the different parts is indicated, the canon is
called infinite (canon infinitus or perpetuus) (Ex. I.), or finite (canon
finttu*). In the first instance, each part begins again after the sentence
is finished; in the second, each part is silent after having completed
the sentence. In the mixed canon (polymorphus) (Ex. VII.), the second
part follows the first part; for example in the fifth, whilst the third
part can follow in another interval. The circular canon (canon per tonos}
is produced by each part that begins occasioning a modulation, which
method is repeated as many times as necessary to return to the starting
or principal key. The canon cancrizans (Ex. VIII.) is a canon by
retrogression a canon practically consisting of two parts in double
;

counterpoint, that is, parts which are grammatically interchangeable,

o constructed that they may read actually backwards, hence probably,
the derivation of cancrizans, walking backward like a crab. Canon
in augmentation (Ex. VIII.) or diminution (Ex. IX.). In this, the suc-
ceeding part appears in notes of double or half the value of the initia-
ting or principal part. The double canon (canon duplex) (Ex. X.), is
the union of two separate canons. Other kinds of canons are: canon
enigmaticus, the riddle canon, in which the difficulty is to find the
proper place to start the succeeding part (every canon in which the
place for commencing each succeeding part is not indicated may be
regarded as a riddle canon); canone al sospiro, in which the parts
follow each other closely, after a minim or a crotchet rest; the canon in
epidiapente, in the upper dominant; in epidiatessaron, in the upper
fourth; in hypodiapason, in the lower octave; in hypodiatessaron, in
the lower fourth per arsin et thesin, in mixed time. If the different
;

it is called
parts of the canon are written out in full, in score (Ex. I.),
an open canon (canone apertus) if, however, only the principal part is
;

written out, and the number of parts (a, 2, 3, 4, etc.), and their respec-
tive entrances are marked by the sign g, the canon is called a closed
one (canon clausus, canone in corpo) (Ex. II.). A few short examples
will best show the different construction of canons.
 MUSICAL FORMS.

CANON INFINITUS.

The parts written out (Canon apertus).

Ex. I. RAMEAU.

THE SAME CANON AS CANON CLAUSTJS, CANONE IN CORPO :

Ex. II.
 FORM IN MUSIC. 49

ANOTHER EXAMPLE FOR Six PARTS.

KlRNBERGER

CANON IN THE SECOND.

Ex. III.

3 =
ic=:
CANON IN THE LOWER SEVENTH.
Ex. IV.

fcB =: I

CANON IN THE UPPER THIRD (MEDIANT).

Ex. V. ANDRE -

!
60 MUSICAL FORMS.

CANON POLYMOEPHUS (MIXED).

Ex. VI. SEB. BACH.

p^ I f-^ H ^ \- P

11

~^~ ^ ! L I cJ id" 0' r ^

y^E ^
 FORM IN MUSIC. 51

CANON CANCRIZANS.
Ex. VIII. ANDRE.

CANON IN AUGMENTATIONEM.
The second part (risposta) imitates the first part (proposta) in augmentation and in con
trary motion.
Ex. IX. KlRNBEEGER.

^3tgy^f^3t^

(To make this example appear in the diminution, one has only to begin at f.)
 MUSICAL FORMS.

2d part.

^
Ex. X.
DOUBLE CANON (CANON DUPLEX).
Fux.

Chris - te e - lei

Chris - te e - lei son,

'

22 F-!^ ^J-'
jy- j- P

_gjirizz=~* gp-^ P . :
p i F^IH

son, e ------
- lei son,

- -
Chris te e lei son,
 FORM T N MUSIC.

-~~rrj i
~
r
~
^ PI

I t^-~
.
x--,

. . ,

^
4-
>-

i-

The above (Ex. X.) might also be called a Canon 4 in 2 because

54 MUSICAL FORMS.

there are four parts having two distinct subjects. On the same prin-
ciple Ex. L shows a Canon 3 in 1 because there are three parts having
one subject; Ex. III., IV., V. show Canons 2 in 1; Ex. VI. a Canon
4 in 1; the first number always showing the number of parts; the
second, the number of subjects.
LITERATURE. J. M. Bononcini, "Musicus practicus; " Stuttgart, 1701. Mar-
purg, "Abhandlung von der Fuge " (new edition, by S. Sechter) ; Vienna: Spina.
" "
Kirnberger, Kunst des reinen Satzes; Berlin, 1777. Albrechtsberger, "Anwei-
"
sung zur Composition," p. 380 ; Vienna, 1829. Cherubini, Cours de
" Lehrbuch der Contrepoint,"
p. 75. Anton ( Andr6) ; Offenbach, 1838. J. C. Lobe, Composition,"
1860. S. W. Dehn,
" Lehre vom Contrapunkt, Canon " Berlin,
vol. iii. Leipzig,
; ;
" " "
1859. Richter, Lehrbuch der Fuge ; Leipzig, 1859. Bellermann (Th.), Der
Contrapunkt," etc., p. 285 ; Berlin, 1862.

VOCAL MUSIC.
SACRED FORMS.

ANTIPHONY.
IN the ancient Church of the Jews there was an alternation of song,
one singer being answered by another or by a chorus in response, as
in the Song of Moses and the Children of Israel, and of Miriam the
Prophetess and all the women, with timbrels and with dance!-, after
the passage of the Red Sea. This same alternation of song is ^o be
traced in other notices of the Hebrew music throughout their history,
"
as e.g. Samuel xviii. 7, the women answered one another as they
in I

played." was no doubt used at the first consecration of the

It
Temple and its subsequent restorations, and in the daily Morning and
Evening Sacrifices, at all of which a choral worship of the highest
possible grandeur of vocal and instrumental music was celebrated.
In the rebuilding of the Temple recorded by Ezra (iii. 10, 11) the
"
choral arrangements were newly set on foot, And they sang together
by course. And all
. the
.
peple
. shouted with a great shout, when
they praised the Lord." "In Nehemiah xii. 24 the chief of the Levites
are spoken of as having their brethren over against them, to praise
and to give thanks according to the commandment of David the man
of God, ward over against ward." And at the dedication of the
restored walls of Jerusalem the great procession of princes, priests,
and Levites was divided into two companies, headed by " them that
gave thanks," one going up from "the fountain-gate," "
"above the
house of David, even unto the water-gate eastward; and the other
passing "over against them," above the old gate and other towers,
stood still in the prison-gate. "And the singers sang loud, with
Jezrahiah their overseer. The wives also and the children
. . .

rejoiced; so that the joy of Jerusalem Was h*o.rd even afar off."
 VOCAL MUSIC. 55

We know from Josephus that this choral worship, thus renewed

after the Baby/onish captivity, was continued in the Temple at
Jerusalem until the final destruction of the holy city. We also learn
from a treatise "On the Contemplative Life," by'Philo Judseus, a
Platonic philosopher of Alexandria (about A.D. 50), that the Jewish
sect of the Therapeutae, in their social worship, were in the habit of
singing, in a similarly antiphonal manner, after supper first in two
:

choirs, one of men and another of women, each with a leader of

superior skill and power of command, in the midst of the supper-
room, hymns to the honor of God, composed in various metres and
kinds of song. Afterwards, transported by their exercises both in
processions and stations, by gesture and exultation, and a divine
ecstasy, both choirs, the men and the women, joined together (as the
Bacchantes used to do) in one choir, inebriated as it were in their
pious rapture with pure draughts of the divine love, after the manner
of their forefathers' rejoicings at their deliverance on the shores of the
Red Sea. Thus they blended their deep and high voices in most
sweet accord, and in pious, high-strained devotion they hailed the
rising sun, and, with hands outstretched to heaven, prayed for a
happy day, for the knowledge of the truth, and for clear mental
vision. And thus ending their devotion, they each retired to their
religious houses to work out and cultivate their accustomed philos-

The sacred song of the first Christians would necessarily partake

largely of the characteristics of their national music, and, like other
elements of divine worship, would naturally partake of such Templar
peculiarities as were not, in the nature of things, mere shadows of a
better dispensation. Neither prayer nor praise, nor vocal and
instrumental music, were of the essence of the transitory rites of the
Levitical dispensation; they were rather a foretaste of the celestial
worship of Jerusalem above, and as such to be retained in the
Christian, as they had originated in the Jewish Church. History
confirms this supposition. From the first, Christian worship was
antiphonal. Pliny the younger, Governor of Pontus and Bithynia,
A.D. 110-111, stated in his letter to the Emperor Trajan, that the
Christians affirmed that it was their practice to sing a hymn by turns
"
to Christ as God ;
carmen Christo quasi Deo dicere secum invicem."
"
Socrates, in his Ecclesiastical History," tells of Ignatius, Bishop of
Antioch, who had conversed with the apostles, setting this antiphonal
worship in order, and of his having had a vision of the angels thus
adoring the Holy Trinity; and, as Hooker writes, "one which must
be with us of greater authority," Isaiah, saw the Lord on a high
throne; the Seraphim stood upon it, "one cried unto another, and said,
Holy, holy, holy." The Psalms were the principal subject-matter of
this antiphonal singing, and in St. Basil's time (A.D. 371) the custom,
was universal throughout the Eastern Churches of Egypt, Lybia,
Thebes, Palestine Arabians, Phoenicians, Syrians, Mesopotamians,
and of all that reverenced the custom of singing psalms together; and
he adds that " in this holy exercise the choir, being divided into two
parts, they mutually answered each other" (dvriVd\\ovatv dXX/jXotf). The
"
word antiphon conies from the Greek dvri, " opposite," and ^w^, a
"
sound ; hence, in a general way, it expresses the alternate answering
of one voice, or one set of voices, to another. But the term has, for
upwards of thirteen centuries at least, been used specifically for the
66 MUSICAL FORMS.

verse accompanying a psalm or group of psalms, taken sometimes

from the psalm itself, sometimes from other sources, always suitable
to the festival, or particular service in which it is used and it serves
;

to guide the worshipper to such an application of the ancient psalms

as may transmute them into Christian hymns.
The music of the antiphon is more elaborate than the psalm-tone,
being a regular melodic plain-song composition, with one or more
notes to every syllable, and always ending on the final of its mode ;

thus, in any complete system of the ecclesiastical chant, the antiphon

governs the psalm, and in a practical sense is a sort of burthen or
refrain, sung as an introduction, and a final response to its accom-
panying psalm or psalms.*
HYMN.
The word Hymn
(Greek tyvcs; Lat.
"
hymnus-, Fr. and Ger. Hyrnne;"
Ital. inno) as St. Augustine says,
is, a song with the praise of God
("Cantus est cum laude Dei"); and again, "Si laudas Deum, et non
cantas, non dicis hymnum. Si cantas, et non laudas Deum, non dicis
hymnum" (Augustin, in Psa. cxlviii). The hymn, as well as the
Psalms and other spiritual songs, is coeval with Christianity itself.
The New Testament not only commands their use, but contains some
of the actual words sung by the first Christians. There are various
historical allusions to the Church hymns in the first three centuries;
and in the fourth they were specially composed and appointed to
parts of the ritual by Bishop Hilary, of Poitiers, and by St. Ambrose.
The music of hymns is as various as the prose and metrical forms of
the words themselves. The celebrated "Te Deum" of St. Ambrose
and St. Augustin, with its traditional Ambrosian melody, may serve
as an example of prose hymns, or canticles; and the four sequences,
still retained out of hundreds of others in the Roman Missal, together
with the office hymns of the Breviary, are the best-known specimens
of ancient metrical hymns.
The natural love of metre has from the earliest times exercised an
immense influence upon the worship of mankind in general, and of
the Christian Church in particular. Thus, notwithstanding the
opposition to any new thing on the part of ecclesiastical bigots
continually repeating itself, from the times when Sabellius and
Marcellus incensed the Church of Neocesarea against St. Basil, as
being an author of new devices in the service of God, a love of poetry
and melody in various metres has handed down to our own days a
vast collection of hymns, "the gradual accumulation of centuries the ;

offerings of different epochs, of different countries, of different minds,

to the same treasury of the church."
At the era of the Reformation this taste ran into sad excess by the
rejection of the prose forms of psalms, hymns and even of prayers
themselves, in favor of metrical translations. Hymnody itself was
nearly crushed out, both at home and abroad, under the weight of
the Protestant versions of psalms and canticles, which not only
banished the proper music of the old Catholic psalms and canticles,

*"Cum psalmodiis autem antiphonse cantantur secundum hujus enim melo-

;

disetonum Psalraodia intonatur ab uno unius chori, et a duobus choris alternatim

cantatur, eaque absoluta, antiphona ab omnibus perfecte repetitur et communiter
canitur." PB^TOR, Synt. i. 65
 VOCAL MUSIC. 57

causing them to be merely read, in slovenly antiphon of priest and

people (or the vicarious parish clerk), hut actually usurped the place
of the ancient Christian hymns, and as was erroneously believed by
many conscientious English Churchmen rendered it illegal to intro-
duce any hymn, ancient or modern, instead of the old version of the
Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins, or the new by Tate and Brady.
Religious fervor rebelled against such un catholic restrictions and
perversions; the Nonconformist Protestants, and the followers of
Whitfield and Wesley, breaking away from the lugubrious strains of
Genevan and Scotch Presbyterian (so-called) psalmody, introduced a
more hearty and popular style of melody not ^infrequently, it must
be said, vulgar and meretricious, both in principle and in form, but
which has, among other collateral influences, happily superinduced
in the more Catholic-minded among English Christians a return to
the good old paths of ancient hymnody, and its plain-song melody;
while modern hymns and modern tunes have been vastly improved
in style by the revival of a more artistic and church-like taste con-
sequent on the study of the purer forms of Church music.

AMBROSIAN HYMN
isa musical setting of the " Te Deum "
in plain-song, thus called
because the words are ascrihed to Bishop Ambrosius of Milan.
According to tradition this hymn was first sung by Ambrosius whilst
christening St. Augustine, A.D. 386, and it is further stated that both
Ambrosius and Augustine were inspired with the tune at the same
time but subsequent researches have shown that the hymn-tune is
;

originally an oriental one, which was received by the Latin Church

from the Greek Church.*

ANTHEM.
The word said by some authors to be derived from ant-
itself is
hymn, a kind of antiphony. According to H. Ch. Koch ("Musika-
lisches Lexicon"), and Mattheson ("Ehrenpforte")
"
anthem " was
"
at first synonymous with antiphony." Byrd, Tallis, and other of our
earliestpost-Reformation composers wrote anthems in the style of
motets. Purcell and others at the Restoration introduced solo
anthems, as had Orlando Gibbons in Charles I's reign. Handel
wrote anthems which may be called a mixture of a motet and a
German sacred cantata. From the motet Handel's anthem derived
the broadly planned and artistically worked-out choruses (the words
taken from the Bible) from the cantata the anthem took the solo
;
"
parts and the orchestral accompaniments (see Chrysander's Life of
Handel," vol. i. p. 459). Another definition of the anthem is: "Anthem,
a composition for voices, with or without organ or other instrumental
accompaniments, enjoined by the ritual of the Anglican Church to be
sung at morning and evening service, 'in choirs or places where they
sing.'" It is an ornament of the service reserved for the choir, in
which the congregation takes no part.

*See Rambach, " Anthologie christlicher Xirchengesange," i. p. 91; Fortlage

"
Gesange christlicher Vorzeit," p. 307.
58 MUSICAL FORMS.

MOTET.
(Ital. Motetto, also Moteta, Motecta, Muteta, Modeta.)

The last species of the we have to notice is thy Motet.

hymn
Opinions differ as to the origin of the word motet. The great German
historian of music, Winterfeld, a high authority in matters of sacred
"
music, derives the word motet from the French mot, or word," from
the fact that the text of a motet must always be a verse from the Bible.
Other scholars think that it comes from motus and movere, "to move,"
inasmuch as the style of the motet is livelier and more brisk than that
of other religious music; again it has been asserted that in mutare,
"to change," the real origin of the word is to be sought, as the motet
includes so many different ways of characteristic expression. The
first motets were constructed on a cantus firmus, or plain-chant, which
was taken from the Gregorian chant. From Bach, however, the
motet received amuch freer expression. That great master abandoned
to some extent the cantus firmus and substituted for it the Protestant
choral. In the Roman Mass a motet may be sung during the offer-
tory.

MASS.
The Latin word is missa ;
the Italian messa the French and
; German,
Messe. All may be interpreted as meaning Missa est, "it is pronounced."
The Mass comprises three parts: 1. The Offertorium, or Offertory; 2. The
Benediction, or Blessing; 3. The Sumption, or Reception. These
three parts respectively contain the following distinct pieces: the Kyrie
Eleison, the Gloria, the Credo, the Sanctus, the Benedictus, and
finally the Agnus Dei, with the additional "Dona nobis pacem."
According to the number and rank of the officiating priests, the
accompanying solemnity of ceremonial, and the co-operation of a
choir, the Mass is called a High or Solemn Mass, or a Low Mass. It
may safely be asserted that almost every composer of eminence wrote
Masses; and if a complete list of these compositions were made, the
number would without exaggeration amount to tens of thousands.
Among the older composers the name of Giovanni P. Palestrina is
especially identified with the Mass; and among the modern com-
posers, the two Haydns (Joseph and Michael), Mozart, Cherubim,
Beethoven, and Hummel.
The "Funeral Mass," which, as its name implies, is devoted to the
memory of the dead, is called "Missa pro defunctis," or "Requiem,"
the latter title being an abridgment of the words of the Mass,
"Requiem seternam dona eis;" or in English, "Rest eternal grant
Thou to them." The order in which the service of the Requiem
follows is :

1. Requiem seternam, Kyrie Eleison. Reading of the prayer and

epistle Tractus. 2. Dies irse, dies ilia. Prayer for eternal rest. 3.
Domini Jesu Christe. 4. Sanctus, Benedictus. 5. Agnus Dei, Lux
seterna. The two most celebrated compositions of this kind are by
" "
Mozart and Cherubini. Mozart's Requiem stands forth pre-eminent
in our musical literature as something unapproachable by ordinary
criticism, as a thing to be judged and measured only by its gigantic
self. Sounds like those of the " Lacrymosa," and the thrilling chords
with which the "Confutatis" closes, do not seem to belong to this
 VOCAL MUSIC. 59

nether world and indeed the illustrious composer, whose career was
;

so sadly and prematurely closed, penned part of his

"Requiem"
actually on his deathbed and while the shadows of death were clos-
;

ing around him he murmured passages of this his most beloved work.
The Mass, together with the Oratorio, forms the most important
branch of sacred music; and, when we consider that it contains six
distinct features or opportunities for expression, we cannot wonder ai.
the many composers who have written in this form. One displayed
his strength in the Benedictus, another in the Gloria ; the Kyrie
Eleison, with its supplementary Christe Eleison, was mostly used to
exhibit skill in fugue-writing. Ultimately, especially in the south of
Germany and Italy, the mode of writing Masses degenerated into a
vulgar and frivolous style, devoid of all devotional and religious
feeling; but on the other hand we have such masterpieces as the
stupendous "Missa solemnis" of Beethoven, one of the greatest
monuments of musical art. Before we proceed to the form of the
Oratorio we have to mention some minor sacred forms, which have
become celebrated through their respective composers.

INTROIT.
(Lat. introitus; Fr. introit.}

The commencement of the Liturgy proper i.e. Holy Communion

or Mass is the Introit, of which there are authentic records from the
beginning of the fifth century. Celestine I. ordered the Psalms of
"
David; and St. Gregory the Great has set, in his famous Antiphon-
ary," one psalm to be sung antiphonally whilst the sacred ministers
were proceeding from the sacris'y and entering the presbyterium.
The first Prayer Book of our Edward VI. also appoints a psalm for
the introit for each Sunday in the year; and in a manner the place
has been traditionally kept open for this beautiful introduction to the
service by the use of a misplaced sanctus, a modern anthem, or a
metrical hymn.
On Ferias (or ordinary weekdays) one chorister intones the antiphon;
two, or more, on festivals, according to their solemnity. The entire
choir after this commencement falls in, and finishes it; then the one
or more choristers, as before mentioned, sing the half verse of the
psalm, and, in its place, half of the Gloria Patri, the full choir
responding with the remaining half.
The time for commencing the introit is when the celebrant has
reached the altar-steps; and the music should be Gregorian, even
when the other portions of the service are sung to harmonized
music.

GRADUAL.
(Ger. Stufen- or Staffelgesang.)

We find the origin of the name of this form of song-writing in the

word gradus, "steps." Whilst the gradual was sung by the chorus,
the officiating priest either stood on the steps by the lectern, or
ascended the steps of the altar, from which the Gospel was to be
read. The gradual can be made the exponent of different kinds of
sentiments, according as it is employed for the celebration of the
60 MUSICAL FORMS.

respective holidays or feasts. The graduals used in the services of

Christmas or of other joyful holidays have, as a coda, a hallelujah,-
and this again concludes with a so-called Jubilus on the vowel a,
expressing, by means of certain florid passages, the joy of the
congregation. The best modern graduals were written by Joseph and
Michael Haydn, by Mozart, Cherubini, and Hummel. At present
the gradual occupies in the Mass a position immediately after the
Epistle.

OFFERTORY.
(Lat. arid Ger. Offertorium; Fr. offertoire; Ital. offertorio.)

An anthem or hymn sung from the earliest times in the Liturgy,

whilst the contributions of the faithful for the poor and other offer-
ings were collected, and is still used while the celebrant is preparing
to offer the oblations previous to the consecration of the elements.
The offertory properly consists of an extract from the Psalms or
some other portion of Scripture. Like the introit, it is intoned by
one, two, or three and four chanters, according to circumstances, and
then continued to the end by the full choir.
In Paschal-time a hallelujah is added. If there be time a motet
suited to the occasion may be sung after the offertory.
The expression of the offertory ought to be soft, devotional, and
subdued.
STABAT MATER.
This work is one of the five sequences of the Latin Gradual, and,
musically considered, a sacred cantata, which begins with the words
"
Stabat Mater dolorosa," and which describes the agony and suffering
of the Holy Virgin standing at the Cross of the Saviour. The text has
been attributed to various authors, among them Pope John XXII.
and one of the Gregories but generally the Franciscan friar Jacobus
;

de Benedictns (commonly called Jacoponus) is credited with the

composition of the somewhat quaint and uncouth verses. With
regard to musical composition the "Stabat" for eight voices by
Palestrina, that for two female voices by Pergolesi, that by Astorga,
Joseph Haydn, and lastly that by Rossini (though this last is by no
means strictly a sacred work) are the most renowned specimens of
this kind of sacred song. When the Stabat is performed in the Roman
Catholic Church it is used as a so-called "sequence " to be sung during
the service of the " Seven Sufferings of the Virgin." The first lines of
the five sequences retained in the Roman Catholic Church are:
Victims? Paschali, Easter; Veni, Sancte Spiritus, Pentecost; Lauda Sion,
Corpus Christi Stabat Mater dolorosa, Seven Dolors of B.V.M. ; Diet
;

irse, a specialty of the Mass for the Dead.

MISERERE.
The Miserere is another celebrated composition the " Miserere mei,
;

Deus" (Lord, have mercy upon me) is in fact the fifty-first Psalm,
and is daily sung in monasteries at midnight as a prayer to implore
mercy for the coming day. When sung after midnight the service is
called Maitutino. or in English, "Matins;" but when sung in the
afternoon of Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays, during the Holy
 VOCAL MUSIC. 61

Week it is called the Dark Service, or Tenebrsc. The most famous

Miserere is that by Allegri, sung during Easter Week by the choristers
in the Sistine Chapel. When the Miserere begins, the pope and
cardinals fall on their knees, and they remain in that position until
its conclusion. It is well known that all copying of Allegri's compo-
sition was strictly forbidden. The work was for a long time the
exclusive property of the papal choir; but this precaution was
frustrated by the prodigious memory of Mozart, who at the age of
fifteen heard Allegri's "Miserere" during his stay in Rome and
noted it down on paper. There are two minor forms, the " Salva
"
regina and " Ave verum Corpus " the former is founded on the
;

words of Pietro di Compostella, and belongs to the &ntiphonies

dedicated to the Feasts of the Holy Virgin the latter is a snort piece,
;

mostly performed during the procession of the Corpus Onristi.

LAMENTATIONS.
Lastly, we have mention the " Lamentations," founded on the
to
words of the prophet Jeremiah, and sung at night during Passion
Week.
CANTICUM.
"
In English, canticle," an ecclesiastical song of praise or a hymn.
The three canticles from the New Testament that of Mary, "My
" "
soul doth magnify the Lord that of Zacharias,
;
Blessed be the
Lord God of Israel " and that of Simeon, " Lord, now lettest Thou
;

Thy servant" were called cantica majora or evangelica, and were and
are daily used in the Church service. The Old Testament contains
seven smaller canticles (minora], distributed among the seven days of
the week. The greater canticles are sung with their antiphonies in a
slower and more solemn manner than the lesser canticles and
ordinary psalmody.
MAGNIFICAT.
Canticum Luke i. 46-55). (See also Can ti cum.)
beatse virginis (St.
One of three cantica majora or evangelica, beginning with the words
"Magnificat anima mea Dominurn" ("My soul doth magnify the
Lord").
This hymn is used in the Roman Catholic as well as in the
Protestant service, and has been set by many composers. (See Bona,
"
Psalmod." p. 525.) Among the most celebrated settings of the
Magnificat may be named those of Erba, Sebastian Bach, Palestrina
(Proske, A., vol. iii. p. 282), Lotti, Lassus (Proske, A., vol. iii. pp. 253-
278), Pitoni (Luck, vol. ii. p. 220), Morales (Proske, A., vol. iii. p. 298),
and Marenzio (Proske, A., vol. iii. p. 325).

LAUDA SION SALVATOREM.

The first sequence or service for the Corpus Christi, written by
Thomas Aquinas, who wrote the liturgy for this feast in 1269, at the
request of Pope Urban X. It is not known whether the very solemn
melody was composed by the author of the words. (Noble examples
of this style are Palestrina's Motet
"
Landa Sion " for eight voices
(1575), and Mendelssohn's similarly-named composition, written for
Liege, 1845.)
62 MUSICAL FORMS.

LAUDES.
"
In the Roman Catholic Liturgy the term Laudes" is applied to the
Hallelujah which is sung between the Epistle and the Gospel also, ;

according to Walther, the last piece of the nocturnal service, for which
the 148th Psalm and the two following were sung.

LAUDES EPISCOPI.
According to Koch's old Lexicon, Laudes Episcopi were old Gallic
melodies, which were, up to the time of the French Revolution, sung
by the canons in some French cathedrals before the epistle on the
principal feast days.

LAUDI SPIRITUALI
were short hymns for four voices, composed by Animuccia and
Palestrina for the services of prayer of Philippo Neri. These Laudi
spirituali, sometimes alternating with a soliloquy, are in fact the
modest beginning of the Oratorio.

ORATORIO.
The name "
Oratorio is derived from the Oratory " the sanctuary
for prayer in which the zealous Roman Priest St. Philippo Neri
assembled his congregation. The first oratorios treated exclusively of the
story of our Saviour's sufferings, and were by no means identical with
the form, as elaborated and perfected by Handel or Mendelssohn; indeed
the musical part of the ceremony might be called the subordinate one,
in so far as the sermon, interpolated between the different choruses,
occupied the longer time. The earliest specimens of the Italian
Oratorio consisted of antiphonies, and more particularly of short
choruses, which were called "Laudi spirituali.'
1
Neri's efforts to
interest his congregation in this respect were most energetically
seconded by Animuccia and Palestrina. The Oratorio, as it was
performed in the oratory of Neri, could, however, not permanently
fascinate his hearers; and as the invention of the Opera happened to
take place at the same time in Florence, the tendency to introduce a
certain dramatic element into the sacred form was soon apparent.
The first dramatic oratorio, produced with the strange accessories of
scenery" and costume, was composed by Emilio del Cavaliere, and was
called L'Anima ed il Corpo " ("The Soul and the Body"). Later
Italian composers for' instance Alessandro Scarlatti, and most par-
ticularly Carissimi selected for treatment biblical subjects apart from
the history of the Saviour and the short but exceedingly beautiful
;
" "
oratorio Jephtha of Carissimi already exhibits all the chief
component elements of the later oratorios of Handel. The master-
mind of Handel could not fail to appreciate the wealth of intrinsic
power and interest contained in the form of the Oratorio and he ;

infused still greater dramatic expression into it. He chose almost all
his texts from the Old Testament, and concentrated the chief strength
m the chorus. Thus we could call the Oratorio of Handel a kind of
biblical drama; from this designation we shorM, however,
except his
 VOCAL MUSIC. 63

"Messiah," which exhibits a more strictly lyrical expression.*

Among the most celebrated Italian composers of oratorios are,
Carissimi, Steffani, Alessandro Scarlatti, Hasse and among the ;

German composers we must name Schiitz, Handel, Keyser, Telemann,

Mattheson, Emanuel Bach, Graun, Spohr, Beethoven, and Men-
delssohn. Though it had not the influence on the progress of music in
general which was exercised by the Opera, the Oratorio occupies one
of the chief places amongst musical forms; and the great perfection
which choral-writing has achieved is, if not entirely, at least greatly due
to the Oratorio.

LITERATURE. Chrysander (Fr.), "Ueber das Oratorium;" Schwerin, 1853.

Bitter (C. H.), Beitrage zur Geschichte des Oratoriums;" Berlin, 1872. Finck
(G. W.), "Encyclopadie des gesammten musikalischen Wissenschalten," vol. v.
pp. 259-268; Stuttgart, 1837. Winterfeld (C. G. A.), "Johannes Gabrieli und
sein Zeitalter;" Berlin 1834, II. D. Jalm (Otto), "Ueber Mendelssohn's
" " Gesaminelte Aufeatze iiber
Paulus.' Musik," pp. 13-20 ; Leipzig, 1866.

PASSION-MUSIC.
As a branch of the Oratorio we must mention the Passion-music.
The Passion-music originated in the Mysteries or Passion-plays and ;

at a later period adapted almost all the forms which the

itself to
Oratorio had taken. The chief difference between the Passion-music
and the Oratorio is first of all that the Passion-music necessarily treats
of the sufferings and death of our Saviour that the story is related in
the words of one of the Evangelists and that the so-called imaginary
congregation takes a part in the action by singing chorals. As the
choral is essentially an integral part of the Protestant service, it
necessarily follows that Passion-music has been chiefly composed by
Protestant and especially German masters; for it was in Germany
that Protestantism first took root. The introduction of chorals in
Mendelssohn's oratorio of "St. Paul" is an adaptation of Bach's
method. The following quotation is of interest :

* E. Naumann, in his interesting work " Deutsche Tondichter," makes the

following remarks about Handel's oratorios "Most nations possess some great epic
:

poem, constructed more or less on the model of the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey.'
Thus, the Germans ' have the 'Nibelungenlied/ the Italians 'La Divina Corn-
media,' the English Paradise Lost.' Among the epic personages of the Israel of
old are Esther, Deborah, Athalia, Judas Maccabaeus, Joseph, Joshua, Solomon,
Jephtha, Saul, and Samson; and to celebrate these personages in lofty song was
surely a noble task for a composer whose own nature and character were
essentially heroic. Milton's genius soared to the contemplation of the highest
truths vouchsafed to man, and so it was with Handel. Although we associate the
word Oratorio, which generally designates a sacred composition, with the works
of Handel, these works might more properly be termed musical epics,' for it was
'

chiefly the heroic or epic form he found in his subject, which he represented so
gloriously in his music. When, for instance, in his 'Judas Maccabeus/ the
chorus shouts
Lead on, lead on ! Judah disdains the galling load of hostile chains,

it is decidedly a martial hero rather than a sacred religious personage who is

invoked. In the oratorios of Handel the religious element forms merely the
back-ground one single oratorio we of course except from this observation, and
;

this is the Messiah.' That Handel's oratorios are really treated as epic, not as
'

religious pieces, will be abundantly proved by reference to his "'Alexander's

'
Feast,' Acis and Galatea,' Belshazzar,' Hercules,' and Semele.'
' ' '
64 MUSICAL FORMS.

