Boies Text PDF

SIXTH EDITION
ADAMS
BOIES
HILGER
BOIE
FUND
OF
OTOLARYNG
A Textbook of Ear, Nose and Throat

BOIES
FUNDAMENTALS
OF
OTOLARYNGOLOGY
A TEXTBOOK OF
THROAT DISEASES
GEORGE L. ADAMS, M.D.
Department of Otolaryngology,
University of Minnesota Hospital and Clinic,
Minneapolis, Minnesota
LAWRENCE R. BOIES, Jr., M.D.

Chief of Otolaryngology, St Paul-Ramsey
Medical Center, St. Paul, Minnesota;
PETER A. HUGER, M.D,

Staff, Department of Otolaryngology,
St. Paul-Ramsey Medical Center,
St. Paul, Minnesota;
Sixth Edition
1989
W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Philadelphia, London, Toronto, Montreal, Sydney, Tokyo

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Boies: Fundamentals of Otolaryngology: A Textbook of Ear, Nose and Throat Disease 6/e
Adams
Copy Right 1997, 1989 by W.B. Saunders Company, Philadephia, PA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Fundamentals of otolaryngology.
Boies fundamentals of otolaryngology: a textbook of ear, nose and throat
disease.^41 ed./George L. Adams, Lawrence R. Boies, Jr., Peter A. Hilger.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Boies’s fundinentals of otolaryngology. 5th ed. 1978.
Includes bibliographies and index.
ISBN 0-8089-2045-6
1. Otolaryngology. I. Boies, Lawrence R., 1898-1987. II. Adams, George L.
(George Linton), 1941- IH. Boies, Lawrence R., 1932- IV. Hilger,
Peter A , 1948- V. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Otorhinolaryngologic Diseases. WV 100F981]
RF46.F96 1989
617’.51 -del 9
DNLM/DLC
for Librarv of Congress 88-39685
CIP
This Edition First Published in the Philippines 1997 Philippines Reprint ISBN#0-8089-2045-6
All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
V' > - : \\
permission in writihg front the original publisher, W.B. SAUNDERS COMPANY, A Division of Harcourt Brace &
Company, The Curtis Center, Independence Square West, Philadelphia, PA 10106.
Published in the Philippines by Harcourt Brace & COMPANY ASIA PTE LTD under special arrangement with W.B.
Saunders Company, USA. This edition is the only authorized complete and unabridged reproduction of the latest
American Edition, published and priced for the sales in the Philippines.
This edition is authorized for the sales only in the Philippines.
Last digit is the print number 9 8765432 1

CONTRIBUTORS
GEORGE L. ADAMS, M.D.

Associate Head and Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University
of Minnesota Medical School. Staff, Veterans Administration Medical Center,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Diseases of the Middle Ear and Mastoid; Disorders of the Salivary Glands; Diseases
of the Nasopharynx and Oropharynx; Malignant Tumors of the Head and Neck
JOHN H. ANDERSON, M.D., Ph D.

Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology and Physiology. University of
Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
The Vestibular System
JOHN D. BANOVETZ, M.D.

Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota
Medical School. Staff, Abbott Northwestern Hospital, Minneapolis Childrens Medical
Center, North Memorial Medical Center, Riverside Medical Center, Unity Medical
Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Benign Laryngeal Disorders
NORMAN T. BERLINGER, M.D., Ph D.

Staff, Minneapolis Childrens Medical Center, North Memorial Medical Center.
Infections in the Immunocompromised Host
MALCOLM N. BLUMENTHAL, M.D.

Clinical Professor, University of Minnesota Medical School. Director, Section of
Allergy, University of Minnesota Hospital, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Allergic Conditions in Otolaryngology Patients
LAWRENCE R. BOIES, Jr.. M.D.

Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota Med¬
ical School, Minneapolis. Chief of Otolaryngology, St. Paul-Ramsey Medical Center,
St. Paul, Minnesota.
Diseases of the External Ear; Facial Pain, Headache, and Otalgia
JAMES I. COHEN, M.D., Ph D.

Assistant Professor of Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, Oregon Health
Sciences University (OHSU). Attending Staff, Oregon Health Sciences University,
Veterans Administration Medical Center, Portland, Oregon.
Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx; Benign Neck Masses
Iv CONTRIBUTORS
ARNDT J. DUVALL, III, M.D.

Professor, Department of Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, University of
Minnesota Medical School. Staff, University of Minnesota Hospital, Minneapolis,
Minnesota.
Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Ear
MEREDITH GERDIN, M.A., C.C.C.

Speech and Language Pathologist, University of Minnesota Hospital and Clinic,
Speech and Language Disorders
ROBERT J. GORLIN, D.D.S., M.S., D.Sc (Athens)

Professor, Oral Pathology and Genetics, University of Minnesota School of Dentistry;
Professor, Departments of Pathology, Dermatology, Pediatrics, Obstetrics-Gynecol¬
ogy, and Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota Hospitals. Consultant, Veterans
Administration, Mt. Sinai Hospital, Hennepin County Medical Center, Minneapolis
Children’s Hospital, Minneapolis; Ramsey County General Hospital, Gillette State
Hospital for Crippled Children, St. Paul Children’s Hospital, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Diseases of the Oral Cavity
DONNA G. GREENFIELD, M.S.

Research Assistant, Department of Communication Disorders, University of Min¬
nesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Audiology
PETER A. HILGER, M.D., M.S.

Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota Medical
School, Minneapolis. Staff, St. Paul-Ramsey Medical Center, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Applied Anatomy and Physiology of the Nose; Diseases of the Nose; Diseases of the
Paranasal Sinuses; Facial Plastic Surgery
FRANK M. LASSMAN, Ph.D.

Professor of Audiology, Departments of Otolaryngology, Physical Medicine, and
Communication Disorders, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis,
Minnesota.
Audiology; Speech and Language Disorders
SAMUEL C. LEVINE, M.D.

Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota Medical
School. Staff, Veterans Administration Medical Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
The Vestibular System; Audiology; Diseases of the Middle Ear and Mastoid;
Diseases of the Inner Ear; Disorders of the Facial Nerve
STEPHEN L. LISTON, F.R.A.C.S., F.R.C.S., F.A.C.S.

Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis. Staff Otolaryngologist, United and Children’s Hospital,
St. Joseph’s Hospital, St. John’s Hospital, Midway Hospital, Divine Redeemer
Hospital, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Ear; Embryology, Anatomy, and
Physiology of the Oral Cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus, and Neck
ROBERT ti MAISEL, M,D.
Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota Med¬
ical School. Chief, Department of Otolaryngology, Hennepin County Medical Center,
Minneapolis, Minnesota,
Disorders of the Facial Nerve; Tracheostomy
MICHAEL M. PAPARELLA, M.D.

Clinical Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota Medical
School, Secretary, International Hearing Foundation, Director, Otopathology Lab¬
oratory, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Diseases of the Middle Ear and Mastoid
LEIGHTON G, SIEGEL, M,D,

Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery,
University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis. Staff, Childrens Hospital,
Minneapolis; United Hospital, St, Joseph’s Hospital, University Hospital, St. Paul,
Minnesota.
The Head and Neck History and Examination; Diseases of the Lower Air Passages,
Esophagus, and Mediastinum; Endoscopic Considerations
VIRGINIA WIGGINTON, M.A,, C.C.C

Speech and Language Pathologist, University of Minnesota Hospital and Clinic,
Speech and Language Disorders
KENT S. WILSON, M.D,

Clinical Assistant Professor, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis.
Staff, Health East, United Hospital, Children’s Hospital, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Maxillofacial Trauma
PREFACE
Eleven years have passed since publication of the Fifth Edition of Boies
Fundamentals of Otolaryngology. The original text, printed more than 40
years ago, provided clinical information on the management and care of
patients with otolaryngology disorders. Each subsequent edition has included
more basic science information. We recognize that there are now three- and
four-volume texts available in the field of otolaryngology-head and neck
surgery, and we have endeavored to limit this text to the basic principles of
diagnosis, recognition of causative factors, and management of the more
common problems. The new Sixth Edition stresses basic science principles
of anatomy, embryology, and physiology and correlates this information
with the clinical findings to assist in understanding the management of
disorders of the ears, nose, throat, head, and neck. The textbook, in a
sense, has been entirely rewritten and not just updated. The illustrations,
for the most part, have been replaced with better quality artwork. The
textbook has been expanded to keep pace with the expanding scope of our
specialty. The added sections on wound healing and wound repair provide
basic information for repair of minor defects.
The current authors are teachers at the University of Minnesota who
lecture to the sophomore class sessions in otolaryngology. Chapters outside
the normal scope of otolaryngology have been written by experts in those
areas in order to provide a more thorough presentation of the material.
While the text is aimed primarily at medical students at the beginning of
their clinical years, the material will be of value to family physicians and
first-year residents in family practice and otolaryngology. Those who plan to
specialize in head and neck surgery are provided with references in which
more complex procedures are described in greater detail.
The format for the Sixth Edition has changed significantly to comply
with today’s medical school curricula. Besides the emphasis on pathophysi¬
ology, there is a greater emphasis on basic principles. In the margins of each
chapter, specific major points are highlighted or re-emphasized. This method
indexes important facts for the student to recall. The editors of the Sixth
Edition have tried to provide the basic information necessary in the most
concise, easily understood manner for a medical student on a busy otolar¬
yngology-head and neck surgery rotation.
The current editors wish to acknowledge material originally prepared
by authors of the Fifth Edition whose chapters have been expanded and
revised by the current faculty. Special thanks for past contributions to
Doctors Mary Jayne Capps, Anderson C. Hilding, Robert H. Mathog, Kurt
Poliak, Cedric A. Quick, Melvin E. Sigel, Ms. Carol Berman, Mr. Richard
L. Hoel, and Ms. Elaine LaBenz.
George L. Adams
Lawrence R. Boies, Jr.
Peter A. Hilger
CONTENTS
PART ONE
HISTORY AND EXAMINATION
1
The Head and Neck History and Examination . 3
Leighton G. Siegel
PART TWO
THE EAR
2
Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Ear . 27
Stephen L. Liston and Arndt J. Duvall, 111
3
The Vestibular System .... 39
John H. Anderson and Samuel C. Levine
4
Audiology .... 46
Frank M. Lassman, Samuel C. Levine, and Donna G. Greenfield
5
Diseases of the External Ear ... 77
6
Diseases of the Middle Ear and Mastoid . 90
Michael M. Paparella, George L. Adams, and Samuel C. Levine
7
Diseases of the Inner Ear ... 123
Samuel C. Levine
8
Disorders of the Facial Nerve ....... 142
Robert H. Maisel and Samuel C. Levine
9
Facial Pain, Headache, and Otalgia ......... 157
ix
CONTENTS
PART THREE
THE NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES
10
Applied Anatomy and Physiology of the Nose . 177
Peter A. Hilger
11
Allergic Conditions in Otolaryngology Patients . 196
Malcolm N. Blumenthal
12
Diseases of the Nose ... 206
Peter A. Hilger
13
Diseases of the Paranasal Sinuses . 249
Peter A. Hilger
PART FOUR
THE ORAL CAVITY AND PHARYNX
14
Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Oral Cavity,
Pharynx, Esophagus, and Neck . 273
Stephen L. Liston
15
Diseases of the Oral Cavity . 282
Robert J. Gorlin
16
Disorders of the Salivary Glands ... 317
George L. Adams
17
Diseases of the Nasopharynx and Oropharynx .. 332
George L. Adams
18
Infections in the Immunocompromised Host. 370
Norman T. Berlinger
PART FIVE
THE LARYNX
19
Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx . . .. .,383
James I. Cohen
CONTENTS xl
20
Benign Laryngeal Disorders . 392
John D. Banovetz
21
Speech and Language Disorders . 412
Virginia Wigginton, Meredith Gerdin, and Frank M. Lassman
PART SIX
NEOPLASMS OF THE HEAD AND NECK
22
Benign Neck Masses . 429
James I. Cohen
23
Malignant Tumors of the Head and Neck . 443
George L. Adams
PART SEVEN
DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA AND CERVICAL ESOPHAGUS
24
Diseases of the Lower Air Passages, Esophagus, and Mediastinum:
Endoscopic Considerations . 471
Leighton G. Siegel
25
Tracheostomy . 490
Robert H. Maisel
PART EIGHT
PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY
26
Facial Plastic Surgery . 505
Peter A. Hilger
27
Maxillofacial Trauma . 526
Kent S. Wilson
Index 541
i»ART ONE
HISTORY AND
EXAMINATION
1
THE HEAD AND NECK
HISTORY AND EXAMINATION
by Leighton G. Siegel, M.D
The skills required to obtain a medical history and perform a physical

