Multimeter & CRO
Multimeter & CRO
Multimeter & CRO
(Multimeter)
1.
1 Scale
2. Pointer
3. Zero position
adjuster
4. Zero-ohm
position adjuster
5 Range selector
5.
Multimeters and CROs 6. Full-scale
deflection value
7. Input terminals
1 2
Taking a reading A swing coil meter
y Select a suitable range to produce a maximum 1. The pointer moves
deflection. with its pivot at the
y Range corresponds to the full‐scale deflection (f.s.d.) swinging coil
of the meter. 2. An iron core which
converges the
magnetic field lines
3. Pole piece of the
If f.s.d. is 50 V, permanent magnet
then the reading 4. The swinging coil
is 47 V
5. Returning hairspring.
3 4
1
Characteristics Voltmeter
y Large internal resistance (or input impedance for
y Input impedance (internal resistance) in the coil A.C. measurement).
determines the current.
y It usually differs for different ranges. It is about 20
It usually differs for different ranges It is about 20
y Current in coil produces a torque in the presence kΩ V‐1.
of a magnetic field.
y Can measure D.C. as well as A.C. voltages.
y The iron core converges the magnetic lines in the
radial direction. y Internal resistance of various types of voltmeter
y Shape of the two pole pieces allows field lines to be y Vacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM) : 11 MΩ
always parallel to the plane of the coil. Hence y Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) : 10 MΩ
torque produced depends only on the strength of
d d d d l h h f y Digital voltmeter (DVM) : 10 MΩ
the current.
y Deflection of pointer ∝ torque produced ∝ current
flowing in coil ∝ applied voltage.
5 6
Effects of internal resistance Example
y The combined resistance of r & R is always smaller y The voltage across the 1MΩ resistor is measured by a
then r or R. Hence the insertion of the voltmeter voltmeter having an internal resistance of 20 kΩ
g V‐1.
always lowers the potential between A & B. What are the readings when 10 V f.s.d. and 2.5 V f.s.d.
are used?
rR Rr
≈ = r if R >> r
r+R R
7 8
2
10 V f.s.d. 2.5 V f.s.d.
10 x 20 kΩ = 200 kΩ. 2.5 x 20 kΩ = 50 kΩ.
y Internal resistance = y Internal resistance =
1M × 200k
Resistance across AB = = 0.167 MΩ Resistance across AB = 0.047 MΩ
y 1M + 200k y
0.047
∴ voltage across AB =
0.167
× 6 V = 0.86 V ∴ voltage across AB = × 6 V = 0.27 V
1 + 0.167 1 + 0.047
9 10
Changing Voltage Range To Measure High Tension
Vm Vm
Im Rm Rs Rm Rs
Im
V
y A series resistor Rs is connected. V
y V ~ Im(Rm+ Rs)
y Rs becomes a high voltage probe with resistance as
y e.g. if full scale deflection requires 1 mA, and Rm =
high as 10 MΩ or 100 MΩ.
or 100 MΩ
1000 Ω, then full scale voltage is ImRm = 1 V.
y If Rs = 9000 Ω, then full scale deflection occurs at
V = 10 V.
11 12
3
D.C. and A.C. measurement Rectification
y D.C. voltage is applied directly to the swinging coil.
yA
A.C. voltage has to be converted to D.C. by the
C voltage has to be converted to D C by the
following two steps before connected to the coil.
y Rectification
y Filtering
Filtering Ammeter
y A special circuit used to smooth out the oscillating
pattern, or ripples so that a stable and constant y Very small internal resistance
D.C. voltage is fed to the coil. y Can measure D.C. and A.C. currents
y The final reading is the root‐mean‐squared y The addition of the ammeter will inevitably increase
(R.M.S.) value of the A.C. the total resistance between AB and therefore lowers
the current flow.
y
V V
i= ≈ if R >> r
r+R R
15 16
4
D.C. and A.C. current Changing Current Range
Im Rm
I
Is
y The ammeter can be thought as a voltmeter
Rs
measuring the p.d. between points a & b.