" From
primitive times it was the custom of the Church to keep green the
memory of the sacred history by a public rwiutdon, on Palm Sunday and Good
Friday, of those chapters in one or other of the Gospels which relate the circum-
stances of the Passion. To give dramatic force to the narration the several
personages who speak iu the course of it were represented by different individuals,
whereas he who recites the story was, throughout, the same. Thus a letter of
Mendelssohn recounts how, at Home among the solemnities of Passion Week, in
the Sistine Chapel, in 1831, the portion of St. John's Gospel was sung on Good
Friday, when the part of the Evangelist was sustained by a tenor, the words
belonging to Jesus were assigned to a bass, those of Peter, Pilate, and the Maid
Servant were given by an a^to, and those of the multitude whether the disciples,
the populace, or the priests were sung by the chorus. These choral fragments
are defined as Turbse. The whole was chanted upon so-called Gregorian tones;
and its Roman use iu the same form and to the same music has been from time
immemorial.
"It was a special design of Luther to retain, in the Reformed Church, this
primitive usage of periodically reciting the story of the Passion. According to
his desire the simple manner of its intonation in his own time, by two priests
only, was early amplified, and a German version of the text was printed at
Wittenburg, in 1573, with music for the recitation, and introductory and final
choruses, which, like the Turbae, are harmonized in four parts. A more
elaborated composjtion appeared in 1588, the work of Bartholomaus Gese, in
which the part of Jesus is always set for four voices, those of Peter and Pilate for
three, those of the Maid Servants for two, and the Turbae are written for five
voices a peculiar distribution, that would distinguish the several individualities,
but little tend to the dramatic effect of the performance. Heinrich Schiitz, one oi
the most distinguished musicians of his time, com posed, shortly before the close of
his very long life, music for the Passion, as related in each of the four
Gospels.
The advanced resources of the art are applied in each of these four works, especially
in the elaboration of the chorals or hymn-tunes that constitute the final choruses.
In 1672, the year of the death of Schiitz, Johann Sebastiani produced a ' Passion,'
in which, for the first time, the part of the Evangelist, or narrator, was set to
original recitative, instead of to the old ecclesiastical plain-song, and in which,
also for the first time, string instruments were employed, instead of the accom-
paniment
" being restricted to the organ.
The great advance that had been made in dramatic music, at the beginning of
the eighteenth century, which was especially manifest in Hamburg, induced there
the extended development of art forms in the settings of the 'Passion.' So, ir
1704, the voluminous Reinhard Keiser, who was then director of the opera in that
brought out Der Blutige und Sterbende Jesus,' a work to the same purpose
'

city,
of relating the Gospel story, but peculiar in being set to an original poem instead
of to the biblical text. In this first occurs the term ' soliloquia,' to define a species
of cantata or intermixture of recitative and rhythmical movements, of which there
are three specimens in the work, that consist of reflections, for a single voice, upon
the principal incidents. Another composition by Keiser appeared in 1712, which
also was set to an original poem, wherein, however, the scriptural order of the
story was more strictly followed than in the preceding.
"The text of this work was by Brockes, a Hamburg poet, and it seems to have
been highly esteemed, for it was set to music also by Handel, in 1717, by
Telemann and by Mattheson, and some passages from it are introduced in St.
John's version of the Passion, as set by Bach. Handel composed another work on
the same subject, when but nineteen years old, during his sojourn in Hamburg in
1704, which, as well as the production of 1717, is interspersed with chorals after
the manner of the Lutheran
early Church, pursued also by Bach." #

LITERATURE. "
Mosewius, "J. S. Bach's Matthaus-passion ; Berlin, 1852.
Chrysander (Fr.), "Handel," vol. i. p. 38. Dommer (A. von), "Elemente der
Musik," p. 353. Macfarren (G. A.), Preface to Seb. Bach's "Passion of St.
Matthew ; " London Novello, Ewer and Co.
:

* Extracted from Sir G. A. MACFARREN'S Preface to Sebastian Rach's music of

the Passion according to St. Matthew.
 VOCAL MUSIC.

OHOKAL.
The Choral must rank as a strictly Protestant musical form.
itself
The choral is essentially a psalm-tune. Its origin may be traced as
far back as the time of Gregory I. ;
but the modern choral, which we
derive from Martin Luther, is quite distinct from those tunes used in
*;he Roman Catholic Church. It was the endeavor of the great
Reformer to incite the people to a more active participation in the
religious service; therefore he chose the most popular national
melodies, to which he wrote sacred words, mostly paraphrases of the
Psalms. As it had been customary with earlier Italian composers to
construct their fugues, canons, and other choruses on the foundation
of the Ambrosian or Gregorian chant, so it became a habit with
Sebastian Bach and his followers to build the most complicated works
upon the foundation of a choral. Some of the most interesting
specimens of this form of sacred song are to be found in Bach's St.
Matthew Passion, in his "Christmas Oratorio," and in his numerous
motets and cantatas.
It may be asserted that the choral owes its existence to the obstacles
which the Roman Catholic clergy placed in the way of the Germans,
whom they tried to prevent from singing their religious hymns in
their native language. From time immemorial the Germans were
used to sing their war-songs and ballads in their own language. The
Roman Church, always an enemy to nationality, forbade with all its
autnority the use of the German language, and vainly tried to prevent
the excellent monks Otfried from Weissenburg (in Alsace), Rutpert
of St. Gallen, and Wather Labeo, another Swiss, from introducing
German hymns into the Roman Catholic Liturgy. The tyranny of
the Church of Rome went so far as to shut out the congregation from
all active participation in the service, save from responding with a

"Kyrie Eleison" and "Christe Eleison," whilst the singing of the

Psalms and hymns were confided solely to the officiating clergy.
This strange prohibition was maintained in such a ridiculous degree
that during one single service the congregation had to repeat about
three hundred times the "Kyrie Eleison." Such exaggeration could
not result in anything but mere senseless noise; **nd at last per-
mission was given for the translation of hymns with Latin words into
German, on condition, however, that each verse of these songs was to
finish with the "Kyrie Eleison." From this refrain originates the
term "Leisen," given to hymns of this kind. It was not till the
twelfth century, when the Crusades gave a stimulus to religious
enthusiasm, that poets wrote sacred songs in Germany and adapted
them to the tunes of the before-mentioned "Leisen." Thus the
earliest popular sacred music had its origin among the Germans; and
the people, forbidden to take part in the Church service in their
native language, could not be prevented from singing their simple
national hymns on solemn and festive occasions, like the annual
pilgrimage to Rome, the Feast of Corpus Christi, during the annual
memorial Feasts of Saints, or in time of general supplications for rain,
for fine weather, etc. These national songs received great encourage-
ment through the minstrels (Minnesanger), in as far as the songs of
these poets, although generally secular, were received with universal
favor, and obtained more than a transitory influence. Thus we find
"
flourishing at that time Marienlieder," or songs in honoJf of the Holy
5
66 MUSICAL FORMS.

Virgin ;
the songs of tine palmers or pilgrims; the songs of the boatmen
and the religious war-songs. Among the latter we may mention the
song, sung by the German troops during the war of their Emperor
Kodolph of Hapsburg, and Ottokar of Bohemia, in 1273. It begins
thus :

Holy Mary, mother and maid,

All our grief to thee be said.

Another well-known hymn was that sung during the festival of

Whitsuntide :

And now to the Holy Ghost vre pray

To give us the right belief al way :
That, as to our life's end, guard may be,
And from all our woe may set us free.
Kyrie Eleison.
name " And now we
This hymn was adapted by Luther, under the
pray to the Holy Ghost." Apart from the above-named instances of
the use of religious songs in the "vulgar tongue" of the various
worshippers, the Waldenses in France, and the Heretics of Germany,
established the institution of secular psalm-singing as a specialty of
their creed. That a similar movement occurred at a later period in
"
England is shown by the epithet psalmsingers," contemptuously
applied by the cavaliers in Charles I. 'a time to their jealous though
fanatical foes.
The members of another religious sect, that of the Flagellants, which
had declared itself independent of the Roman hierarchy, sang German
religious songs and contributed largely to popularize this custom.
But it was not till in the fifteenth century that regular German church
songs were written, and generally accepted, and this most important
fact we owe to Johann Huss, the Wickcliffe of Bohemia. Although
the Council of Gonatanz forbade in 1415 the use of these songs, they
had already taken too firm a hold in the people's hearts to be
effectually prohibited, and after the time of Huss the community of
Bohemian or Moravian brothers did everything in their power to
improve these hymns and establish their use. Four hundred were
collected by Bishop Lucas, and published in 1504. This is in reality
the first hymn-book containing melodies set to native words. We
come now to the question from what materials were these songs
collected? We find that they may be classed into four categories :

1. German translations of Latin church hymns.

2. Half German and half Latin, or so-called mixed songs a ; strange
assortment written, almost as a pastime by the monks, and whimsi-
cally made up of dog-Latin and modern languages.
3. Original German songs for religious festivals, etc.
4. Paraphrases of German national and love songs.
Of this last class it may not be uninteresting to cite a few examples.
Their boldness and their outspoken language would produce an
almost repulsive impression of profanity, weighed by a modern
standard but in matters of history we must be tolerant and bear in
;

mind that in those days many things were uttered in mere simplicity
of heart, while in later times the humble and low origin of these
songs was forgotten. In one case the secular song runs thus :

The dearest lover whom I have,

Lies in the host his cellar.
 VOCAL MUSIC. 67

Of this very outspoken sentiment appeared the following astounding

contrafactum or paraphrase :

The dearest master that I have,

Is bound by love to me.
Another song runs thus :

There was a man had lost his wife.

Contrafactum, in a sacred style:

There was a man> had lost God's grace.
In the same manner is the well-known secular Journeyman's Song:

Inns-bruck. I must r sake thee, And

I

IE==^EF
F
r 1

====i^^=:^-==^-
~&~ ^
r~
on my way be
_*=>_

- take
1

-+- *?
me
I

In -
I

to the
I i l

dis-tant land.

~
k Him "I \ ^-^ ?^3
\<^> rj r^ 22_L2^ !

O world, I must for - sake thee, And on my way

_
^^ r ___ c^* __ ^j
_
_ __
_ r ^~
_
_ _j
^? ___ s^
^j x^j
-
i
( ~_^~t i^

H I===:--^nt^iz^zituzii '

22 ^^h

His e -
ter - nal land.
68 MUSICAL FORMS.

Out of these vulgar, seemingly insignificant elements the Protestant

choral arose. That such songs could not satisfy public feeling for any
length of time, is evident and we shall find that Luther's translation
;

of the Bible did not only furnish the foundation for the High-German
language, but also presented a model for the excellent church hymns,
of which the Protestant Church of Germany can boast so great a
number, and of which many have become popular "
in an English garb.
Luther writes to his friend George Spalatin It is my intention to
:

write German psalms for the people, after the example of the Prophets
and the old Fathers of the Church Therefore we are seeking
poets everywhere I would pray, however, that the new words
be kept away from the court, that they may all be according to the
capacity of the common people, quite simple and vulgar, and yet come
out in a clear and telling way, and that the meaning be given full plainly,
and according to the spirit of the psalm." The suggestion of Luther met
with almost universal approval, and his ideas soon received an artistic
development. "The people sang themselves into enthusiasm for the
new religion, and many who were hostile to the name of Luther were
converted to his tenets by the irresistible charm of the simple and
touching Protestant Church psalmody."
LITERATURE. Schamelias f Johann Martin), " Evangelischer Lieder Commen-
tarius;" Leipzig, 1737. Riederer (Johaun Bartholoruaeus), " Abhandlung von
Einfuhrung" des deutschen Gesanges," etc.; Niirnberg, 1759. Sc'uobor (David
" Kurze
Gottfried ), Beitrag zur Lieder-Historie," etc.; Leipzig, 1760. Geschichte
"
der deutschen Kirchenlieder," Coburg, 1775. Kocher (Conrad), Die Tonkunst
inder Kirche," etc.; Stuttgart, 1823. Bohmer (J. G.), "Ueber Kirchenmusik,
etc., in der Eutonia," 1831, vol. v. pp. 25-43. Wolf (Johann), " Kurze Geschichte
des deutschen Kirchengesanges
"
Gottingen, 1815.
;

THE FIGURED CHOEAL.

This is a contrapuntal elaboration of all or of the separate parts of
the choral by means of melodiously moving figures it can be arranged
;

for song with or without orchestra or especially for the organ. The
most simple application of it is generally used by the organist, in so
far as he tries to introduce a certain figure (in the middle or upper
parts) whilst the choral is being sung. We
here give an example from
Sebastian Bach :

"HERZLICH THUT MICH VERLANGEN."

Flauto I, 2. Melody by HANS LEO HASLER (1G01).

EE=EEE=EEEEEEF
=*= -?-:
 VOCAL MUSIC.

T- =f= -f -rr%f ~r~ -?

But the figured choral is also used as a kind of prelude, in so far as

the organist takes the choral, afterwards to be sung by the congrega-
tion, for the cantus firmus, and elaborates it with all possible contra-
puntal, melodious, and harmonious devices, in this art no one has
" "
excelled so much as Sebastian Bach, whose Choral- Vorspiele (Pre-
ludes) are marvellous instances of consummate mastery over all
scientific rules exhibiting a complete command of every combination
;

recognized in the musical art. The student is advised to examine

carefully the following chorals in Bach's arrangement: Peters's edi-
tion, No. 23, vol. ii. pp. 201, 233, 235, 271, 280, 286 (from the "Christmas
"
Oratorio"), 298, 319. C. von Winterfield, Evangelische Kirchenge-
sange," vol. iii. pp. 172, 226, 230; Leipzig Breitkopf and Hartel.
:

PSALMS (psalmus, salmo), PSALMODY (psalmodid).

The poems ascribed to King David were also introduced in the
earliest times into Christian worship, and the people were never tired
of singing them before and after their meals and of using them at their
prayers. The manner of singing the Psalms is called psalmody; it is
actually a medium between reciting and speaking, each psalm-tune
is bound to a certain tonality. In its rhythmical expression it follows
strictly the metre of the words, and marks the beginning of the verse
70 MUSICAL FORMS.

merely by an upTv^v* ^r downward movement whilst the voice keeps, ;

during the beginning of the verse, on one tone only.

Ad te le -
va - vi o - cu - los me - os. Qui ha - bi - tas in cce - lis.

The psalm was preceded by an antiphony or was united with it, and
was sung in the same tone; the end was the smaller doxology (Dox-
ologia parva) ''Gloria Patri," on whose final formula, "Seculorum
amen," the voice was raised to real singing or to pneumas. The
Psalms were sung in four different manners: (a) by a single voice ;

(b) by the whole congregation (c) by the congregation divided into

;

two parts and then sung like antiphonies; or (d) by one voice, with
the chorus joining at the conclusion. Particular psalms are selected
for certain solemnities and feast-days. The canticles (see Canticus)
are also reckoned to the Psalms. In the German Protestant service
the psalmody is still used by the officiating clergyman under the name
of Collectengesang.
The Italian composers have written many psalms, and we possess
in new editions very rich and well-selected collections. Among more
mode, a Italian composers may be mentioned Benedetto Marcello,
whose fifty psalm compositions appeared: in 1724 the first volume,
"Estro Poetico Armonico: Parafrasi sopra li primi venticinque
salmi;" in 1726-1727 the second volume, "Estro Poetico Armonico :

Parafrasi sopra i secondi venticinque salmi."

Among the older German composers the Psalms of Heinrich Schiitz
("Sagittarius") are most remarkable works; and among the modern
composers the Psalms of Mendelssohn, 42d, 95th, 114th, with orches-
tral accompaniment, and the three Psalms (Op. 78) for eight voices,
written for the Berlin Cathedral Choir, belong to the finest creations
of that excellent master.

CONCERTO DA CHIESA.
The Church Concerto was introduced by Ludovico Viadana (1560-
1625). The motets were in his time so overcrowded with all possible
contrapuntal artifices that of the words scarcely anything could be
"
heard; it resulted in such a confusion and noise that one could not
understand a single word much less a sentence" (Printz, " Histor.
Beschreibung," p. 133). To do more justice to the words, Viadana
adapted the monodies (song for one voice) and concertos. The ex-
pression, "Concert concertus" (see this form) was, however, already
used before Viadana, not so much as the name of a special musical
form, as for describing in general a composition in several parts.
The most simple kind of his concertos Viadana composed for one
voice, with an organ-con tin uo (figured bass); others he set for two,
three or four voices, also with organ accompaniment. (Frankfurt,
1602, 100 songs; 1615 and 1625, 146 songs.) At a later time more
instruments were used, the Concerto da Chiesa was composed senza e
con stromenti. On the other hand it must not be supposed that Via-
dana's Concerto was anything like our modern concerto. These
sacred concertos were short all the parts were treated as principal
;

or obbligato parts. The text was generally a verse of one of the

Psalms or any other biblical sentence.
 VOCAL MUSIC. 71

LITERATURE. Clerc (Don Jacob de), " La science et la pratique du pleinchant,

par un Religieux de la Congregation de St. Maur;" Paris, 1672. Martenius or
Martene (Edmund) (1654-1739), " Traite de 1'ancienne discipline de PSglise dans
la celebration de 1'office divin ;" Paris, 1719. Calvor (Caspar) (1650-1725), " De
Musica ac sigillatini de ecclesiastica eoque spectantibus organis :" Leipzig, 1702.
"
Pagi (Franciscus) (1654-1721), Breviarium historico-chronologico-criticum,"
etc. Antwerp, 1717. Scheibel Gottfried Ephraim),
"
; ( DieGeschichteder Kirchen-
musik alter und neuer Zeiten;" Breslau, 1738. Pittono (Joh. Baptista), "Con-
stitutiones pontificse et Romanorum congregation um decisiones ad sacros ritus
spectantes," etc.; Venezia, 1740. Gerbert von Hornau (Prince Martin) (1720-
1793), "De Cantu et Musica sacra a prima ecclesise setate usque ad prseseus
" Historical
tempus," 1774. and Critical Essay on the Cathedral Music ;" Lon-
" Ueber
don, 1783. Vogler (Georg Joseph), Choral und Kirchengesange;" Miin-
chen, 1814. Hoffmann (Heinr.), "Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis
auf Luther's Zeit," Breslau, 1832. Hauser Joh. Ernst), " Geschichte des christ-
(

lichen Kirchengesanges und der Kirchenmusik," etc. Leipzig, 1834. Olearius

;

(Joh. Christoph.) (1611-1688), "Geistliche Singekunst" Leipzig, 1671. Kocher

(Conrad), "Die Tonkunst in der Kirche," etc.; Stuttgart, 1823. Becker (Carl
Ferdinand), "Sammlung von Choralen "aus dem 16ten und 17ten Jahrhundert;"
Leipzig, 1831. Chrysander (Friedrich ), Ueber das Oratorium ;" Schwerin, 1853.
Winterfeld (C. von), "Der evangelische Kirchengesang;" Leipzig, 1843. Breit-
kopf and Hartel. Winterfeld (C. von), "Zur Geschichte heiliger Tonkunst;"
Leipzig, 1850. Tucher (F. von), "Schatz des evangelischen Kirchengesanges;"
Leipzig. Home (George), "The Antiquity, Use, and Excellence of Church
Music;" London: Rivington, 1784. "Jour. Encyclop.," Mai, 1785, p. 166.

FORMS BELONGING TO SACRED AND SECULAR VOCAL MUSIC.

RECITATIVE.
(Ital. Recitativo.}

THE form of expression belonging to dramatic music,

Recitative is a
and occupying a position between declamation and actual singing.
All singing is nothing else, or should be nothing else, but the effusion
of an overflowing heart in sounds, in which the articulated sounds of
speech adopt that passive modification of tone which we call the
singing voice. If the state of feeling is a lasting one the expression
of the music becomes also systematized in fact it becomes a melody ;

in dramatic music it takes the form of an aria (see Aria), which repre-
sents the climax of the feeling. But where the feeling is merely
awakening or gradually growing, or spasmodically appearing and dis-
appearing, the musical expression cannot yet be a solid or firm one,
and therefore the music seeks for a mode of expression which holds
the balance between passionate language (declamation) and actual
singing. This mode of expression is the recitative.
The recitative differs from ordinary declamation in the following
particulars: (1) The articulated spoken tone approximates to a cer-
tain degree to the tone that is sung (2) by an order of succession of
;

tones which admit of the assistance of harmony (this harmony may

rest undisturbed for some time or modulate into other keys). From
real song the recitative differs in the following points: (1) The reci-
tative is not bound to any particular or systematic time; the singer
dwells only on words which even in speaking require a certain empha-
sis and accent the other words succeed each other quickly, and it is
;

not necessary to pay much attention to the special value of the notes;
so long as a clear and intelligible pronunciation prevails the actual
aim of the recitative with regard to time is satisfied and attained. In
72 MUSICAL FORMS.

the oratorio and sacred cantata the recitative is generally sung in a

more solemn and grave manner, but in the opera, and more particu-
larly in the comic opera, it would be unbearable to listen to a recita-
tive sung with a pathetic or grand expression. The recitative is
brought within the frame of a bar only for this reason, that the sense
of the words becomes clearer to the singer, and that the composer
may, through the application of arsis and thesis (see Accent), show
which words or syllables he desires to emphasize. The Italian and
German composers always put the recitative in common time; some
French composers, however, mix common with triple time, thus
occasioning a good deal of confusion. (2) The recitative has no
rhythmic symmetrical parts, only the csesurse of the text are observed,
regardless of the symmetry of the melodious element; rests or pauses
appear only where the words require them through an interpunctua-
tion. (3) The recitative is purely syllabic; has not more tones than
words; ligatures and extension of syllables belong to the domain of
regular song, and are excluded from the recitative. (4) Finally, the
recitative is not bound to any particular key it often happens that by
;

means of the recitative a modulation into a distant key is effected

between two different movements; besides, in passionate recitatives,
changes of harmony may more often appear than would be advisable
in a systematic piece.
With regard to the accompaniment of the recitative we recognize
(1) the "secco," or simple, and (2) the "accompagnato," the fully
accompanied recitative. 1. In the secco the change of harmony is
merely marked by the starting of the chore's; in olden time the
double-bass gave the bass tone, and the spinet or harpsichord supple-
mented the harmony. The union of the spinet (harpsichord) and
double-bass may have been more satisfactory than that of a piano-forte
with the double-bass. In other instances one double-bass and several
violoncellos gave the chord, the violoncello generally resti'~~ ^ v some
time on the top note :

This kind of accompaniment, although not under all circumstances

sufficient, Was more applicable in the church than in the concert-room
or opera. In (2) the accompaniment shows itself in two kinds (a)
the stringed instruments sustain the chords, whilst the singer performs
the recitative; changes of harmony may take place within the bar in
common time on the first and third crotchets, but such modulations
are only to be used sparingly, in so far as they are likely to interfere
with the distinctness of the recitation; (6) the instruments, after
having given the key, perform in the pauses (caesuras) of the recitative
short passages, which assist in giving to the recitative a higher charac-
teristic meaning. (A beautiful example of this kind is the recitative
"
to Donna Anna's aria "Crudele," in Mozart's Don Giovanni.")
If there occur in the course of a recitative passages of a more lyrical
expression the composer generally substitutes for the mere reciting a
" "
short cantabile, and then the recitative is called recitative arioso
(see Arioso). Although in the recitativo arioso the importance of the
 VOCAL MUSIC. 73

declamation recedes for a little while in order to make room for the
more melodious element, it is nevertheless very necessary that the
Composer should give in the arioso the best and most correct accent
to the words which determine the sense of the sentence. The recita-
tion in its first germ is decidedly the oldest manner of expression.
The song of all pre-Christian (or civilized) nations must have been a
kind of recitation, in so far as the means for an independent melodious
life and expression were all wanting; the musical
expression was still
associated with speech and to rhythmical movements of the body, but
even in the Christian era it took long until the tone freed itself from
the word, and it may safely be asserted that the method applied to
singing the Psalms initiated the recitative in the modern sense. At
about 1600 the Opera was invented,* and it became a matter of the
utmost necessity to have a style of performance better suited to a
lively action. Although at first rather stiff and uncouth, this method
(as has been shown by our modern recitative) was capable of improve-
ment. (Compare Winterfeld, ''Gabrieli," vol. ii. p. 19; Kiesewetter,
"
Weltliche Gesange," p. 24.) The recitative was much improved by
Monteverde, also by Carissimi and Alessandro Scarlatti. It is said
that the last-named composer invented the Recitative accompagnato.
In German Passion-music and in similar sacred dramatic works the
recitative for a long time resembled the psalmody. The shortest
example will show this difference :

RECITATIVE FROM THE ORATORIO "JEPHTHA.'

FlLIA. CARISSIMI (1582-1673).
Andante.
.n/n^u-ftc-o.

fceEEu^Eu^^EE
HZ ^J_^__^_,__
O let me go, that for two months I may wander upon the mountains,

Andante.

* About 1580 a
society of artists and amateurs was formed at Florence in the
house of Giovanni Bardi, Count de Vernio. This society aimed at improving the
musical art, and desired to effect a revival (Wiederbelebung) of the old Greek
recitation in the dramas. This society consisted of the amateurs Vincenzio Galilei,
Giacomo Corsi, Pietro Strozzi, the poet Ottavio Rinuccini, and the musical com-
posers Emilio del Cavalieri, Giacomo Peri, and Giulio Caccini. The first fruit of
their studies and labors was "the first" lyrical opera, "Daphne," poietry by
Rinuccini, performed for the first time in 1594, at Florence. This work was soon
followed by the first tragic opera, "Orfeus e Euridice," poetry by Rinuccini,
music by Peri and Caccini. After this came " II Satiro" and "La Disperazione
di Filano," both with music by Cavalieri. Almost at the same time Orazio Vecchi
tried a kind of comic opera, which was performed in 1594, at Modena, under the
isams "I/ Antiparnasso," commedia armonica. The vocal part consisted at that
time only of recitatives, and the orchestra of a spinet, tenor- violins, guitars, harps,
"
small organs, fifes, horns, and trumpe*" '~V however, did not perform accord-
ing to stated rule.
74 MUSICAL FORMS.

RECITATIVE FROM THE "HISTORIA DER SIEGREICHEN TJND FROHLICHEN

AUFERSTEHUNG."
HEINRICH SCHUTZ (1585-1672).
EVANGELIST.

Dann sie wussten die Schrift noch nicht dass er von den Ju-den auf-fer-

==53
'.
;_ I
^SlF
LIWIZ
L__!

steh -
en mus - te. Da gin-gen die Jiin-ger wie-der zu-sam -
men.

vn Pe - trus ver - wun dert sich wie es zu - gieng

* *

ARIA.
(A.) In a general sense, an aria is every tuneful air or melody which
has a certain definite form, and is not merely a recitation. Although
the word Aria was first applied to vocal music only, it was later also
used for melodious pieces of instrumental music (See Handel's and
Sebastian Bach's Suites). In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
the word Aria was applied to a cheerful song, which was set for one or
more voices. The aria for one voice was set only with a simple
thorough-bass (basso continuo); that set for several voices was, when
the supplementary voices were absent, sung in the principal part, and
the missing vocal parts played by instruments. In Italy Aria means
also a song and this meaning is still accepted by some parts of the
;

German people. Praetorius (1619) in his " Syntagma," vol. iii. p. 17,
says "Aria vel Air is a pretty tune or melody, which any one sings
:

without notes; it is also a secular song with fine and graceful words."
 VOCAL MUSIC. 75

And these pretty songs the Italians call now also Schertzi." Matthe- "
son ("Neu eroffnetes Orchestra," p. 179, 1713) says: "An aria is gen-
erally any melody performed either vocaliter or instrumentaliter, but in
specie; it is a melody that is sung and which has to direct itself after
the character of the words. (See also Aria in Instrumental music.)
(B.) The aria in the special sense, as lyrical dramatic tone-form,
appears in two kinds namely, as grand aria with the da capo
(repetition), or with a free repetition. The first is the older form, the
second the more modern one, actually a consequence of the first.
The structure of the (1) Grand Aria is the following: the words
consist of two sentences, of which the first expresses the general feel-
ing; the second, however, a particular feature of this feeling; in other
arias the words are merely arranged in two distinct sentences, of which
the first is repeated, for example in Handel's " Judas Maccabaeus " :

1.

From mighty kings he took the spoil ;

And with his acts made Judah smile.

2.

Judah rejoiceth in his name,

And triumphs in her hero's fame.

According to this dualism (Zweitheiligkeit) of the poem, the melody

appears also in two parts.
The (a) first part begins with the instrumental prelude (Symphony,
Ritornello), which contains already the melody this prelude is ;

followed by the voice, which brings the melody first simple and una-
dorned ;
this melody is afterwards divided into smaller parts, which
alternate with the orchestra; it is also customary to modulate into
the dominant or relative minor or major key by means of modula- ;

tion the return to the tonic is resumed; and after (not always neces-
sary) a postlude the first part closes in the tonic, (b) The second part
is generally shorter and has no repetition, and is therefore simply

sung in a straightforward manner, interspersed with short interludes

of the orchestra, so as to allow the singer time for rest. When the
singer has finished the second part the orchestra takes up the prelude
or ritornello, and then comes the (c) da capo, which is merely the
repetition of the first part up to its close in the principal key (tonic).
The key of the second part is generally one closely related to that
of the first part. It was also customary to compose the first part as
an allegro in common time, and to set the second part in slower and
triple time. Although this maxim was often followed out, it could
not be regarded as an indispensable or unalterable rule.

STRUCTURE OF THE GRAND ARIA.

PART I. (a.) PART II. (6.) PART III. (c.)
Instrumental. Prelude Second melody without Da Capo. Prelude or
or Ritornello. Princi- elaboration. Much Ritomello. Repeti-
pal melody. Modula- shorter and more con- tion in toto of Part I.,
tion into the dominant. cise than Part I. with new variation of
Return to the tonic principal ~elody.
with variation. Short
instrumental postlude.

It will be remarked that this form is very similar to, nay almost
identical with, a minuet and trio, in a sonata or symphony.
76 MUSICAL FORMS.

As the first part was conceived in a much broader style and in-
tended to portray the chief sentiment, it was also here that the per-
former tried to show his vocal skill. It might be said that the first
part belonged to the singer, the second again to the composer, in so
far as no ornaments were introduced in the second part, and as the
harmonization was generally richer and more interesting than that
of the first part. It was the duty of the singer to elaborate every
repetition of the principal melody, and particularly to show, by
means of well-invented variations, the da capo in a new and different
light. The pleasure of the public in these variations and ornamenta-
tions was so great, that, naturally enough, the chief character of the
music and the words was overlooked, and the aria became merely a
welcome means of showing off technical skill. From this undue
prominence of vocal execution resulted the so-called "Aria di bra-
"
vura (Coloraturarie) which possesses no value at all as a dramatic
form and exists merely to exhibit the easy and fluent execution of the
" "
singer. (Compare Rossini's arias in Semiramide," Barbiere," etc.)
The invention of the grand aria with the da capo is generally attrib-
uted to Alessandro Scarlatti (1650-1725), although, according to
Arteaga, Benedetto Ferrari (della Tiorba, 1597-1681), a composer of
the seventeenth century who lived before A. Scarlatti, is the real
inventor of this form.
The following shows how these variations were constructed :

ARIA " SE OGNOR

COSTANTE T' AMAI.'
LAMPARELLI.
Largo.

Original subject.

Variation in the
first part.
 VOCAL MUSIC. 77

2. The Aria in the free form. In as far as the Aria ^ _.<? exponent
of a particular personal feeling, which feeling emanates from the
character and individuality of a person, and cannot he expressed
after a set pattern, or according to an established scheme, it was felt
that the form of the grand aria was, more particularly with regard to
dramatic feeling, entirely insufficient. For this reason the later com-
posers conceived the necessity of adhering more strictly to the sense
of the words, which, again portrayed the sentiment at much greater
length than was the case formerly. For this reason the strict form of
the grand aria was abandoned and a free form adopted; consequently
the form of the dramatic or free aria shows itself in as many different
kinds as the different dramatic situations demand for their effective
portrayal. As a splendid example of a dramatic aria may be cited
Agatha's aria in Weber's "Freischiit/," "Kie nahte mir der Schlum-
mer" ("Softly sighs"). Among all the composers who still adhered
to the rigorous form, none has been so successful in infusing dramatic
feeling into it as Mozart.
(c.) With regard to the aesthetic value, beauty, and necessity of the
aria, it may be observed that it is as necessary and indispensable in
the opera or oratorio as the monologue is in the play. The feelings
expressed in an aria are actually the result of preceding incidents.
These feelings must be put in a concise form in order to be under-
stood were they merely presented in the form of a recitative the
;

listener would not be so deeply impressed by them. It may therefore

be said that the aria (particularly the dramatic aria) is the exposition
of the innermost feelings that, as has been mentioned before, are the
results of preceding dramatic situations of a person whose feelings
are actually of importance and interest to the whole story. The
sacred aria may perhaps not claim such direct necessity, in as far as
it contemplates at times the situation from a more objective (outward)

point of view. The dramatic aria again is the musical portrayal of a

subjective (individual) feeling. The correct and artistic union of the
melismatic (ornamental) with the syllabic treatment in the aria is a
test of great, nay, rare ability. Mozart, again, has here excelled all
other composers in this particular feature.
(D.) Some other forms of arias are (1) the already-mentioned aria
di bravura (see Coloratura). This kind of aria is treated in a more
melismatic (figured, ornamented) style; its aim and intention are to
offer the singer a means of showing his skill in turns, shakes, runs,
etc. ;(2) the church aria (aria di chiesa) is generally found in a sacred
cantata or a Passion-music, or exists also as an independent piece
"
(compare Stradella's celebrated air, Se' i miei sospiri "). Its musical
structure is generally that of the grand aria with the da capo; its
"
expression, however, is more lyrical, the outpourings of a devout
soul," or more like the interpretation of the feelings of a whole com-
munity presented in an objective manner. Its style is more syllabic
than melismatic, in as far as the sacred word appears more important,
and ought thus to be better understood. Any exhibition of passion
" "
is here excluded, indeed the aria di chiesa is more of a meditative
and contemplative, than a strongly-expressed individual character.
3. The Concert Aria (aria di concerto) came into fashion towards
the end of last century. Partly resting on the form of the grand
aria, again profiting by the improved structure of the dramatic aria,
and at times using the brilliant features of the aria di bravura, it is
78 MUSICAL, FORMS.

"
actually a kind of independent scena," something like an instru-
mental solo. The aria di concerto is generally preceded by a recita-
tive. Of Mozart we possess twelve such scenas; of Beethoven, the
well-known scena and aria "Ah, perfido;" of Mendelssohn, the Con-
cert aria, Op. 94.
4. The Aria buffo, is a comic aria. Splendid examples of this style,
in which mostly Italian composers excelled, are Figaro's aria in
" "
Rossini's Barbiere di Siviglia;" also Masetto's aria Meta di voi qua
vadano;" Don Giovanni's aria, "Finch' han dal vino;" Leporello's aria
"
Mandamina " in Mozart's " Don Giovanni ;" Figaro's aria in C major
"
in the same composer's opera, Le Nozze di Figaro." It will be
observed that in all these examples each note has a syllable, and that
the style is more parlante (speaking) than sustained or florid.