examination of the head and neck are fundamental, require little time of the
examiner, and yet are so clinically rewarding that they should be included
in every general examination. Systemic disorders commonly produce symp¬
toms and signs within the head and neck. A general history and examination
are thus piart of every head and neck evaluation.
Additional details regarding the history and examination are found in the
chapters dealing with specific areas and problems.
BASIC EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE FOR A HEAD

AND NECK EXAMINATION
Head Mirror, Light Source, and Position. This description of the light
source, head mirror, and positioning of the patient and the examiner is
applicable throughout the entire otolaryngologic examination.
The examiner may stand or sit but should be comfortable. A good
examination cannot be made when one must bend and stoop. The patient is
seated, with the head slightly higher than the examiner’s head. The patient
should lean forward slightly, keeping his back straight, with feet on the floor
and legs uncrossed. For examination of the ear, the patient is turned to the
right or the left. -
The light source should be a point source if possible. It can be a simple
unfrosted 100-watt or stronger light bulb, situated on a gooseneck stand
without a reflector. Lights designed specifically for this purpose are optimal.
The light is positioned slightly behind and just to the right of the patient's
head.
There is no adequate substitute for a proper head mirror and light source A head mirror or light leaves
both of the examiner’s hands
when examining the cavities of the head and neck. Indeed, a good part of
free for the examination.
the examination cannot be done in any other manner. The most useful size
head mirror has a 3Vi-inch diameter with a Vi-inch hole in the center and
focal length of about 14 inches. The head mirror is positioned over the
physician’s left eye so that it is possible to see the patient and the focused
spot of light through the hole in the center of the mirror as well as with the
other eye. At the same time the mirror shades both eyes from the direct
glare of the light source. The mirror should be as close to the physician’s
face as possible to provide a wide angle of view. The examiner then directs
the area of the patient to be examined into the field of view and avoids
repositioning himself. A focusable light on a headband may be substituted
for the described head mirror and light source.
3
PART ONE—HISTORY AND EXAMINATION
The Ear
Patient History
The minimal history should include an inquiry about hearing impairment,
head noises (tinnitus), dizziness (vertigo) or imbalance, discharge from the
ear, and earache. If any of these complaints are found, they should be
characterized in detail. The following outline is a practical guide for inquiry
into these complaints.
Hearing Impairment
Typical complaints produced by hearing loss are: “I can hear when there
is one person but not when I am with a group of people or when it’s noisy.”
“Everyone mumbles nowadays.” “My child only hears what he wants to
hear.” “My child is over one year old and isn’t talking.” “My wife (for some
reason it’s frequently a wife) says I am not paying attention and she wants
my hearing checked.”
Specific questions that might be asked include:
1. Was onset sudden or gradual? Duration?
2. Which ear is affected, or are both involved?
3. Does the hearing get alternately better and worse?
4. Do things merely sound quiet, or is understanding also a problem and
under what circumstances?
5. Was the onset associated with other illness, trauma, noise exposure,
or the use of medication, including aspirin?
6. Is there a family history of hearing impairment?
7. Was there any prenatal or postnatal difficulty or disease or difficulty
with delivery?
8. Has there been any past ear disease or surgery?
9. Was there occupational, military, recreational, or other noise
exposure?
10. Is there a history of measles, mumps, influenza, meningitis, syphilis,
severe viral illness, or use of ototoxic drugs such as kanamycin,
streptomycin, gentamicin, or certain diuretics?
11. What social, occupational, or educational handicap does the hearing
loss produce?
Head Noises
1. What is the nature of the noise? Can it be described as ringing, high-
pitched, roaring, humming, hissing (sound of escaping steam), or
pulsating (synchronous with pulse)?
2. Is the noise heard all the time or only in a very quiet room?
3. Is it heard after noise exposure at work or elsewhere?
Dizziness
1. Does the patient describe the symptom as lightheadedness, imbalance,
spinning, or a tendency to fall? Toward which direction? Is the dizziness
affected by head position? Is it present when lying down? Is onset
related to getting up quickly?
2. What are the frequency and duration of attacks?
3. Is the dizziness continuous or episodic?
4. Have the patient describe the first attack. How long is the interval
between episodes?
1—THE HEAD AND NECK HISTORY AND EXAMINATION 5
5. What other symptoms occur simultaneously? Do they include nausea,

vomiting, tinnitus, a feeling of fullness in the ear, weakness, fluctuation
in hearing, or loss of consciousness?
6. Is there a history of ear infections, perforations, head injury, or ear
surgery?
7. Is there a history of any generalized diseases, such as diabetes mellitus,
neurologic disorders, arteriosclerosis, hypertension, thyroid disorders,
syphilis, anemia, malignancies, or heart or lung disease?
8. Is there a history of any allergic disorders?
Discharge from the Ear

1. Is it associated with itching or pain?
2. Is the drainage bloody or purulent? Is there an odor?
3. Duration? Has there been previous drainage?
4. Is it preceded by an upper respiratory infection or getting the ear wet?
Earache
1. Characterize the pain.
2. Is this a recurrent problem? If so, how often does it occur?
3. Is the pain just in the ear or does it spread to or come from another
place?
4. Does anything seem to trigger the pain such as chewing, biting down,
coughing, or swallowing. (Many locations in the head and neck will
refer pain to the ear.)
5. Are there any other head or neck symptoms?
Examining the Ear

Examination should begin with inspection and palpation of the pinna and Retract the ear up and back in
tissues around the ear. The external ear canal should also be examined, adults and down in infants.
initially without a speculum prior to visualization of the tympanic membrane.
Remember that the external ear canal is not straight. To straighten it for
Helix v
Crus of
helix
External
..-auditory
FIGURE 1—1. The auricle and external auditory Anthelix

meatus. The names of the external markings of the
(It_ Tragu
auricle are useful to locate lesions accurately when
descriptions are made.
Concha
' Anti -
tragus
Helix
Lobule
6 PART ONE—HISTORY AND EXAMINATION
FIGURE 1-2. A, Normal tympanic membrane. B, Early stage of acute purulent otitis media.
C, Later stage of acute otitis media. D, Serous otitis media. £, Bubbles In the middle ear
are seen in serous otitis media after inflammation. (Courtesy of Dr. Richard A. Buckingham
and Dr. George E. Shambaugh, Jr.)
examination, grasp the pinna and retract it backward and upward in adults
and downward in infants. The appearance of the normal ear and right
tympanic membrane is illustrated in Figures 1-1 and 1-2.
The hand-held aural speculum is used in conjunction with a head mirror
and light source. It is thin-walled and funnel-shaped, should have a non-
reflective surface, and is available in a selection of sizes (Fig. 1-3). The
FIGURE 1-3. The largest aural

speculum that will fit into the ex¬
ternal meatus should be em¬
ployed. Applicators should be
thin and malleable. Some physi¬
cians prefer to bend the shaft of
an applicator at an angle so that
Aural specula
the fingers that grasp and manip¬
ulate the applicator will be out of
the line of vision. The cerumen Applicator
spoons in several sizes may be
obtained with a fenestrated tip in
the form of a loop. This tip should
be thin, serrated, without sharp Applicator
edges, and bent at about a 30
degree angle.
Cerumen spoon
examiner chooses the largest one that comfortably fits the external ear canal.
Since the opening is small, the speculum must be swiveled within the ear
canal to visualize the entire tympanic membrane. All specula are held in the Only part of the ear is seen
through a speculum.
left hand so that the right, or dominant, hand is free to position the patient
or manipulate instruments. Left-handed examiners may make compensatory
adjustments. The hand-held speculum is best when manipulations, such as
wax removal, need to be done (Fig. 1-4).
Battery-powered otoscopes are commonly used. The most useful of these
have fiberoptic illumination, give a magnified view of the tympanic mem¬
brane, and are provided with a sealed head and pneumatic bulb attachment.
Manipulation (as in removing wax) is much more difficult than with a head
mirror and hand-held speculum (Fig. 1-5). An “operating” or open head is
also available for the battery-powered otoscope. Manipulation through the
open operating head is somewhat easier than with a sealed head, but
unfortunately the great advantage of pneumatic inspection is not possible.
As with the hand-held speculum, the largest size fitting the ear canal is used It must be moved to scan the
entire ear.
and must be swiveled within the ear canal to visualize the entire tympanic
FIGURE 1 -4. The technique of examining the external auditory canal