A shunt resistor Rs is connected.
y Hence description on D.C. and A.C. voltage
measurement is also suitable for d C and A C
measurement is also suitable for d.C. and A.C. Since IsRs = ImRm
current measurement I = Im+Is = Im+ImRm/Rs = Im(1+Rm/Rs)
y Scale is linear, i.e. e.g. if full scale deflection corresponds to 1 mA, then
deflection ∝ magnetic torque ∝ current when Rm = 999 Ω and Rs = 1 Ω, full scale deflection
corresponds to ? 1A
17 18
A.C. clip‐meter Changing magnetic flux
y The wire carrying the
A.C. current is clipped
b h
by the meter.
y The changing current
will produce a changing
magnetic flux in the
ρ ρ
clip, hence inducing an dΦ A ⋅ dB
emf in the clip.
f i th li Induced emf = ε = − =−
dt dt
where Φ = magnetic flux enclosed by A
ρ
A = cross - sectional area of the coil
ρ
B = magnetic flux density
19 20
5
Notes on clip‐meter A.C. Parameters
y The wire needs not be placed at the centre of the clip. y Peak value: the amplitude or maximum value
y The induced emf is dependent on the rate of change of y Average value:
g
the magnetic field lines. For use in Hong Kong, it has 1 T 1 T
to be calibrated for 50 Hz.
i=
T ∫0
i( t )dt and V = ∫ V ( t )dt
T 0
y Effective value: If a DC current and an AC current are
applied to the same resistor R. Within one period, they
produce equal thermal heating:
T 1 T 2
I 2 RT = ∫ i 2 ( t )Rdt or I =
T ∫0
i ( t )dt
0
1 T 2
T ∫0
Similarly, V= v ( t )dt
21 22
Ohm‐meter Using an ohm‐meter
r
V∝ where r & R are comparable
r +R
1. Ohm-meter r
Hence, deflection ∝ current ∝
2. Voltmeter R+r
3. Range selector
4. Internal battery
5 Unknown
5. y R & r should be comparable in value, i.e. when R
R & r should be comparable in value i e when R
resistance R is large, r is also chosen to be large and vice versa.
y Set zero by shorting the two terminals.
y Scale is usually non‐linear.
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6
Scale of an ohm‐meter Precautions
y Choose the suitable mode – A.C. or D.C., voltage or
current or resistance.
y Note that the pointer is at the zero position of the scale
when the two input terminals are shorted together. Adjust
the position if necessary.
y To measure D.C., connect the terminals such that current
y The resistance is the meter reading multiplied by enters the meter from the ‘+’ terminal and leaves from the
the range factor. ‘-’ terminal.
y In (a), if x10 kΩ is used, resistance is 7 x 10 k which y Always start with the range that gives the smallest
is 70 kΩ. deflection of the meter. Then decrease the range
y In (b), the same resistance is measured in the x 1 stepwise until suitable deflection is obtained. Remember
kΩ range. that larger deflection gives smaller percentage error.
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Precautions for ohm‐meters Sketch of a Cathode Ray Tube
Electron gun Fluorescent
y Adjust the zero-ohm position by shorting the two terminals screen
together.
y Note that the internal battery has its positive pole
connected to the ‘-’ terminal of the meter such that current Luminous
flows out from that terminal to the external resistor. This trace
point is especially important when the meter is used to Electron
measure diodes or transistors. beam
y Do not measure the resistance of a component that is Deflecting
Sine wave
connected to a circuit. plates
y Always switch off the power supply to that component.
Sawtooth
y After measurement, turn the range of the meter to the wave
other modes such as voltmeter or ammeter to prevent
accidentally draining the internal battery.
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7
Controls of a CRO Lissajous Figures
y Compare voltages; phases and frequencies
y Intensity
y Focus
y Voltage range selector (V cm‐1 or mV cm‐1)
y Time base (s cm‐1, ms cm‐1 or μs cm‐1)
y X‐shift and Y‐shift
y Y‐input
y X‐input
Xi t
29 30
Other Controls
y Sweep mode: auto, normal, single
y Source
Source – Ch1, Ch2, line, external
Ch1 Ch2 line external
y Coupling – AC, DC, TV, HF rej
y Slope ‐ +ve, ‐ve
y Triggering level
y Double beam display
y Alternating mode: good for fast pulses
y Chopping mode: good for low frequency waves
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