ARIETTA.
a small and shorter kind of aria; the arietta has no second
This is

part, and its whole structure is planned in smaller dimensions. In

operas the arietta describes less important and less deep feelings,
which have only a transient value. Zerlina's two ariettas in Mozart's
"
Don Giovanni " are splendid examples.
ARIOSO.
This holds place as a kind of melody which stands between
its
recitative and aria. It may happen that some parts of the secco
(recitativo) approach more the lyrical domain, unless these feelings
last for any longer time, in which case the composer changes the
recitativo into an arioso, an expressive melody, to be sung in strict
time. The orchestral accompaniment appears in greater prominence,
and the melodious life becomes paramount. It was customary to-
finish a long recitativo with an arioso, in which the preceding senti-
ments are, so to say, concentrated. Again, if the situation is a lyrical
one, the arioso appears as a kind of song; with Handel it is used as a
kind of dialogue between two persons, expressing a feeling in which
they unite or which they exhibit singly in turn. A
kind of mixture
of the secco (recitativo) and arioso has been often applied by Bach,
who brought this style to the greatest perfection. Very interesting
examples are also to be found in Heinrich Schiitz's (1585-1672)
"Seven Words."
CAVATA, CAVATINA.
(a) A kind
of aria for a single voice, which differs from the ordinary
aria in the following points the cavatina is shorter, and consists only
:

of one part, is not repeated, but has generally a longer text than the
aria; for this reason there are no repetitions of the words, or at any
rate very few may occur. According to its contents, the cavatina is
more adapted to a meditative or contemplative than to a passionate
expression. Prolongations of syllables or melismas (florid vocalization)
are either entirely avoided or only used in exceptional cases. The
melody of the cavatina is generally simple, occupying a middle place
between that of the aria and arioso, and possesses at times a reciting
quality. (6) Cavatina is also called an arioso at the end of recitative,
a
in which the feeling is concentrated, and the expression becomes that
"
of a tuneful agreeable melody. (See Matthe^ '. Critica mus.," voL
ii.
p. 146.)
 VOCAL MUSIC.

COLORATURA.
This is a name given to divisions, runs, trills, cadenzas, and other
florid passages in vocal music; for instance in the aria of Manoah^
"
"Thy glorious deeds inspir'd my tongue (Handel's "Samson"):

Whilst airs of joy from

We find already indications of the application of coloratura in the

operatic music of Cavalli and Cesti, about 1640. When the coloratura
is artistically employed, it is able to serve as an accessory of formal

beauty; through it 'the melody may become less rigid, it receives a

richer ornamentation, and may even produce surprising and charming-
effects. A
beautiful example of this kind is Haydn's aria "With
verdure clad." But on the other hand, the singers, generally poor
musicians, have abused this otherwise legitimate effect, and have in
many instances destroyed, by its false application and sometimes-
anachronistic use, the original effect of the piece, and have even
cruelly interfered and destroyed the intended purpose of the composer.
In former times, the good opera-singers were expected to compose the
coloraturas themselves, the composer merely offering in his aria the
skeleton, which had to be adorned and supplemented by the color-
atura of the performing singer; at present the singers have lost this
art to a great extent, and for this reason the few composers who are
still inclined to that obsolete manner of writing, compose the
coloraturas themselves. Burney, in his Diary, gives an amusing
description of the coloratura used by the celebrated singer Farinelli,
in his competition (Rome, 1723) with a trumpeter.

DUET.
(Ital. duetto.)

A Duet is a piece for two voices, both of which are principal voices
in so far as each takes the same important part in the development
and characteristic execution of the principal idea. An
instrumental
duet is generally called duo, so as to mark the difference between it
and the vocal duet. There is also a difference between a duet and a
two-part song; the latter is merely a harmonious strengthening of
a melody by using another voice part in intervals that seconds the
melody the duet, however, is always written in a polyphonic style,
;

each part being individually developed as well in point of rhythm as

design. We find, therefore, that the duet represents two persons, who,
although uniting in the desire of attaining a certain aim, have each
their own individual feeling concerning it, and when the union is effected
it comes about by a completely free resolve and not by the submission
of one party to the other. The duet is divided into the (a) chamber
duet and (6) the dramatic dialogue. The chamber or art-duet (Kunst-
;

duet) is the most artistic and most refined of all polyphonic forms
which came into use towards the middle of the seventeenth century;
it is not merely a component part of a longer composition, but an

independent piece. Its form is tolerably varied it may

;
'
consist of one
or more movements. If it has only one movement. form of it is.
80 MUSICAL FORMS.

like the aria with the da capo (see Aria.) If it consists of several
movements, recitatives and solos are introduced, indeed it becomes a
" "
regular scena (see Scena) the text is generally more lyric than
;

dramatic. To understand the aim, construction, and characteristic

form of these duets better, it is advisable to read in Dr. Chrysander's
"Life of Handel," vol. ii. the remarks about the duets of
p. 328,
Steffani (1655-1730), and to compare afterwards Steffani's duets:
"
Forma un mare di pianto," "Luci bella non tanta," " Placidissime
catene." (6) The dramatic duet: In this two persons represent
different sentiments, or if they represent the same feeling, they
express it in a totally different characteristic manner; whilst the
chamber duet relies on the aria form; the dramatic duet has no
certain form, and depends almost entirely on the dramatic situation.
"
Compare the pithy remarks of J. C. Lobe, Lehrbuch der musika-
lischen Komposition," vol. iv. pp. 236-271, and analyze the duet between
Don Ottavio and Donna Anna in Mozart's " Don Giovanni " (act 1, No.
"
2), and Agatha and Annchen's duet Schelm halt fest," in Weber's
" "
Freischiitz (act 2). (See also Dialogue.)

DIALOGO (DIALOGUE).
Musical dialogue is strictly speaking a duet, which in the form of its
composition resembles spoken dialogue. In sacred music it is applied
in the form of an aria, sung in turn by each of the two voices, and
these voices join, at the end, in a kind of choral. All the arias in
oratorios, cantatas, Passions, operas, that are accompanied by an
obbligato instrument, such as the violin, oboe di caccia, corno inglese,
clarinet, flute, etc., may be included among dialogues, although this
term has not yet been generally adopted. (See for example the aria
"Erbarme dich mein Gott " in Sebastian Bach's " Passion of St. Mat-
thew ;" Mozart's aria " Non piu di fiori," in F major, in his " Clemenza
di Tito," etc.)

CHORUS.
Chorus (Ger. Chor; Fr. Chceur ; Ital. Coro) means a company, a mul-
titude of persons. A musical piece for several voice parts, in which
each part is not performed by a single or solo singer but by several
persons each voice part so performed is called a chorus part, (a)
;

According to aesthetic ideas a chorus is the united expression of a

number of individuals whose feeling is impressed by an event or idea
in so thoroughly uniform a manner, that all of them unite in the same
expression. For this reason the contents of a chorus must be such
that not only the individual but the company approves of it, and the
expression becomes actually an objective one. As solo singing is
the expression of the single person's feeling, just so is the chorus the
expression of the feeling of a community or congregation. The chorus
parts differ from each other through the character and compass of
their voices treble, alto, tenor and bass; which different voice parts
have not inaptly been compared to the different stages of the life of
both sexes. By the number of persons which perform each chorus
part, any prominence of personality (individuality) ceases, and each
part again is fused into the whole of the chorus. A working out in
detail of the different phases of feeling or individualizing them, as it
happens in the aria, is in the chorus not only superfluous but inad-
 VOCAL MUSIC. 8}

missible on the other hand there may be a different expression given

;

to one particular part with regard to the others. The great effect, the
mighty power, of a chorus consists in the strength and grandeur of the
collective expression, in the massiveness of tone brought about by the
number of performers all uniting in one task. Such is the might that
we admire in the choruses of Schiitz (see his " Passion " from the Four
Evangelists), Sebastian Bach, and Handel. (6) The essential and real
style of the chorus is imitatory and fugal the chief form of the chorus
;

is actually the fugue, in which all parts participate with equal right in
the execution of the set task. Other styles are the rigorous and the
free. The rigorous style adopts the fugal treatment, and relies on the
system of double counterpoint; the free style is more like the arioso,
or, again, the dramatic expression. Rigorous choruses need not only
appear in oratorios or sacred compositions; they may be also applied
in the opera or secular cantata, madrigals, and glees. The work which
contains almost all possible forms of choruses is undoubtedly Sebastian
Bach's "Passion of St. Matthew," from the most artistically figured
chorus with canto fermo down to the turbse, the expression of the
enraged people. Next to this admirable work Handel's Israel in
'

Egypt" affords the most interesting material for deep and earnest
study, (c) Formal construction: the commonly-applied form for the
lyrical chorus is that of the aria in two parts with the da capo (see
Aria). For this reason these choruses were sometimes called Aria-
choruses.
In dramatic works (such as oratorios) the form of the chorus is
dependent of the situation; some are quite short, like the turbae
(see Schiitz, Sebastian Bach, Mendelssohn's "St. Paul," etc.). In
strictly sacred music the so-called choral chorus, or a chorus with the
choral as canto fermo, is that which is mostly found, (d) The chorus
a cappella, without any accompaniment (or if with accompaniment,
the instruments generally stringed instruments playing the different
mo do
parts of the chorus; namely, violino l (soprano), violino 2 (alto),
viola (tenor), violoncello, and double-bass (basso). In the chorus a
cappella the melody has a more prominent part. In some choruses
the voice parts are simple, without any ornamentation or figures,
which latter are furnished by the orchestra; a beautiful example of
" "
this kind is Mendelssohn's expressive chorus in St. Paul," Happy
and blest are they." Again, in some choruses (see Bach's Mass in B
minor and some of Handel's oratorios) the execution is very florid and
founded on a regular coloratura.
(e) With regard to the number of parts employed, the chorus is very
different. We have choruses from three to twelve, sixteen, and (in old
Italian compositions) more parts; the normal number, and at the
same time most common, is the four-part chorus. In choruses of
five, six, seven, or eight parts the division of the respective parts de-
pends upon the effect the composer wishes to obtain divided altos
;

and basses produce a greater effect of dignity and earnestness, divided

sopranos and tenors again give the expression of brightness and splen-
dor. In eight-part chorus the parts are either all together as one
whole, or are divided in two choruses of four parts each, thus forming
a double chorus.
Soprano and alto are mostly sung by female voices, but at times
they are also mixed or entirely sung by boys female voices produce
;

a softer, mo*" melodious, but at the same time more sensual effect;
6
82 MUSICAL FORMS.

the voices of boys nave a more astringent, inflexible, but more pierc-
ing and energetic tone-color and are entirely passionless. The mixture
of female with boys' voices is of the happiest effect. Less so is the
mixture of male contraltos with female; although the manner of em-
ploying the contralto in so low a register as was used by the old Italian
writers of the time of Palestrina up to Bach and Handel, necessitated
this method. In some countries the employment of female voices
in the church was thought inadmissible, and some writers mention as
a reason for this rigorous rule the words of St. Paul, in his Epistle to
"
the Corinthians, xiv. 43, Let your women keep silence in the churches,
for it is not permitted unto them to speak." It was, so it is reported,
Cyrillus, Bishop of Jerusalem (A.D. 386), who, on the strength of St.
Paul's direction forbade the participation of women in the musical
church service, but this restriction cannot have been universal, in so
far as in convents women had necessarily to sing the service (compare
Forkel's History, vol ii. p. 140).
(/) The words for the chorus are generally a short, but terse sen-
tence, which explains the sense in the most concise and most intel-
ligible manner, without any undue elaboration or ornamentation. If
the chorus has a second part or a fugue, the work must consist of two
sentences, used alternately, so as to avoid monotony.
(g)A chorus consisting of female and male voices is called a mixed
chorus. This kind is of all the most desirable, as it offers not only the
greatest variety with regard to the characteristic tone-colors, but
allows of a much freer treatment, in as far as the respective voice
parts are not so close as they would be in a chorus written only for
female or male voices.*
According to Isidorus, the word Chorush&s, its derivation from corona,
in as far as the singers of olden times were placed round the altar in
the form of a crown or wreath (corona constantium).

CANTATA.
(Ital. cantare, to sing.)

A Cantata is a form which belongs to vocal music, and by which we

generally understand a composition of several pieces, which comprise
choruses, recitatives, and arias. This meaning is derived particularly
from the form of Sebastian Bach's great church cantatas; this form,
however, was preceded by two different kinds of cantata form, and
therefore it is not easy to define clearly the meaning of the word
Cantata. With regard to its development as a form it must be men-
tioned that some composers treated it as a lyrical piece for one voice
"
(for example, Mozart's cantata for one voice, Die ihr des unermess-
lichen Weltall's Schopfer ehrt"); some other composers again looked
at it from the most dramatic point of view; with others again the
cantata appears almost identical with the oratorio; sometimes again
it shows itself as a piece not unlike a song or an ode at times it ap-
;

pears again as a lyrical composition with a dramatic expression, with

or without a mixture of the epic element, written for a solo voice or
 VOCAL MUSIC. S3

for a chorus. All cantatas, however, unite in this that they absolutely
require an instrumental accompaniment, and that the poetry is in
the lyrical style. The chief difference between the opera, oratorio,
and the cantata is, that in the first two a regular dramatic action is
played before or related to us whilst the cantata expresses only senti-
;

ments, brought about by the meditation upon great events, heroic deeds,
scenes of nature, contemplations of divine might, moral subjects, etc.
The words of the cantata are founded on events of all possible time
and kind, on supernatural and natural incidents, on the Christian
faith, or the worship of the ancient mythology, etc. The aim of the
cantata is actually the glorification or apotheosis of illustrious persons,
or stirring events; the lyrical expression of the cantata, however,
shows itself not so purely personal as in the song, but in a more ob-
jective, general manner. Oratorio and cantata may be often con-
founded there are oratorios which are more like cantatas, and vice versd.
;

It is a great mistake to take the respective length of either oratorio

or cantata as decisive for the name there is, for example, Haydn's
;

cantata "The Seasons," of the length and dimensions of an oratorio;

again, there are oratorios so short, that they might be considered to
be cantatas. The oratorio has a style of its own it stands between
;

secular and sacred music; it is secular in so far as it does not exclude

dramatic life and human passion again it is sacred, because its sub-
;

jects and stories are taken from the Bible, although its musical expres-
sion is not so rigorous and solemnly tranquil as that of the regular
sacred music, which forbids the delineation of human passion. The
cantata does not, like the oratorio, present persons or characters a ;
"
personification will merely approach the devout soul," but this again
represents in the church cantata merely the sentiments of the com-
"
munity. (See Winterfeld, Kunst des evangelische Kirchenge-
sanges.")
According to its chief characteristics or principal expression we
class the cantata as an ode-like cantata (for one single voice), or as a
chamber cantata, requiring several performers, and lastly as a
great cantata, which has all the apparatus of the oratorio grand
orchestra, chorus, and solo voices. The formerly much used Trauer
cantate, funeral cantata (a kind of short requiem) belongs to the form
of the great cantata, and differs only in the characteristic expression ;

whilst the great cantata has a grand, majestic, broadband lofty expres-
sion; the funeral cantata relies on a more pathetic, mournful, and
quiet expression. In the cantata the influence of the madrigal and
motet is more observable than in the oratorio. As the choruses of a
cantata lack dramatic life, the composer excels more in an artistic-
ally refined treatment of counterpoint. The origin of the simple
cantata is to be sought in Italy, about 1600; the inventor of the
chamber cantata was Carissimi, who flourished in Rome between
1635 and 1672. The form of the great cantata was principally applied
by John Sebastian Bach, who left us splendid examples of this style.
It may be remarked that Handel's anthems are in fact sacred
cantatas.
CANTATINA, OR CANTATILLE.
This means a smaller form of cantata, with which it corresponded
in its various features, excepting that the whole structure was on a
smaller scale and the various parts less elaborated. Like the cantata
it is accompanied by instruments.
84 MUSICAL FORMS.

QUODLIBET.
(Ital., Mischianza; Ger., Mansch.)

Prsetorius, in his "Syntagma," vol. iii. p. 18, describes a quodlibet

"
as a mixture of possible herbs of many various motets, madri-
all ;

gals, and other secular and humorous songs ; separate parts are taken,
with half a line or a whole line of a text, and from these rags and
fragments a new (Peltz) is patched together." Some writers inten-
tionally corrupted not only the melodies but also the words, and thus
obtained a comical and burlesque effect. National and sacred songs
were mostly applied to this kind of amusement. To give an idea of
a regular quodlibet, we select one that was sung by the members of
"
the Bach family at their annual meetings. (See Hilgenfeldt's Biog-
raphy of Sebastian Bach," p. 8 Leipzig, 1850. See also Quodlibet in
;

Instrumental music.)

DAS VATER UNSER. (The Lord's Prayer.)

Va - ter un ser im Him - mel

DERGLAUBE. (The Creed.)

Wir . . . glau ben all' an ei - nen

LOBGESANG AUF DAS OsTERFEST. (Song of Praise for Easter.)

Chris - tus un -
ser Hei

LIED VON DER TAUFE. (Christening Song.)

Christ, un - ser Herr, zum Jor - dan kam,

DIE ZEHEN GEBOT KURZERGEFASST. (The Ten Commandments summarized.)

Mensch, willst du le - ben se -

lig
 VOCAL MUSIC. 85

reich, der du uns al -

le heis - sest

-&H$r^-=$&
-&- -<S>-
Gott SchO -
pfer Him - mels und der Er
r?\

m
land, der den Tod

&=^^^bg I
E ' p=E=^=
1 r Efe=*=iiE
C ^^^^^ ^j["

Nach sei - nes Va ters Wil

r*\

lich und bei Gott blei-ben e

gleich Brii - der sein und dich fen an,

den, der sich zum Vater ge - ben hat,

<a 1 1___<_

-
berwand, ist auf-er - -
stan, den,

len von Sanct Jo-hanns die Tau -

fe nahm, etc.

wiglich sollst du hal ten die zehn Ge - bot . . .

 MUSICAL FORMS.

II.

SECULAR FORMS.

SONG.
THE name Song generally suggests a secular form. In its various
meanings it signifies a musical utterance by a human being, a bird,
etc.; also, a trifle or thing of little moment, as in the phrase " bought
for a song." Owing to its versatility, however, it can also adapt itself
to the expression of religious feelings. To give an accurate definition
of the word Song in its special meaning (Lied in German, chanson in
French, canzone or canzonetta in Italian) is not an easy task. We
have
here to consider what a song should be and what qualities it ought to
possess and to enumerate the different kinds of songs. The Song
belongs chiefly to the lyrical domain of musical art,* and is generally
devoted to the illustration of some separate thought the stillness of
night, the beauty of spring, the worth of liberty, etc. The more
clearly a song can be made to express an inward feeling, the greater
will naturally be its value, popularity, and effect. The expression of
a song is mostly that of pure joy, of hope, of consolation. Thus in
the Scriptures the idea of the hills breaking out into sjnging, the waste
places of Jerusalem singing together, the singing a new song unto the
Lord continually occurs as an expression of joy, happiness, consola-
tion, and triumph. It can also be made to describe anything with
which our fancy is greatly occupied. For these reasons 'the form of
the song is generally much more cantdbile than other vocal forms.
The chief requirements of the song are completeness in the form of
the poem, an easy flowing metre, an agreeably striking rhythm. We
see these conditions thoroughly fulfilled in Shakespeare's songs, such
"
as Hark, hark, the lark," etc.
On the other hand, the song does not often possess brilliancy,
splendor, and grandeur; and for this reason it is calculated rather to
excite our sympathies than to arouse wonder. A
good song must
moreover exhibit simplicity, quietness, and truth of expression, a
moderate compass, and an absolute musical representation of the idea
of the words. These conditions are exceedingly difficult to fulfil. At
first sight it would seem an easy task to compose a good song; but it

may be taken for granted that those songs which sound most simple,
and strike our heart at once, were produced with the greatest labor

* Franz Schubert's celebrated "

songs :
Margaret at the Spinning-wheel," Nacht-
stiick (Op. 36, No. 2), " Willkomm und Abschied" (Op. 56, No. 1), " The young
"
Nun," "Memnon," "Death and the Girl," By the Sea," "Andie Leyer;" and
Robert Schumann's not less celebrated songs: "Lurline" (Waldesgesprach),
"Beauteous Cradle" (Schone Wiege), "A Poet's Love" (Ich grolle nicht) may
be said to make an exception to this rule in these the dramatic feeling supersedes
;

the lyrical expression, and it might be asserted that these songs form a connecting
link between the lyrical and dramatic art. On the other hand, Schubert, in many
of his songs, presents such rich, characteristic and descriptive accompaniments,
that the term Art-song would here not be misapplied.
 VOCAL MUSIC. 87

aiid thougnt. As examples may be taken Mozart's " Violet," Schu-

" "
bert's Wanderer," Mendelssohn's On Song's bright pinions," and
"
Schumann's Devotion " songs which, with all their simplicity, show
evidence of an extraordinarily acute and correct musical feeling in
the composers. To keep a song within the right limits, to balance
every part of it in absolute proportion, is no easy task and therefore a
;

good song is, in spite of its shortness, a great work of art. All possible
scientific accomplishments and contrapuntal studies will not suffice to
give the true, the absolutely correct tone of expression. A really good
song must find an echo in the heart; it must vibrate in our innermost
must move us involuntarily to repeat it ourselves. If we
feelings; it
examine the different kinds of songs we possess (we can count them
by tens of thousands) we shall find that the oldest songs celebrated
religion, war, and also hunting and athletic sports. The religious
songs, particularly, existed in olden times in great numbers. St. Paul
says, "Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly in all wisdom,
teaching and admonishing one another in psalms and hymns and
spiritual songs, singing with grace in your hearts to the Lord."
Love-songs date from the time of the minstrels, troubadours, and
minnesingers. England, France, Spain, and Germany possess a rich
treasure of these mediaeval songs and these songs contributed greatly
;

to soften and improve the harsh and barbarous manners of the feudal
times.
But, though song-writing is a secular form, it contains a sacred
department. The Sacred Song demands, besides a gentle and devout
musical expression, wise and lofty words.

CHANSON.
(From chanter y to sing; Ital. canzona.)
The Chansnn is a short lyrical vocal piece, indeed, a song. The
expression ot the modern French chanson is, however, not the same
as that of the German song (Lied). Firstly, the chanson has only a
melody of the length of one verse, which is not always to be found in
the German song; secondly, the chanson does not always express a
subjective or individual feeling, but chooses generally a theme that is
able to reveal itself in an epigrammatic and pointed manner it shows
;

its context in each verse as a new and differently expressed subject,

and tries to connect at the end of each verse its different expression
in a refrain, or ritornelle, which closes each verse in a happy, unex-
pected and spirited" manner. German songs constructed in a similar
manner are called Strophen-Lieder." There are chansons for almost
all events of family or public life, such as chansons d' amour (love
songs); chansons d boire ou rondes de tables (drinking songs); chansons
pastorales ou rustiques (pastoral or rustic songs); chansons balladees
(ballads); chansons pour danser (dance songs, such as musettes,
gavottes, branles, minuets); chansons guerrieres "
(war or military songs)
a beautiful example of this kind is the Chanson de Roland ;"
chansons patriotiques (patriotic songs); chansons religieuses (sacred
songs) chansons satiriques (satirical songs). Under this last head come
;

the celebrated Mazarinades, satires directed against Cardinal Mazarin,

in the time of the Fronde riots. The number of the Mazarinades was
very great. C. Moreau (1850), in his "Bibliographic des Mazarinades,"
enumerates about four thousand. Another kind of French song was
 88 MUSICAL FORMS.

"
calledles Brunettes." Diderot and d'Alembert, in their Encyclopse-
"
<dia, give the following description of the word "brunette." It is a
sort of song in which the air is easy and simple, and the style gallant
'and natural, sometimes tender, and often playful. It is so called
;
because it often happens that in such a song the poet, addressing
himself to a young girl, has given her the name of brunette
' '
dark-
paired little one."
"
(Compare for further instruction J. B. Wekerlin, Echos
: du Temps
"
passe," 3 vols. Paris Flaxland. Schneider (K. E.), Das musikali-
;
:

sche Lied in geschichtlicher Entwickelung;" Leipzig: Breitkopf and

Hartel, 1863.)
The French also excel greatly in their Noels (Christmas carols).
They possess a great number of them, all written in a simple, unpre-
tending style. The works which contain the best specimens are :

" La Philomele
seraphique." En la l partie elle chante les devots et ardans
fere
.

soupirs de 1'arae penitente qui s'achemine fl la vraye perfection; en la 2 me la

,
" me la "
Christiade," specialement les mysteres de la Passion en la 3
; Mariade,"
avec les mysteres du Rosaire en la 4 me les cantiques de plusieurs saintes, tous en
;

forme d'oraison et de meditation, sur les airs les plus nouveaux choisis des princi-
paux auteurs de ce temps, par Frere Jean I'Evangeliste d' Arras, predicateur
capucin. Tournay, 1640.
"Noels dijonnais" (1700), republished at Dijon, 1858.
"Noels bourguignons" (1701.) These noels were not sung in church, but at
home, round the fireside.
"Noels maconnais" (1720).

MAGGIOLATA.
A
song in praise of the recurring spring, which the young men used
to sing in the first days of May, round a tree planted for the purpose,
before the houses of their beloved ones. This habit was particularly
" "
popular in Florence. The phrase "
cantare il maggio originated in
this custom. (See Nemeitz, Nachlese besonderer Nachrichten aus
Italien.")

BALLAD, BALLADE, BALLATA.

The word Ballad is derived from the Italian ballo, a dance. Already
in the twelfth century the old ballata, a short lyrical song, was fre-
quently sung as an accompaniment to the dance. In the popular songs
of England and Scotland the word Ballad originally designated a song
"connected with some heroic myth, and afterwards it came to mean a
song descriptive of some event. The early English literature is pecu-
liarly rich in ballads from the time of the Saxons downward. ("Chevy
Chase," the ballads of "Robin Hood," the Scottish" Sir Patrick Spens ;"
in 1560 nearly eight hundred ballads were entered at Stationers' Hall;
the number from the reign of Henry VIII, to the year 1700, printed
-without music, is stated at ten thousand). The popular ballad or song
of the people has only one melody, which is repeated with every
strophe and the accompaniment remains the same. The composer
accordingly had to produce a melody, which should express the
general idea of the poem, as he could not vary the matter to express
the separate features of particular verses. Each ballad had not its
own tune it was customary to write new ballads upon wonderful or
;

startling events as they arose, and to sing them to popular melodies,

hakespeare's inimitable Autolycus comes with his stock of
 VOCAL MUSIC. 89

peddler's wares to the sheep-shearing feast, his cruet recommendation

is that he brings a goodly store of ballads for the edification of the
rustics. "What hast there?" asks the clown. "Ballads?" "Pray
"
now, bu}^ some," entreats the fair Mopsa. I love a ballad in print,
a'-life for then we are sure they are true."
! And a very good market
Autolycus makes of his musical wares.
Very frequently the ballad was furnished with a burden, consisting
of a line, or sometimes several lines, sung in chorus at the end of each
verse.
Ariel, in the "Tempest," calls upon the spirits "to bear the burden
;>
of his ballad :

Foot it featly here and there,

And, sweet sprites, the burden bear.

In the burden (or refrain) the original thought or idea of the ballad
was frequently emphasized.
The modern ballad has, to a great extent, departed from the sim-
plicity of the original form, the verses being varied in melody and
expression, according to the different emotions to be portraj^ed, as for
" "
instance in Goethe's Erl-king," Burger's Leonore," etc. The dra-
matic element comes prominently forward in the ballad, in which the
characters are often represented as speaking in dialogue, in contra-
distinction to the narrative form, as for instance in the charming old
"
ballad The Bailiff's Daughter of Islington."

NATIONAL SONGS.
Under National Songs may be classed all songs that appeal, in any
form, to patriotic feeling. The best example of what a national song
"
ought to be has been furnished by Joseph Haydn in "his God pre- "
serve the Emperor." Other good specimens are the Marseillaise
and the "Kussian Hymn." Excellent examples are also found in
"
Weber's songs " Lyre and Sword and Arne's stirring " Rule Britan-
nia." The popular songs, or songs of the people, are indeed excellent
in every country, and are the truest expression of national life and
sentiment; for the songs of a nation are a natural result of the man-
ner of life, and also depend greatly on geographical and climatic
relations. Thus a nation inhabiting a mountainous country has songs
of a livelier and richer character and of more varied expression than
the inhabitants of a flat region generally possess. Again, the songs
of the Northern nations, as Russians, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and
Eskimos, are mostly of a melancholy expression while the Southern
;

nations, such as Spaniards and Italians, and to some extent also the
Hungarian, Bohemian, and Slavonic races, combine their songs with
dancing. Among the lovely Italian popular songs those of Tuscany
claim the highest place. The English, Scotch, and Irish songs are
justly celebrated, and have been adapted and utilized by the greatest
composers.
Convivial and Humorous Songs are a natural consequence of the
Liedertafeln, ormusical convivial associations. The Liedertafeln are
represented in Great Britain by the madrigal and glee
 MUSICAL FORMS

COUPLET.
Couplet, in the general sense, is the repetition of any amount of
verses that are sung to the same melody of the first verse. The songs
in comic operas or vaudevilles, or burlesques, which the comic actor
sings, and in which he alludes in a humorous and sometimes satirical
manner to political or social questions of the day are also called
Couplets. The same name is given to variations generally added to a
chaconne or passacaille. (Compare for instance Couperin's beautiful
chaconne " La Te*nel>reuse.") The episodes that offer relief to the
repetitions of the principal subject in a rondo are sometimes termed
Couplets.
MADRIGAL.
A composition in three or more parts for voices, without accom-
paniment; each part being supported by several singers. It is prob-
able that the word Madrigal was originally the name of a short rustic
poem, and that it was afterwards given to the music to which such
poems were set. A similar process may have taken place with such
words as Rondo, Sonnet, Roundelay, Fa la. There are great varieties
of style and form amongst madrigals some consist of a short, simple
;

melody broadly harmonized; others are closely allied in form to the

sacred inotet; some not only include all the devices of counterpoint,
but are also divided into distinct movements. The madrigal period
may be roughly set down as from 1550 to 1650. Italy and England
produced important schools of madrigal writers. Among the English
writers, the best are, Dowland, Morley, Ward, Wilbye, Tallis,
Weelkes, Benet, Gibbons.
GLEE.
The Glee is a form of composition peculiar to the English school of
music. The glee is nearly always sung by one voice to a part, and in
its purest style is unaccompanied. The separate vocal parts of a glee
are as a rule more melodious and less contrapuntal than those of the
madrigal, hence it is more capable of tenderness and expression than
a madrigal but less capable of producing broad effects. The glee is
;

essentially a branch of Chamber-music. The best period of the glee

was from 1750 to 1830. Since the latter period the introduction of the
part-song has to a considerable extent superseded it. Amongst the
most successful composers of glees were S. Webbe, Dr. Cooke, Dr.
Callcott, R. J. S. Stevens, Reginald Spofforth, Stafford Smith, W.
Horsley. A glee of a gentle and quiet character, with words having
reference to the charms of rustic life, of friendship, or love, is some-
times called a "serious glee;" while if its words are of a jovial or
"
droll nature it is termed a cheerful glee." The most fully developed
glees consist of several contrasted movements, and in many cases,
instead of a vigorous climax, they are brought to a soft and pathetic
close.

ROUNDS AND CATCHES.

A Round is, strictly speaking, a canon at the unison so constructed
that when the parts are written one over the other, as is usually the
case, they form one well-defined musical period. To insure a proper
 VOCAL MUSIC. 91

cadence, a round sometimes must be finished at some point before

the close of the line, in which case a pause is placed to point out the
final notes, and is only to be observed when the round is sung for the
last time, e. g. :

Great And

Christ-church bells ring 1,

-^r
And Tom comes last.

The Catch was originally merely a round written out in one long
line instead of being arranged in score each voice that entered had
;

therefore to catch the point of entry. Afterwards, a catch was a term

applied to any round in which the words were capable of a double
meaning, according to their accent, or their division between the
lines. Catches were much in vogue in the reign of Charles II.

OBSOLETE FORMS OF SONGS.

I. LAI, LAY, LEICH (Ger.)

A song in the popular form in contradistinction to the artistic song

or chanson. The name was given originally to the epic and narrative
poems of the Anglo-Norrnan Trouveres, which were sung to Breton
"
popular melodies ("Lais historiques," Lais de Chevalerie "). After-
wards the name was extended to the popular song generally, whether
lyric or narrative; as for instance in the old epic lays which were
spread among the people by the menestrels or jongleurs.

IL CANZONE,
A very old form of song-poem or musical vocal composition, fre-
quently sung by the Troubadours and Minstrels various in its versifi-;

cation, but generally allied to the Pindaric or Horatian metre, and

ordinarily secular in its contents love sor.gs, etc., and composed in
;

the style of a cantata. Sometimes, however, the Canzone was on a

sacred subject, and such compositions were called Can/oni spirituali.

III. CANSON KEDONDA.

A roundelay was the name given to a kind of song-poem, sung by
the Troubadours, in which the last line of each stanza was repeated
as the first line of the next, so that the whole of the stanzas were con-
nected with each other.
92 MUSICAL FORMS.