and the drumhead through a speculum is as follows: Grasp the auricle
with the thumb and index finger of the free hand and gently pull it
backward and slightly upward. The speculum held between the thumb
and index finger of the other hand is then inserted gently into the
external meatus. As the light from the head mirror is reflected through
the speculum, the direction in which the speculum points needs to be
altered slightly so as to visualize the margins of the canal and the
entire drumhead.
FIGURE 1-5. A hand-held battery-powered otoscope with a sealed system allows for
pneumatic otoscopy. Only gentle pressure is required to move a normal tympanic membrane.
membrane. Inspection of the external ear canal must not be neglected in an

effort to view the tympanic membrane.
Pneumatic otoscopy will readily detect the presence of a perforation of
the tympanic membrane or fluid in the middle ear. This technique should
be a part of every pediatric ear examination and is often needed for adults.
Valsalva’s maneuver (ask the The principle is that of increasing and decreasing air pressure within the
patient to pinch the nose and
blow) may also reveal tympanic external ear canal while visualizing the movement of the tympanic membrane
membrane motion. in response to the pressure changes. The aural speculum is attached to a
sealed chamber with a glass viewing window for the examiner. The speculum
should have a bulbous flare at the end to provide a good seal when inserted
into the ear canal (Fig. 1-6). A rubber bulb is attached to the sealed chamber
using a short piece of flexible tubing. The bulb is squeezed in order to apply
FIGURE 1-6. The Siegle pneumatic otoscope permits determination of tympanic membrane
mobility. The special speculum allow a tight seal of the external ear canal.
FIGURE 1-7. Winding a cotton applicator is

easily done by twisting the Wire, not the
cotton.
a small amount of pressure in the external ear canal while observing the
tympanic membrane. If a perforation is present, the tympanic membrane
will have no movement. Movement will be abnormal in the presence of
fluid. A shifting meniscus will distinguish an air-filled level in the middle ear
from a scar on the tympanic membrane.
Cleansing of the External Ear Canal. The external ear canal may be
blocked with cerumen or a purulent discharge. Cleansing of the ear canal
should be done gently, causing the patient little or no pain. Wax may be
removed through the aural speculum with a cerumen spoon or with an To remove wax or foreign mate-
alligator forceps. If there is moisture in the external ear canal, a suction or 'f^'yjnvfitdeeper''
cotton-tipped metal applicator may be used for cleaning (Fig. 1-7). If the
tympanic membrane has no perforation, the ear may also be cleaned by
irrigation with water that is approximately body temperature. If other
temperatures are used, vertigo and/or discomfort will be produced (Fig. 1-
8).
Clinical Hearing Tests

Clinical hearing testing requires the use of tuning forks. The best single
fork is the Riverbank 512 cycle fork. Higher frequency tuning forks may not
sustain a tone long enough to allow adequate testing, and lower frequency
tuning forks stimulate vibratory sensation in bone, which is sometimes
difficult to distinguish from low tone hearing. Basic tuning fork tests are the
\yeber and Rinne tests, which are described in Figures 1-9 and 1-10.
Another hearing test is the Schwabach test, in which the bone conduction
of the examiner is compared with that of the patient. The heel of the fork
is held against the patient’s mastoid bone until the patient no longer can
hear the tone. It is then placed against the mastoid bone of the examiner,
who attempts to hear it. Of course, the examiner must have no hearing loss
to properly judge this test.
FIGURE 1—8. The use of the irrigating syringe.

When the external canal is irrigated, it is
important to protect the patient with a light
waterproof apron that can be fastened snugly
over a folded towel around his neck. A basin
curved so that it can be easily pressed against
the side of the neck Just below the auricle
receives the irrigating fluid and the material
washed out. The irrigating tip is placed just
within the meatus and pointed along the floor
of the canal.
Screening audiometric testing and vestibular testing are essential for the
evaluation of ear and vestibular disorders and should be available in the
primary care setting. These subjects are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
The Nose and Sinuses

There is little doubt that the nose and the sinuses are the most commonly
diseased organs in the human body, and patients who suffer from disorders
of these areas occupy a considerable portion of the physician’s time. Most
diseases of the nose and sinuses are amenable to definitive therapy. A
FIGURE 1-9. Rinne test. This test is used to compare the duration or Done conduction with
that of air conduction for the ear being tested. A fork of 512 Hz struck a moderate blow and
is held by the stem firmly against the mastoid bone [A). When the patient signals that he no
longer hears the vibrating fork, the duration of bone conduction is noted and the fork is
immediately transferred to position (B) so that the prongs are about one-half inch away and
broadside to the external auditory meatus. When the patient no longer hears by air the sound
of the vibrating fork, note the air conduction. In a normal ear, the fork is heard approximately
twice as long by air conduction as by bone.
FIGURE l-iu. Weber test. This test determines whether monaural impairment is of conductive
or neural origin by comparing the bone conduction of both'eats. A 512 Hz tuning fork can
be 'placed on the forehead or the teeth. A, Normal response. £S,The fork is heard on the right
side. If the right ear is the diseased ear, then the loss is of the conductive type. If the left ear
is the diseased ear, then the hearing loss is of the sensorineural type.
majority of patients with nasal or sinus disease have one or more of the
following symptoms: discharge, nasal obstruction, colds, headache or other Only a small percentage of pa¬
pain, epistaxis, sneezing attacks, occasional external swelling, loss of or tients with sinus complaints will
change in smell, and allergy. If any of these complaints are found, they causes of their symptoms.
should be characterized in detail. The following is a practical guide for
inquiry into these complaints. Further information to be considered in the
history can be found in the chapters dealing with the nose and paranasal
sinuses.
Patient History
Discharge
1. Is one side or are both sides involved?
2. Duration? Continual or intermittent, and how so? Age at onset?
3. Is the discharge watery or thick? Purulent or bloody?
4. Does it occur with environmental or seasonal changes?
Obstruction
1. Is one side or are both sides involved?
2. Duration? Continual or intermittent, and how so? Age at onset?
3. Is there a history of injury?
4. Is there a history of nasal or other otolaryngologic surgery?
5. Is there a history of allergic disorders, especially those associated with
seasonal variation? If suggestive, a complete allergic history is indicated.
6. Does the patient use nasal sprays or medications?
Bleeding
1. What is the duration? Frequency? How long ago was the last episode?
2. Is the bleeding unilateral or bilateral?
3. Does bleeding originate from the anterior or posterior nares or both?
4. Does it occur only in winter?
5. Is there a history of trauma?
6. Does the patient have a bleeding tendency?
7. Does the patient use any medications?
8. Is hypertension present?
Loss or Change of Smell (Anosmia)

1. Is the loss associated with trauma, upper respiratory infection, systemic
illness?
2. Is the loss or change of smell partial or complete?
3. Is there any history of sinus or nasal disease?
4. Are there other systemic symptoms?
The Normal Nose

The appearance of the external nose and face often gives a clue to the
patient’s symptoms. A thin, narrow nose that looks attractive often functions
poorly. Inspection of the columella may show evidence of a deviated septum.
Crepitation may result from a nasal fracture, or tenderness may be found in
■nfection. Edema or “bags” under the eyes in children may indicate allergy.
A good light source is impera- Interior rhinoscopy allows visualization of the inferior and middle turbi-
tive in nasal examination. nates as well as the nasal septum. The mucosa should not be swollen or
congested and should be slightly pink. Remember that the nasolacrimal duct
exits into the inferior meatus. The anterior ethmoid sinuses, the maxillary
sinus, and the frontal sinus drain into the middle meatus. The posterior
ethmoid sinus drains into the superior meatus and the sphenoid into the
high posterior nasal cavity (Fig. 1-11).
Equipment and Techniques

The positions of the patient, examiner, and light source are as described
earlier under basic techniques. Here the patient sits directly facing the
examiner. As in the examination of the ear, the speculum is held in the left
hand, leaving the right (dominant) hand free to position the patient’s head
and to manipulate instruments. Left-handed examiners may make compen¬
satory adjustments.
The nasal speculum should be used without causing discomfort to the
patient. Often the nasal speculum will have an undesirable stiff spring built
into the handle. It is best to have a very soft spring or no spring at all in
FIGURE 1—11. The shape, position, and relation¬

ship of the turbinates on the lateral nasal wall.
order to better judge the pressure being applied to the nose. The examiner’s
right hand is placed on top of the patient’s head so that it can be tilted and
moved. The left forefinger is stabilized on the side of the patient’s nose and
the speculum opened in an up-and-down direction in the nasal vestibule. It
is often helpful to gently grasp the ala of the nose between the forefinger
and the speculum and apply slight traction toward the examiner. This avoids
discomfort and provides the best view. The speculum remains in the same
hand when inspecting the opposite nasal cavity.
The intranasal examination begins with inspection of the nasal vestibule.
Folliculitis of the vibrissae may occur in this area. The nasal mucosa is
examined, and the septum is visualized as well as inspected carefully for
purulent discharge or polyps that may be coming from the sinuses. Topical
vasoconstrictors, such as 0.5 per cent phenylephrine (Neo-Synephrine),
applied in a spray or on cotton placed intranasally, will decongest the mucosa
to improve the view in patients with obstructive mucosal swelling. The floor
of the nose should be seen all the way back to the soft palate. The patient
is asked to say “k k k k,” and if no obstruction is present, the soft palate is
seen to rise with each vocalization.
A battery-powered otoscope is frequently used to examine the interior of
the nose at the bedside. This examination is inadequate and of limited
usefulness.
Other Methods of Nasal and Sinus Examination. Palpation and percussion
over the frontal and maxillary sinuses or the teeth may produce pain in some
cases of sinusitis. Transillumination is useful but is not a substitute for
radiographs in the evaluation of sinus disease. Cultures and sensitivity tests
are needed when infection is present, and smears for eosinophils are indicated
in cases of allergy. Endoscopic techniques using flexible and rigid instruments
are of increasing usefulness in evaluating pathology in portions of the nasal
cavity and nasopharnyx that are difficult to visualize with traditional methods.
Paranasal sinus radiographs are required to fully evaluate the absence or
presence and extent of sinus disease. Indeed, only a presumptive diagnosis
of sinus disease can be made without them. The four most useful views are
the lateral, Waters, Caldwell, and base of the skull.
Mouth, Pharynx, and Salivary Glands

Patient History
Patients with disorders of the mouth usually will have one or more of the
following symptoms: pain, bleeding, the presence of a mass or lump, difficulty
in eating or speaking, discharge, and disturbance in taste. If any of these
symptoms are present, detailed inquiry should be made into their character¬
istics, as in the following list, for example:
1. Are the symptoms acute or chronic?