PASTORAL.
(1) Pastoral is a piece of a simple, rustic expression a shepherd's
song, generally in six-eight time. To this form belong the Musette and
Siciliano; the Siciliano, however, is distinguished from the Pastoral by
dotted notes, which are wanting in the pastoral. (2) Pastoral is a
short, musical dramatic work, whose subject is taken from the life of
shepherds or country people the music ought to express throughout
;

simplicity and innocence, and must avoid any show of dramatic

passion. (3) The name pastoral is also given to pieces of larger
dimensions, which owe their existence to impressions received by the
composer through country life and scenes, and describe incidents of
nature. The noblest example of these kind of pieces is Beethoven's
Pastoral Symphony.
LIEDERSPIEL.
This a play which is interspersed with songs or ballads, a kind of
is
vaudeville it must not be confounded with a singspiel or operetta, as
;

in the latter recitative and aria and regular scenes are necessary. The
liederspiel was invented by John Friedr. Reichardt (1752-1814) not to
be confounded with Gustav Reichardt, the composer of the well-known
German national song "Was ist des deutschen Vaterland." J. F.
Reichardt was anxious to initiate a simpler, more natural style. His
" " " "
liederspiel Liebe und Treue (1800) and Kunst und Liebe were
very successful.
In England we find this form already represented at a somewhat
"
earlier period by Guy's Beggar's Opera," and subsequently it appears
in such works as "The Quaker," "The Waterman," and "Love in a
Village."
MASQUE.
A
Mask is the name of a secular poem, generally of mythological
character, which was either performed on the stage with the aid of a
ballet, or merely sung in the concert-room. (See the preface to
"
Handel's "Acis and Galatea in the third volume of the German
Handel Society.)
BURLETTA.
The word comes from the Italian, and designates a comic operetta
or farcial play, in which songs are introduced.

OPERA.
"
The word Opera the plural of the Latin opus, and means works."
is
In a musical sense it may be denned as a work of art, in which music,
words, and a visible action, sometimes accompanied by dancing, com-
bine to represent a certain story; the whole being enhanced by the
effect of scenery. This story can be either serious, lyric, romantic, or
comic. In the first case the opera is called a grand or tragic opera

Siviglia "). The opera is divided into acts, and these again into scenes,
 VOCAL MUSIC. yd

in the regular dramatic style. The music is vocal and instrumental;

the vocal part predominates ;
and the independent instrumental part
is confined to the overture, entr'acte, and introductions. The combi-
nation of different arts renders the opera a work of great importance,
concerning whose position and value in an artistic point of view there
has been, and is likely to be, much controversy. The idea of uniting
and amalgamating the art of speech, of song, and of action in one
work is by no means modern to produce a work in which all these
:

arts have an equal part, was an object which the ancient Greeks
desired to realize. The actual solution of this problem seems to be
still very distant; for as each of the separate arts has attained great
the idea of subordinating one to another becomes less and
Eerfection
}ss practicable. Each of the fine arts has its particular domain, from
which it excludes the sister arts when it has reached a certain stage
of freedom and independence. A perfect drama, for instance, will
never unite itself to an equally perfect and independently constructed
musical work for they are founded on heterogeneous, and indeed on
;

almost opposite principles. Music, if it is to develop itself according

to its specific nature, necessarily claims a perfectly organized and
systematic construction otherwise it sinks to the position of a depend-
;

ent art, and becomes the handmaid of Poetry. Music expresses our
innermost feelings by sounds; but this dogma the drama does not and
cannot recognize for music interrupts the progress of the action in
so far as we appreciate the feeling of the hero or of any chief person
in the drama through action and not
reflection.
In the drama we want
to see action, but not to listen to philosophical meditations, which,
however, if appropriately and sparingly introduced, can contribute to
the general effect. The dramatic action either debars the music from
its necessary development into the proper artistic form, or music dis-
turbs the regular life of the drama. In the opera, music can only
admit of such a text as will be a vehicle for the expression of emotions
and sentiments, to be suitably portrayed by sounds. This does not
imply that the story and text ought not to be constructed according
to the principal rules of the drama dramatic plan or design and a
;

perfect drama are two quite different things. An opera will always
remain a musico-dramatic work of art, and will ever be most effective
in expressing the more lyrical sentiments, although it can in a great
degree heighten and intensify the dramatic situations; it cannot,
however, lend itself to that delineation and development of character
in detail which is one of the chief sources of strength in a regular
and perfect drama. A reason against the complete representation of
a character in the opera may also be that the singers, devoting their
chief attention to the voice, are mostly deficient in dramatic educa-
tion when compared with other actors. The chief aim of the opera
must always be a musical one. Thanks to the inexhaustible resources
of musical art, the great dramatic composers were capable of imbuing
the most varied characters with suitable musical expression; Gluck's,
Mozart's, and Weber's operas furnish excellent examples. Some of
the finest productions, constructed according to the above-mentioned
rule, that in the opera music should be the principal element, testify that
this dogma is correct. Whether the new tendency to amalgamate all
the arts in one art-work will act as beneficially as, or even more bene-
ficially than, the older principle, is a question not yet answered to the
general satisfaction it would perhaps be difficult to convince the world
;
94 MUSICAL FORMS.

that the new productions of Richard Wagner, for instance, are as per-
fect models of an opera as those of Mozart or Weber although it
cannot be denied that the new product, or " music of the future " as
it is generally but erroneously called, possesses a great many elements
of truth, correctness, and wonderful effect. It is certainly a highly
interesting subject, and one worthy of full, fair, and reasonable discus-
sion, and of earnest examination.
The pieces of which the opera consists are :

1. Overture.
2. Recitative.
3. Aria.
4. The musical Dramatic Scene.
5. Duet.
6. Terzett (Trio).
7. Ensemble pieces.
8. Chorus.
9. Finale.

About (1) overture, (2) recitative, (3) aria, (5) duet, (8) chorus, see
the respective forms.

THE DRAMATIC SCENE.

If the opera contains a situation which is so grand, important, and
decisive on the development of the plot, that the form of an aria would
actually interfere with the correct comprehension of the situation (in
point of psychological truth), and the systematic and well ordered
structure of the aria would at the same time be antagonistic to the
feelings of curiosity, interest, awe, awakened in the listener the com-
poser employs instead the dramatic scene, a mixture of recitative and
arioso. But not only in the recitative, but also in the arioso the
greatest freedom ought to be permitted; the orchestral accompani-
ment ought to supplement and strengthen the dramatic feeling. A
splendid
"
example of this form is the scene No. 14 in Marschner's opera
The Vampyre." (See the masterly analysis of this remarkable scene
" Lehrbuch der
in Lobe's musikalischen Komposition," vol. iv. pp.
227-236).
TRIO (TERZETT).
In the Trio three persons join in a certain situation, and for this
reason it is necessary that, at least in one place in the piece, these
three persons sing together, and more particularly so at the end by ;

this method the composition reaches its necessary climax. This

necessity of finishing all three together has been acknowledged by all
composers, and in the seventeen trios which the six great operas of
Mozart contain, we find only three instances in which we miss the
joining of the three voices
"
namely, the trio between Pamina, Mono-
statos and Papageno in II Flauto rnagico," the trio between Donna
"
Elvira, Don Giovanni, and Leporello in Don Giovanni," and the trio
"
(No. 14) between Publius, Vitellia, and Sextus in La Clemenza di
Tito." Acareful examination of these three trios will show that there
was a sound dramatic reason for this variation of the rule, and that
the observation of this reason shows the correct dramatic feeling of
the composer.
 VOCAL MUSIC. 95

It is customary to compose the trio in two movements a slower

and a faster movement; but of course the dramatic situation is here,
as in all other operatic music, the decisive rule. Beautiful examples
of trios are to be found in Rossini's " Guillaume Tell," Weber's " Der
" "
Freischiitz," Beethoven's Fidelio," Spohr's Zemire and Azor," etc.

ENSEMBLE (CONCERTED) PIECES.

The meaning of Ensemble (concerted) Pieces is not certain, or de-
cisive. Indeed, duets and trios are called Ensemble pieces ; however,
these forms are described by the number of voices employed. Generally
ensemble pieces are called the union of four, five, six, and more
voices, with or without the supplement of the chorus. The dramatic
scene may be constructed in such a manner that two or three persons
begin, and are later joined by persons not present in the beginning;
but the coming, remaining and leaving of these persons ought to be
always the result of a natural necessity, and according to it the com-
poser will mould his musical form. The number and character of
pieces constituting the ensemble piece must also depend upon the
dramatic situation. If we look for instance at the introduction of
"
Don Giovanni " we find the ensemble piece consisting of:
1. Solo, Leporello.
2. Trio, Donna Anna, Don Giovanni, and Leporello.
3. Trio, Don Giovanni, Commendatore, and Leporello.
These three situations are set only in two movements namely,
allegro moltoand andante. The sestetto in the same opera consists
of:
1. Solo, Donna Elvira.
2. Leporello.
3. Donna Anna and Don Ottavio.
4. Donna Elvira and Leporello.
5. Donna Anna, Donna Elvira, Zerlina, Don Ottavio,
Masetto, and Leporello.
These five situations are set in one movement andante, common
time which, however, becomes a little more animated when the six
;

persons sing together. The Introduction to "II Flauto magico" is

again constructed in the following manner:
1. Tamino, in a kind of aria, C minor, common time.
2. Three ladies (trio), (a) E flat and A flat.
(b) Allegretto, G major, six-eight time.
(c) Allegro, C major, common time.
Other fine examples of ensemble pieces are to be found in Mozart's
"
"Nozze di Figaro," Rossini's "Guillaume Tell (with chorus), Meyer-
" " "
beer's Les Huguenots," Weber's Der Freischiitz (first and third
" " " "
act), Weber's Euryanthe (first act), Wagner's Lohengrin (prayer
"
in first act), Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor/' etc.

FINALE.
A well planned and successfully carried out finale of the act of an
opera one of the most difficult tasks. The finale comprises actually
is
sd.l possible forms of which the opera consists from the recitative to
i*6 MUSICAL FORMS.

the most polyphonic concerted piece. The charm of trie Finale is to

be found in the fact that situations and places, which appear in the
opera divided by the recitative and dialogue, here succeed each other
in the greatest variety and thus lively contrasts, as well in pieces
;

and instrumentation, keep up a warm interest in the listener. The

composer has to make at first a precise disposition of all the distinct
parts he has to seek and find all the varieties of the situation has
; ;

to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the character of each

scene, and to find the proper form, key, time, movement, and instru-
mentation for a true and suitable musical expression. Furthermore,
he has to consider which parts of the Finale have to be brought for-
ward with great brilliancy, importance, and force; he has, therefore,
to put, so to say, certain parts somewhat in the shade, and has to grasp
with a firmness every moment of the dramatic situation that may
assist in giving clearness and solid strength to the whole structure.
Indeed the composer has not only to command the entire musical
apparatus with consummate skill, but has also to be a keen psycho-
logical observer. Of all composers Mo/art was the one who combined
all the necessary requirements for composing a perfect Finale.
"
We
subjoin here the scheme of Mozart's Finale to the first act in II
Flauto magico," and invite the student to make himself acquainted
with its music :

SCENE 1.

1. Quartette. Three Genii and Tamino. Larghetto, C major, com-

mon time, 38 bars.
SCENE 2.

2. Recitative obbligato ivith short Ariosi. Tamino, and a voice (the

Priests). <
3. Ariette. Tamino. Andante, C major, common time, 68 bars.
4. Duet. Parnina and Papageno. Andante (should be allegro), G
major.
5. Ensemble. Monostatos and chorus of men, Pamina and Papageno.
Allegro, G major, common time, 97 bars.
6. Duet. Pamina and Papageno. Andante, G major, common time,
24 bars.
7. Ensemble and Chorus, Allegro maestoso, C major, common time,
44 bars.
8. Duet. Pamina and Sarastro. Larghetto, F major, common
time, 46 bars.
9. Ensemble and Chorus. Allegro, F major.
10. Recitative. Saraetro.
11. Final Chorus. C major, common time, 69 bars.
It will be observed that all the pieces are in common time but the ;

striking contrast of the character of Pamina and Papageno, Tamino

and Monostatos, the high priest Sarastro, and the masterly instru-
mentation, makes us entirely forget the sameness of time, As a most
excellent example of an effective, carefully planned, and marvellously
fine composed Finale we would also mention the Finale of the third
act in Rossini's " Guillaume Tell," containing the meeting of the Swiss
on the Riitli, when taking the oath to deliver their country from the
invader.
 VOCAL MUSIC. 97

THE FRENCH OPERA COMIQUE.

The chief qualities that distinguish French operas are grace, great clearness, a
decided charm of rhythmical life and expression, and a considerable variety of
happily conceived harmonious changes; also an undeniable elegance, a never-
failing taste; also a peculiarly French quality, best defined as piquancy, or the
power of exciting and maintaining the attention. In the French Opera Comique
the hostess is Thalia, the muse of Comedy, who invites as her guest Euterpe,
the muse of harmony. The dialogue in the French Opera Comique is an essential
part of the whole, and even operas with an earnest story are interspersed with
dialogue. In the French Opera Comique music forms the smaller, and dialogue
the larger ingredient; the story of an opera comique is sometimes very intricate
and complicated; and the process of developing the plot and bringing it to a
climax could not be so intelligibly rendered by means of music, as through the
words. Each scene must be full of humorous, witty, and spirited dialogues ; and
the libretto -writer is careful to provide interest and amusement to the spectators
at every opportunity. (" Fra Diavolo," " La Part du Diable," " Le Brasseur de
Preston," etc.) The performers are for this reason mostly very excellent actors;
and the French public would consider a rich and powerful voice in an opera
comique not only superfluous, but actually a disturbing element, inappropriate and
misplaced. But they deem, on the other hand, a graceful delivery, tasteful and
precise variation of light and shade, and refined and correct enunciation the
"speaking expression" indispensable qualities. The French Opera Comique,
therefore, possesses two important qualities pliancy and subordination to the
plot. In the Opera Comique the music has to wait patiently till it receives its
cue, and is allowed to appear, and even then it has to accommodate itself to the
character of the preceding spoken passage; an undue desire to display independ-
ence could here not be admitted.

LITERATURE. Dupuy, "Lettres sur 1'origine et les progr&s de l'ope>a en

France;" A la Haye, 1740. Grimm (F. M. yon), "Almanac historique," etc.;
" Histoire du
Paris; chez Duchesne, 1752-1754, 4 vols. Noinville (Bernard de),
Theatre de 1'Academie royale de Musique en France;" Paris, 1752. Reichardt
(Johann Friedr.), "An das musikalische Publikurn ;" Hamburg, 1787. "Almanac
des Spectacles pour Tannee, 1856." Jahii (Otto), " W. A. Mozart," vol. ii. pp.
190, 203, 208, 241-256.

THE ITALIAN OPERA.

Italian operatic music may boast pre-eminence in many points, in which French
and German music are deficient. The Italian melodies possess a thoroughly vocal
construction they also possess a broad and easy flow. Italian music is fresh and
;

vigorous, and the pieces are constructed with clearness and precision. The voice
part is nowhere interfered with or oppressed by the orchestra "
It rises, so to
"
say, triumphantly above the accompaniment. The "
Italian opera buflfa (comic
does not admit of the so called secco
"
opera) dialogue ; Recitative (see this form)
; the action of the opera buffa
lingly poor and meagre. (See
The criterion of the compe-
tency of the performers is not their power of acting, but entirely their vocal
skill. The Italian composers of all times have recognized the necessity of con-
sulting the compass, nature, and specialty of the human voice. But Hi is admira-
tion for the mere voice led the Italians too far. As soon as the so-called "Aria
di bravura" had been invented, the supremacv of the singers over instrument-
alists was declared; and it may safely be asserted, that where singers flre. the
judges and umpires, the beauty, truth and dignity of the art are in danger. All
great composers have complained that they are compelled to sacrifice dramatic
truth, correct rules, and the unity of their works, merely to please the whims of
singers, who do not in the least care for the musical work as such, and consider
it simply as a vehicle for showing their own cleverness as executants. The spirit
of the purely Italian opera music is more a natural than an intellectual <-ne; the
opera ^ in Italy considered a spontaneous and passing pleasure whilst the more
98 MUSICAL FORMS.

" The Germans

earnest Germans look upon it as a serious art. begin generally
with instrumental music, which renders it difficult for them to subject themselves
later to the conditions of vocal music; they find it not easy to become simple,
"
whilst it is difficult for the Italians not to become trim'11 (" Rossini's Conver-
sations with Hiller.")

"
LITERATURE. Brown (John), Letters on the Poetry and Music of the Italian
Mount Edgcumbe "
Opera;" London, 1789. (Earl of), Musical Reminiscences,"
etc.; London: Clarke, 1828. Rubbi (Andrea), "II bello armouico teatrale;"
"Venezia, 1792. Finck (G. W.), " Wesen urid Geschichte der Oper;" Leipzig:
Wigand, 1838. Hogarth (George), "Memoirs of the Musical Drama;" London,
1838. Edwards (Sutherland), "History of the Opera," vol. i. pp. 104, 140, vol.
ii. pp. 80, 140, 226; London, 1862. Jahn (Otto), " W. A. Mozart," vol. i. pp.
343, 346, 349, 358.

GERMAN (ROMANTIC) OPERA.

Although German composers have written excellent comic operas (John Adam
Hiller, Dittersdorf, Sckenk, Miiller, Kauer), and may boast of a good many dis-
tinguished lyrical and serious operas, the Romantic Opera seems to be the most
sympathetic to the nature and feeling of the German composer and the German
public. Among the authors who excelled in this branch of the dramatic art, we
name more particularly Ludwig Spohr ("Faust," "Jessonda," "Alchymist"),
Carl Maria von Weber ("Der Freischiitz," "Oberon," "Euryanthe"), Heinrich
Marschner ("Vampyre," "Hans Heiling"), and the lately deceased Richard
"
Wagner ("Tannhauser," Flying Dutchman," etc.). The subject of the romantic
opera is generally based on events of the fairy or supernatural world, or depicts
the conflict of the evil and moral principle. The Romantic Opera draws also
largely on the resources of the national myths and tales, paints with national
colors, mixes original with national melodies, relies on the manifold means cf
the orchestra to describe, heighten, and complete certain dramatic situations, and
finally admits the chorus for active co-operation. As in the Romantic Opera the
characteristic expression the principal one, it results that the composer's fancy
is
is here more active and inventive than in other operas, which intend to show
the singers indeed, the Romantic Opera contains more
off the executive skill of
real music, and possesses,
therefore, greater interest than operas which rely merelj
on pretty melodies, tuneful ballads, or brilliant vocalization.

ENGLISH (BALLAD) OPERA.

At English public liked the introduction
all times the of ballads or songs in
"
their operas. (See, for example, the celebrated
" Beggars' Opera," with sixty-
nine songs, and its second part, Polly," with seventy-one songs ( Dr. Chrysander's
"Life of Handel," vol. ii. pp. 190-207). In this respect the English Opera re-
sembles the early French operettas. Dramatic life and glowing warmth are
generally wanting, and even in the present time the most gifted English com-
posers have to suffer from this inartistic predilection of the public for ballads,
which have at times to be introduced in direct juxtaposition to the dramatic
requirements of the story. But not only the public is here to blame part of
the fault lies with the publishers, who would not think of publishing an opera
withoub its containing half a dozen ballads. Many examples of correct dramatic
feeling in English composers could be cited; although it is certain that the very-
works which contain dramatic life have never enjoyed that popularity which
was reserved for so-called Ballad-Operas. The ballad of the English Opera is a
lyric form, whilst the Opera as a dramatic form requires absolutely a greater, more
intensive, and fiery expression, and must sometimes dispense with pieces of a
distinct, concise form.

The form of the Opera being one of the most important, it will not
be uninteresting to glance over a chronological table of the most cele-
brated composers of operas. (See pp. 100-103.)
 VOCAL MUSIC. , 99

INTERMEDIUM, INTERMEZZO.
Originally musical compositions interpolated in the comedies acted
at court festivities, to amuse the spectators while the performers were
resting or changing their dresses. Among the Italians they were already
prevalent in the last quarter of the sixteenth century they consisted
;

both of vocal and instrumental pieces, the former being madrigals, with
a varying number of voices and dialoghi for two or more choruses ;

the latter, symphonies, short passages imitating the madrigal in form.

The vocal passages were, moreover, accompanied by instruments, the
madrigals of one chorus by a small, and those of more choruses and
the dialoghi by a full band. Afterwards this form was greatly elabo-
rated by the addition of arias, duets, recitatives, etc., so that the inter-
ludes became dramatic works, consisting of musical scenes, mingled
with dancing, and generally of a comic and farcial nature, even where
associated with serious or tragic opera. These interludes were intro-
duced with anything but an artistic or congenial effect between the
acts of some of Moliere's comedies, as performed before the Court of
Louis XIV. For the last century this form has entirely fallen into
desuetude, for it could not fail to be observed how absurdly the action
of a work was interrupted by thus interweaving a form which had no
relation to the main subject, and, indeed, was sometimes in contradic-
tion with it.
In modern instrumental music ashort movement introduced between
two longer ones is often designated ss an intermezzo. (See Mendels-
sohn's music to "A Midsummer ffighVs Dream/' his String Quartets
and Lachner's Suite in E.)
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE MOST
ITALY. FRANCE.
1550 (about) Cavalieri, Erailio del.
1560 (about) Peri, Giacomo.
1565-1649 Monteverde, Claudio.

1580 Invention of the Opera.

1600 1600-1670 Manelli, Francesco. 1600

1600 (about) Gaspariui, Michel
Angelo.
1600-1662 Marazzoli, Marco.
1610- ? Cavalli, Francesco.
1610-1650 Sacrati, Paolo.
1610-1670 Ziani, Pietro Andrea. 1617- ? Cambert, Robert.
1620- ? Rovetta, called Rovettino.
1620-1681 Cesti, Marc Antonio.
1625-1692 Legrenzi, Giovanni.
1633-1687 LULLY, Giovanni Bat- 1635- ? Philidor,Michel-Danican.
tista (19 French Operas).
1640- ? Gabriel i, Doinenico. 1639-1709 Colasse, Pascal.
1640-1710 Zanetti, Antonio.
1645-1678 Stradella, Alessandro. 1645 Introduction of the Italian
Opera through Cardinal Ma-
zarin.
1650 1650-1730 Steffani, Agostino (Gre- 1650
gorio Pivai.
1650-1720 Ziani, Marco Andrea.
1659-1725 SCAELATTI, Alessan- 1660 The firs: French Opera.
dro (115 Operas). 1662-1741 Desmarets, Henri.
1665-1740 Lotti, Antonio.
1670-1743 Vivaldi, Antonio.
1672-1750 BONONCINI, Giovanni. 1672 Lully's first French grand
1678-1763 Caldara, Antonio. Opera.
1681-1736 Astorga, Emanuele. 1683-1764 RAMEATT, Jean-Phil-
1687-1767 PORPORA, Nicolo. ippe.
1694-1756 Leo, Leonardo. (The
first greater Overtures.) Great progress in the French
Opera.
1700 1703-1785 Galuppi, Baldassaro. 1700
1706-1772 Lampugnani, Giovanni.
1707-1739 Pergolesi (Jesi), Gio-
vanni Battista.
1711-1778 Perez, Davide. 1711-1773 Mondonville, Jean-
1712-1795 Paradies, Pietro Dome- Joseph.
tt ico. 1712-1778 Rousseau, Jean -Jacques.
1714-1774 Jomelli, Nicolo.
1715-1787 Fiorillo, Ignazio.
1727-1795 PHILIDOR, Fran ? ois-
Andre. (French and Italian
1728-1800 PICCINI, Nicolo (130 Operas).
Operas). 1727-1780 Berton, Pierre.
1729-1817 MONSIGNY, Pierre-
Alexandre.
1730-1802 Sarti, Giuseppe. 1733-1829 Gossec, Fran9ois- Joseph
1735-1786 Sacchini, Antonio Maria,
Giuseppe.
1741-1816 PAISIELLO, Giovanni 1741-1813 GRETRY, Andre -Er-
(94 Operas). neste (59 Operas).

(100)
 CELEBRATED COMPOSERS OF OPERAS.
GERMANY. GREAT BRITAIN.

1585-1672 Schiitz, Heinrich von

(Sagittarius).

1600 1600

1620 (about) Eccles, John (Ri-

naldo e Armida, etc.).
1627 Performance of the first Ger-
1620-1677 Lock, Matthias (Psyche,
man Opera (by Schiitz).
1675).

1640-1700 Strunk, Nicholaus

Adam.
1641-1688 Franck, Johann Wolf-
gang.
1646-1725 Krieger, Adam.
1650 1650
1660-1732 Fux, Johann Joseph 1658-1695 PTJRCELL, Henry.
(17 Italian Operas).

1673-1739 KEISER, Reinhard (116 1665 (about) Clayton, Thomas

Operas, 75 still known). (Arsinoe, the first English
1 681-1764
Mattheson, Johann (Ger- Opera).
man and Italian Operas).
1681-1767 Telemann.Georg Philip.
1685-1759 HANDEL, Georg Fried-
rich (8 German and 43 Italian
Operas).
1699-1783 HASSE, Johann Adolf
(51 Italian Operas).
1700 1700
1701-1759 Graun, Carl Heinrich
(30 Italian Operas).

1714-1790 Holzbauer, Ignaz.

1710-1778 ARNE, Thomas Augus-
tine (23 English Operas).
1714-1787 GLUCK, Christoph Wil-
libald (8 Italian and 13 French
Operas).
1721-1795 Benda, Georg.
1728-1809 Hiller, Johann Adam.
1729-1774 Gassmann, Floriau Leo-
pold (23 Italian Operas).
1732-1809 HAYDN, Joseph (10
German and 14 Italian Operas).
1735-1782 Bach, Johann Christian 1735-1795 Linley, Thomas.
(15 Italian Operas.) 1737-1814 Dibdin, Charles.
1739-1799 DITTERSDORF, Carl 1740-1802 Arnold, Samuel (40
von. English Operas and Operettas.)
1749-1814 Vogler, Abbe Georg 1746-1827 Hook, James (11 En-
Joseph. glish Operas).

(101)
 Chronological Table ( Continued) .

ITALY. FRANCE.
1750-1825 Salieri, Antonio (41
1750 1750
Operas).

1752-1837 Zingarelli, Nicolo. 1753-1809 DALAYRAC, Nicolas

1754-1801 CIMABOSA(Domenico,
(56 Operas).
75 Operas).
1756-1812 Righini, Vincenzo.

1760-1842 CHERUBINI, Luigi (29

Operas, French and Italian).
17634845 Mayer, Simon (77 Italian
Operas). 1761-1825 Gaveaux, Pierre.
1767-1837 FIORAVANTI, Valen-
1763-1817 MEHUL, Etienne Henri
tino.
1769-1832 Asioli, Bonifazio. (42 Operas).
1766-1831 Kreutzer, Rodolphe.
1771-1839 PAER, Ferdinando (51
1767-1844 Berton, Henri Montan.
Operas). 1768-1853 Jadin, Louis Emanuel.
1775-1818 ISOTTARD, Nicolo (42
French Operas).
1775-1834 BOIELDIETI, Fra^ois
1775-1 32 Garcia, Manuel (Span-
Adrien (23 Operas).
iard).
1778- ? Puccita, Vincenzo.
1784-1841 Morlacchi, Francesco.
1784-1851 SPONTINI, Gasparo(16
Italian, 7 French and 3 Ger-
man Operas).
1785-1849 Carafa, Michele (Italian
and French Operas).
1791-1849 Vaccaj, Nicolo.
1789-1870 ATTBER, Franjois Dan-
iel.
1792-1868 ROSSINI, Gioachino( 36
Italian and 4 French Operas).
1789-1861 Chelard, Andre" Hyp-
1796- ? Pacini, Giovanni. polite.
1791-1833 HEROLD, Louis.
1797-1848 DONIZETTI, Gaetano
and several French 1794-1841 Monpou, Hyppolite.
(70 Italian
Operas).
1798-1870 MERCADANTE, Sa- 1799-1862 HALEVY, Jacques.

1800 1802-1835 1800

BELLINI, Vincenzo. 1803-1856 ADAM, Adolphe.
1804- ? Gabussi, Vincenzo. 1808-1866 Clapisson, Antonii
1809- ? Ricci, Federigo. Louis.

1814- VERDI, Giuseppe. 1811- THOMAS, Ambroise.

1818- GOUNOD, Charles Fran-

gois.
1822-1884 MassS, Victor.

(102,
 Chronological Table ( Continued) .

GERMANY. GREAT BRITAIN.

1751-1831 Kauer, Ferdinand (200 1750-1829 Shield, William (16
1750 popular [Volks] Operas). 1750 comic English Operas).
1752-1814 Reichardt, Johann
Friedrich.
1755-1825 WINTER, Peter von.
1756-1791 MOZAET, Wolfgang
Amadeus (6 great Italian and
2German Operas).
1756-1808 Wranitzky, Paul. 1757-1830 (?) Reeve, William (21
1760-1802 Zumsteg, Johann Ru- English Operas).
dolph.
1761-1836 SCHENK, Johann.
1763-1850 Gyrowetz, Adalbert. 1763-1796 Storace, Stephen
1764-1823 Steibelt, Daniel (14
(4 English Operas).
Drench Operas).
1765-1814 Hinnnel, Friedrich (4
Italian and 4 German Operas).
1766-1846 WEIGL, Joseph.
1767-1835 Miiller, Wenzel (about 1767-1838 Attwood, Thomas (about
200 popular Operas). 7 Operas).
1770-1827 BEETHOVEN, Ludwig 1767-1844 Mazzinghi, Joseph.
van. 1774-1824 Davy, John (11 English
1782-1849 KREUTZER,Conradin Operas.)
(24 German Operas). 1782-1855 BISHOP, Henry Rowley
1783-1859 SPOHR, Ludwig. (63 English Operas).
1786-1826 WEBER, Carl Maria
von (8 German Operas).

1794-1864 MEYERBEEB, Jacob (5

French and 9 Italian Operas).
1795-1861 MARSCHNER, Hem-
rich.
1797-1828 SCHUBERT, Franz.
1798-1859 Reissiger, Carl.

1800 1808-1870 BAENETT,

1803-1851 LORTZING, Carl. 1802- John.
1800 1804- Lachner, Franz. BALFE, Michael Wil-
1804- Benedict, Julius. liam (Italian, French and En-
1809-1849 Nicolai, Otto. glish Operas).
1811- Hiller, Ferdinand. 1813- MACFARREN, Sir George.
1812-1883 Flotow, Friedrich von 1818-1865 WALLACE, Vincent
(French and German Operas). (about 6 English Operas).
1813-1883 WAGNER, Richard. 1842- SULLIVAN, Sir Arthur
1829- Rubinstein, Anton. Seymour.
1838- Bruch, Max. 1847- MACKENZIE, A. C.
1852- STANFORD, Charles V.