2. Which areas are involved?
3. Are there associated local or systemic symptoms or disease?
4. Has there been recent trauma or dental work?
The most frequent pharyngeal complaints are sore throat; a discharge in

the throat; a sense of a lump, fullness, or swelling; and difficulty in swallowing
(dysphagia). The following lists can be used as a practical guide for inquiry
into these complaints. Further information to be included in the history will
be suggested in the chapters dealing with these disorders.
Sore Throat
1. Frequency?
2. What is the duration of each episode?
3. Is the sore throat accompanied by fever, discharge, expectoration,
difficulty in swallowing, difficulty breathing, voice change, or cough?
4. Location and duration of external swelling?
5. Is there any referred pain, such as earache? If so, which side?
6. What treatment has been given in the past?
7. Has the patient been a smoker? How much?
Discharge in the Throat

1. Duration of discharge?
2. Is the discharge mucoid, purulent, or blood-stained?
3. Is the amount profuse or scanty?
4. Is it coughed or spit up?
5. Is it worse on arising in the morning?
Difficulty in Swallowing (Dysphagia)

1. Duration (weeks, months, or years)?
2. Is the difficulty increasing?
3. Does the patient have any pain with swallowing or without, including
heartburn?
4. How well can the patient swallow ordinary food? Does the obstruction
increase when swallowing liquids or solid food?
5. Where does the obstruction seem to be? (Have patient indicate level.)
6. Is there any regurgitation? Does it have any odor?
7. Has the patient lost weight? If so, what amount?
Nasopharyngeal symptoms may include drainage or obstruction of nasal

breathing. The eustachian tube orifice may be blocked, producing a hearing
loss. Any adult with persistent unilateral middle ear fluid should have the
nasopharynx carefully examined for neoplasm.
Patients with salivary gland disease will usually complain of one or more
of the following symptoms: swelling of the cheek or beneath the jaw, which
may or may not be related to eating; pain in these areas, which may or may
not be related to eating; dryness of the mouth; and discharge into the mouth.
As with disorders of the mouth, symptoms of salivary disease should be
characterized in detail:
1. Are symptoms acute or chronic?

2. Is one or are several glands involved?
3. Are there associated systemic or local symptoms or disease?
4. Has the patient experienced any trauma or had any dental extractions
recently?
The Normal Mouth, Pharynx, Nasopharynx, and

Salivary Glands
Oral findings are generally more All too frequently the examiner looks through, rather than at, the oral
important than changes in pha¬
cavity in a rush to see the pharynx or larynx. An adequate examination of
ryngeal mucosa.
the mouth, pharynx, nasopharynx, and salivary glands can best be done in
a systematic manner. The normal appearances and textures of these struc¬
tures are difficult to illustrate and should be learned through experience by
conscientious examination of patients.
Equipment and Technique

Head Mirror and Light Source. The positions of the patient, light source,
and head mirror are exactly as described earlier under basic techniques. Of
course, in this case the patient sits facing the examiner. The flashlight or
otoscope may be used as an emergency light source at the bedside but is
inadequate for a proper examination of these structures.
The Tongue Depressor. A wooden tongue depressor is commonly used
for the oral examination. If firmer retraction of the tongue is required, two Suboptimal instructions-‘‘Stick
wooden depressors may be used together or a metal tongue depressor may your tongue out and say ahh.
help (Fig. 1-12). The tongue depressor is grasped near its midportion. The
patient is not asked to stick out the tongue for the oral and pharyngeal
examination, since this tends only to obscure the view.
The tongue blade is first used to retract the cheek and lips for complete
inspection of the buccal mucosa, teeth, and gingiva. The floor of the mouth
and associated salivary ducts are then inspected. By drying the mouth with
a swab of cotton, saliva can be seen, expressed from Stensen’s and Wharton’s
ducts. The lateral and posterolateral aspects of the tongue and floor of the
mouth are then carefully examined. The tongue must be retracted medially
to visualize the trigone areas posterior to the molar teeth. These are common
sites for otherwise asymptomatic carcinoma. The under and upper surfaces
of the tongue are then visualized, as well as the hard and soft palates. The
tonsils and pharynx can be seen by depressing the middle third of the tongue
and pulling it forward while pressing down. Avoid touching the back of the
tongue, as this stimulates gagging. The tonsils and tonsillar fossa, anterior
and posterior pillars, lateral and posterior pharyngeal walls, a portion of the
base of the tongue, and occasionally the tip of the epiglottis may be seen
directly in this manner.
fIGURE 1-12. The use of two tongue depressors and the head light allows one tongue
blade to push the lip to the side and the second tongue blade to push the tongue aside.
This permits adequate visualization of the retromolar trigone, gingiva, and floor of the
mouth.
Bimanual palpation is very Palpation. All areas in the oral cavity and pharynx appearing unusual or
useful producing symptoms must be palpated. Tumors and cysts lying deep within
oral tissues can be found only by palpation. Calculi in the submaxillary ducts
can frequently be detected in this manner (Fig. 1-13). Salivary glands, except
for ptotic submaxillary glands in the elderly, are normally not palpable. The
temporomandibular joints can easily be palpated by placing the fingertips in
the external ear canals and asking the patient to open and close the mouth.
The Nasopharynx
The nasopharynx can often partially be seen directly through the nares
when the interior of the nose is examined. A more complete examination of
the nasopharynx is done with the No. 0 nasopharyngeal mirror (Fig. 1-14).
The mirror is warmed, usually over an alcohol lamp, so that the patient’s
breath will not fog it and obscure the view. The examiner checks the
temperature of the mirror by placing it against the back of the hand before
inserting it into the patient’s mouth. The tongue is depressed as for the
pharyngeal examination, and the mirror is positioned in the pharynx. The
posterior third of the tongue should not be touched to reduce the likelihood
of stimulating the gag reflex. The posterior pharyngeal wall is less sensitive
than the tongue, and the soft palate is least sensitive. While the mirror is in
the oropharynx, the patient is told, “Think about breathing through your
nose. The soft palate will then drop, and the nasopharynx can be scanned
with the mirror (Fig. 1-15).
Only a small portion of the nasopharynx can be seen at one time. The
examiner must mentally put the images together while rotating the mirror
to view the entire area (Fig. 1-16). It is generally easiest to orient initially
the posterior margin of the nasal septum and choana. The mirror then can
FIGURE 1—14. Examination of the

nasopharynx by means of a mirror
introduced through the mouth. In¬
set shows the various positions in
succeeding portions of the exami¬
nation. A tongue blade is gently
introduced and the tongue pushed
downward. The mirror is slipped
along the tongue blade and in
many cases does not even touch
the tongue itself. The mirror is held
exactly as one holds a pen during
writing. The handle is lowered as
the mirror is introduced into the
mouth until light is reflected from
the mirror into the nasopharynx.
This light returns to the mirror and
to the observer's eye. The mirror is
rotated by moving the thumb on
the handle so that the handle turns
on its long axis. This permits a pan¬
oramic view of the nasopharynx.
be rotated laterally to reveal the superior ana middle turbinates, mtv tot ua,
and the eustachian tube orifices.
The nasopharynx can also be examined with a nasal endoscope. This is a
telescope-like device that gives a magnified view of the nasopharynx. It is
introduced through the nose after the area has been anesthetized. The It is possible to palpate the na-
nasopharynx can be directly visualized through the mouth by retracting the sopharynx.
soft palate. Several mechanical devices are available for this. One simple
way consists of passing a soft catheter through the nose until it can be seen
in the pharynx. A hemostat is used to grasp this end and pull it out the
mouth. Pulling gently on both ends of the catheter will retract the soft palate
and allow direct visualization of the nasopharynx. Even better visualization
can be obtained by simultaneously using two catheters, one through each
nostril. Adequate topical anesthesia should be used during this manipulation.
FIGURE 1—15. Adenoid mass as seen

at operation and drawn directly from Adenoid
life. A retractor is shown pulling the tissue I
soft palate and uvula upward to ex¬
pose the lower portion of the adenoid
vegetations. Note the sharp inferior Normal
margin of the adenoid mass. position
of uvula
FIGURE 1—16. Nasopharynx as viewed through nasopharyn¬

geal mirror inserted into the throat through the mouth. The
amount of the nasopharynx seen in the mirror at one time
fs indicated in the small inset, but by moving the mirror the
entire nasopharynx can be examined, and information on all
parts of nasopharynx shown in larger figure can be obtained.
The Larynx and Hypopharynx

Patient History
Patients with diseases involving the hypopharynx or larynx often complain
of one or more of the following symptoms: hoarseness, cough, difficulty in
swallowing (dysphagia), and the sensation of a lump, fullness, swelling, or
foreign body. The following lists can be used as a guide to detailed inquiry
into the specific symptoms. Indications for further inquiry are discussed in
the chapters relating to laryngopharyngeal, tracheobronchial, and esophageal
diseases.
Sense of Lump, Fullness, or Swelling