(103)
104 MUSICAL FORMS.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.
INSTRUMENTAL music is one of the most important and influential
branches of the musical art and has been the means of raising music
;

as an art to that high pitch of excellence it has attained, and by virtue

of which it need not fear comparison with any other art, whether
poetry, painting, drama, or sculpture. No other art indeed is so
thorough and complete a boon to all classes of society. The rest
require education before they can be enjoyed. Sculpture, for instance,
is a delight for the higher and better educated classes, whilst it will be
more or less unintelligible,and therefore uninteresting, to the laborer
and handicraftsman. Music, however, appeals directly to every class;

the soldier, the forester, the sailor, the schoolboy, each and all delight
in music.
Nought so stockish, hard, and full of rage,
But music for the time doth change his nature;
The man that hath no music in himself,
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,
Is
********
fit for treasons, stratagems

Let no such man be trusted.

and spoils :

Some people have affected to consider music as a secondary art,

and have asserted that it requires natural feeling, but not intelligence;
but, on the contrary, instrumental music is one of the greatest triumphs
of human intelligence. To construct, from isolated sounds, a sonata
or symphony, to infuse into the work that irresistible energy and
interest which compel a large audience to listen as if spellbound this
certainly requires a high degree of intellectual power in the musician.
Vocal music is in so far the direct expression of our feeling, as it is
uttered by the human voice, and thus has a close analogy with ordi-
nary speech. Instrumental music expresses our feelings in an indirect
way; it has to avail itself of 'a mechanical contrivance; the intended
expression must be evoked from the lifeless instrument. Any one can
sing who has a voice; to produce music from an instrument, a certain
amount of skill is required. The singer expresses the feeling by soft
or passionate tones; the instrumentalist tries to produce the effect by
a sometimes involved combination of figures, rhythm, or harmonies.
Besides, he is compelled to describe as it were to portray to use all
possible means indirectly to produce an effect which is given in a direct
and immediate manner by the voice.
Thus the domain of the voice is chiefly the expression of sentiment,
whilst the instrument works in the domain of fancy. Vocal music,
wedded as it is to words which to a great extent already give the sense
of the piece, is more easily understood than instrumental music,
which has to depend solely on the power and faculty of the composer
to express his feeling and meaning in the most correct and compre-
hensible manner by musical tones. It is only in classical works that
we find vocal music supplemented and its effects heightened by fancy;
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 105

and only in the best specimens of instrumental music does the com-
poser's fancy manifest itself in almost articulate expression of feeling.
Fancy and feeling go naturally together, and indeed ought to be
united; but such union is rare, and is one of the surest signs of true
genius. One of the principal conditions of instrumental music is the
adherence, or we might say submission, to firm and rigorous rules.
If instrumental music is not founded on a solid basis if, so to say,
the outlines of the building are not discernible to our mental view
if order does not reign throughout if the composer's fancy is not dis-
ciplined, purified, and sobered by being confined within strict and
precise limits an instrumental piece will be little more than an inco-
herent mass of sounds, a kind of musical chaos.
When we consider all these indispensable conditions, and think of
the simple material namely, sound put of which such masterpieces
as the sonatas, quartets, and symphonies of Haydn, Mozart and Bee-
thoven are constructed, we cannot withhold our tribute of involuntary
admiration and amazement at the grandeur of the genius of these
men. It is a common remark that to genius everything is accessible
and possible, but it may be doubted whether the greatest genius is
equal to the task of composing a quartet or a sonata without the
closest and deepest study. It seems as if it were an easy thing to write
such quartets as those of Haydn or Mozart, to construct such sonatas
as those of Beethoven. But why does the achievement seem so easy ?
For the simple reason that in these works all rules, all laws, all
conditions have been strictly fulfilled; the works themselves are so
thoroughly suffused with the individual feeling of the composer, that
absolute perfection is the result; and absolute perfection ceases to excite
wonder, because the hearer's mind is not occupied with defects, and
thus a part of the reasoning and critical faculty is not brought into
action. In such a work the composer has brought his individual
feeling so entirely into harmony with the object he had in view, that
an equilibrium is produced which fills the hearer's mind with com-
plete satisfaction.
But how were these great composers enabled to lay down such
rules? to decree these laws of beauty, of symmetry, of plastic grace
and to infuse into their works such a wonderful life ? First of all they
felt instinctively that it was indispensable to study the human heart,
and to appreciate the different degrees of feeling produced by various
phases of mental disposition. If, for instance, a person is melancholy,
this state of feeling will not always be present in the same strength;
a brighter moment may intervene, just as a ray of sun sometimes
breaks through the cloud. The reaction, indeed, will intensify the feel-
ing of melancholy; there will be all the more gloom after the bright
moment, just as the dark cloud will appear thicker in its blackness
after the cheering sunbeam which pierced it for a moment has disap-
peared. But contrast there must be; and Nature herself shows us
contrast in every possible phase. This necessity of contrast was
clearly recognized by composers, and is musically produced by the
different characters of the respective subjects or themes, and by
their judicious distribution vhroughout the movement.
Again, if a piece consists of two, three, or four movements, it is
essentially necessary to arrange those various movements in such a
manner that a melancholy sentiment is relieved by a brighter tone;
that an outburst of passion is succeeded by a feeling of calm or that,
;
106 MUSICAL FORMS.

on the other hand, a degree of passionate feeling, moderate at first, is

gradually wrought up to the height of frenzy and despair.
Our great instrumental composers had to think deeply, and to exert
the very highest intelligence, till they secured the characteristic and
correct musical expression for their ideas. When they had selected
the proper subjects for their work, they had still to collect all the
necessary adjuncts for these subjects; they had to settle the proper
figure, the accurate and fitting harmonization of the theme, the
judicious introduction of episodes; they had to try whether a simple
or a scientific treatment best suited the whole indeed a great
many
points had to be considered and reconsidered points which appear
to the uninitiated only as natural consequences or accidental contin-
gencies and then only could the composer sit down and write a
perfect and thoroughly effective work.
Whilst the composer of a song or an aria has merely to illustrate
with sounds the subject provided for his fancy by the inventive genius
of the poet, the instrumental composer must rely solely and entirely
on his own inventive resources. He has to be both poet and musician.
difficulty, and conse-
It is therefore evident that there is greater
quently greater merit, in composing a good quartet or symphony than
in writi. ,g a good song.
Of a regular style of instrumental music we find no traces before
A.D. 1500 and even then the province of the instruments was chiefly
;

to play, as an accompaniment, the different voice-parts of the chorus;

indeed almost all the different instruments were at that time in an
undeveloped state, and only the organ was to a certain extent per-
fected. According to our most experienced historians, the first dance
movements for instruments alone date from 1529, and were printed
in Paris. When the recitative (which was preceded by the monody )
was invented, it was of course necessary to accompany it with instru-
ments; and we find that Carissimi in his cantatas introduced by
degrees independent instrumental interludes and ritornelli. The
same thing was done by Alessandro Scarlatti. Through the invention
of the stilo concertate the stringed instruments were admitted into the
church, where formerly only trumpets and trombones had been in
use. About the end of the seventeenth, and particularly in the
beginning of the eighteenth century, the labors of Corelli, Vivaldi,
and Gerniniani drew the general attention of the public towards
instrumental music the concerti grossi of Corelli, the violin concertos
;

of Vivaldi, and different solos of Geminiani became highly popular;

and by the invention of the suite, the forerunner of the sonata,
instrumental music by degrees obtained an independent position.
With respect to the oldest forms of Instrumental music, it is neces-
sary, in the first place, to mention the different names of the pieces
and their respective meanings. We find preludes (voluntaries),
toccatas, inventiones, ricercate, fugues, symphonies, intratas, concerti
grossi, arias with doubles (variations), and suites and partitas.

PKELUDE.
(1) A piece which precedes a longer or
more important movement,
like the intrada or introduction symphony or sonata. The
to a
prelude or intrada which precedes an allegro movement is generally
in slow, grave, and solemn time. (2) A prelude is more especially a
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 107

piece which precedes the choral by such a prelude the organist may
;

prepare the congregation for the choral to be sung, by using the

entire melody of the choral or a part of it. (Compare Sebastian
Bach's Choral- Vorspiele; see also Figured Choral.) (3) The prelude
can also be used for public performances as a piece showing, like the
etude, the technical skill of the executant; as such, the composer may
use it as an independent piece, but generally the prelude is connected
with a fugue. (See J. S. Bach's Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues;
five preludes and fugues by Eberlin; Mendelssohn's Six Preludes and
Fugues, Op. 35; Czerny's "Die Schule des Fugenspiels.")
In Sebastian Bach's Preludes and Fugues for the Organ we find the
prelude treated in the same important manner as the fugue itself, and
in some respects it here resembles the toccata. It is, however, very
difficult to define exactly the difference between the toccata and
prelude. The preludes of Chopin and Heller are merely little pieces,
which have perhaps received this title for want of a better. The
prelude is the only movement used in the suite which is not connected
with the dance.

VOLUNTARY.
The Voluntary is an organ solo played before, during, or after any
office of the church hence it is called respectively introductory,
;

middle, or concluding. Such solos were formerly, and are often still
unpremeditated, or improvisations, as the name voluntary seems to
" "
imply, dementi in his Practical Harmony gives the name Volun-
taries to the five preludes of Eberlin.

TOCCATA.
The name Toccata is derived from the Italian toccare, " to touch."
The toccata is a piece in which a certain passage or figure is repeated
over and over again, either in the strict or the free style in modern
;

music the capriccio may be considered as the descendant of the

ancient toccata. Organists generally selected the toccata as a, means
of showing their executive skill. The toccata has been greatly
improved and enriched by Sebastian Bach, whose celebrated Organ
Toccatas are not unlike fantasias. Robert Schumann has also
composed an exceedingly clever toccata and elegant and harmonious
;

toccatas have been written by Clementi, Charles Meyer, Jos. Rein-

berger, Onslow, Czerny.

INVENTION.
Sebastian Bach gives this name to little rigorously written move-
ments of two or three parts, which are rather ideas or inventions of
the moment, than elaborate or seriously defined. The impromptu of
modern times may be designated as an Invention.

RICERCATA.
The Ricercata (from Fr. rechercher "to seek") is a
Ital. ricercare
piece which is not unlike a prelude. The executant tried in it to
prepare the subjects to be treated afterwards in the principal piece,
and so to invite the attention of the audience to the contents of the
108 MUSICAL FORMS.

latter. Another meaning of the ricercata is, " a so-called master of

which all sorts of simple and double
art fugue (without episodes), in
counterpoint, inverted movements, and imitative, technically called
canonical, treatment of the single parts are contained." This sort of
ricercata was considered a great test of intelligence and learning in an
organist or composer. (Compare Ricercata, in Brossard's Lexicon.)

FUGUE.
(See Form
with regard to the Relation of the separate parts of Poly-
phonic Music, p. 40.)
THE OLD SYMPHONY.
The word Symphony means a consonance or harmony of notes
agreeable to the ear, whether the sounds be vocal or instrumental, or
both. The English poets have used the word in the sense of conso-
nance of sounds. Thus Gray's bard, hearing with prophetic pre-
science the harmonies of poetry that are to grace the Elizabethan era,
exclaims :

What sounds symphonious tremble on my ear ?

What strains of vocal transport round me play ?

The Old Symphony is a musical composition for a full band of instru-

ments, and was synonymous with Overture. The performance of any
one of the instrumental works already mentioned, such as the ricer-
cate, fugues, etc., was also called a Symphony. The Modern Symphony
has nothing in common with the old form but the sounding together
of the different instruments. In this sense the symphonies of Sebas-
tian Bach for the clavecin are also to be taken these symphonies are
;

merely pieces, in which three parts sound together.

INTRADE, INTRATA, INTRODUCTION.

Intrade, or Entrada, designates in the first place a short richly-scored
instrumental piece, serving as an introductory movement to greater
compositions of a secular style, and also used in the older operas
instead of an overture. (See Symphony.) The Intrade consists prop-
erly of two repeated parts, but the word also designates instrumental
introductions not confined to any particular form. But they have
always a solemn, pathetic and awakening character, intended to excite
the attention and interest for what is to come this is seen, for instance,
;

in the short introductions before the first allegro of modern sympho-

nies. (See Mattheson, "Neu eroflhetes Orchester," p. 173; "Capell-
meister," p. 233.)
Secondly, the name of Intrade is given to a kind of flourish (fan-
fare) of trumpets, accompanied by kettledrums.
Introductio, or Introduzione, is like the intrade, an introductory
movement to greater compositions. In movement it is slow or mode-
rate, and is likewise grave, and calculated to excite and arrest atten-
tion. Occasionally it is elaborated into the form of an overture, for
the overture itself is sometimes called Introductio. In Mozart's "II
"
Flautp magico the first movement of the opera itself, after the over-
ture, is called Introductio. ;
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. i09

CONCERTO GROSSO.
This form is best explained by a quotation from Dr. Chrysander's
preface to Handel's Concert! Grossi (The works of G. F. Handel,
:

German Handel Society, part xxx.; Leipzig. Twelve grand concertos

"
for violins, etc., in seven parts, composed by Mr. Handel.) The part-
books are designated violino primo concertino, violino secpndo con-
certo, violino primo ripieno, violino secondo ripieno, viola, violoncello,
basso continuo. These then are concertos for stringed instruments
with a continuo for harpsichord accompaniment, and are set for an
orchestra divided as was the old Italian orchestra, then almost univer-
sally employed, into a concertino, generally consisting of two violins
and violoncello as solo instruments, and a concerto grosso, formed by
all the rest of the orchestra fully manned. From the addition of this
latter division the concertos of this kind took their name." (For
further instruction see Dr. Chrysander's "Life of Handel," vol. iii. pp.
168-182,) The distribution of the movements is the following: Con-
certo I. (1), a tempo giusto, C, allegro; (2), adagio, f, allegro (fugato),
C; (3) allegro, g. Concerto VI. (1) larghetto e affettuoso, | (2) fugue,
;

allegro ma mm troppo; (3) musette, \ (4) allegro, C; (5) allegro, I (a

;

kind of scherzo).
It may therefore be seen that these concerti grossi are a kind of
suite or partita for several solo instruments and orchestra. (Compare
also the concerti grossi of Vivaldi, Corelli, and Geminiani.)

ARIA, WITH OR WITHOUT DOUBLES.

Mattheson in his
"
Der yollkomrnene Capellmeister " (p. 232) says :

"Aria, with or without variations which the Italians call partite and
the French doubles is composed for the clavecin or other instruments."
The aria is generally a simple melody, consisting of two parts, so simple
that it admits of all possihle ornaments and treatments, which again
allow the performer to show oft' his technical skill. The bass and
harmonies are but rarely changed. (See Chaconne and Variations.)
In Sebastian Bach's Partitas, also in Suites of Mattheson, Handel,
and others, the name of Air or Aria is given to a short movement of
an expressive and melodious character. (See John Sebastian Bach's
Partita, No. 4, in D major, and Handel's Suites Nos. 3, 5, 10, 14.)

GROUND.
(Fr. Basse constrainte; Ital. Basso ostinato ; Ger. Grund-Bass.)

A passage of four or eight bars in length, constantly repeated, each

successive time accompanied with a varied melody, harmony, or
figure. (Compare PurcelPs and Blow's Grounds also Bach's Ciaccona
;

for Violin, Passacaille in C minor for the Organ; Handel's Ciaccona

with sixty-two Variations," etc.)

SUITE.
"
The name Suite is French, and means a succession, or series of
to any degree of popularity, the
pieces." Before the sonatas attained
pieces written for instruments were toccatas, fugues, fantasias, capric-
cios, arias with or without so-called doubles (variations). But more
110 MUSICAL FORMS.

generally they were dances. Dance-tunes of all possible kinds, set for
the spinet, harpsichord, clavichord, lute, viol di gamba and other
instruments kept their place in the chamber, more particularly in
France. When the dance-tunes were not used for dancing, they were
worked out in greater dimensions and with greater care. Of the
dance themselves only the characteristic type or expression was
retained; for the tune was not immediately connected with the dance.
The form and the number of bars could be increased, great attention
wac? bestowed on the working out, counterpoint was used to consoli-
date and refine the part-writing, doubles or variations were introduced
to give a certain elegance and brilliancy to the air and thus the suite
became the legitimate exponent of dance music. This office it retained
for a long time; indeed the period before Haydn the period of Kuhnau,
Mattheson, Couperin, Eameau, Handel, Sebastian and Emanuel Bach,
and Dornenico Scarlatti is intimately connected with the suite and its
constituents, the old dance-tunes. The suite was brought to perfection
by Bach and Handel, who managed to retain in these dance-tunes the
real typical expression. The most popular old dances were the Alle-
mande, Bourree, Brawl, Ciaccona, Courante, Gavotte, Gigue, Hornpipe,
Minuet, Passacaglio, Passamczzo, Passepied, Polonaise, Rigadoon, Sara-
bande and Siciliano. Generally all the pieces that constitute the suite
are in the same key (a decided fault in so far as, notwithstanding the
greatest variety and characteristic expression shown by the illustrious
composers in the different movements, the sameness of the key must
produce a certain monotony) The suite is composed either of dance
.

movements only or is preceded by a prseambulum. When the col-

lection of pieces, generally called Suite, comprises other movements
such as caprice, allegro, fugue, etc., the real name is

PARTITA.
For the better understanding we place here, side by side, the contents
of a suite and again that of a partita by John Sebastian Bach.

SUITE. PARTITA

(English Suite No. 1.) (No. 2, C minor.)

1. Prelude. 1. Sinfoiiie.
2. Allemande. 2. Allemande.
3. Courante 1 and 2 with doubles 3. Courante.
(variations). 4. Sarabande.
4. Sarabande. 5. Rondeau.
5. Bounce, 1 and 2. 6. Caprice.
6. Gigue.
It will be observed that some? of Handel's suites are actually parti-
tas ; for instance, we find in his Suite No. 3 the following pieces : 1.
Prelude; 2. Fuga; 3. Allemande; 4. Courante; 5. Air with five
Doubles or Variations ; 6. Presto (founded on the Air). The suite was
also called Sonata di balletto when it contained only dance movements,
and Sonata di camera when it was constructed like the partita. Arcan-
gelo Corelli, on the other hand, calls his suites Sonate da camera, and
not Sonate di balletti. The suites or sonate di camera of Corelli
are shorter than those of either Bach or Handel.
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. Ill

SONATA DI CAMERA (SUITE) BY CORELLI.

1. Largo. 2. Allemande. 3. Corrente. 4. Gavotta,
or
1. Allemande. 2. Corrente. 3. Oiga.

with any certainty the time at which the suite

It is difficult to state
was invented; generally it is supposed that the first suites were writ-
ten in France about 1650; in strictness the compositions of Dr. John
"
Bull, Orlando Gibbons, and William Byrde, to be found in Parthe-
nia," are also suites. When the sonata was generally adopted, the
suite as such fell into oblivion; although it may be said, that it reap-
peared in the divertimenti, cassazioni, serenades and notturnos.
(See these forms.) The adaptation of the minuet in the sonata and
symphony is decidedly a remnant of the suite. The suite has been
re-established in modern music by Taubert, Lachner, Raff, Grimm and
other composers. If we compare the suite with the sonata in form,
we find that the latter is actually a condensed or shorter suite. The
prelude or allemande of the suite is represented by the first move-
ment of the sonata, the sarabande takes the place of the adagio, or
andante, the gavotte or bourree represents the scherzo and the gigue
the finale. (See Dance-music.)
The best essay on the Suite has been written by Nottebohm,
"Wiener Monatsschrift fur Theater und Musik" (1855), pp. 408, 475;
1857, pp. 288, 340, 399.
"
Compare also Brossard's Lexicon Paris, 1703.
;

Mattheson, Kern melodischer Wissenschaft, 1737, p. 121, C. F. Becker,

"
Die Hausmusik in Deutschland," p. 29-32.
The modern forms of Instrumental music are divided into cyclical
and single forms. The Cyclical form comprises a series of numbers,
and under this head we find the sonata, trio, quartet, quintet, sestet,
septuor, etc. the symphony, cassazione, divertimento, serenade also
; ;

the concerto. In the category of Single forms we place the overture

and all the smaller pieces, as notturnos, capriccios or scherzos, im-
promptus, ballads, reveries, barcaroles, and in fact all the innumerable
trifles that crowd the music-publishers' catalogues.
112 MUSICAL FORMS.

I.

CYCLICAL FORMS.

SONATA.
THE Sonata is byfar the most important form, and may be con-
sidered the mainstay of instrumental music. Remarks on the tech-
nical construction of the sonata apply equally to the form of the trio,
quartet, or symphony, which latter will therefore be treated in a
somewhat shorter manner. The name Sonata is derived from the
Italian verb sonare, "to sound," and is originally designated as a piece
which has to be played, not sung. Prsetorius in his " Syntagma musi-
cum," published in 1614, says: "Sonata, a sonando, is thus called as it
is not sung by human voices, but solely sounded by instruments." The
old sonata, as we have it from Biber, Kuhnau, Mattheson, and others,
contains the germs of the modern sonata, but not much more; it was
rather to be considered as a shorter suite, in so far as the first move-
ment had a great analogy with the allemande. The slower movement,
again, has an affinity with the sarabande, and the last or quick move-
ment with the gigue. Most of the old sonatas were composed for
several instruments, generally stringed instruments and clavicembalo.
The latter, the keyed instrument, was chiefly used for supplementing
the whole with chords. In. this style were the Twelve Sonatas for
Violin, Bass, and Clavecin by Corelli, which appeared in 1683.
Kuhnau, the predecessor of Sebastian Bach as choirmaster of St.
Thomas's School, at Leipzig, consolidated this form. Domenico Scar-
latti improved it in point of technical execution, but usually employed
the form of one movement only. In the Six Sonatas of Francesco
Durante, each work consists of two movements only, of which the
called Studio, the second Divertimento. The Italian composers
first is
of the eighteenth century chiefly affected this form of two move-
ments.
It was Emanuel Bach, the second son of the great Sebastian Bach,
who fixed the present form of the sonata; even the greatest works of
this kind by Beethoven are founded and built on Emanuel Bach's orig-
inal plan. Joseph Haydn, an enthusiastic admirer of Emanuel Bach,
improved the sonata to such an extent, that we could pass from
Haydn's sonatas directly to those of Beethoven, without the interven-
tion of Mozart's sonatas as a connecting link. Beethoven's sonatas
were more influenced by Haydn's than by Mozart's. Among the
modern sonatas those of dementi, Dussek, Weber, Schubert, Schu-
mann, Mendelssohn, and Brahrns are most remarkable and highly
influential works.
The modern sonata generally consists of three or four movements.
The first movement determines its character, and the succeeding
movements have to harmonize with the first, to heighten and to sup-
plement its effect. The following is the design of the first movement.
First part, chief or principal subject; transition into the second sub-
ject; after this the final group. This first part is generally repeated.
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 113

The second part consists of a thematic working out of both the first
and second subjects after which follows the so-called repetition, con-
;

sisting of the principal subject, a short passage leading into the second
subject; and then we have the coda, or summing up, with some con-
cluding chords.

SONATA FOKM.

(First movement.)

First Part.
114 MUSICAL FORMS.

FORM OF SLOW MOVEMENT IN BEETHOVEN'S (SONATA PATHE"TIQUE), Op. 13.

First Part.

Chief or principal subject

in Afe major. Transition
into dominant. Return
to chief subject.
Variation.
Tonic and dominant.
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 115

Secondly, as a theme with variations :

(See for example Haydn's Sonata in A

major, No. 26 of Breitkopf and Hartel's,
No. 17 in Pauer's Edition ; Beethoven's Sonata No. 30 (Op. 109) ; Beethoven's
Sonata No. 32 (Op. 111).

Thirdly, as a Rondo :
BEETHOVEN'S SONATA No. 4.

(Op. 7.)

Chief or principal subject.

Transition to second sub-
ject. Return to principal
subject, slightly varied.
lit) MUSICAL FORMS.

time); Beethoven's Rondos in C and G major, also the Rondo a

capriccio in G major (Op. 129) ;
Hummers Rondo in B minor (Op.
103) ; Haydn's Gipsy Rondo ;
Mendelssohn's Rondo capriccioso (Op.
14), etc.
Each movement of the sonata may be said to form a separate
whole, but each possesses a connection with the other movements.
A certain unity of feeling must pervade the whole. The principal or
chief feeling may pass through several modifications, and appear
stronger or weaker, yet will return to its first or primary state. It
may also happen that very opposite feelings suddenly appear, and
vanish without leaving any trace of their presence. Such contrasts
have been exhibited, though sparingly, by our great composers ;

judged from a psychological point of view they considered them as

extravagances or indications of a state of feeling decidedly morbid.
Notwithstanding this, our most modern music relies greatly on such
which a judicious estimate may be made of the value of
effects from,
modern music as compared with our grand old classics.
As regards the characteristic expression of the movements in most
sonatas, we shall find that the first movement, with its symmetrically
planned and broadly designed form, presents the firm and solid basis
on which is founded the whole subsequent formal and ideal develop-
ment. The slow movement is intended to soften and to tranquilize the
mind previously excited by the first movement, where passion is the
leading characteristic feature. The adagio moderates and subdues
this state of feeling; or it may lead the mind, through an expression
of suffering and grief, to a certain consciousness of calm happiness;
or again it may tend to prepare it, by a temporary lull and quietness,
for a still greater and more intense exaltation. The Minuet or Scherzo
stands between these great and striking contrasts, and prepares the
mind for the finale. The scherzo, with its quaint humor, reconciles
us to the darker and more passionate passages; wit and jest here find
an appropriate expression, and the composer has a welcome opportu-
nity to show that, besides sentiment and passion, he possesses also
humor and a genial fund of joviality. For instance, after a first
movement full of passion and power, it is pleasant to find in the
adagio calm and tranquilizing strains: these are indeed a necessary
preparation for the final struggle.
Again, a first movement may be so majestic or so pompous that a
similar broad movement to follow would seem out of place, uncalled
for, and contrary to taste the scherzo or minuet will here again be
:

welcome, as an intervening stage or moderator. It is the aim of the

finale to develop in the highest degree the character indicated and
initiated by the first movement.
Thus the sonata contains all the necessary material for a regular
psychological structure; and the production of a really good sonata is
by no means the result of mere chance or accident the work must be
;

founded and built up on logical principles. This system of rising and

falling emotion, of alternate excitement and tranquility, is analogous
to the construction of periods in writing, and similar to the course a
good speaker would adopt to arouse and refresh the attention of his
audience although in respect to music everything takes broader and
;

larger proportions. Though a single movement of a sonata may be

considered perfect in point of form, it is imperfect with respect to its
entirety, representing only a single phase of that intellectual life which
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 117

it is the province of the sonata to express in sounds. Diversity of

expression is indispensable, because it enables us to understand such
a long work as a sonata. A single movement extended to the length
of an entire sonata or symphony would be wearisome in the extreme,
an infliction rather than a source of pleasure to the hearer. By a
judiciously selected variety of characteristic expression, however, one
movement comes in as a relief to another, and the attention is kept
up but for this very reason it is necessary that every single part
;

should be finished artistically, rounded off, and expressed in the most

strict and concise manner; for a really satisfactory clearness of the
whole can only result from the completeness of sequence and contrast
in the component parts. The lack of characteristic expression will
also be felt as a sad drawback music without character loses half its
;

value.
In music, logical reasoning and logical consequences may not, and
even should not be subject to such fixed rules as general logical reason-
ing. But logic in music originates in sentiment while general logic is
;

derived solely from the intellect, and the presence of sentiment, so far
from assisting, would frustrate it. The composer can express in the
different movements, throughout all possible gradations, the principal
character with which this piece is imbued. He should here work as
the sculptor does in forming his first model: all the numerous musical
expressions, whether derived from harmony, melody, rhythm, science,
dynamic treatment, are at his command; and his correct feeling and
refined taste, his enthusiasm tempered by judgment, will here show
to the best advantage. The masterpieces of Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven astonish by their order, regularity, fluency, harmony, and
roundness, and by their splendid development into full and complete
growth out of the sometimes apparently unimportant germ. Those
great masters, Haydn and Mozart perhaps unconsciously, but the philo-
sophical Beethoven certainly not without premeditation, observed and
followed out the laws of nature; and thus it is that their works appeal
so directly and immediately to the heart. (See Thematic work.) The
solo sonata treats the form in the freest manner, more individually
than in the case of the quartet and symphony. This is quite natural,
in so far as the two latter are performed by several persons, and con-
sequently the composer works out his polyphonic subject from a
general point of view.
The solo sonata is like a mirror, reflecting the innermost ideas and
feelings which move the composer's heart; when these individual
feelings, as in the works of our classic composers, are regulated and
penetrated by deep study, by the observance of strict rules which
observance has become wholly instinctive in the composer a work
will be produced which is intelligible to every one. Certain passages
may be more or less interesting to certain individuals ; but there will
surely be a charm for every one and this is the real and true test of
a classical work, that it is mainly and firmly founded on principles
dictated by nature and aided by science.
The piano-forte, possessing as an instrument the greatest variety
of resources, has naturally been selected as the favorite interpreter of
our classic masters' thoughts. The piano adapts itself equally to
homophonic and polyphonic treatment; it can effectually produce
melody and harmony, it offers favorable means for the most compli-
cated rhythmical combinations; in short, it can do justice to almost
118 MUSICAL FORMS.

everything the composer desires to express. That the instrument

itself greatly influences the composer's inventive and creative faculty
is certain ; the composer's idea accommodates itself quite naturally
to the capabilities of the instrument. We perceive, for instance, that
sonatas for the organ are conceived in a spirit quite different from
that which regulates those for the piano; contrapuntal and fugal
treatment are much more often to be found in organ than in piano-
forte sonatas. Again, the violin solo sonatas lend themselves more
freely to a melodious treatment. It is in this the musical art shows
its great superiority above the other arts. It can unite different instru-
ments for one and the same work, and thus the composer can present
to his hearers an almost endless variety of combination. The num-
berless charms in the duet-sonatas, trios, and quartets of Mozart,
Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and many others, give evidence
of the wealth, grandeur, and beauty of Music.

PLAN OF BEETHOVEN'S SONATA (Or. 53), COMMONLY CALLED

"
WALDSTEIN " SONATA.*

(First Movement.)
Allegro con brio.
1

15 16 18 19 20 21

* Reduced by C. See Antoine Reicha's (1770-1836) "Tniite de haute

Czerny.
Composition musicale," etc. Paris, 1824.
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 119

23 24 25 26 27

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29 30 31 32

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rfim.

33 34 35 36
120 MUSICAL FORMS.

45
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,

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-&
ores. f cm.

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60 ..61 62 63 64 65 66 67

g^E=EE^=S-fe^^tte-E8g
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 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 121

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ores.
122 MUSICAL FORMS.

98 99 100 101 102 103

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104 105 106 107 108 109

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144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152
124 MUSICAL FORMS.

153 154 155 156 157 158 159

160 161 162 163 164 165 166

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 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 125

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126 MUSICAL FORMS.

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 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 127

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248 249 250 251 252 253 254

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128 MUSICAL FORMS.

274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281

282 283 284 285

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286 287 288 289 290

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291 292 293 294 295

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 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 129

This first movement, so great with respect to ideaa and execution,

consists, including the repetition of the first part, of 385 bars in
common time, and although it has to be played in quick time,
it is of considerable length a length which it would not be advis-
able to overstep in a solo sonata. Not less important is the point
that this movement is, in the original, one of the most brilliant,
bright, and difficult; yet, if we play through, the above plan in the
correct time, we find its harmonious structure, from beginning
to end, pure, simple, and noble indeed, it might be adapted for a
chorus of a sacred composition. On such dignified, solid, and noble
foundation rest all the great works of Beethoven and we cannot
give a better advice to the student than to analyze (or rather reduce)
other classical works in a similar manner, and to fill up such struc-
ture afterwards with different melodies and harmonies; thus he will
soon recognize how great an importance our classical masters attached
to the invention of proper subjects, and how much care they bestowed
in finding for them the appropriate harmonies and modulations. The
student will see how, in the above instance, the distinguished and
important first subject occupies the attention through twenty-one
bars; this attention is increased by the modulation (bars 18-21) into
a higher tone. With one single chord (bar 22), which lies outside of
the previous rhythmical order, Beethoven proceeds to the augmented
sixth on C, thence to the dominant of E minor on this chord a suit-
;

able cadenza prepares the entry of the beautiful, hymn-like second

subject in E major; this remarkable subject originates (like so many
other subjects of Beethoven) in the diatonic scale

which, on its repetition, is surrounded by a graceful figure in triplets.

Bars 50-58 bring a harmonious imitation, which, without any further
or new modulations, leads to the final cadence; after which (bars
74-85) the modulation to E minor prepares, in a most natural manner,
the return to the principal or first subject.
The construction of the second part is (bars 86-112) founded on the
chief subject, and (in bars 112-141) on the imitation of the first part,
everywhere appearing in a most interesting, yet natural harmoniza-
tion, from bars 142 to 155, the return to the principal or first subject
is prepared in a most effective manner. The first part, with the
exception of a few interesting new points (bars 169-173), is merely
repeated; the second subject appears now (bar 194) in A
major (the
sub-mediant). With bar 243 begins the final cadenza, which, after
working out in a beautiful and highly interesting manner the principal
subject, and after a brilliant final cadence and some tranquilizing
recollections of the second subject (bars 282-292), closes the whole
movement in a powerful, brilliant, and compact way.
The admirable unity and symmetry of the whole movement results
from the following reasons First, the movement is not crammed with
:

too many different melodies or subjects it possesses only four the

;

principal and second subject, the subsequent imitation and the final
melody (see the original sonata, bars 74-85). Secondly, the choice ol
the different ideas is always happy, and they are connected with each
9
130 MUSICAL FORMS.

other in a beautiful and entirely natural manner. Thirdly, the

modulations are nowhere forced or strange, and always presented in
a strict rhythmical order. Fourthly, each period has its appropriate
length. Fifthly, the form is from beginning to end beautifully
designed and faithfully executed.

LITERATURE. Kuhnau Johann),

( Preface to his " 7 Partien und einer Senate
aus dem B" (B flat); Leipzig, and 1724. Becker (C. F.), " Die
1696, 1710,
Hausmusik in Deutschland," Faisst (Imanuel), " Beitrage zur
pp. 33-39.
Geschichte des Clavier Senate" (Cacilia, vol. xxv. p. 132, Schott and Co.).
Elterlein, "Beethoven's Clavier Sonaten;" Leipzig; English translation by
Miss E. Hill; London: Reeves. Mattheson (J.), " Neu-eroffnetes Orchester;"
Scheibe (Jon. "Kritische "
Hamburg, 175.
1713, p. Adolph), Musikus; Leipzig,
1745, 74, p. 675.

STRING QUARTET.
This form occupies a unique position in the gallery of musical
creations. It is well known that the Quartet, though invented by an
Italian, Luigi Boccherini (1740-1805), was greatly improved by Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven. Every composer of note in German has
thrown himself heart and soul into the composition of quartets more ;

pains and scrupulous care have been bestowed on the selection and
refinement of the proper subjects for a quartet, and more energy and
zeal have been displayed in the working out of the whole, than in the
construction of many an opera. The quartet may be considered as
the test of the genius, scholarship, taste, feeling, and readiness of the
composer. (See Thematic work.) Consummate skill is required in
handling the subject, the most polished taste and judgment in the
selection of the proper themes, and the purest and most genuine
feeling, to suffuse the whole with that moderate yet sufficient warmth
necessary to excite and maintain true interest among the audience.
And yet the quartet, as a form, is not so popular as, for instance, an
opera; and the success of a work of this kind will never be so brilliant
and dazzling as that of a dramatic work, which, appealing to a larger
and more mixed audience, has a much greater chance of general
approbation. The quartet will remain, at least for some time to come,
"caviare to the general." Nevertheless, the success of the quartet
rests on a more solid basis on the sympathy and firm connection
between the composer, the executants, and the public a connection
favored by and based on good and pure taste, solid studies, and an
interchange of refined feeling and intelligence. It is in fact a delight-
ful unanimity produced by good music, good execution, and an intel-
ligent audience. There cannot exist a more genuine or legitimate
pleasure than to listen attentively to a fine quartet well executed. As
already indicated, the quartet, like the trio, quintet, sestet, etc., is
composed in the regular sonata form.
To the same department belong the

CASSAZIONE, SERENADE, DIVERTIMENTO, NOTTURNO.

The Cassazione was in Italy a very popular piece, consisting of an
indefinite number of movements, intended for outdoor performance
in the evening. The earliest cassazioni were nothing more than suites
set for different instruments but these various instruments were not
;

treated as an orchestra, but as solo instruments. There exist three

 INSTRUMENTAL, MUSIC. 131

cassazioni by Mozart, of which the last two are written for two string-
instruments "(tenor and bass), two oboes, and two horns. The Diverti-
mento (piece for diversion) is a similar composition. The single
movements were not written in the rigorous style, but in an easy
popular manner; and it was sometimes the fashion to give the preference
to a solo instrument. Mozart wrote no less than eighteen divertimenti,
of which one (that in D major) has been successfully performed in
several towns in England. The Serenade is generally written for wind-
instruments; in it the march, and still more the minuet, is a very
prominent feature. Of Mozart we possess twelve serenades also two ;

by Beethoven. Johannes Brahms, one of the most distinguished of

living composers, has also written two serenades for a small orchestra.
The Notturno is the same as the Serenade. Spohr's Notturno in C
(Op. 34) and Hummel's Notturno in F (Op. 99) have obtained great
celebrity.

Plan of Mozart's Cassazione in G (composed 1768), Kochel's " Verzeichniss," 63,

p. 74: Marcia |, in G major; Allegro, C, in G major; Andante, |, m C major;
Minuet (I) in G major; Adagio, C, in D major; Minuet (II) in G major;
Finale, g, in G major. Seven movements.
Plan of Mozart's Serenade in D major (composed 1770), Kochel's M Verzeichniss,"
100, p. 101 -.Allegro, C, in D major; Andante, 1, in D major; Minuet (I) in G
major Allegro, \, in D major Minuet II) in D major Andante, \, in D major
; ; ( ; ;

Minuet (III) in I) major; Allegro, 1, in D major. Eight movements.

Plan of Mozart's Serenade in D major (composed 1776), Kochel's " Verzeichniss,"
250, p. 219:
Allegro maestoso, C, in D major Andante, \, in G major; Minuet
;

(I) in G minor, with Trio in G major; Rondo, |, in G major; Minuet (galant)

(II) in D major; Trio in D minor; Andante, ,
in A major; Minuet (II) in D
major; Trio (I) in G major; Trio (II) in Dmajor; Adagio, C, in D major; and
Allegro assai, |, in D major. Eight movements,
Plan of Beethoven's Serenade, Op. 8, in D major (composed 1797): Marcia, C, in
D major; Adagio, |, in D major; Minuet, in D major; Adagio, f, in D minor;
Allegretto alia Polacca, I, in F major; Tema con Variazioni, I, in D major. Six
movements.
Plan of Johannes Brahms' Serenade in A, Op. 19: Allegro, $ A major;
Scherzo, \, in C and Trio 1 in F; Adagio non troppo, in A minor, ^2; Quasi
Menuetto in D, ; Trio, F sharp minor, |; Rondo (Allegro), in A, |.

Plan of Mozart's Divertimento in E flat (composed 1777), Kochel's "Verzeich-

niss," 289, p. 247: Adagio, J, and Allegro, C, in Eflat; Minuet, in E flat ;

Adagio, I, in E flat finale, ^, in E flat. Four movements.

;

Plan of Mozart's Divertimento in D major (composed 1779 or 1780) Kochel's

"Verzeichniss," 334, p. 274: Allegro, C, in D major; Andante, |, in D minor,
with six variations; Minuet (I) in D major; Adagio, C, in A major; Minuet
(II) in D major; Rondo, g, in D major. Six movements.
Plan of Spohr's Notturno in C major, Op. 34: Marcia, C, in C major; Menuetto,
I, C minor; Andante con Variazioni, C, in F major; Polacca, f, in C major;
Adagio, J, in A flat major; finale, |, in C major. Six movements.

We now pass to the highest form of instrumental music, namely

the Symphony.
SYMPHONY.
All the remarks concerning the structure of the Sonata apply alsc>
to the Symphony. In the Symphony a certain number of instruments
are united, to produce a poetical representation of a series of emotions
i32 MUSICAL FORMS.

of the soul. The emotion may be tragical, heroic, and grand, or light
and humorous provided only it possesses sufficient importance to be
worthy of representation. Such importance is not only rendered
necessary by the chorus-like composition of the orchestra itself, but
also by the broader and grander treatment the symphony must
have, to distinguish it from the'sonata or quartet. A quartet, even if
scored for all the instruments used in the symphony, will yet not
be a symphony. Asonata or quartet may show symphonic ideas
and be treated symphonically; but it could never be taken for a
symphony, inasmuch as the symphony, written for a larger audience
and for a large hall, addresses itself to a mixed audience, and must
necessarily rely on a more general treatment and on a still clearer
and more precise delineation of the component parts than are
absolutely demanded for the sonata or the quartet. The presence of
so many different instruments, each and all possessing a separate and
individual expression and character, the combination of so many
different tone-shades in short, the richness of the whole material,
offer? to the composer a wide scope for describing in sounds a definite
poetical subject. No better example of this style could be adduced
than Beethoven's "Pastoral" or "Eroica" Symphony; but on the
other hand all sorts of descriptions put forth by self-constituted
annotators, and purporting to interpret movements, themes, chords,
or passages in various symphonies, are not only in bad taste, but are
sometimes simply ridiculous, and have often nothing whatever to do
with the poetical idea in the composer's mind.
As poetry finds its fullest development in the drama, so does
instrumental music in the symphony; and indeed it may safely be
said that the symphony is the highest of all the musical forms,
because it demands from the composer an extraordinary amount of
power and originality, and an absolutely independent inspiration.
The thematic subject must contain in itself the whole idea of the
work; from it must be developed all the following logical conse-
quences. But even the invention of an excellent principal subject,
and one suitable for all purposes, would be an insufficient guarantee
for a good symphony. Many more details have to be considered. A
consummate mastery in handling counterpoint, instrumentation,
invention of figures, appropriate interpolation of episodes, grouping of
phrases, gradation of final effects, and a complete command over all
these means, these various important details, is necessary before this
greatest of instrumental forms can be satisfactorily constructed.
When the architect has drawn the plan of a gorgeous palace, he has
many artisans to help him to carry out his idea not so the composer
;

of a symphony he must be at once the architect, the builder, and

decorator. No musical form, be it Opera, Oratorio, or any other,
could give us that noble and lofty idea of the wealth and intrinsic
power or of the irresistible strength of music that we find in the
Symphony.
CONCERTO.
(Concerto di camera.)

The Concerto is a piece consisting of three movements, in which one

pirticular instrument is regarded as the solo instrument and is
accompanied by a small or larger orchestra. In modern times the
Concerto is not reckoned as chamber-music, but belongs to the
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 133

orchestral department. The Concerto di camera consists (like the

more modern concertos of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Moscheles,
Field, Viotti, Spohr, etc.) of three movements, of which the
Rode,
first and last are quick, and the middle movement (andante, larghetto,
adagio) slow. The form of the different movements is that of the
Sonata, with the exception of the so-called tutti (ritornello, prelude,
introduction), which is performed by the orchestra; this tutti contains
generally both subjects, the principal and second one, and makes the
movement much longer. For this reason Mendelssohn and Schumann
have introduced most acceptable improvements, by reducing the
orchestral prelude to the shortest dimension, and by intrusting to the
principal instrument the disposition of the movement. In the older
form, we have actually to traverse the same road twice over, and this
plan results in making the performance of the solo or principal part
a kind of variation. Although Mozart and Beethoven succeeded to
impart by their genius sufficient interest to the tutti, and at the same
time to elaborate and enrich the solo part with such charm and
fascination as to make the listener forget that the solo part had
already been heard once before, in a simpler manner; less richly
gifted composers could not make the tutti or solos so interesting, and
the result is therefore not very happy, indeed rather monotonous.
The concertos of Mozart, Beethoven, Field, etc., introduce towards
the end a kind of "free fantasia," generally called Cadenza. This
cadenza offers to the executant a means of showing not only his skill
as a performer, but also a test for his cleverness as a composer, in so
"
far as there is in it a kind of "summing up of the entire movement.
This cadenza begins generally with the | chord on the dominant, and
may be long or short. The cadenza of the last movement is generally
shorter than that of the first movement. (See Beethoven's and
Mozart's cadenzas to their own concertos; A. E. Miiller's cadenzas
to six of Mozart's concertos also the cadenzas of Moscheles, Reinecke,
;

and Rubinstein to concertos of Beethoven; various cadenzas, and

most especially Schumann's splendid cadenza to his concerto, Op. 47,
A minor.) The beauty of the concertos of Mozart and Beethoven
consists in the interweaving of the orchestral instruments with the
principal part; thus making it a kind of dialogue. According to
Quantz, the celebrated flute-player and musical companion of
Frederic the Great of Prussia, Giuseppe Torelli (1616-?1708), a famous
violinist from Bologna was the founder of the concerto form, which
was adopted by Franz Benda, Antonio Vivaldi, and others.
The structure of the Concerto might be thus explained :

FIRST MOVEMENT.

Tutti.

First or chief movement.

Second subject some-
times in the tonic.
Solo.
Repetition, of first and
134 MUSICAL FORMS.

The composer's intention is to show, in the slow movement, grace,

elegance, tenderness, and suavity, as contrasted with the greater
energy of the first movement and the hilarity or brilliancy of the last.
The Finale is mostly written in the six-eight or two-four time. If it
is called Rondo, the form is that of a rondo in a sonata; but some-
times it receives also a characteristic expression, such as Rondo alia
Bpagnuola (Hummel, Spohr), Rondo alia polacca (Beethoven, Op. 56),
Rondo guerriere, and so on. No better examples of well-composed
concertos could be mentioned than those of Mozart (twenty-two),
Beethoven (Op. 15, 19, 37, 56, Triple Concerto, 58, 73), Spohr and
Moscheles. The Fifth Concerto for Piano-forte, Op. 73, by Beethoven,
is conceived in the manner of a symphony, and the Third Concerto,

Op. 37, in C minor, belongs to the most perfect works of musical art
perfect with regard to the psychological correctness of development
of feeling, the absolute perfection of formal beauty, the nobility and
melodious beauty of the principal subjects, and finally, the richness
of harmony and ever fascinating interest of instrumentation. The
student is particularly advised to make himself thoroughly acquainted
with the mutual relations of the principal instrument and the
orchestra, which in this instance, as also in Beethoven's other
concertos, is a real artistic triumph.
The double or triple concerto is constructed after the same manner;
only that instead of one principal instrument the composer employs
two, three, or four. The most celebrated examples of this form are
Sebastian Bach's concerto for three clavecins, several of his concertos
for two pianos, two violins Mozart's concertos for violin and viola,
;

for two piano-fortes, for flute and harp, Beethoven's concerto, Op. 56,
for piano, violin and violoncello, Maurer's concerto for four violins,
etc.

CONCERTINO, CONCERTSTUCK.
Both these forms are smaller than that of the concerto; the tuttis
and the development in the second part are much shorter, the slow
movement is generally a romanza or a kind of song without words
(see Mendelssohn, Op. 25, 40), and the last movement is at times a
repetition of the first movement, or a rondo, or brilliant movement
in the sonata form (see Mendelssohn's finales to his concertos, Op. 25,
40). Weber's Concertstiick again is a kind of suite, consisting of four
movements (a) larghetto, (b) allegro passionata, (c) tempo di marcia,
:

(d) piu moto leading into a presto assai.

The Concerto concludes the list of Cyclical forms belonging to
instrumental music. We have now to speak of the overture, and
afterwards of the minor forms which belong more or less to the
domain of chamber-music.
OVERTURE.
This form may be divided into the old (French and Italian) and the
modern overture. The composer Lully (1633-87), the founder of the
French Opera, was also the inventor of the so-called French Overture.
Its form consisted of a movement in common time, generally called
" "
the grave (solemn or heavy), followed by a fugue, which may be
set in another key and in different time; after the fugue, part or
whole of the grave is repeated. This form became so popular, that
Handel, Bach, Reiser, Telemann, Hasse, and other composers of the
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 135

eighteenth century adopted it. Where the overture was performed

singly, and rot in connection with the opera, it took in concerts the
place of a symphony. The Italian Overture, as introduced by
Alessandro Scarlatti, was quite different; it consisted of three distinct
movements, the first and last of which were fast. The middle move-
ment was scored for fewer instruments, and possessed a different
character from the preceding and the following one. It was, in fact,
in itself a kind of short symphony.
The modern overture may be divided into three classes the Opera:

Overture, the Artistic Overture, and the Concert or Programme, Overture.

The Opera Overture has been perfected by Mozart, Weber, Spohr, and
others with great attention and care; whilst the Italian and French
composers did not bestow much attention on it. Thus with Rossini
(the overture to "Guillaume Tell" excepted), with Boieldieu, Auber,
Adam, Bellini, Donizetti, and others, the overture is nothing but a
loosely connected string of the most popular airs which occur in the
opera. Weber, in his overtures to "Euryanthe" "Der Freischiitz,"
and "Oberon," followed the same plan, but arranged his airs with
much greater care; moreover, his themes are so greatly superior to
those of his Italian and French contemporaries, that his overtures are
decidedly more important. Under the head of " Artistic Overtures "
must be classed Mozart's overture to ** II Flauto Magico," Beethoven's
great Overture in C major (Op. 124), Mendelssohn's overture to "St.
Paul." Each of these is written in the style of a free fugue. The
Concert or Programme Overture was initiated by Beethoven's
"Coriolan," "Egmont," and "Leonora" overtures; and this field was
also most successfully worked by Mendelssohn in his four grand
concert overtures: the "Hebrides," "A Midsummer Night's Dream,"
"Fair Melusina," and "Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage." The
Concert Overture offers an excellent opportunity for tone-painting;
its form is mostly that of the first movement of a sonata its length is
;

generally greater than that of the Opera Overture. The Festival or

Triumphal Overture, another form less frequently followed, is generally
written in the same manner. Musical literature is exceedingly -*ich
in good, effective, and brilliant overtures; and their moderate length
and mostly popular style render them great favorites with the general
public.
PLAN OF OLDER OVERTURES.
OLD FRENCH OVERTURE (LTJLLY, etc.)

Grave.

Very slow and solemn.

Transition in the domi-
nant or relative minor
or major key.
136 MUSICAL FORMS.

PLAN OF HANDEL'S OVEKTURE TO "THEODORA."

Maestoso.

Common time.
G minor.
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 137

CAPRICCIO (SCHERZO).
The must not be confounded with the Caprice.
C'apriccio or Scherzo
Although initiated by Beethoven, it may be almost called an inven-
tion of Mendelssohn's; for in its construction all the qualities are
absolutely required which made Mendelssohn famous namely, wit
and spirit, an almost electric rapidity of harmonious changes, and a
fairylike lightness of treatment in the whole subject. A
scherzo or
capriccio ought to float as it were in the air, and should appear
entirely ethereal; its whole essence is sport, jest, hilarity, and bright-
ness. In Mendelssohn's different scherzos these characteristics are
fully developed.
The Scherzo (see Sonata) was a natural consequence of the improve-
ment which the sonata made
with respect to its progress as a psycho-
logically conceived and constructed form. The slow and somewhat
heavy minuet could not satisfy any more the demands of the com-
poser, and thus we see that particularly Beethoven gave to the scherzo
soon the place of the minuet (see his Op. 29, 30, i. 31, iii. 55, 59, i.;
; ;

68, 69, 74, 92, 96, 106, 110).

Thus we find in his sonatas, duet sonatas, trios, quartets, and sym-
phonies a greater number of scherzos than of minuets. The scherzo
was, however, already used by Sebastian Bach in his Partita III. ; and
the burla or burlesca of older composers is indeed very like the scherzo.

THE VARIATION.
The form is really one of the greatest wonders of our
Variation as a
musical art. It is based on the principle that an air may appear in
various kinds of figure and rhythm, and in varied division and compli-
cation of parts, changes of harmony, with contrapuntal and even
fugal treatment, provided the melodious order and phrasing is pre-
served throughout. The form changes, but the substance remains.
But changes of form are not immaterial, for they involve changes in
the movement, expression, and even character of the original theme,
which should develop itself in ever new phases. Variations are not
like a chain formed by links of the same size they represent progress
from simple to composite, from rest to motion, from tranquility to
passion, or vice versa. Variations may be treated as a mere plaything
with passages and ornate phrases (variazioni di bravura; see such
works by Kalkbrenner, Czerny, Herz, Hiinten, Dohler), without the
requisites just mentioned, from the great facilities there are for change;
but we speak here of those of the highest class, and in this field the
musical art may achieve the greatest triumphs.* The composer,
* The student is advised to examine with earnest attention the
following set of
Variations: Sebastian Bach's Air with Thirty Variations in Bflat; Handel's
Air and Variations in D minor; Bameau's Gavotte and Variations in
"
Aminor;
Haydn's Andante and Variations in F minor; Mozart's Unser dummer Pobel
meint" and Duet Variations in G; Beethoven's Variations in E flat (Op. 35),
Thirty -two Variations in C minor; Thirty-three Variations in C on Diabelli's
Valse Schubert's Duet Variations in
;
A flat (Op. 35) ; Mendelssohn's Variations
serieuses in D minor; Variations (Op. 83) in B flat, and (Op. 82) in E flat com-
pare the transformation of Op. 83 into the Duet (Op. 83A) ; Schumann's Varia-
tions (Etudes symphoniques) in C sharp minor (Op. 13), and Andante and Varia-
tions for two Pianos (Op. 46); Brahms' Variations on Themes by Handel,
Schumann and Paganini ; V. Lachner's Forty -two Variations on the Scale of C
major (Op. 42) ; Raff's Variations from Second Suite.
138 MUSICAL FORMS.

bound, so to say, to the theme, develops in it new features, elevates ii

to a higher standard, and elicits from it fresh and
unexpected beauties.
This faculty is an exclusive privilege of music, and is found in no
other art. The only equivalent we would mention as approximating
at all to the unique form of the musical Variation might perhaps be
the "Essay," in which the author may ring the changes on his subject.

MARCH.
(Fr.Marche; Ger.Marsch; Ital. Marcia.)

The March is of German origin, and

dates from about 200 years ago.
Well-defined rhythm is the characteristic quality necessary for its
purpose. The utility of the march in encouraging wearied men to
resist fatigue and inspiring them to advance against the enemy has
been abundantly proved. Certain inarches played by the military
bands are said to have had no small effect in insuring victory. There
are three great divisions of the march namely, the quick march
(Geschwind-marsch, Pas accellere") the slow march, and the funeral
march (Trauer-marsch, Marche funebre, Marcia fune"bre).
1. The Quick March. This is used at the march-past of the soldiers
and in the ordinary march-out. It is indispensable that the time
fitted to the step (one, two, one, two) should be strongly accentuated ;
two-four time is the best, and a quaver and a quaver rest is the sim-
plest form

but the bar may be broken up to prevent monotony. Where a more

flowing figure is employed, the accompaniment must strongly mark
the rhythm the first bars should be in the strict style. In the ordi-
;

nary march, which is intended to exhilarate the soldier, the six-eight

time and the alia breve ((ft) time are often used even the march-past ;

is now less stiff than formerly. A military march must be brief: in

the part of each instrument ten bars to a line of music and eight lines
to the whole march should be the limit. The march generally con-
sists ot two distinct parts the first number is sometimes called the
;

Initial March, the second is the Trio; They are generally tolerably
equal in length.
1. Initial March. First Part (8 bars).
 INSTRUMENT A T, MTISTO. 139

1st time. 2d time.

Second Part (8 bars).

|
^,^_^_pq---znil=iz s |
. ,

J=)=^IT

For variety's sake a differentcombination from that of the initial

march adopted in the trio. The trio is sometimes written in the
is
key of the sub-dominant, and in it the melodic figure is greatly
expanded; the second part of the trio begins in the minor key corres-
ponding to the major key of the initial part, which is played as a
termination after the trio, that the march may conclude in the key in
which it began. The march is generally preceded by four or eight
preparatory bars :

Introduction. STRAUSS, Sr.

Mf-
140 MUSICAL FORMS.

2. The Slow March. Man&el, in his "System of Music," p. 355,

remarks that the slow march is retained in no European army, except
in the English, which he considers a loss from a musical point of
view." In England it is used for the march-past and for trooping the
colors. Like the quick inarch it must not be too long it is also divided
;

into the initial and trio. At. elaborate march of this kind might be
mentioned Mendelssohn's " Wedding March." The march called
the "Troop," and used for trooping the colors is combined of nine
marches, slow and quick; the "British Grenadiers" and "God save
"
the Queen being indispensable elements.
3. The Funeral March the Marcia lugubre of the Italians, March
funebre of the French, Trauer-marsch of the German (J
= 66) sixty-
six crotchets to a minute by the metronome. The initial is generally
in the minor, the second part (trio) in the major key, to represent
"the freedom of the disembodied spirit." Examples: Beethoven's
Funeral March (Op. 26), Schubert's Funeral March (Op. 40, v.), Cho-
pin's Funeral March. See also the movements "In mpdo d'un*,
marcia " in Schumann's Quintet (Op. 44), Beethoven's Marcia Funebre
of the "Eroica" Symphony.
4. The Triumphal or Festival March.. The time is rather slower than
that of the funeral march; its expression that of grandeur, pomp, and
solemnity. The most celebrated examples are those of Beethoven's
solemn march and chorus from the " Ruins of Athens," Cherubini's
march from "Medea," Meyerbeer's coronation march from the
"Prophete," and "Marche des Flambeaux," "
Gounod's marche solen-
nelle from "La Heine deSaba," Wagner's Tannhauser," Huldigung's
and Fridensmarsch, Lachner's march from " Catherina Comaro," and
Suite in D minor.
5. Religious Marches. These appear in operas and oratorios. (Com-
pare Mozart's march in " Id omen eo." " II Flauto Magico ;" Beethoven's
"
Mount of Olives ;" Mendelssohn's War-March of the Priests in "Atha-
lia," etc.)
6. NationalMarches. These are generally founded on national airs.
Excellent examples are the Hungarian Rakoczy March, Schubert's
Hungarian March (Op. 55), Beethoven's Turkish March (Op. 113),
"
Weber's Gipsies' March from Preciosa," etc.

SONGS WITHOUT WORDS.

These are piano-forte pieces of one movement, generally short, and
appearing with regard to form and aesthetic intention to be an imita-
tion of the song; consequently they have a lyrical expression, and the
melody is accompanied in a refined and artistic manner. The name
(in some respects a paradox, in as far as no song, properly speaking,
can exist without words the words being the reason of the existence
of the song) was, according to private information given by a member
of the family of Mendelssohn, who introduced these little compositions
" "
in this garb for the first time in 1831. The Songs without words
soon obtained a universal recognition and approbation, and are now
accepted as musical household words. With regard to their contents,
Mendelssohn's "Songs without words" are not new, inasmuch as
Beethoven's Bagatelles (see Op. 33, Nos. 4 and 6 Op. 119, No. 4 Op.
; ;

126, No. 3), and Field's Nocturnes contain similar matter, which, how*
ever, was not worked out in such detail or with such extreme care,
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 141

The " Songs without words " were imitated in numberless instances,
but no composer after Mendelssohn succeeded in giving to them sucn
absolute finish and roundness of form, combined with such pure,
"
genuine sentiment. To only a few of Mendelssohn's Songs without
words " names were given by the composer himself.*

ETUDE (STUDY).
The Etude or Study, originally invented by Bach, has in course of
time grown to great and even important proportions. At first it was
intended solely for practice, for acquiring proficiency in certain pas-
sages, dementi (1752-1832), in his " Gradus ad Parnassum," extended
its sphere, and introduced fugues, toccatas, and canons. His pupil,
John Baptist Cramer (1771-1858), greatly influenced by Mozart, sought
to infuse what in reference to the students might be called a philan-
thropic spirit into the Study; for he introduced into it pleasant
melody, harmony, and elegance, in which points Clementi was some-
what deficient. After Cramer's came the useful but somewhat dry
technical Studies of Czerny, Herz, and Kalkbrenner. Moscheles
(1794-1870) altered this form again, and greatly developed and
enlarged Cramer's idea; till at last the beautiful and excellent Studies
of Chopin, Henselt, Liszt, and Thalberg appear in a form which not
only commands respect but excites popular admiration.

IDYLL, ETC.
The Idyll, Eclogw, and Villanella are short pastorals the Dithyramb
;

(W. Tomaschek, 1774-1850) and Rhapsody (Henselt, Brahms, Liszt)

appear as an endeavor to portray by sounds tne peculiar dactylic form
of versification. Impromptus (Schubert, Taubert, Chopin), Intermezzi,
and Sketches (Bennett, Schumann, Heller) are free forms, sometimes
approaching the scherzo, at others again showing affinity with the
smaller romantic pieces.
In poetry Idyll is a short pastoral rjoem, written in an elevated and
highly finished style. Eclogue -means in poetry a pastoral composition,
in which shepherds are introduced conversing with each other; a
bucolic. Villanella is a country (pastoral) tune. Dithyrambus, actually
an ancient Greek hymn in honor of Bacchus, usually sung by a band
of revellers to a flute accompaniment. Rhapsody, a disconnected series

* The general public ever anxious to know the composer's meaning, are at the
same time not less desirous to have a name for each piece. All manner of fantas-
"
lic, nonsensical names have been bestowed upon Mendelssohn's Songs without
words ;" the names given by Stephen Heller to these popular gems are, however,
an honorable exception to these worthless titles. They are as follows : 1. Sweet

Remembrance; 2. Regret; 3. The Hunt; 4. Confidence 5. Disquiet: 7. Contem-

;
'

plation; 8. Restlessness; 9. Consolation; 10. The Wanderer; 11. The Rivulet;

13. The Evening Star; 14. Lost Happiness; 15. The Harp of the Poet; 16. Hope;
17. Appassionata; 19. On the Shore; 20. The Vision; 21. Presto Agitato "22. :

The Sorrowful Soul; 23. Triumphal Chant; 24. The Flight; 25. May Breezes;
26. The Departure; 27. Funeral March; 28. Morning Song; 30. Spring Song;
31. Meditation; 32. Lost Illusions; 33. The Pilgrim's Song; 34. The Spinning
Song; 35. The Wail of the Shepherd; 36. Serenade; 37. A Reverie; 38. The
Farewell; 39. Passion; 40. Elegy; 41. The Return; 42. Songs of the Traveller.
(Nos. 6, 12,18, 29 retain the names given by the author.) See also E. Pauer's
" Harmonious Ideas " Poetical Mottoes for Mendelssohn's
;" Songs without Words."
142 MUSICAL FORMS.

of sentences, a rambling composition. Impromptu (from the Latin in

promptu, "in readiness ")-, a piece made off-hand at the moment or with-
out any previous study, Intermezzo (see Vocal music). Sketch (Fr.
Esquitae; Ger. Sk'izze), an outline or general delineation of anything.

POTPOURRI.
The Potpourri, Quodlibet, Melange, and Pasticcio, are pieces of
uncertain length, put together in a loose, easy manner, and consisting
of all possible popular airs. On the Continent such pieces are often
performed by orchestras in public gardens, and a good deal of inge-
nuity has been shown in comic potpourris by Hamm, Kuffner, and
others. The potpourris and melanges for piano-forte were introduced
by Louis Emanuel Jadin in the beginning of this century. (Compare
the well-known potpourri by Hamm, "Der lustige Figaro.")

DANCE MUSIC.

OLD DANCES.
DANCE music, in its various branches, has influenced the musical art
in a greater degree than is generally believed. Not only does the
orchestra owe its existence to dance music, but the delightful rhyth-
mical animation, which is one of the principal charms of modern
music, is the result of the respective dance measures, such as
minuets and others, adopted for the symphony, the sonata, etc. ;
the
suite, for instance, is entirelya combination of dance movements.
The dances are naturally to be divided into two classes, the old and
the modern or national. Among the old dances are included all those
which are now out of fashion and obsolete. In the case of some it is
not easy even to describe them accurately. The first that require
notice are the mediaeval dances. France, Italy, and Spain had a great
similarity in their dance music, Germany and England being rather
behindhand in that branch of art ; indeed the chief English dances,
like the Courante, Brawl, Pavan, etc., were foreign importations.

ALLEMANDE.
The Allemande is, as its name implies, of German origin. There
are two completely different kinds of allemandes the first,
: one in
two-four time, which is danced by the peasants of Swabia and
Switzerland, and the second the allemande of the suite. The charac-
teristics of the latter are earnestness of expression and a moderately
quick movement. It ought to possess a rich harmony and should
;

in fact convey the feeling of "a certain contentment and quiet

 DANCE MUSIC. 143

cheerfulness." The allemandes of Sebastian Bach are masterpieces,

and have never been surpassed. The allemande follows the prelude,
and always stands before the courante.

COURANTE (CORRENTE).
The Courante or Corrente is French or Italian origin.
either of
According to its name, which derived from the French courir, or
is
the Italian correre, its chief expression ought to give the idea of
running. Mattheson, the well-known contemporary
"
of Handel,
describes it in the following quaint manner The passion or temper
:

which is expressed in the courante is that of a sweet hope, and we

detect in it something hardy, ambitious, yet cheerful. On the violin
the courante is confined by no limits, but tries to do honor to its
name by an incessant bustle and hurry, but yet in such a way that
tenderness and grace are not absent. In France they preferred the
courante played on the lute; but in Germany the masters set it for
the clavecin. For dancing courantes the French invented the best
tunes." Bach's and Handel's courantes are written either in three-
two or three-four time ; and it is usual to find doubles or variations
added to them.
BOURR&E.
According to the best authorities, the native land of this dance is
Auvergne; but some writers designate as its home the Basque
Provinces in Spain, where it is known by the name of Borea.
Mattheson describes it as having " a cheerful
and merry character;
more fluent, smooth, sliding, and connected than the gavotte. The
peculiarity of the bourre"e is a certain jovial and pleasant expression,
coupled with an air of happy carelessness an easy though not vulgar
movement." The bourre"e is in two-four or common time, and is
adapted to the dactylic metre, where two short notes follow a long
one. In England the bourre"e is represented by the popular hornpipe.

GAVOTTE.
The Gavot or Gavotte has a great similarity with the Bourre"e. The
actual difference between a bourre"e and a gavotte is that the former
begins on the last or unaccented part of the bar, while the latter
begins with the heavy or accented part of the second half. The
gavotte is of French origin; it is the dance of the Gavots or Gap-men,
the inhabitants of the town of Gap, in the Haute-Alpes. It was
mostly used for theatrical
"
purposes, seldom as a social dance.
Mattheson tells us the expression should be that of a right jubilant
joy ;^the 'jumping' and by no means the 'running' movement is a
particular feature of it." The gavottes of Sebastian Bach are very
excellent models, and have attained universal popularity. Bach and
other composers add to several of their gavottes a musetta or bagpipe-
tune. The peculiarity of the Musetta is that the fundamental bass
never changes and thus the piece imitates the quaint monotonous
;

effect of the bagpipe.

CEBELL.
"The name of an air or theme in common time of four-bar phrases,
'
forming a subject upon which to execute divisions upon the lute or
'

violin. This style of air, although frequently found in books for the
144 MUSICAL FORMS.

violin in the seventeenth century, is now obsolete its principal feature

;

was the alternation of grave and acute notes which formed the several
strains."*
SAKABANDE.
The Sarabande is of Spanish origin and was transferred to Italy,
;

where it altered its primary expression in being converted into a stately,

earnest and solemn dance, very different from its characteristic expres-
sion in Spain. When we read that the Spanish sarabande was danced
with castanets, we can scarcely reconcile such an accompaniment
with i\\egrandezza, the quiet grandeur, which predominates in Handel's
and Bach's sarabandes. The sarabande may be called the " central
"
body of the suite, as it is the one slow movement round which the
quicker movements the prelude, allemande, andcourante on the one
side, and the gavotte and gigue on the other revolve. Shakespeare
" " "
speaks of it in Much Ado About Nothing as a measure full of state
and ancientry;" and indeed it can hardly be more happily described.
Sebastian Bach treated the sarabande as the principal and most im-
portant piece of the suite, and bestowed on it an amount of care that
was extraordinary even for that ever-conscientious composer ; working
it out in the most minute detail. Indeed the sarabandes of the Second,
Third, and Sixth English Suites are models of refined workmanship
and exquisite taste. Handel's celebrated air " Lascia che piango " was
a sarabande from his opera " Almira," and appeared again six years
"
later as Almirena's air in the opera Rinaldo."