1. Duration?
2. Site?
3. Is the sensation intermittent or constant?
4. Is it painful or painless? If painful, is there any referred pain, such as
earache?
5. Is there any actual difficulty in swallowing or breathing?
6. Is the patient nervous or worried about cancer?
Difficulty in Swallowing (Dysphagia)

2. Is the difficulty increasing?
3. Does the patient have any pain?
4. How well can the patient swallow ordinary food? Does the obstruction
increase when swallowing liquids or solid food?
5. Where does the obstruction seem to be? (Have patient indicate level.)
6. Is there any regurgitation? If so, is there any odor?
7. Has the patient lost weight? If so, what amount?
Hoarseness
2. Was the onset sudden or gradual?
3. Was the voice completely gone at any time? If so, for how long?
4. Has the patient ever been hoarse before? If so, when and how often?
5. Was the hoarseness preceded by a head cold or sore throat?
6. Is there any discomfort in the region of the larynx?
7. Does the patient cough? Can the patient raise much phlegm?
8. Is there any pain related to the use of the voice? Is there discomfort in
breathing?
9. Is there a history of excessive alcohol ingestion or smoking?
Cough
2. In what part of the throat does the cough seem to start?
3. What is coughed up?
4. Are there situations in which the cough is worse, such as during
exposure to cold air, smoke, dust, or other irritants? Is it worse at
night when lying down or during exercising?
5. Has the patient lost weight? If so, how much?
6. Is there any loss of appetite or strength?
7. Is hemoptysis present?
8. Is there a history of smoking?
The Normal Larynx and Hypopharynx

The appearance of the normal larynx and hypopharynx is illustrated in
Figure 1-17. There should be no pooling of secretions in the vallecula or
piriform sinuses. Normally, pharyngeal walls move symmetrically with gag¬
ging and the vocal cords move symmetrically with phonation. The upper
trachea can be inspected through the vocal cords when using the laryngeal
mirmr
Equipment and Technique

Head Mirror and Light Source. The positions of the light source, head
mirror, examiner, and patient are similar to those described under general
techniques with the patient facing the examiner. The patient should be
sitting upright and leaning slightly forward, with the neck slightly flexed on
the thorax and the head extended on the neck, as if pushing the chin toward
the examiner (Fig. 1—18). The patient is then told to open the mouth and
stick out the tongue. The tongue is grasped by the fingers of the left hand
using a gauze sponge and held in place. It is seldom helpful to pull the
tongue out further than the patient presents it, although a firm grip may be
needed to hold it there. Attempts to pull it out further are usually quite
Med. glosso¬
epiglottic. plica*
Vent, of larg
allecula
FIGURE 1—17. Indirect laryngoscopy re¬
quires a mirror of the proper size
warmed so that it will not steam on the
patient’s exhalation. Gentle tension
should be made on the patient’s tongue,
Circum-
using a strip of gauze to grasp the vallate
tongue and gently pull it out. The under papilla
surface should be protected against the

patient’s lower incisor teeth. Careless¬ l|n Uncjudj tonsil Argepi
ness on this point is often a source of glottic
Epiglottis fold
considerable discomfort to the patient
* Ventricular band_
and makes it difficult for him to coop¬ f Folse y’oco/ cord Vocal
erate successfully. cord
Arqfencnd eminence True
Piriform sinus Esoph.

in-rro-
- itus
Incorrect
FIGURE 1-18. Proper positioning for examination c the larynx, pharynx, oral cavity, and neck. The
patient sits upright, bent forward at the waist with the ead slightly projected. Note that the light source
is at the same level as the patient’s eyes.
uncomfortable for patients. Take care to avoid traumatizing the tongue on

the lower incisor teeth.
The back of a No. 4 laryngeal mirror is warmed over the alcohol lamp or
Transnasal fiberoptic laryngos¬ other device. Its temperature is checked on the back of the examiner’s hand
copy offers a more complete prior to use. If the patient is a child or seems worried about the flame and
assessment than mirror exami¬
nation. heat, the examiner should place the mirror against the patient’s hand or arm
to demonstrate that it won’t burn, after checking the mirror temperature on
the back of his own hand. Antifogging liquid may be used as an alternative
to warming the mirror. Children as young as three years of age may have a
laryngeal examination if they are not frightened.
The mirror is then placed against the soft palate, which is gently raised
upward by the mirror. This allows visualization of the hypopharynx and
larynx. Raising the mirror upward will avoid touching the tongue or posterior
pharynx and activating the gag reflex. Ask the patient to pant if gagging
becomes a problem. The examination cannot be rushed and should be done
in a systematic manner beginning with the base of the tongue and working
downward. Every structure should be seen. The patient is asked to say
“eeee” and then to take a deep breath. This may be repeated several times
to allow visualization and evaluation of the motion of the vocal cords and
arytenoid cartilages (see Fig. 1-17). Methods of managing a “gag reflex” or
otherwise difficult patients are discussed at the end of this chapter.
The Neck and Face

Patients with disease of the neck and face may have many and varied
symptoms. Pain, weakness of muscles or muscle groups, dysesthesia, swelling
or masses, deformities, and changes in the appearance of the skin are the
more common complaints. These should be characterized as to their exact
location, time of onset, duration, and any associated symptoms (both local
and systemic). The examiner should be aware that different types of light
(incandescent, fluorescent, or daylight) will each give the skin a slightly
different color. Percussion over the sinuses and teeth may elicit pain or
tenderness. Auscultation of the neck will help evaluate the carotid arteries
and over the skull will help identify vascular tumors or arteriovenous
malformations or shunts.
Cranial nerve and otoneurologic testing can easily be done as part of the
otolaryngologic examination. Much is automatically done, such as observing
vocal cord and pharyngeal motion as an indication of the function of cranial
nerves IX and X. A brief outline of specific functions follows.
The olfactory nerve is checked by presenting familiar odors such as
chocolate or vanilla to one nostril while the other is held closed. Standard
scratch and sniff odors may be used.
The optic nerve can be roughly checked with visual acuity and visual field
tests. The fundus should be inspected as part of every general examination.
Oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves are evaluated when pupillary
reflexes are elicited and range of motion of the eyes is checked. The examiner
should ask specifically about diplopia.
The trigeminal nerve supplies sensation to the face which is easily evalu¬
ated. Absence of the corneal reflex is often found with enlarging acoustic
neuromas. Blinking occurs when the cornea is touched with a wisp of cotton
but not when the sclera is touched.
The facial nerve controls the muscles of facial expression which are easily
observed during the neck and face examination. Facial paralysis is an
interesting and important topic, which is covered in detail in Chapter 8 in
this text.
The cochleovestibular nerve mediates hearing and balance. These func¬
tions are discussed in detail throughout this text. A gross assessment of
hearing followed by tuning fork and audiometric testing will evaluate hearing
function. The evaluation of vestibular function and vertigo is discussed in
Chapter 3. Nystagmus, past-pointing, gait, Romberg, and tandem standing
abnormalities often occur with vestibular disorders and should be checked.
Central nervous system diseases that produce changes in proprioception and
coordination may mimic vestibular disease. These functions should be
evaluated, since they are not affected by primary vestibular disease.
The glossopharyngeal nerve supplies sensation to the pharynx and is
responsible for the gag reflex. The gag reflex should be checked on both
sides of the pharynx with the tongue blade when the pharynx is inspected.
The vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the palate, pharynx, and larynx.
Symmetrical motion of these structures is observed normally as part of the
pharyngeal and laryngeal examination.
The accessory nerve is tested by having the patient shrug both shoulders
against resistance, and the sternocleidomastoid is palpated while the head is
turned against resistance.
The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor innervation to the tongue. Unilateral
atrophy or fasciculation or the inability to protrude the tongue in the midline
indicates a hypoglossal lesion.
This is only a brief sketch of basic neurologic evaluation as related to
otolaryngology. Malignancies arising in the pharynx and nasopharynx have
direct access to the foramina in the base of the skull and can present as
cranial nerve palsy mimicking neurologic disease. The differential diagnosis
of sensorineural hearing loss, particularly when unilateral, and of all patients
FIGURE 1-19. Examination of the

neck while standing allows the
examiner to compare both sides
of the anterior triangles of the
neck. This is the preferred method
for examining the thyroid gland
and for anterior cervical adenop¬
athy.
with vertigo must include a systematic and thorough cranial nerve and
general neurologic evaluation.
Palpation of the neck and face should be done in a systematic manner.
Cervical and metastatic nodes are often located in the anterior triangle of
the neck. This area must be carefully inspected, particularly deep to the
Develop a routine or mental sternocleidomastoid muscle and along the course of the carotid sheath.
checklist tor palpating the neck, structures that normally can and should be palpated are the hyoid bone, the
thyroid and cricoid cartilages and the thyrohyoid and cricothyroid spaces,
tracheal rings, the sternocleidomastoid muscle, the carotid arteries, and the
clavicles and supraclavicular spaces. Crepitation of the thyroid cartilage
against the cervical vertebrae is normally present. All the soft tissues of the
neck can be examined and described by anatomic triangles (Fig. 1-19).
The thyroid gland is normally not palpable. Examination is easiest when
standing behind the patient with the thumb behind the fingers in front of
the lower portion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The patient is asked
to swallow while this area is palpated. Thyroglossal duct cysts occur on or
near the midline in the upper half of the neck. They slide upward when the
tongue is protruded. Branchial cleft cysts may be beneath the anterior
portion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle anywhere along its course. A
node over the cricothyroid membrane is often metastatic from the larynx or
thyroid gland. The trachea may deviate from the midline in the presence of
mediastinal or pulmonary disease. Subcutaneous emphysema usually indi¬
cates a ruptured esophagus or airway. This is, of course, only a small list of
possible findings.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS AND SPECIALIZED

TECHNIQUES
Anesthesia, Sedation, and Restraint

The otolaryngologic examination can nearly always be completed without
the use of topical anesthesia, sedation, or restraint. The gag reflex is rarely
a problem to an experienced examiner. The use of sedation or topical

anesthesia may help in the examination of the patient with a difficult gag
reflex. These drugs, however, carry a risk factor and should not .be used
unless the examiner is completely familiar with the maximum safe dosage of
these drugs and the side effects and toxic symptoms that may appear. The
examiner must know precisely what measures to take if such problems do
occur and should have available emergency equipment and drugs to deal A child may feel more secure
with them. Restraint of young children is occasionally needed. This can when seated in his mother’s lap
for an examination.
usually be done by the mother who is seated and holding the child, also
seated, in her lap.
Biopsy
The examiner should not hesitate to perform a biopsy of any nonvascular
mucosal or cutaneous lesion for which the diagnosis is not immediately
apparent. Biopsy of deeper structures should be made only after a thorough
examination fails to reveal their origin or nature. Do not biopsy nasal polyps
in young males, as the highly vascular angiofibroma may have the appearance
of a polyp.
Special Studies
Specimens are easily obtained for cytologic studies from all mucosal
surfaces, both directly and via endoscopy. Culture, sensitivity tests, and
smears are indicated when infection is present in these areas. Endoscopic Fine needle biopsy is generally
procedures, including nasopharyngoscopy, direct laryngoscopy, bronchos¬ a safe and rewarding evaluation
technique.
copy, and esophagoscopy, are extremely useful in the diagnosis of head and
neck, tracheobronchial, or esophageal disease. Other useful special tech¬
niques and studies are described in appropriate chapters of this text.
PART TWO
THE EAR
EMBRYOLOGY, ANATOMY,
AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR
by Stephen L. Liston, M.D., and Arndt J. Duvall, III, M.D.
The embryology, anatomy, and physiology of the ear are the means to
understand function, and, therefore, pathology and treatment. To correlate
the basic knowledge within these disciplines is to better understand ultimately
the treatment of problems in hearing and balance. Our equilibrium is more
basic, and more important, than hearing. An organism can- exist Without
hearing but cannot exist without being in balance with its environment.
Therefore, the vestibular mechanism, as a part of the organism’s orientation
to its environment, phylogenetically arose before hearing. The ear contains
the vestibular portion of balance, but our orientation to the environment is
also determined by our eyes and by our deep tendon sense. The ear is the
organ of hearing and of balance.
Anatomically, the ear is divided into three parts—the external, middle, The external canal is one-half
and inner ear. The external and middle ear develop from the ^branchial cartilaginous and two-thirds
bong.
apparatus. The inner ear develops entirely separately from the oticplacode.
Thus a congenital abnormality can occur in one part, while the other parts
may develop normally.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAR
External Ear
The external ear canal is derived from the^gfodermal first branchial cleft.
The tympanic membrane represents the closing membrane of the first
branchial cleft. During one stage of its development, the external ear canal
actually is closed completely by a meatal plug of tissue but reopens again, Sensation from the posterosu-
and this may be a factor in some cases of atresia or stenosis of this structure. perior portion of the external
canal is transmitted by the
The^pinna is derived from the margins of the first branchial cleft and the seventh cranial nerve.
first and second branchial arches. The pinna is supplied by the auriculotem¬
poral branch of thejnandibular nerve and by thejesser occipital and,greafer
auricular nerves, which are branches of the cervical plexus.
Middle Ear
The middle ear cavity is derived from theêndodermal first branchial cleft.
This air-containing structure expands into the tubotympahTc recess (Fig. 2-
1), which continues to expand around the bones and nerves of the middle
ear (Fig. 2-2) and extends more or less into the mastoid region. Theêssicles
are derived from the cartilage of the^branchial arches. To simplify this
28 PART TWO—THE EAR
Tubo tympanic
FIGURE 2—1. Floor of the pharynx of an embryo showing the formation of the tubotympanic
recess. The recess arises as a lateral expansion of the pharyngeal lumen at the level of the
first three internal pharyngeal grooves and pouches. The external auditory meatus is shown
as a solid “meatal plug” of ectoderm growing deeply into the mesoderm from the upper end
of the first external pharyngeal groove to make contact with the tubotympanic recess, the
“drum" being formed at the area of contact. (From Davies J: In Paparella MM, Shumrick DA
(eds): Otolaryngology. Vol 1: Basic Sciences and Related Disciplines. Philadelphia, WB Saunders
Co, 1973, p 172.)
concept, the malleus-can be considered to derive from the cartilage of the

first branchial arch (Meckel’s cartilage), while the incus and stapes, derive
Jacobson's nerve traverses ver¬ from the cartilage of the second branchial arch (Reichert’s cartilage). The
tically across the promontory of ehorda tympani nerve runs from the second arch (facial) to the nerve of the
the middle ear.
first arch (mandibular-lingual). The.tympanic nerve (of Jacobson) runs from
the nerve of the third arch (glossopharyngeal) to the facial nerve. Both of
these nerves lie in the middle ear cavity. The muscles of the middle ear
derive from the muscles of the branchial arches. The tensor tympani, which
attaches to the malleus, derives from the first arch and is supplied by the
mandibular nerve (cranial nerve V). The stapedius muscle, a derivative of
the second arch, is supplied by a division of the seventh nerve.
Inner tar
The ectodermal otic placode is located on the lateral surface of the head
of the embryo. This placode sinks to form an otic pit and is eventually
Petrosquamosal
FIGURE 2—2. Two longitudinal sec¬

tions of the external and middle ear
showing the progressive dorsal ex¬
tension of the mesenchyme (“epi-
tympanic tissue”) by which the attic
recesses are formed and the ossicles
become surrounded by mucous
membrane. (From Davies J: In Papa¬
rella MM, Shumrick DA (eds): Oto¬
laryngology. Vol 1: Basic Sciences
and Related Disciplines. Philadelphia,
WB Saunders Co, 1973, p 175.)
2—EMBRYOLOGY, ANATOMY, AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR 29
FIGURE 2—3. Stages in the de¬

velopment of the otocyst. A,
As an ectodermal placode; B,
as a pit; C, as an elongated
vesicle isolated from the sur¬
face ectoderm; D to F, the
events leading to the forma¬
tion of the membranous laby¬
rinth. (Modified from Streeter;
from Davies ); In Paparella
MM, Shumrick DA (eds): Oto¬
laryngology. Vol 1: Basic Sci¬
ences and Related Disciplines.
Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
1973, p 176.)
buried beneath the surface as the otic vesicle (Fig. 2-3). This vesicle comes
to lie close to the developing hindbrain and to a collection of neurons known
as the acousticofacial ganglion. This ganglion is important in the development
of the facial, acoustic, and vestibular nerves. The auditory vesicle forms a
diverticulum that comes to lie close to the developing neural tube and that
will become the endolymphatic duct. Then the otic vesicle constricts, forming
a superior utricle and inferior saccule. Three flange-like projections develop
from the utricle. The membranous lining away from the periphery of these
flanges resorbs, leaving three semicircular canals at the periphery of the
flanges. The saccule gives off a spiral cochlear duct. Specialized end-organs
phylogenetically derived from the naked neuromast develop in the semicir¬
cular canals to form cristae, in the utricle and saccule to form maculae, and
in the cochlea to form the organ of Corti. These end-organs come into
connection with the neurons of the acousticofacial ganglion. These neurons
form the ganglia of the vestibular nerve and the spiral ganglia of the cochlear
nerve.
The mesenchyme around the otic ganglion condenses into a cartilaginous
capsule around the membranous derivatives of the otic vesicle. This cartilage
resorbs in certain areas around what is now the membranous labyrinth,
leaving a space that communicates via the cochlear aqueduct with the space
containing CSF and forms the perilymphatic spaces of the bony labyrinth.
The membranous labyrinth contains endolymph. The bone derived from the
cartilaginous capsule of the otic vesicle is a special type of bone known as
endochondral bone.
The Temporal Bone

The temporal bone, which contains the ear, is derived from four, separate
parts (Fig. 2-4). The bony external ear canal is derived from the tympanic
Petrous c
portion '“iy
; Petrosquamous;
suture FIGURE 2-4. The temporal bone at birth and in the adult.
NEWBORN
ADULT
Mastoid_2 y
portion
sft-v iJK " \ Petrotympanic fissure
5ite of attachment of k \ External auditory

diqastric muscle '
meatus
Mastoid process
Styloid process
Tympanic portion
ring. The styloid process is derived from thdêcond branchial cartilage. The
squamous portion develops inxartilage. The petrous portion is derived from
the&artilaginous capsule of otic vesicle. There are suture lines between these
various portions visible on the definitive temporal bone. The mastoid (breast¬
The facial nerve of an infant is like) process is'not present at birth, and this means that the infant’s'facial
not as protected by the mastoid
nerve is very superficial. The air-containing derivatives of the tubotympanic
process.
recess extend from the middle ear via the aditus to the antrum, an air-
containing region in the mastoid bone. However, how far the pneumatization
of the rest of the mastoid process extends varies. Some bones are poorly
pneumatized or sclerotic, some are moderately pneumatized or diploic, while
frequently the mastoid and much of the petrous and even squamous temporal
bone is filled by air cells (Fig. 2-5).
ANATOMY OF THE EAR
The external ear, or pinna, is composed of cartilage covered by skin. The

shape of the cartilage is unique and in treating injuries to the external ear
FIGURE 2—5. A sd_atic representation of the role of the epithelium in pneumatization

and the types of mastoid development. (In part, after Fowler.)
every effort should be made to preserve this structure. The skin can be
stripped off the underlying cartilage by hematoma or pus and the necrosis The skin of the external canal
of the underlying cartilage leads to a cosmetic deformity of the pinna lies directly over bone. Even
slight inflammation is very tender
(cauliflower ear). for there is no room for exoan-
The external ear canal lsârtilaginous laterally but/bony medially. There sion.
is often a narrowing of the external ear canal at the bone-cartilage junction.
TheTemporomandibular joint and'parotid gland are anterior to the external
ear canal, while the'mastoid process is posterior to the ear canal. The facial
nerve exits the'stylomastoid foramen and passes lateral to the styloid process
posteroinferior to the external ear canal and then runs beneath the external
ear canal to enter the parotid gland. The cartilage of the external ear canal
is one of the surgical landmarks used to find the facial nerve; the tympano¬
mastoid suture is another such landmark.
The Tympanic Membrane