GIGUE.
This lively dance is also written zigg, jig, giga, gigue, gicque, schick,
quique: but gigue is now the universally adopted way of writing the
name. Nageli in his Lectures, p. 115, says: "The suite with all its
dance tunes required also an artistically worked piece of more solid
construction, something like the fugue. As all the preceding dance
movements of the suite, such as allemande, courante, sarabande, ga-
votte, bourre"e, had been divided into two parts of equal length, it was
considered desirable that the gigue should also be divided in the same
manner, and that the first part ought to close on the dominant; other-
wise, almost all the devices followed out in the fugue were also applied
to the gigue, and thus a favorable result was gained: a lively piece
with a solid construction, resembling a dance movement, yet possessing
also a deeper interest for the connoisseur." There are four different
kinds of gigues: (1) the English; (2) the Spanish, also called Loures ;

(3) the Canaries; and (4) the Italian giga. According to another
authority the "jig" was formerly the dance tune used during the
performance of the rope-dancers. At present the name of jig is given
to any dance music of a lively, droll, and grotesque expression. The
Spanish gigues or loures are slower, and have a "somewhat pompous
and magniloquent expression, a vain and inflated tune," as Mattheson
quaintly calls it. The Canaries are full of life and bustle, but ought
to have somewhat of a simple, even childish expression. The Italian
giga is that used by Handel, and sometimes also by Bach. This form
has retained a certain influence on modern music. (See the last
movement of Beethoven's " Kreutzer " Sonata.)
* See Stainer and Barrett's " Dictionary of Musical Terras," p. 81.
 DANCE MUSIC. 145

ANGLOISE.
The name Angloise was formerly given to three kinds of English
dances : the Country dance ; (b) to the Ballad, and (c) to the Horn-
(a)
"
pipe. "Mattheson, in his Kern melodischer Wissenschaft," p. 117,
says : The principal quality of the Angloise is obstinacy/ but this
'

quality is accompanied by an expression of generosity and good-

nature." The Country dance is the dance of the peasants, for which
all possible national and dramatic airs are used. The Ballad is a song,
to the tune of which people danced, as in France (Chansons de danse).
The Hornpipe is the sailor's dance (see Hornpipe and Bourree).
BRAWL.
The Brawl is an antiquated French dance (Branle), in which the
whole company joined not unlike the modern cotillon. The old
writers described it as being not so lively as the courantes or galliards,
but danced merely by bending the knees, not by jumping with the
feet. Towards the end of the sixteenth century it was customary to
dance during the evening several kinds of Branles: the Branle double
(also called Branle common), the Branle simple, the Branlegai, and
finally the Branle de Bourgogne, or Branle de Champagne. The old
people danced the Branle double, the young married couples the
Branle de Bourgogne. Thoinet Arbeau mentions in his "Orcheso-
graphie" (Langres, 1588) the following kinds of Branles: (1) Branle
double; (2) Branle simple; (3) Branle gai (in triple time); (4) Branle
de haut Barrois; (5) Branle coupe", also called "Cassandra," "Pina-
gay," "Charlotte," "Branle de la Guerre," "Aridan;" (6) Branle de
Poitou (in triple time); (7) Branle e"cossais; (8) Branle, called "Tri-
ori;" (9) Branle de Matta; (10) Branle des Blanch isseuses (the
Washerwomen's Branle); (11) Branle Margneritotte; (12) Branle des
Hermites; (13) Branle des Flambeaux; (14) Branle des Sabots; (15)
Branle des Chevaux; (16) Branle de la Moutarde; (17) Branle de la
Haie; (18) Branle de 1'Official.
CHACONNE.
The origin of the Chaconne or Ciaccona is variously stated. It is
not quite certain whether it derives its origin from Italy or Spain.
The name itself is described as coming from the Italian cieco, which
means "blind;" and it is said that the inventor of the ciaccona was
blind. It is also asserted that chaconne comes from the Arabic, and
means " the dance of the king." According to Mattheson (" Vollkom-
mener Capellmeister," p. 233), "the dance 'Chaconne' takes its name
from the Spanish Admiral Chacon, commanding the fleet, 1721, in
America." Again, Littre" says that the name comes from the Basque
chocuna, "pretty." The music of the chaconne is in three-four time.
It has a very sedate movement, and has the peculiarity that an air of
four, sometimes eight bars, with an agreeable melody and particularly
well-marked rhythm, is performed in the bass; this air is, like in the
ground, incessantly repeated, while the upper part is varied, the varia-
tions being called couplets. Sometimes a certain relief is brought into
it by the
interpolation of a short phrase but this is rarely applied.
;

The most celebrated chaconnes are those of Bach, Couperin, and

Handel. In England it was called " the chacon," and was danced like
the sarabande or measure, of which Queen Elizabeth was very fond.
10
146 MUSICAL FORMS.

MINUET.
"
In France this dance is called "le menuet;" in Italy, minuetto."
It is said to have come originally from the French province of Poitou.
Thename itself is derived from the Latin minutus, "small," and this
name was given on account of the short steps peculiar to it. The
minuet isdistinguished for its graceful, noble, and dignified expres-
sion it was especially the dance of the nobility, and every ball was
opened with it; its prevailing character was a moderate cheerfulness.
To give variety to the minuet, a second part was generally composed
for it, which offered a certain contrast to the first. This second part
is called "trio," because, while formerly the minuet was written for
two parts only mostly for a violin and a bass the second division
was set for three parts. We
sometimes, but rarely, meet with the
minuet in the suite; but it had been unconditionally accepted in the
other cyclical forms, such as the sonata, symphony, serenade, ^cassa-
zione, etc. Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven made splendid use of
the minuet. In Haydn's hand the minuet received another charac-
ter; whereas before his time it had a somewhat aristocratic expres-
sion, Haydn, without lowering or vulgarizing it, imparted to it a
popular tone, a simple and jovial manner. With hirn it has essen-
tially a cheerful and good-natured expression. Mozart understood how
to imbue it with a more refined wit and an artistic character; and
Beethoven managed to give an indescribable charm to his minuets.
Although in his later works the scherzo took the place of the minuet,
he uses it again in his Eighth Symphony. The minuet must therefore
be recognized as one of the principal and most important dances
among those which in a great degree influenced instrumental music.

PASSACAGLIO.
The Passacaglio was called in French "passecaille." According to
some old writers the name is also pronounced " passagallo," which
means in German, " Hahnentrapp," or the trotting of the cock. This
last term was probably an illusion to the mode in which the passa-
caglio was danced. The passecaille has a certain resemblance to the
chaconne, in so far as the bass ought to contain the melody, and the
upper part furnish variations to it, which, like those in the chaconne,
are called couplets. The old writers, Mattheson, Walther, and Koch,
differ in their opinion as to the quicker or slower time of the passa-
caglio.

PASSAMEZZO.
The Passamezzo an old Italian dance, with a soft and quiet expres-
is
sion. Praetorius and Walther give valuable information concerning
it. The former says " Passamezzo a possando, transcendo, meaning that
:

he who dances it ought to proceed quietly and gradually and just as ;

a galliard has five steps, and is therefore called cinquepas (cinque-

' '

'

pace), so also has the passamezzo not half this number, quasi dicas/
'
mezzo passa/ as if you called it half-step.' " Walther adds; " Pas-
'

samezzo, an old Italian dance, in which the dancer went quietly

through the room also an old Italian song, to which people danced."
;

The passamezzo is now completely forgotten.

 DANCE MUSIC. 147

PASSEPIED.
The Passepied was formerly the dance of the Breton sailors. The
expression of the passepied is that of merriment and liveliness, or as
Mattheson expresses it, "The character of the passepied indicates an
approach to negligence; it ought to show a certain vacillation and
unsteadiness, not passion or excitement; but such negligence must be
expressive not of ill-humor and caprice, but of good-nature and jovi-
ality." The passepied is in three-eight or three-four time, and generally
alternates with a second passepied of the same length; if the first is
in the minor key the second is set in the major key, and vice versd.
When the passepied is introduced in a suite, it takes the place of the
gavotte or bourree; that is, it comes between the sarabande and the
gigue. " "
According to some writers, passepied (English"
paspy compare
the example of Purcell and Croft, given in the Dictionary of Musical
Terms," by J. Stainer and W. A. Barrett, p. 343) is identical with pas-
" "
samezzo, although to proceed quietly and gradually and again
" "
merriment and liveliness do not actually harmonize.

PAVAN.
The Pavana, pava d'Espagne, pavin or pavan, is an" extraordinary
dance. According to the Old English Encyclopaedia, the pavan is a
grave dance, common among the Spaniards." In this dance the per-
formers described a kind of wheel before each other; the gentlemen
danced it with cap and sword, princes in their state robes, and the
ladies with long trains, the movements resembling the stately step of
the peacock, in Italian called "pavone." The Paduand is a similar
grave and stately dance, which, however, may take its name from
Padua, in Italy.
GALLIARD.
The name Galliard derived, according to some old writers, from
is
"
valiarda (Lat. validus), strong." In the Italian and French languages
"
gagliarda or gaillard means, merry, jolly, free, cheerful, fresh, and
healthy;" and such in fact ought to be the expression of this dance.
Some musical historians say that Rome was the birthplace of the
galliard, and that the name of Romanesca was then given to it; but
thismay be doubted, because the tune which we know under the
name Romanesca is not merry or cheerful, but rather the reverse.
The gaillarde par terre was also called Tourdion.

RIGAUDON.
The Rigaudon, called in English "Rigadoon," is an old French
dance, to which it was the custom to sing an accompaniment. The
rigaudon is written in common time, and had its origin in Provence.
The character of the rigaudon is merry and cheerful the quickest
;

notes are quavers. According to Th. Lejarte, the rigaudon was named
after its inventor, the dancing-master Monsieur Rigaud.

SICILIANO.
A kind of melody to which the Sicilian peasants were accustomed
to dance. Its character is that of rural simplicity and tenderness. It
is set in six-eight time ; but its movement is rather slower than that
148 MUSICAL FORMS.

of the pastorale. The rhythm of the Siciliano was also used for vocal
pieces; thus we find beautiful examples in Handel's "Susanna" and
"Theodora."
A cursory glance at the old dances is sufficient to convince us that
they were of the greatest possible importance to the progress of in-
strumental music. Not only did the separate character each of them
possessed lend a peculiar charm to their introduction and adaptation
for the cyclical forms, but the composer learned by their means to
invent better and more fascinating tunes. Under the garb of a passa-
caglio or a chaconne, it was pleasant to hear and admire contrapuntal
feats, whilst on the other hand the minuet offered to Haydn, Mozart,
and Beethoven a welcome opportunity to suffuse their works with an
agreeable good-nature. The old dance movements brought life, grace,
and rhythmical beauty into instrumental music and thus we perceive
;

that the music of the people becomes a most important agent in

enhancing the charm of instrumental music generally, in widening
its sphere by the simplest and most welcome means, and in consoli-

dating its popularity.

THE OLD DANCE MOVEMENTS.

Classified with respect to their time and rhythmical expression.

CHACONNE.
HANDEL.
Ex. I.

SARABANDE.
Ex. II. COUPERIN.
 . DANCE MUSIC. 149

COURANTE.
Ex.

m
III. J. S. BACH.

rgrrg- rm
I^E^jife^g^gE^
^ tf ^^ ^" """"^
^a

GALIARDO (GAILLARDE).
Ex. IV. WILLIAM BYRDE.
I I
.

f 't r

^&* -f ^^^^-VJ
MINUET (THE FIRST).

-J-
1
-:~
^ J
-9-
I

-^-r--tr-rc-W^ =

HORNPIPE. (See Mattheson, "Der vollkorumene Capellineister/' p. 229.)

Ex. VI.
150 MUSICAL FORMS.

MUSETTE (A).
Ex. VII. J. PH. RAMEAU.
JSL
*

r r r

r r r r
PASSEPIED.
Old French.

^,^^5^,^
-g-~ 1
^
r i r
GAVOTTE.
Ex. IX.
 DANCE MUSIC. 151

MUSETTE (B).
. S. BACH.
Ex. X

wfV- rFT-prt --^-f-pH -F-f-f

I I I
I I I

_. i n ii m [~- ^-m P ^-P-l i^

"
C_
n r^Tt h-p*

CEBELL.
Ex. XI. PURCELL.

BOUREE.
Ex. XII. J. S. BACH.

;:B^;

"
(Compare Hornpipe, under English Dances," p. 157.)

BOTJREE.
Ex. XIII. Old French.

-ft=i--5--E^=S

*T^ ^^^^1^^^^^^* L ^^ ^ ^ I
152 MUSICAL FORMS.

RlGATJDON.
Ex. XIV. J. PH. RAMEATJ.

BRAWL (BRANLE).

PA VANE. (L'ENTRETIEN DES DlEUX.)

Ex. XVI. CHAMPION DE CHAMBONNIEEE.

ANGLAISE.
Ex. XVII. J. S. BACH.

j^l i'l I L l l __1^^^_

 DANCE MUSIC. 153

PASSACAGLIA (PASSACAILLE).
Ex. XVIII. HANDEL.

J. S. BACH.

D =-J I h^ i I HBH5H ^ i ^ ;
\-m

-
E
~ ~ ~ ~

ALLEMANDE (1580).
Ex. XX. Collection Philidor.

GlGUE.
HANDEL.

-<9-^-\ l
^
1
l

UM^TiE F^?
154 MUSICAL FORMS.

LOTJRE.
Ex. XXII. J. S. BACH.

-fi_.=pir "i -=--^| r ^ I

>-
1 'i, r i-
fi TT
==f-*\J\
22^=^
J~
*-^t^
J-1
^-^ 1-
.J-

r'
1

r
CANARIES.
Ex. XXIII. COUPERIN.

-^ -

GIGA (ITALIAN).
Ex. XXIV. CORELLI.

^^
i i

-~^--r-^ r ^- f^-^
SlCILIANO.
Ex. XXV.
Largo. HANDEL (from the Oboe Concerto in B flat).
 DANCE MUSIC. 155

II.

MODERN AND NATIONAL DANCES.

GERMAN DANCES.
ALTHOUGH the Germans are certainly one of the most musical
nations, they cannot boast of such a variety of dances as other nations
(the
"
Spaniards, for instance) possess. The chief dance of the Germans
is der Walzer." This again we find in different forms in Germany
proper, Styria and Tyrol. The name Walzer comes from the German
wdlzen, "to revolve," or more literally, "to roll." The German, Sty-
rian, and Tyrolese valses are all slow and expressive of a quiet and
moderate enjoyment. The Styrian and Tyrolese valses sometimes
change the slow movement into a quicker one. The music here is
expressive of the dancing movement, in so far as the slower part
accompanies the more graceful turns of the dancing pair. The real
German Walzer (introduced 1787), however, does not introduce such
changes of movement or figures, but goes on placidly and somewhat
pedantically. The Styrian Walzer of Lanner (Op. 6, 11, 165, 202) are
models of a true characteristic expression and the rustic valses of
;
"
Beethoven, the so-called "Deutsche" or Ldndler" by Mozart, Bee-
thoven, Schubert, and the Six Valses by C. M. von Weber, convey the
most accurate idea of what a real German valse should be.
OLD GERMAN RINGELREIGEN.
156 MUSICAL FORMS.

(Compare L. Ko'hler, "Die Tanze aller Nationen/') The modern

" "
Valse, nowgenerally called Vienna" or Quick Valse," is quite dif-
ferent from the above-mentioned kind. The old valse appears more
like an animated minuet, whilst the modern valse possesses fire,
energy, and a certain tender expression. Weber has removed the
monotony and Philistinism from the former dance. In his beautiful
" "
Invitation a la Valse we find the root of all the valses which Lan-
ner, Strauss, Labitzky, Gungl and others wrote.
"
A most unnatural
valse, a kind of anomaly, is the Valse a deux temps." It is a vain
attempt to amalgamate the rhythm of the galop with that of the valse ;

but whilst the valse in three-four time is expressive of a graceful cir-

cular movement, the specialty of the Galop is that of alternating
movement in a line with sharp and angular turns. The only result of
its introduction was to accelerate the movement of the valse in an

exaggerated degree and to rob it of all its natural grace.

ENGLISH DANCES.
The dances common in England in old days, such as the Brawl, the
Measure, the Cushion-dance, the Maypole, or Morris-dance, the Pavan,
the Galliard, were all foreign importations; the only real English
dances are, the Country-dance, the Hornpipe, and the Reel, which latter
belongs also to the Scotch and Irish to the former nation especially.
The country-dance consisted of different movements, and is a kind of
suite. Most probably it was formerly danced at once by the whole
company, and its charm may have been enhanced by pantomimic
figuresand fancy costumes. The Country-dance is said to have been
adopted by the French under the name of contredanse. Some writers,
however, assert that the name contredanse illustrates the manner in
which the performers danced opposite each other without taking
hands. The country-dance has to some extent gone out of fashion,
though in the rural districts it is not yet obsolete. The Hornpipe was
originally a Scotch dance, and takes its name from the horn or bagpipe
on which the tune is played. The name " hornpipe " is now generally
given to sailors' dances which are written in the common time, and
through their quaint and cheery rhythm possess a peculiar charm.
The Reel is a dance which is to be found in England, but which belongs
more particularly to Scotland, though also met with in Ireland, Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark. The word itself is Saxon, reol, and means,
like the verb reel in English, "to stagger." The number of Scotch
reels is quite enormous; every clan, nay, almost every great Scottish
family, possesses its particular reel, as it has its coat-of-arms. The
monotony, harshness, and barbarous bass of the reel make it anything
but pleasing. There is a sort of rough and savage character in it; but
as the exponent of a national expression it demands attention.

ENGLISH DANCE (1577).

r
COUNTKY-DANCE TUNE (about 1300).

f
 DANCE MUSIC. 157

HORNPIPE ("Jack at Greenwich "). C. DIBDIN (1800).

111
REEL (Miss Falconer's).

rr rr r f f f rf rf
NORWEGIAN AND SWEDISH DANCES.
Different collections of Scandinavian dance-tunes show that the
Norwegians possess three kinds of dances first, the Spring-dance, or
:

Hopping-dance, in three-four time; secondly, the so-called Dance-tunes

in two-four time; and thirdly, the Keels. In all these there is an emi-
nent brightness and precision of rhythmical expression. The spring-
dances are written either for a clarinet and bass instrument, or
perhaps for a bagpipe. The dance-tunes are sung by the dancers
themselves, and are rather slower. The reel is here, as in Sweden,
generally danced by the sailors. Everything that has been said about
Norway applies also to Sweden and Denmark. The dance melodies
are, however, more in use in Sweden, and the melodies of the Dale-
carlians strictly, Dalarnes, which means literally Dale-carles, "inhab-
itants of the dale or valley" enjoy a great celebrity. The Swedish
dance melodies express more of a pastoral character than those of
the Norwegians and Danes.
SPRINGDANS.
Allegretto.
~
n

WALLACHIAN, MOLDAVIAN, AND ROUMANIAN DANCES.

All these are written in two-four time, and have a distinct character
from all other national dances. Generally, voices singing the tune
Siccompany the dance. Each profession has its own dance-tune;
138 MUSICAL FORMS.

thus we find a shepherd's, a soldier's, and a lover's dance. The last-

mentioned is known by the generic name of Sentimental dance. We
find in the character of the northern dances a suggestion of that
popular instrument the bagpipe. In the south we meet with the violin,
the clarinet, the violoncello, sometimes the flute, and most particularly
the so-called Hackbrett, the dulcimer, or German psalterium. This
venerable instrument dates from the eleventh century, and is now
almost confined to the gipsies, or Hungarian bands. The character
of the Roumanian, Wallachian, and Moldavian dance music is expres-
sive of a tender feeling, a cheerfulness not untinged with a certain
melancholy, and in some parts with a martial expression.
SENTIMENTAL DANCE.
Moderato.

I
J J JJ TJ3.J J"3

MOLDAVIAN DANCE.

-
npfyf^ft rEWT, TCqJj
rcLj o_u
ITALIAN DANCES.
0.
m
Italy, thoughhas been called the cradle of music, does not possess
it

many national dances.

Strictly speaking, there are only two dances
which are genuinely Italian, the Tarantella and the Monferina. The
Saltarello, which is danced in Rome, is a Spanish importation ;
and
the Bergamasca is merely known to the inhabitants of the district of
Bergamo, and can therefore not be called a national, but merely a
provincial dance. The instruments used for playing the tunes are
the guitar or mandolina, the tambourine, and the castanets. Of the
"
tarantella we find a description in Goethe's Italian Journey." He
says,
'
The tarantella is a great favorite of the girls belonging to the
middle and lower classes of Naples. Three persons are required to
dance it: one beats the tambourine and shakes its bells from time to
time in the intervals of striking the parchment the two others, with
;

castanets in their hands, dance the simple steps. The tarantella, like
almost all popular dances, does not consist of regular steps the girls
;

rather walk or move rhythmically, turning round, changing places, or

tripping about, whilst they keep opposite each other. The taran-
tella is merely an amusement for girls no boy would touch a tambouv
line or dance to it the girls, however, pass their pleasantest hours in
;
 DANCE MUSIC. 159

danuiug the tarantella, and it has often served as a distraction for

melancholy. It is also considered an excellent remedy for the bite of
a peculiar spider. This insect's bite heals only through the effects of
exercise, which this dance liberally furnishes; but again, the passi3ii
for the dance itself is known to have grown into a sort of mania. It
is a general opinion that the tarantella is called after the above-named

spider, the tarantula but this opinion is false both spider and dance
;

came from the province Tarento, and both have been named after
their native region. There is no real connection between the name
of the provincial spider and the provincial dance." From the best
examples of tarantella tunes we perceive that singing and dancing
proceed together; and no more beautiful and genial tarantella of its
kind could be named than the delightful tarantella of Rossini (" Soirees
musical es"). The monferina is a cheerful and lively dance-tune in
six-eight time. The saltarella was originally a Spanish dance. The
name is derived from saltare, which means " to jump." The character
of the saltarella is very much like that of the tarantella. Its peculiar
rhythm and fiery animation are very tempting to composers; and we
detect its influence in the last movement of Mendelssohn's so-called
Italian Symphony. A certain analogy exists between the gigue and
the saltarella.
The monferina, belonging to the ancient Duchy of Montferrat, and
highly popular in the town of Monferrato (see Twelve Monferrines by
M. dementi, Op. 49), is a cheerful dance of simple expression in six-
eight time :

MONFERRINE (No. 5).

Allegretto,

SPANISH DANCES.
Spanish dances are to be reckoned among the most beautiful and
original. The Spaniards possess all the different qualities essentially
necessary for excellence in dancing, especially natural grace with a
certain composure and dignity of deportment; besides, the somewhat
indolent habits of the nation are rather more favorable to dancing
and amusement than to close and continued application to business
and work. The chief Spanish dances are the Seguidillas (sequences),
the Fandango, and the Bolero.
The Seguidillas might be considered as the original and model of all
the present Spanish national dances, and its description applies, with
but slight modifications only, to the not less-known fandango and
bolero.
The manner of dancing the Seguidillas is the following: During the
prelude of the guitar, the dancers, mostly clad in the picturesque
costume of the majo and the maja, take their places, standing opposite
each other in two rows, and not farther than three or four steps the;

first verse of the copla is sung whilst the dancers are

standing still ;

the voice stops, the guitar now takes up the real dance-tune, and with
its fourth bar the singers join with the
song of the seguidillas, accom-
panied by the indispensable sound of the castanets. The general
effect is heightened by the elegant swinging and elastic
step of the
 MUSICAL FORMS.

dance, the graceful moving forward and backward, movements indi-

cating the tender playfulness and affectionate animation of loving
couples. The steps themselves consist of a peculiar mixture of the
movements of the fandango, the jota, and the noisy taconeos. The
first part of the seguidillas finishes with the ninth bar; then follows a
short pause, filled up by soft chords on the guitar. Part the second
begins with the dancers changing places without touching hands.
With a few slight variations the figures of the first part are now
repeated and with the ninth bar of the third and last part the music
;

and the dance both stop abruptly; and it is one of the principal rules
of this dance that with the last- note the performers rest immovably
in their position. The seguidillas obtained a general popularity in the
Spanish kingdom.
The Fandango is on the whole more or less a modification of the
seguidillas, and it requires a very experienced eye to find out the few
instances in which a real difference shows itself. The movement of
the fandango is slow, and in six-eight time. It is danced by two per-
sons clapping the castanets.
The construction of the Bolero is very similar to that of the segui-
dillas, the only difference being a slower, more minuet-like step. It
was invented in 1780 by Don Sebastian Zerezp, one of the most famous
Spanish dancers. The bolero is a more dignified and quiet dance
than the fandango, and is performed only by two persons. Its name
"
is derived from the Spanish verb volero, to fly," and was most prob-
ably given on account of some of its light, almost flying movements.
"
La Madrilena, dance of Madrid," la Cachuea, Gitana, Jota Aragoneza^
are dances which were introduced into ballets for demonstrating ths
particular artistic excellence of the famous dancers Miles. Cerrito,
Ellsler, Taglioni, and others.

FANDANGO.
Pomposo moderate.
- |^- -^ | | !
_>- ^J
I W -m- P -m-

2 J
S*-

BOLEKO.
Moderate.

LJd i I
 DANCE MUSIC. 161

FRENCH DANCES.
Of all the European nations, France bestowed the greatest care and
attention on the dance, considering it as a separate and important
branch of art, and recognizing with liberal honors and rewards the
merits of various great dancing-masters. Among the most popular
of modern French dances comes first of all the Contredanse. The
French contredanse was introduced into France in 1710 by an English
dancing-master. The different melodies of the contredanse had each
a special name; but as there were a great many of these tunes the
most favorite ones were ultimately selected, and these were then
united to form the Quadrille. For this reason we may compare the
quadrille with a sonata of five or six movements. Each of these
figures, called lepantalon, la poule, I'ete, la trenise or la pastourelle, and
le finale, has a special characteristic expression. Fantalon comes from
a little verse which was sung to a favorite tune of a contredanse. This
melody became so popular that it was introduced in every quadrille,
and the figure was called shortly " pantalon." The name " 6t6 " is an
"
abridgment of a celebrated contredanse, Le pas d'ete"," introduced in
1800. In 1802, Jullien, a French dancing-master, introduced a contre-
danse in the second part of which the company supplemented the
tune with the imitation of the cackling of a hen. This jest became
popular, and its memory was perpetuated in the name "poule."
Later, the vocal accompaniment was discontinued but the movements
;

of the figure were retained, and with them its name. The figure "1&
trenise" was invented in 1800 by Trenitz, an excellent Berlin dancing-
" "
master. The name pastourelle was given to the tune in six-eighs
"
time for its similarity to pastoral music, or the villanelle."
During the first decade of this century the contredanses partly dis-
appeared from the ballrooms, and their place was filled by the lively
Ecossaises. The e"cossaise is a much older dance than the contredanse.
We perceive this from the letters of Voltaire, who praises his niece,
Mile. Denis, for her skillful and elegant dancing of the 6cossaise.
Originally the e"cossaise came from Scotland, and was introduced by
French dancing-masters into different ballets, and afterwards adopted
for the ball-room. The difference between the specific French dances
and those of other nations is particularly that the Frenchman prefers
dancing opposite to his partner, a manner highly favorable for the
display of lively gesticulation and pantomimic action. Between 1820
and 1840 the German round dances, such as the Valse, the Galop, the
Polish Mazurfk, Polonaise, and the Bohemian Polka, rivaled the French
Minuet and Contredanse, and were readily accepted by the majority of
Frenchmen. The greatest point of perfection the French dances
reached was in the time of Louis XIV. The Schottisch is a senseless
mixture of a polka and a slow valse. Les Landers is an adaptation of
the French quadrille called the lancers; la Redowa is the Bohemian
redowak la Polka is the Bohemian polka, called Trasdk (la Polka
;

tremblante).
BOHEMIAN DANCES.
Two Bohemian dances belong to a famous political period namely,
to that of the war of the Hussites. However, only the names of these
two dances are still known, and live in the hearts of the people the ;

figures and general execution of the dances have been completely for-
gotten. One of these dances is called the Chodowska, and is full of a
11
162 MUSICAL FORMS.

warlike expression at least, so far as can be judged from the style of

its music. The name is derived from the peasants living near to the
Bohemian forest, the Chodowe. The other of these two ancient polit-
ical dances is the Husitska, "dance of the Hussites." It belonged
exclusively to that sect. Another peculiar and strange custom of the
Bohemians was to sing sacred songs during the dance. The Skdkavd,
or jump-dance, was generally accompanied by a religious song, dis-
tinguished by a -simple touching melody, later adopted by the Hunga-
rians. The Sousedska, very similar to the Austrian Landler, a rustic
dance, was peculiar for the dancers scarcely moving from the place
they took on beginning. The sousedska was not only exceedingly
graceful in point of the movements, but also for its highly ingratiating
and pleasing music.
The world-wide renowned Polka dates from a very recent time. It
was about 1830 that Anna Slezak, an upper servant of a rich farmer
at Elbeteinitz, near Prague, invented this dance. The room in which
she tried her new invention being very small, the movements of her
feet were necessarily short, and thus the dance received the name
pulka, anglice" "half." As the pulka met with an enthusiastic recep-
tion in Paris, it is most likely that the French, ever ready to accom-
modate any foreign name to their own language, changed pulka into
polka. The manner in which the polka is danced in Bohemia is, how-
ever, very different from that accepted in other countries. The Bo-
hemians dance the polka with retardation and acceleration of the step,
and try to keep strict time with the music, which has to be performed
in a free, tempo rubato style.
The Umrlec (Toeltentanz) was, up to the last decades of the eighteenth
century, danced by night in the cemeteries.
The Rejdowdk (Radowa, Radowaczka) is identical with the old Ger-
man dance Ridewauz, French Rotuenge.

Moderate.
REJDOWAK.

The Baborak or Baboraka was introduced from Bavaria, the Stajrys

from Styria.
RUSSIAN DANCES.
In Russia almost every district claims a special dance of its own.
These dances, however, contain nothing very original. The best-known
Russian dances are the Golubez, "dove-dance," the Russjaka, and the
Cossack. The last-mentioned is performed by two persons only, who
approach each other and retire in turn, accompanying the figures
with a very lively pantomime. The dance-tune, generally in two-four
time and in the minor key, excels in most striking contrasts.
COSSAK.

V1
1* iJHWi^MaLfaabb^:
m\* * *P ~^ * *^"*T*r P
I*
~
^ L

uTp
^ p \
;
t
[ |p Ip ~^ q-_J

tj rrfr
 DANCE MUSIC. 163

POLISH DANCES.
The principal Polish dances are the Polonaise and the Mamrek (ma-
zure, mazurka). Owing to their agreeable and striking rhythmical
expression, they have been adapted by almost every composer. The
polonaise expresses the national spirit and character chivalry, gran-
deur, and stateliness the cadence with which each part closes indi-
;

cates the deep bow of the gentleman, and the gracelul courtesy of
the lady. The polonaise is the court-dance par excellence; the Marche
aux flambeaux and the Danses de ceremonie are indeed nothing more
than polonaises; and their gravity and pomp, with the total absence
of any lively movement, are characteristic of court etiquette and the
reserved and official manner considered necessary at court festivals.
The name Mazurka is derived from Masureks, the inhabitants of the
district of Massovia. The mazurka (f or time) has been ennobled,
jj

nay, almost idealized, in its music by Chopin. The clinking together

of the spurs, a feature in this dance, comes always on the second
crotchet. It is the rhythmical expression that lends its great charm
to this national dance. The Oracoviac (f time) belongs to the district
of Cracow.
POLONAISE. Count OGINSKI (1775-1833).

Moderate,

^^^^ ^
MAZUREK (MAZURKA).

jD^AiJ 3.JJLjfe-^^-BJiJ J

^ X

HUNGARIAN DANCES.
The dances of the Hungarians are of quite a special kind, and show
a certain similarity to those of the Cossacks. The most remarkable
dance of the Hungarians is undoubtedly the Csdrdds ; it begins with
a slow movement (Lassu) and becomes by degrees livelier and wilder
(Fris), but has throughout a certain chivalrous and ceremonious air.
We possess a very great number of Hungarian dance-tunes generally
;

they are highly original, but we sometimes meet with a distant echo
164 MUSICAL FORMS.

of Spanish music which may result from the fact that the Hungarian
;

musicians belong chiefly to the race of gipsies, many of whom are to

be found in Spain.
CSARDAS.
Andante (Lassu or Lassan).

CONCLUDING REMAKKS.
With respect to the different character of various kinds of dance
music we shall find that each expresses, like all the other arts, the
spirit >f the time in which it originated and was used. We find the
sarabandes, the minuets, the gavottes, musettes, and all the other
old dance movements in fashion at the beginning of the eighteenth
century characteristic of a measured dignity, of a certain gravity,
and of that most peculiar quaint humor which were -the typical
expression of the period. In the beginning of the present century
we meet with an almost childlike simplicity, a certain sentiment-
ality, which, however, was leavened by an admixture of cheerful-
ness. The dance-tunes of this time are meagre, pale and colorless,
and devoid of striking characteristic expression. Weber at length
"
struck a new, and indeed the right chord, in his splendid Invitation
alaValse;" for in Weber's beautiful yalse we recognize the natural
expression of affection, whilst the previous dances were expressive of
stiff etiquette, conventional manners, or of simplicity and quietness.
Another feature, and a most interesting one, is that the modern dance
as initiated
by Weber expresses a certain melancholy feeling and
this increases its popularity.
Dance music brought life, animation, and its own charm into instru-
mental music. As melody is the chief attribute of vocal music, and as
harmony is the chief ingredient, the soul of instrumental music, so
the pervading principle of dance music is rhythm; and it is evident
that each of these three different branches of musical art gains by
adopting the special qualities of the others. The effect of vocal music
is increased by the adaptation of rich harmony. Instrumental music
will gain in expression and life by the cultivation of melody and
rhythm and dance music cannot but be ennobled by adorning itself
;

with the attributes of melody and harmony. Vocal music is the

exponent of our direct feeling; instrumental music appeals more
immediately to our intellect; and dance music especially is associated
with cheerfulness and joy.
LITERATURE. Arbeau (Thoinot, pseudonym for Tehan Tabourot), "Orch&so-
graphie, Traite en forme de dialogue, par lequel toutes personnes peuvent facile-
ment apprendre etpratiquer 1'honnete exercice des dances ;" Langres, 1588-1596 ;

German translation by A. Czerwinski, Danzig, 1778. Bonin, "Neueste Art der

"
galanten und theatralischen Tanzkunst," 1712. Meleaton, Von der Nutzbarkeit
 APPENDIX. 165

des Tanzens;" Frau^urt and Leipzig, 1713. "The Dancing- Master, or Direc-
tions forDancing Country-Dances, with the Tunes to each Dance, for the Treble
Violin," sixteenth edition; London, 1716. Taubert, "Der rechtschaflfene Tanz-
meister;" Leipzig, 1717. Noverre (Jean-Georges "Lettres sur la danse et les
,

ballets; Lyon, 1760; Vienne, 1767; Paris, 1783; Copenhagen, 1803; Paris, 1807.
Platter (Thomas und Felix), "Ein Beitrag zur Sittengeschichte des 18ten Jahr-
" "
hunderts " Basel, 1840. Waldau (Alfred), Bohmische National Tanze
; ; Prag,
" "
1860. Czerwinski (Albert), Geschichte der Tanzkunst; Leipzig, 1862.

APPENDIX.
MELODRAMA, MONODRAMA, DUODRAMA,
A MELODRAMA may in a general sense be defined as any play that is
combined with music in the stricter sense it is a kind of drama in
;

which the dialogue is accompanied by instrumental music. The inten-

tion of the music is to heighten and intensify the impression produced
by the spoken words, and also to give expression to those higher and
deeper sentiments for which the word alone is insufficient. The
music of the melodrama has no independent or strict forms. It is
entirely subordinate to the declamation. It may continue after the
words have ceased. It generally consists of very short phrases, some-
times even of only one or two sustained chords. Its great object is
to portray in musical notes all that the orator expresses in words. If
this recitation takes the form of a monologue the form of the melo-
drama is called monodrama; if two persons recite so as to *orm a
dialogue, it receives the name of duodrama. The invention of the
melodrama is generally attributed to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose
melodrama " Pygmalion " (written about 1770) created such a sensa-
tion that the well-known German actor Brandes commissioned the
poet Gerstenberg to write "Ariadne auf Naxos," which piece the com-
poser Georg Benda (1721-1795) set to music. This melodrama met
with such success that the poet Gotter wrote the melodrama " Medea,"
to which Benda also supplied the music. In quick succession followed
"
the melodramas Sophonisba," by Meissner, with music by Neefe;
"
Lampedo," by Lichtenberg, with music by the Abbe* Vogler. Musical
accompaniments have been written by B. A. Weber for Schiller's
"
poem Der "
Gang nach dem Eisenhammer," by Lindpaintner for
Schiller's Lied von der Glocke," and by Zumsteeg for Klopstock's
"Friihling." The most noteworthy melodramatic applications of
music as an accompaniment to speech are the two monologues in
Mozart's opera "Zaide," Weber's Incantation Scene in "Der Frei-
"
schiitz," the same composer's opera Preciosa," a scene in Beethoven's
"Fidelio," Schumann's
"
setting of Byron's ""Manfred," and parts of
Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream set to music by Mendels-
sohn. Robert Schumann wrote music for two poems, of which the
" "
ballad Der Haideknabe is almost terrible in the tragic intensity of
its effect. In one respect melodramatic treatment might be utilized
166 MUSICAL FORMS.

for educational purposes in so far as pupils would gain freedom in

elocution, whilst the musical student would learn the art of accom-
panying in a satisfactory manner. This union of speech and music
is decidedly of great power, and offers a useful and agreeable amuse-
ment for young people.
CHAMBER-MUSIC.
According to ourmodern notions, chamber-music is denned as
music for one or more instruments. Originally chamber-music was
understood to be the music performed at royal courts and in the
palaces of the nobles of the land, in rooms to which no one had access
without special permission. The term was, however, also understood
to designate a private musical performance at a court, to which privi-
leged persons were invited. At first these performances were only
executed by solo instrumentalists. Mattheson (1681-1764) says in his
"
Patriot," p. 64, "A stately harmony (music) may very well be executed
by eight persons, namely, four vocalists, two violinists, one organist
and one director (conductor); if the director can sing or play a part,
seven persons will be enough. So many parts as the composer had
set for the piece, so many performers were required." These older
performances of chamber-music were confined (as they still are in
our time) to secular works, and for this reason the style of the
chamber-music differed alike from the sacred and from the dramatic
style. In former time chamber-music included also vocal works,
such as madrigals, cantate di camera, duetti di camera, indeed every-
thing that did not belong to the church or the theatre. At present
we apply the term chamber-music to instrumental pieces, such as
sonatas for one or two instruments, trios, quartets, quintets, sestuors,
septuors, etc., suites for the piano or violin, fantasias, toccatas, songs
without words, indeed everything that belongs to the domain of solo
performance; and we exclude from this category the concerto, over-
ture, and symphony, whilst in earlier times these forms, as well as the
concerto grosso, the cassazione, divertimento, serenade, notturno (see
these forms) belonged to the class of chamber-music.
Three styles of music were always recognized: (1) the Sacred style
or church music, (2) the Dramatic style or operatic music, and (3) the
style of Chamber-music. Out of chamber-music has now grown a
fourth style, namely, concert-music. The limited dimensions of the
rooms in which chamber-music was performed also necessitated a
peculiar style. Whilst the oratorio was adapted to the church or
large halls, and the opera to the opera-house, chamber-music was
originally intended for the private house, for the more limited family
circle. The oratorio, like the opera, depends on the full orchestra and
the chorus; its structure is planned on a larger, broader scale, whilst
the chief interest of the chamber-music is found in the refined and
artistic working out of the details on a regular systematic philosoph-
ical development of the principal subject. The oratorio depends on.
the enthusiasm of worship or a kind of devotional attention, whilst
the dramatic style is founded on subjects which arouse our psycholo-
gical interest: the chamber-music appeals more directly to our intel-
lectuality (see Quartet and Thematic jtvork). The chamber-music
follows up its work through the smallest, most delicate details. The
formal beauty reveals itself there in the happiest light; indeed, it is
rather a work of intellectuality and refinement of taste, than of spon-
taneous inspiration or enthusiasm; it appeals more to the intellect
 APPENDIX. 167

than to the senses. Chamber-music, as shown in its best examples,

by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and others,
might well be called the philosophic phase of music.

DRAWING-ROOM MUSIC.
There can be not the slightest doubt that this particular style has a
legitimate and even an important part to fulfil, and that it not only
presents a great charm, but constitutes a musical necessity. Music,
as an art, would never have reached the high degree of universal
popularity it has obtained, had it been confined to symphonies, orato-
rios, and masses alone. The popular element of an art is always a
very excellent agency to make the art universally beloved and it is ;

decidedly the drawing-room music that possesses this popular element,

and for this reason it has become such an indispensable adjunct to
our social pleasures and home enjoyment. Every other art, painting,
poetry, sculpture, shows the same phenomena. There is an innate desire
in educated persons to adorn their homes with various objects of art,
whether in the realm of painting or sculpture, and that music can
contribute to this feeling of home luxury almost more than any other
art, simply because it is the luxury most easily attainable, no one will
deny. The best specimens of drawing-room music rest on a lyrical
foundation; and like every artistic form, drawing-room music has an
indisputable right to respectful consideration. Its irresistible charm
is to be found in its clear and simple form; in its symmetrical struc-

ture, in periods and groupings which may be easily understood, in the

short thematic figures to which the composer must strictly keep, and
finally, in artistic variations of a pleasing subject, which unfolds the
original beauty of the theme, and thus enhances our pleasure. Be-
sides, we find in good drawing-room pieces all possible shades of
feeling sometimes simplicity, grace, melancholy, sometimes again
cheerfulness and mirth and inasmuch as a clear expression of these
;

feelings is too often not immediately recognizable in the larger

orchestral works, it is not astonishing, that the general public should
cling with such pertinacity to good drawing-room music.

DESCRIPTIVE MUSIC.
I. TONE-PAINTING.
It is quite natural, that with the unlimited means of characteristic
expression possessed by musical art, the composers should have felt
the desire to paint, so to speak, by music. Every musical piece that
describes and expresses certain feelings of the soul (sometimes such
feelings are connected with outward circumstances or events) is in
itself a kind of tone-painting but, in general, we understand, under
;

tone-painting, the endeavor to describe by music visible and tangible

objects, appearances of Nature, indeed, all possible outward events
and circumstances. All movement is easy to describe, and easiest of
all that which in itself possesses a sound. Lord Byron truly says :

"There's music in all things, if man had ears,

Their earth is but an echo of the spheres."
"The inner life, the moods and passions of Nature express them-
selves
" forcibly in sounds. We hear this music of Nature in the uproar
tumult of the elements, in the rolling and crashing of thunder, in
168 MUSICAL FORMS.

the howling and roaring of the tempest we hear it in the heart-piercing

;

sounds which the storm draws from the broken rocks we hear it ;

through the gushing of the foam and the rolling of the mighty sea-
waves, in the rippling and bubbling of the stream, and of the rivulet;
we hear it in the entire range of the passions, half human in their
nature, which animate the higher brute creation we hear it in the
;

polyphonic warble of the birds, expressive of longing, joy, anger and

anxiety; we hear it in the melodious chirping of the grasshopper,
exhilarated by the refreshing morning dew." * All these things belong
to the audible among the inaudible bub visible are, for instance, high
;

mountains, lofty towers, ruins, etc. These latter frequently offered a

subject for musical illustration, or tone-painting. Clement Jannequin,
a pupil of Josquin de Pre"s, selected the noises of the Parisian market-
place for the subject of a vocal piece for four parts (" Les Cris de Paris").
Emanuel Bach's "Battle of Hochstadt," and Beethoy en's "Battle ^

Symphony" have been preceded by the same Jannequin's victorious

Battle of Marignano, of Francis I., against the Swiss. In this battle-
piece we hear the signals of the French cavalry, inspiriting calls o
the trumpet, the thunder of the cannon, the whistling and buzzing <y
the balls, and at last we hear the despairing cries of the Swiss in their
barbarous dialect, "toute frelore la tintclore, toute frelore, bi got."
But as this whole battle-scene, with all its terrors and accompaniment
of cannon, musketry, etc., is described by human voices, and not by
instruments, we may easily imagine that it trenches on the domain
of the ludicrous. (Compare for further information the highly inte-
"
resting
"
essay of C. F. Becker, Tonmalerei," pp. 40-50, in his book
Die Hausmusik in Deutschland," Leipzig, 1840.) But tone-painting
has often been applied in the happiest and most legitimate manner;
to cite only a few examples, we would mention the chorus "He spake
the word " in Handel's " Israel in Egypt," Beethoven's Pastoral Sym-
"
phony, the aria for bass "Straight opening" in Haydn s Creation,"
etc. These geniuses understood how to keep within the limits of the
artistic, and therefore their tone-painting never becomes childish or
" "
insipid. In older vocal music word-painting was much in fashion.
This method aims at giving to the single word a musical description,
"
going therefore into the smallest details for instance, the words he
;

descended from heaven," would be musically described by the de-

scending scale. Such minuteness, although it may satisfy a very
painstaking, conscientious composer, affects the wnoie spirit of the
piece in a detrimental manner it may be called musical pedantry
;

penny wisdom and pound foolishness.

II. PROGRAMME MUSIC.

This style was formerly known under the name Symphonia a pro-
gramma or pittorica. The old programme music professed to give a
detailed description of what the composer wishes the public to recog-
nize in his work. As an example we cite the programme of a Sonata
"
for Piano and Violin by Freystadtler (Vienna 1789), called The Siege
of Belgrade," a Turco-historical fantasia this sonata contains the
:

following descriptive movements: 1. Turkish music in the camp

the soldiers are in readiness yelling and howling of the Turks 2. ;

A
The chaplain gives his blessing; 3. panic spreads before the advance
* E. Pauer's lecture on the " Nature of Music."
 APPENDIX. 169

of the imperial army the suburbs are carried by assault; 4. The

victors crowned with laurels. The modern composers apply this
method without going into these details, and merely point out, by the
title given to their symphonies or other instrumental pieces, the matter
or subject that suggested the creation of their works. We
find, for
instance, the Symphonic poems of Liszt describing the following sub-
"
jects: 1."Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne (after Victor Hugo);
2. Tasso,Lament and Triumph; 3. The Preludes (after Lamartine) ;

4. Orpheus; 5. Prometheus 6. Mazeppa (after Victor Hugo) 7. Fest-

; ;

klange (festival sounds); 8.

Heroidefune"bre; 9.
Hungaria; Hamlet;
10.
11. The Battle of the Huns (after Kulbach's picture); 12. The Ideals
(after Schiller). Without pronouncing any opinion as to the desira-
bleness of thus giving a guide to the listener, to indicate what he has
actually to imagine himself as hearing, we mention among the
universally appreciated and admired examples of programme-music
Mendelssohn's descriptive overtures "Hebrides," "Fair Melusina,"
"Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage," Sterndale Bennett's overture
"Paradise and the Peri," his "Naiades" and the "Wood-nymph,"
"
Gade's Nachklange von Ossiari," and others.
Many names have, however, been given to celebrated pieces by
universal consent, and without the concurrence or confirmation of
the composer, viz., to various symphonies of Haydn, to Mozart's Sym-
" "
phony in C major, the title Jupiter" to the same author's Symphony
;

in E flat, "The Song of the Swan; to Beethoven's Sonatas, Op. 27, i.,
"Moonlight Sonata;" to Op. 28, "Pastoral Sonata;" to Op. 31, ii.,
"Dramatic Sonata " to Op. 57, the " Storm or Sonata appassionata "
; ;

to his Trio, Op. 70, i., the "Ghost Trio;" to his Quartet, Op. 74, the
"Harp" Quartet; to his Concerto, No. 5 (Op. 73), the "Emperor's
Concerto." The public sentiment is in such instances generally cor-
rect, and it would therefore be idle to oppose it; but if such names
are given by publishers, without any actual relation to the piece, and
merely for the sake of passing off a composition as a novelty just as
" "
tailors and milliners give a taking title to a coat or a bonnet, the
practice
"
is highly reprehensible. (See also foot-notes to Mendelssohn's
Songs without words," and Robert Schumann's Fancy -pieces.)
ROBERT SCHUMANN'S FANCY-PIECES.
Schumann's works form an epoch in the annals of our piano-forte
literature and their great influence may be ascribed to their peculiar
;

intellectual richness and their romantic tendency. He understood

how to touch a chord which had not yet been sounded by preceding
composers he presents tone-pictures thoroughly unlike any we have
;

had before it may be said that there is in each of them a poetical

background, which is again the expression of his own personal feeling.
Whilst the art of composing was regarded by the composers before
Joseph Haydn rather from an outward, objective point of view, the
individual, subjective feeling was more and more allowed to penetrate
and suffuse the compositions of later masters. As Schumann could,
owing to his beginning regular musical studies much later than is
ordinarily the case, never obtain such perfect mastery over the musical
form, as for instance his contemporary and friend Mendelssohn, it was
but natural, that he sought to make up for this deficiency by other
means. These means were derived from a decided intellectuality,
deep poetical feeling, and a meditative, contemplative disposition.
170 MUSICAL FORMS.

Certain incidents of Schumann's life were presented in his works,

favorite friends were portrayed through musical sounds, and certain
melodies like the old German Grandfather's Dance may be traced
through several of his works. The limits of this book do not allow
of any description in extenw of Schumann's most celebrated piano-
forte works; it must here suffice to call attention to the highly poetical
contents of some of them.
"
We begin with his second work, called
Papillons," twelve most beautiful trifles. Of these, Schumann's own
"
interpretation (see Julius Knorr, Fiihrer auf dem Felde der Clavier-
unterricht's Litteratur;" Leipzig, Kahnt), p. 69, runs thus: "1. Intro-
ductory melody. 2. Imposing impression of the ball-room, gay nicker-
ing of the lights. 3. Different parties of masques walk through the
room, crossing each other. 4. Harlequin, who mixes freely among
the guests. 5. A
short polonaise. 6. A
scene in the refreshment
room music sounding in the distance from the ball-room. 7, 8. Con-
;

tinuation. 9. Owing to a pause in the music, great confusion among

the guests. 10. The guests rearrange themselves in order to resume
dancing; an affectionate dialogue in an adjoining room. 11. Grand
polonaise, in which the whole company joins. 12. As the end of the
ball approaches, the Grandfather's Dance (symbolical of Philistinism
and pedantry) resounds: the young people, however, wish to continue
their frolic, but at last become tired, and the Grandfather's Dance
expressive of the wish of the parents to go home, predominates. The
noise of the carnival night dies away. The church clock strikes six.'
'

Returned home at last, rest is required, although reminiscences of the

pleasant sounds return like an echo."
"
(See also Schumann's letter to
Henriette Voigt, in Wasielewski's Biography of Schumann, "p. 340.)
"
With regard to the Davidsbiindler," Op. 6, introduced by the beau-
tiful motto :

At every turn we find

Pleasure and pain combined.
Enjoy with humble mind,
Endure bravely resigned.

Schumann says, in the introduction to his "Collected Writings on

Music and Musicians " (Leipzig: G. Wiegand,1854): "And here mention
should be made of the society, which was a more than secret one, since
it only existed in the head of its founder the Davidsbiindler. It
seemed not unsuitable, in order to express the various views of art, to
invent contrasted artistic characters, of which Florestan and Eusebius
were the most prominent, intermediate between whom Meister (Master)
Raro stood. This society could be traced, like a red thread, through
the newspaper, connecting truth and fiction in a humorous manner."
" "
If the Davidsbund was originally founded to combat the Philistines
Herz, Hiinten, and their colleagues, so popular about the year 1830,
or to oppose the shallowness of the musical criticism of the period ;

yet Schumann, as a composer, retained later the form of Florestan

and Eusebius in many of his piano-forte works for like Goethe and
;

other great minds before him, he clearly recognized his dual nature,
And separated in himself Florestan, the harsh and wild, from Euse-
bius, the gentle and mild. It will be seen that the single pieces are
"
" " " " "
signed F," E," or F and E." (See also Wasielewski's Biog-
raphy of Schumann," pp. 128, 129.) "The Carnival," Op. 9, "scenes
mignonnes sur 4 notes," is actually a continuation of the Papillons ;

here distinct figures are introduced: Pierrot, Pantalon, Columbine,

 APPENDIX. 171

and Harlequin again, Chopin, Paganini, Chiarina (Clara) Estrella,

;

(Baroness Ernestine de Fricken), and the firm Eusebius and Florestan.

The four notes

are identical with the German names of these notes, A, S, C, H,

which together form the name Asch, a small Saxon town on the frontier
o'f Bohemia, in which Mademoiselle de Fricken, a friend of Schumann,

resided besides a, s, c, h, were also the musical letters in Schumann's

;

own name. The celebrated " Phantasiestiicke," Op. 12, with their well-
chosen titles 1. Evening; 2. Soaring; 3. Why?; 4. Whims; 5. Night;
:

6. Fable; 7. Dream Visions; 8. The Climax (Ende vom Lied), are in

point of characteristic expression so perfect that no explanation is re-

quired. The "Scenes from Childhood," Op. 15, are likewise true and
"
faithful musical pictures. The Kreisleriana," Op. 16, eight fantasias,
were certainly suggested by the "Kreisleriana," Fantasiestiicke in
Callot's Manier, by E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776-1822). Hoffmann de-
scribes in his fragments the sufferings of the Capellmeister Kreisler (a
fictitious musician) it is most probable that Schumann, in his highly
:

original and deeply-felt fantasias here portrays his own emotions.

The Fantasia, Op. 17, for which he chose as a motto the following
lines by Fr. Schlegel :

'Mid all the chords that vibrate through

Earth's strangely chequered dream,
There runs a note whose gentle tone
Is heard aright by him alone
Who lists with care extreme.
was intended to serve by what it realized, as a contribution towards
the fund for erecting Beethoven's monument in Bonn, and Schumann
"
desired to call it Obolus," and to name the three different move-
ments "Kuins," "Triumphal Arch," and "Crown of Stars." For
"
reasons not known this plan was not carried out. The Humoreske,"
which Schumann himself qualifies as a little melancholy, is a kind of
suite, in which the dual nature of the composer is again perceptible.
The " Novell etten," Op. 21, might be called a continuation of the
"Phantasiestiicke," Op. 12, only executed with greater freedom, breadth
and power. The " Night Visions " (Nachtstiicke) No. 1, mysterious;
No. 2, undecided and wavering in its expression No. 3, recalling the ;

terrors of a thunderstorm; No. 4, an aerial procession of ghosts were

"
written during a period of great mental anxiety. The Carnival's Jest
from Vienna," Op. 26, is in direct connection with the Papillons and
the Carnival, Op. 9. Thus we see that Schumann's piano-forte compo-
sitions are more or less suggested by motives not at once apparent to
the public. To do real justice to Schumann's interesting works we
"
should remember his own words If heaven has bestowed on you a
:

lively imagination, you will often, in solitary hours, sit entranced at

the piano, longing to express in harmonies your inward fervor and ;

the more mystical are your feelings, while you are drawn as it were
into magic circles, the more obscure perhaps will the realm of harmony
appear."
OBSOLETE FORMS.
Aeathistiis, a of praise in the Greek Church service; this
hymn
hymn was sung in honor of the holy Virgin on Saturday before the
172 MUSICAL FORMS.

fifthweek of Lent the congregation was not allowed to be seated

;

during the ceremony.

Anacrusis. Ampeira, Dactyli, Jambicon, Katakeleusinos and Syrringes
are the parts of the hymn of praise to Apollo, with which candidates
strove to gain the prize in the Pythian games.
Crusithyros, a song of the ancient Greeks, which was danced to the
accompaniment of flutes.
Dithyrambus, Dithyrambi, among the Greeks were lyrical songs in
honor of Bacchus, interspersed with dancing and with instrumental
music. Works of this character are distinguished by a wild and un-
restrained appearance. We have no authentic specimens of this kind
of poetry, but the Phrygian character prevailed in it throughout. A
splendid modern example is found in Schubert's setting of Schiller's
famous Dithyrambus " Nimmer, das glaubt mir, erscheinen die Gotter
nimmer allein."
Harmodion, a song which the inhabitants of Athens sung in honor
of Harmodius, who delivered them from the yoke of the Pisistratides.
Ithymbos, a dance song of the ancient Greeks in honor of Bacchus.
(Compare Dithyrambus.)
Julos, an old Greek hymn, sung by the gleaners in honor of Ceres.
Karaklausithyron, a serenade of the ancient Greeks.
Linos-song, a plaintive song of the ancient Greeks in honor of Linos,
a youth of divine descent, who, whilst guarding the sheep, was torn
to death by wild dogs. Herodotus found the same song amongst the
old Egyptians, who called it Maneros, after the name of the son of an
Egyptian king. The"
ancient Greeks sung the Linos-song also during
the vintage (see Iliad," xviii. 567).A similar plaintive was called
Jalemos.
Prosodion, (a) a song of the ancient Greeks accompanied by instru-
ments (6) religious songs, dedicated to Apollo and Diana, whiftfi were
;

sung as soon as the procession approached the statues of thb above-

mentioned gods, also when the sacrifice was led to the altar.
 INDEX.
PAGE
Acathistus,
Accent,
"
....
ecclesiastical
171 Canon in diminutionem,
in infinitus, .

in the lower seventh,

51
48
49
" in the second, 49
" grammatical, . . .

oratorical, in the upper third, 49

"
transposition of the, . polymorphus, . 50
Agnus Dei, 58 Cansou redonda, . . 91
Air, 109 Cantata, 82
Allemande,
Ainbrosian hymn, ... 142
57
Cantatina, or Cantatille,
Canticum,
..
83
61
Ampeira,
Amphibrach, ....
....
172
20
Canto fenno,
Canzone,
.....
40
91
Amphimacer,
Anacrusis,
20
172
Canzonetta,
Caprice, .....
.....
86
136
Anapaest
Angloise, ..... 21
145
Capriccio,
Carnival, ..... 137
170
Anthem,
Antibacchic,
57
22 Cassazione,.....
Carnival's Jest from Vienna,

.....
. 171
130

.....
'

Antiphony. 54 Catches, 90
Appendix,
Aria,
165
74
Cavata,
Cavatina, .....
......
78
78
"
with or without doubles,
Arietta,
......
. 109
78
Cebell,
Chaconne, ..... 143
145
Arioso,
Ave verum ...
corpus,
78
61 Chanson, .....
Chamber-music,

.....
. . . .166
87

Bacchic, 21
Chodowe,
Chodowska, .....
......
162
161
Ballad,
Ballade,
Ballata,
88
88
88
Choral,
"

Chorus,
....
.....
figured,
65
68
80
Benedictus,
Bergamasca, .... 58
158 posers, .....
Chronological table of opera com-

..... 100
Bohemian dances,
Bolero,
. . . 161
160
Coloratura,
....
.....
Concerted pieces,
79
95
Bourree,
Branle,
143
145
Concertino,
Concerto,
"
..... .132
134
132
Brawl
Brunette,
145
88 "
"
...
di camera,
dachiesa,
. .

70
Burletta,

Cachuca,
92

160
....
grosso,
Concert overture,
Concertstiick,
.

.
.

.
.

.
.109
.134
135

Canon,
"
"
apertus, ....
...
47
47
Contredanse,
....
.....
Convivial songs,
. . . .161
89
cancrizans,
clausus,
duplex,
....
.....51
51
48
52
Cossak, .
....
....
Counterpoint,
"
^

double,
162
40
42
" in corpo, ....
in augmentationem, .

48 Couplet, .....
Country-dance, . , . 156
90

(173)
174 INDEX.

PAGE
Courante (Corrente), . . . 143 Forms belonging to sacred and
Cracoviac,
Cretic,
Crusithyros,
163
22
172
cyclical,
of movements,
....
secular vocal music,

...
. 71
112
54
Csardas,
Cushion-dance,
Cyclical forms,
....
. . . .112
163
156
sacred,
secular,
single,
.... 54
86
136
with regard to the relation
Dactyl,
Dance movements classified
respect to their time and
21, 172
with phonic music,
French dances,
...
of separate parts of poly-

.... 40
161
"
*'

" music,
tunes,
....
rhythmical expression, .

....
148
142
110
Fris,
Fugue,
opera comique, . . 97
164
43, 108
Dances, modern and national, 155
"
Bohemian,
English, ....
....
161
156
Gagliardo, Gaillarde, Galliard,
Gavotte
....
. 147
143
French,
German, .... 161
155
German
Gigue,
dances, 155
144
Hungarian,
Italian,
Moldavian,
.... 163
158
157
Gitana,
Glee,
160
90
162
Golubez,
Norwegian,
(old),
Polish,
....
....
157
142
163
Gradual,
Grammatical accent, . , .
59
6
109
Ground,
Roumanian,
Russian, ....
....
157
162
Spanish,
Swedish, .... 159
157
Harmodion,
Heavy
" dactyls, ....
....
172
23
Wallachian,
Danses de ceremonie,
Davidsbiindler,
.

...
....
157
163
170
spondees,
Hopping dance,
Hornpipe,
....
.....
22
157
156
Descriptive music,
Dialogo (dialogue),
167
80
Humoreske,
Humorous songs,
.

....
. . . . 171
89

....
Dithyramb, dithyrambus,
Divertimento,
....
. 172
130
Hungarian dances,
Husitska,
. . . 163
162
Dramatic scene,
Drawing-room music, ... 94
167
Hymn,
"
Ambrosian, ... 56
57
Duet
"
" chamber,
dramatic,
....
....
79
79
80
Iambic,
Idyll,
. . 19
141
Duodrama, 165 Impromptu,
Instrumental music, ...
....
141
104

Eclogue, .....
Ecclesiastical accent, . 16
141
Intermedium,
Intermezzo, .... 99
99, 141
Ecossaise,
English dances,
Ensemble pieces,
....
....
161
156
95
Intrade,
Intrata
Introduction, . . . .108
108
108

Esquisse, 142 Introit, 59

L'Ete,
Etude
161
141
Invention,
Italian dances,
Ithymbos,
.... 107
158
172
Fancy pieces (Robert Schumann's), 169
Fandango, 160 172
136 Jambicon, . . .
Fantasia, Jota arragoneza, . . . . 160
Festival overture, 135
Julos, 172
Figure, . 27
Figured choral, . 68
Finale of opera, 95 Karaklausithyron, 172
" of sonata, 114 172
. Katakeleusinos, .

Form in music, . 5 Kreisleriana, 171

 INDEX. 175

PAGE PAGE
Lai, . . . 91 Obsolete forms of songs, 91
"
Lamentations, 61 forms, 171
Lancers, Lanciers, 161 Offertory, 60
Landler,
Lassan, Lassu,
Laud a Siou salvatorem
162
163
61
Old dances,
Opera,
'
....
English (ballad),
. 142
92
98
Laudes, 62
'
German (romantic), 98
" 62 " French (comique),
episcopi, 97
62 "
Laudi spiritual}, . Italian, 97
Lay, 91 Oratorio, . . . 62
Leicli, 91 Oratorical accent, 16
Lied, 86 Overture, 134
Liederspiel,
Liedertafeln,
Linos-song,
.... 92
89
172
artistic,
concert,
French, .
135
135
134
Love-songs, . . . . .87 Italian. 135
opera, 135
Madrigal, 90 plan of older, 135
160 programme, 135
Madrilena,
Maggiolata, 8
Magnificat, 61 Pantalon, 161
Maneros, 172 Papillons, 170
March, 138 Partita, 110
aux flambeaux, . . . 163 Passacaglio, Passecaille, Passa-
funeral,
national, ....
.

....
. . .140
140
gallo,
Passamezzo,
146
146
quick,
religious,
slow,
.... 138
140
140
Passepied,
Passion -Music,
Pasticcio,
.... 147
63
142
triumphal or festival, . 140 Pastourelle, 161

"
funeral, .... 58
58
Pastoral,
Pavan,
92
147
Masque,
Maypole dance, .... 92
156
Period, the,
Phantasiestiicke,
and its
.
construction,
. . .171
33

Mazurek, Mazurka,
Measure (dance.),
Melange,
.... . . .163
156
142
Plan of Beethoven's Sonata, Op.
53.
Polish dances, . . . .163
Melodrama, 165 Polka 162
Melody, 29 Polonaise, 163
Metre 18 Potpourri, 142

plied in music,
Minuet, menuet,
....
Metres, table of different, as ap-

.... 18
146
Poule,
Prelude,
Programme-music, . . .
J61
106
167
Miserere, 60 Prosodiou, 172
Modern dances, . . . . 155 Psalmody, 69
Moldavian dances, . . . 157 Psalms, 69
Molossus, 22 Pyrrhic, 20
Monferina, 158
Monodrama, . . . . . 165 Quadrille, 161
Motet,
Movements, forms
Musetta,
of, . . .
58
54
143
Quartet, string,
Quintet,
Quodlibet,
, ....
....
. . . .130
84,142
130

Nachtstiicke,
National dances,
.

....
....
. . .171
155
Recitative,
Reel,
71
156

Noels,
songs,
Night-visions,
. .
....
... .88 .
89
171
Rejdowak,
Requiem,
Rhapsody,
..... 162
58
141
Norwegian dances, . . . 157 Rhythm,' 23
Notturno, 130 Ricercata, 107
Novelletten, 171 Rigaudon, Rigadoon, . . . 147
176 INDEX.

PAGE PAGE
Rondo, 115 Sousedska, 162
" form .115 .159
of, . . Spanish dances, . . .

Roumanian dances, . . . 157 Spondee, .20

Rounds
Russian dances,
Russjaka,
. . . .162
90

162
Springdans,
Stabat Mater,
Stilo concertate,
....
....
157
60
106
.130
Sacred cantata,
"
forms,
....
.... 82
54
String quartet,

Study,
.

Structure of the grand aria,

. .

. 75
141
" 87 Style, 25
songs,
... .109
Saltarello,
Salve regina, .... 158
61
Suite, .

Swedish dances, .
.

.
.

. .157
Sarabande,
Scene, the dramatic, ... 144
94
137
Symphony,
"
" old,
modern,
..... . .
131
108
131
Scherzo,
Schottisch,
Secular forms,
Seguidillas,
.... 161
86
159
Syrringes,

Tarantella,
172

158
Sentimental dance,
Serenade,
. . . 158
130
Terzett,
Thematic work, .... 94
38
Siciliano,
Single forms,
Skavava,
.... 147
136
162
Toccata,
Tone-painting,
Trasak,
.... 107
167
161
Sketch, 142 Trenise, 161
Ski'zze, 142 Tribrach, 22
Sonata
form of, ... 112
113
Trio,
Triumphal
" march, , . .
94
144
"
"
"
form of finale, .
"
"
first movement,
scherzo, .
114
113
114
Trochee, .....
overture, , . .135
18

" "
"
Song,
solo, ....
slow movement, 113
117
86
Umrlec,

Variation,
162

137
Songs, convivial, . Villanella, 141
"
"
"
humorous,
love,
national,
....
.

.
.

.
.

.
87
89
Voluntary,

Wallachian dances,
107

157
" without wordi^ 140 155
. . Walzer, . .
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