The tympanic membrane, or eardrum, is a conical structure with the point
of the cone, the umbo, directed medially. The tympanic membrane is
generally round. It is important to realize that part of the middle ear cavity,
the epitympanum, which contains the bodies of the malleus and incus,
extends above the upper limit of the tympanic membrane, and that there is
a hypotympanic part of the middle ear cavity extending below the tympanic
membrane. The tympanic membrane is composed of an outer epidermal
layer, a middle fibrous layexjn which the handle of the malleus is embedded,
and an inner mucosal layer. The fibrous layer is missing above the lateral
process of the malleus, and this causes that part of the membrane, called
Shrapnell’s membrane, to be flaccid. The appearance of the tympanic
membrane on clinical examination is shown in Figure 2-6.
The Middle tar

The air-containing middle ear can be conceptualized as a box with six
sides. The posterior wall is wider than the anterior wall, so the box is wedge-
shaped. The promontory of the medial wall extends laterally toward the
umbo of the tympanic membrane, so the box is narrower in the middle (Fig.
2-7).
FIGURE 2-6. The right drumhead (membrana tympani).
The superior wall of the middle ear abuts the floor of the middle cranial
fossa. The posterior wall superiorly contains the aditus to the antrum of the
mastoid, and below this is the facial nerve. The stapedius muscle arises in
the region of the facial nerve, and the tendon passes through a bony pyramid
to the neck of the stapes. The chorda tympani nerve arises from the facial
nerve below the stapedius and passes forward lateral to the incus but medial
to the malleus to exit the middle ear via the petrotympanic suture. The
chorda tympani nerve joins the lingual nerve and carries secretomotor fibers
to thfe submandibular ganglion and taste fibers from the anterior two thirds
of the tongue.
The floor of the middle ear is the roof of the jugular bulb, which
superolaterally is the sigmoid sinus and then more centrally the transverse
sinus. This is the major venous outflow of the cranial cavity. The auricular
branch of the vagus nerve enters the middle ear via the floor. The anterior
wall inferiorly is the wall of the carotid canal. Above this the eustachian
tube opens and the tensor tympani muscle occupies the area superior to the
eustachian tube and passes back to hook around the cochleariform process
and insert into the neck of the malleus.
The lateral wall of the middle ear is the bony wall of the epitympanum
above, the tympanic membrane, and the bony wall of the hypotympanum
below.
The most prominent feature of the medial wall is the bony promontory
7empora//obe of brain
Lateral Wall
Anterior Wall
Tympanic membran Canal for

tens. tymp. mus.
Eustachian tube
■/nt. carotid art.
Bu/b of in t.
Juyu/ar vein
Medial Wall
Posterior Wall
Prominence oflat. semicirc. canal
Prominence of facial canal
Aditus to antrum
Fossula of round window
Pyramidal eminence
Stapes closinq oval window
Aperture for chorda tymp.
Promontory
Facial nerve
TZochleariform process
Lateral Wall
Ant. Wall
Cana! for
Insertion of tens.-
tens. tymp.
tymp. mus.
mus.
Chorda tymp.
Eustachian
Tymp. memb tube
FIGURE 2-7. A diagrammatic scheme of the shape and relationships of the middle ear
structures.
covering the first turn of the cochlea. The tympanic nerve runs across the
promontory. The opening of the round window is located posteroinferior to
the promontory. The footplate of the stapes is located in the oval window
on the posterosuperior margin of the promontory. The bony fallopian canal
containing the facial nerve runs above the oval window from the cochleari-
form process anteriorly to the stapedial pyramid posteriorly.
The mastoid cavity is shaped like a three-sided pyramid, the apex pointed
caudally. The roof of the mastoid is the middle cranial fossa. The medial
wall is the lateral wall of the posterior cranial fossa. The sigmoid sinus flows
beneath the dura mater of this region. The anterior wall contains the aditus
and antrum. The bulge of the lateral semicircular canal projects into the
antrum. Below these two landmarks, the facial nerve runs in its bony canal
to exit the temporal bone at the stylomastoid foramen, which is located at
the anterior end of a ridge formed by the insertion of the digastric muscle.
The lateral wall of the mastoid is subcutaneous bone easily palpable posterior
to the pinna.
The Eustachian Tube

The eustachian tube (Fig. 2-8) connects the middle ear cavity with the
nasopharynx. The lateral part of the eustachian tube is bony, while the
medial two thirds is cartilaginous. The origin of the tensor tympani is located
in the superior bony portion, while the carotid canal is inferior to the bony
portion. The cartilaginous portion runs across the base of the skull to enter
The eustachian tube is horizon- the pharynx above the superior constrictor. This portion is normally closed,
tal at birth and inclines medially but is opened by contractions of the levator palati and tensor palati
a in eau. jnnervatecj by the pharyngeal plexus and mandibular nerve, respectively,
The eustachian tube serves to equalize the air pressure on both sides of the
tympanic membrane.
The Inner Ear

The inner ear has such a convoluted shape that it is referred to as the
labyrinth. The derivatives of the otic vesicle form a closed cavity, the
membranous labyrinth, filled with endolymph, the only extracellular fluid in
the body that is high in potassium and low in sodium. This is surrounded by
the fluid perilymph (high in sodium and low in potassium), which in turn is
encased in the bony otic capsule. The membranous and bony labyrinths have
vestibular and cochlear portions. The vestibular portion (pars superior) is
concerned with balance, while the cochlear portion (pars inferior) is our
organ of hearing.
The cochlea (Fig. 2-8) is coiled like a snail’s shell or horn of plenty for
two and one-half turns. The axis of the spiral is called the modiolus and
FIGURE 2—8. The relative size and the topography of the eustachian tube are depicted in this
drawing by Brodel.
FIGURE 2-9. Cross-section of lower second

cochlear turn, RM, Reissner’s membrane; L,
spiral limbus; TM, tectorial membrane; HS,
Hensen’s stripe; TH, auditory teeth of
Huschke; TC, interdental (“T") cells; BM, bas¬
ilar membrane; MN, myelinated nerves; HP,
habenulae perforatae; PC, pillar cells; DC, Dei-
ters’ cells; OHC, outer hair cells; IHC, inner
hair cells; SC, Schuknecht's channels; ISC, in¬
ner sulcus cells; OSC, outer sulcus (Claudius)
cells; HC, Hensen’s cells; BC, Bottcher’s cells;
ESC, external sulcus cells; SP, spiral promi¬
nence; SV, stria vascularis; SL, spiral ligament.
(From Duvall A), III, Klinkner A; Macromolec-
ular tracers in the mammalian cochlea. Am J
Otolaryngol 4(6);400-410, 1983.)
The nerve fibers then run through a bony shelf, the osseous spiral lamina,
to reach the sensory cells of the organ of Corti (Fig. 2-9). The bony cavity
of the cochlea is divided into three portions by the endolyfnph-contaming,
35 mm long cochlear duct. The upper scala vestibuli contains perilymph and
is divided from the cochlear duct by the thin Reissner’^ membrane. The
lower scala tympani contains perilymph and is divided from the cochlear
duct by the osseous spiral lamina and the basilar membrane. The perilymph
of these two scalae communicates at the apex of the spiral cochlea past the
blind end of the cochlear duct, through a small opening called the helico-
trema. The basilar membrane is narrow at the base (high tones) and wide
at the apex (low tones).
Sitting upon the basilar membrane, from the base to the apex, is the organ
of Corti, which contains the essential organelles of the peripheral neural
mechanism of hearing. The organ of Corti contains one row of inner hair
cells (3,000) and three rows of outer hair cells (12,000). They are suspended
through holes on the horizontal arm of a teeter-totter formed by supporting
cells (Fig. 2-10). Afferent and efferent nerve-ending boutons attach to the
lower ends of the hair cells. From the superior surface of the hair cells
project stereocilia that are attached to a gelatinous, acellular, overlying,
rather flat mantle called the tectorial membrane. This tectorial membrane is
secreted and supported by a medially placed platform called the limbus.
The vestibular part of the inner ear is made up of the saccule, utricle, and
semicircular canals. The utricle and saccule both contain a macula that is
FIGURE 2—10. The organ of Corti. The hair cells

are suspended from the horizontal portion of a
rigid teeter-totter formed by the reticular lamina
and the inner and outer pillars. (Schematic draw¬
ing by Arndt J. Duvall, III, M.D.)
covered with hair cells. Overlying these hair cells is a gelatinous layer into
which the cilia project, and within this gelatinous layer are calcium-containing
otoliths, which have a heavier density than the endolymph. These otoliths
are pulled on by gravity, and this shearing force bends the cilia of the hair
cells and stimulates the receptors.
The saccule communicates with the utricle via a narrow duct that is also
the passage leading to the endolymphatic sac. The utricular macula is on a
plane perpendicular to the saccular macula. The three semicircular canals
open into the utricle. Each semicircular canal has one end which is dilated
into an ampulla that contains the hair cells of the crista. The hair cells
project into a gelatinous cupula. Movements of the endolymph within the
semicircular canal will move the cupula, which will bend the cilia of the hair
cells of the crista and stimulate the receptors (see Chapter 3).
FUNCTION OF THE EAR
The pinna is, to some extent, a “collector” pf sound. The external auditory
canal, because of its shape and dimension, greatly amplifies the sounds in
the region of 2 to 4 kHz; it will amplify these frequencies by 10 to 15 dB.
Thus, sounds in this frequency range are most hazardous from the standpoint
of acoustic trauma.
The middle ear contains the malleus, incus, and stapes (Fig. 2-11). The
handle of the malleus is embedded in the tympanic membrane. The tensor
tympani muscle inserts into the neck of the malleus. The head of the malleus
articulates with the anterior surface of the body of the incus within the
epitympanum. The incus has a short process that projects backwards and a
long process that passes down to articulate with the head of the stapes.
The natural axis of rotation of the malleus and incus is along a line from
the short process of the incus to the region of the neck of the malleus. The
stapes is a stirrup-shaped bone. The contractions of the stapedius muscle
can be measured by using impedance audiometry, and these measurements
are an important clinical tool. The middle earjs an impedance-matching
device between air (our environment) and liquid (inner ear), When sound
waves transmitted through air reach fluid, 99.9 per cent of the energy is
reflected. Only 0.1 per cent is transmitted (a loss of 30 dB). The middle ear
compensates for the loss primarily because the tympanic membrane has an
area 17 times greater than that of the stapedial footplate. The ossicular chain
contributes a levered gain of 1.2/1. Thus, a middle ear is unnecessary in
creatures that live in water.
The vibrations of sound are transmitted through the external auditory
canal and middle ear to the inner ear via the stapes, causing a travelling
wave to be created along the basilar membrane and its organ of Corti. The
peak of the travelling wave along the 35 mm long basilar membrane is
determined by the frequency of the sound wave. This results in bending of
the stereocilia by shearing action with the tectorial membrane, thus depolar¬
izing the hair cells and creating action potentials in the attached auditory
nerve fibers. It is here that the mechanical sound waves are converted to the
electrochemical energy for transmission through the eighth cranial nerve. At
least some frequency analysis occurs at the organ of Corti level. The electrical
event in the organ of Corti can be measured and is called the cochlear
Squar
Teqmen tympani
Incus V-O I 1 v
Aditus to
' tv antrum
Suspensory
liqamerft <
mal leus
Mai leus
Mastoid
Attic Vj, antrum
(epitym- L0
panum)
Tympanic
membrane
Auditory tube -
Tympanic rin omastoid

men
Styloid process'" & Mastoid tip

FIGURE 2-11. A drawing (after Fowler) from a section through the mastoid, antrum, and
middle ear, looking outward from behind the drumhead.
microphonic. The electrical events occurring in the neurons also can be

measured and are called the action potential.
The spiral ligament is on. the lateral bony wall of the cochlear duct. It is
the lateral anchor of the basilar membrane and contains the stria vascularis,
the only vascularized epithelium in the body. Two of the three types of cells
in the stria vascularis are rich in mitochondria and have very large surface
areas in relation to their volume. Thus, the stria is uniquely constructed as
a fluid and electrolyte transport system. It is thought to play a large role in
the maintenance of the electrolyte composition of the endolymph (high in
potassium, low in sodium) and to act as a second battery for the organ of
Corti. It is the source of the scala media direct current potential (80
millivolts). As the basic nutrient supply of cells in the body is blood and its
flow creates noise, the stria vascularis is the unique adaptation to provide
nutrients to the organ of Corti while keeping the vascular supply at a
distance, thus improving the signal-to-noice ratio at the' organ of Corti.
There are about 30,000 afferent neurons that innervate the 15,000 hair
cells in each cochlea. Each inner hair cell is innervated by many neurons.
Only a small percentage (about 10 per cent) of the afferent neurons innervate
the outer hair cells, but there is considerable branching, such that each
afferent
FIGURE 2-12. Diagram of central auditory connections

as deduced from animal experiments and some human
pathologic material (after Lang). (From A Guide to the
Care of Adults with Hearing Loss published by the
American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryn¬
gology.)
neuron derives from many outer hair cells and each outer hair cell is
innervated from many different afferent neurons.
There are also about 500 efferent nerve fibers reaching each cochlea.
These also branch extensively, such that each outer hair cell has many
efferent nerve endings. Any one outer hair cell’s efferent nerve endings are
not all derived from one efferent neural fiber.
The neural fibers of the cochlear nerve (Fig. 2-12) pass to the dorsal and
ventral cochlear nuclei. Most fibers from the nuclei cross the midline and
ascend to the contralateral inferior colliculus, but some ascend ipsilaterally.
There are further crossovers at the nuclei of the lateral lemniscus and inferior
colliculi. From the inferior colliculi, the auditory pathway runs to the medial
geniculate body and then to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe.
Because of the frequent crossing over of nerve fibers, central lesions of the
auditory pathways almost never cause a unilateral hearing loss.
The neural fibers of the vestibular nerve pass to one of the four vestibular
nuclei and from there are widely distributed, with pathways to the spinal
cord, cerebellum, and other parts of the central nervous system.
References
Anson BJ, Donaldson JA: Surgical Anatomy of the Temporal Bone and Ear. Philadelphia,
WB Saunders, 1981.
Schuknecht HF, Gulya AJ: Anatomy of the Temporal Bone with Surgical Implications
Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1986.
Shambaugh GE, Glasscock ME: Surgery of the Ear. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1980.
3
THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
by John H. Anderson, M.D., Ph.D., and Samuel C. Levine, M.D.
PHYSIOLOGY
Sensory signals coming from the inner ear, the retina of the eye, and the
musculoskeletal system are integrated in the central nervous system (CNS)
in order to control gaze and the position and movement of the body in
space. In this section we briefly describe the equilibrium receptors and Adequate stimulus: accelera¬
tion, a change in velocity per
discuss their role. When we refer to the "vestibular system,” we mean not
unit of time.
only the receptors but also the pathways in the CNS which are involved in
processing the afferent signals and which activate motoneurons.
The receptors are hair cells located in the cristae of the semicircular canals
and the maculae of the otolith organs. Functionally there are two types.
Those of the semicircular canals are sensitive to rotation, specifically to
angular acceleration (which is a change in angular velocity), and those of
the otolith organs are sensitive to linear motion, specifically to linear
acceleration, and to changes in head position relative to gravity. This
difference in sensitivity to linear versus angular acceleration is due to the
geometry of the canals and otolith organs and the physical characteristics of
the structures overlying the hair cells.
Hair Cells. Morphologically, the individual hair cells of the canals and
otolith organs are very similar. Each has a structural polarization that is
defined by the positions of the stereocilia relative to the kinocilium (see Fig. Polarization of hair cells: struc¬
tural and functional.
3-1). Corresponding to this, there is a functional polarization in the response
of the hair cells (see Fig. 3-2). If a movement causes the stereocilia to be
bent toward the kinocilium, then the hair cells are excited. If the movement
is in the opposite direction and causes a bending away from the kinocilium,
then the hair cells are inhibited. In the absence of any movement, there is
some release of transmitter from the hair cells which causes the afferent
nerve fibers to have a spontaneous or resting firing rate. This makes it
possible for the afferents to be either excited or inhibited, depending on the
direction of the movement.
Semicircular Canals. In any one canal the polarization is the same for all
the hair cells, and during a rotation they are all either excited or inhibited. Canal pairs: excitation and inhi¬
bition.
The three canals are approximately perpendicular to each other, and each
canal of one ear is approximately coplanar with a canal from the other ear.
Thus, there are three pairs: left horizontal-right horizontal, left anterior-
right posterior, and left posterior-right anterior. During a rotation one canal
of a pair will be excited while the other will be inhibited. For example, if
the head is in a normal, upright position and there is an acceleration in the
horizontal plane causing a rotation to the right, then the afferents of the
right horizontal canal will be excited and those of the left canal will be
inhibited. If the rotation is in the vertical plane, causing a forward rotation,
39
40 PART TWO -THE EAR
FIGURE 3—1. Diagram of morphologic

000
ooooo polarization of the sensory cells and
ooooo
.mm
• 000000 the polarization pattern of the vestib¬
oooooo
ooooo ular sensory epithelia. Morphologic
oo
00 0 0
polarization (arrow) of a sensory cell is
oooo determined by the position of the ki-
ooo o°o0o0o°o0o
ooooo
oooooo nocilium in relation to the stereocilia,
ooooo oc • °0°OXKKK)
m oooooo
• O CO 00
oooooo
ooooo a, Section perpendicular to the epithe¬
o ooooo oooooo
ooooo
oooo °<>mo lium. Note increasing length of stereo¬
OO 0 cilia toward the kinocilium. b, Section
000 0
ooo o
ooooo
parallel to the epithelial surface, c, The
°o0o°o0o0o
m°o°o sensory cells on the crista ampullaris
oooo o
oooo are polarized in the same direction, d,
Macula sacculi and (e) macula utriculi
are divided by an arbitrary curved line
into two areas, the pars interna and
the pars externa, with opposite mor¬
phologic polarization. On the macula
sacculi the sensory cells are polarized
away from the dividing line; on the
macula utriculi they are polarized to¬
ward the line. Constant irregularities in
the polarization pattern are found in
areas corresponding to the continua¬
tion of the striola peripherally (rectan¬
gles in d and e). (From Lindeman HH:
Studies on the morphology of the sen¬
sory regions of the vestibular appara¬
tus. In Advances in Anatomy, Embryol¬
ogy and Cell Biology. New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1969, p 59.)
CRISTA AMPULLARIS
then the anterior canals of both sides will be excited and the posterior canals
inhibited.
It should be noted that angular acceleration is the adequate stimulus for
Canal stimulus: angular acceler- the semicircular canal afferents. A constant velocity rotation will not excite
ation. them. Of course, in order to reach a given velocity, there must be an
acceleration and the effects of this will decay to zero over time, up to a few
FIGURE 3—2. Electrical discharge rate of the hair cells as

a function of displacement of the sensory hairs. (From
Wersall ], Lundquist P-G: Morphological polarization of
the mechanoreceptors of the vestibular and acoustic
systems. In Second Symposium on the Role of the
Vestibular Organs in Space Exploration, January 25-27,
1966, Fig 27, p 68. Published by NASA.)
3—THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM 41
minutes. This time lag is due to CNS processing of the afferent activity and
to the inertia of the cupula and the viscosity of the endolymph, which cause
the displacement of the cupula to lag behind the change in the angular
velocity of the head. For example, consider the effect of suddenly coming
to a stop after rotating to the right, in a clockwise direction. This deceleration
to zero velocity is equivalent to an acceleration in the opposite direction, to
the left. Therefore, the afferents of the left canal will be excited and those
of the right inhibited. If this is done in complete darkness, then the subject
will have the perception that he is rotating to the left. As the cupula of each
canal returns to its resting position, the subject will perceive that he comes
to a stop.
Otolith Organs. There are two otolith organs: the utriculus, which is
located approximately in the horizontal plane of the head, and the sacculus,
which is located approximately in the vertical plane. In contrast to the
semicircular canals, the hair cells of a given otolith organ do not all have
the same polarization. In the utricular macula, the kinocilium is located on
the side of the hair cell located closest to the central region, the striola.
Thus, during a given head tilt or linear acceleration, some of the afferents Otolith stimulus: linear acceler¬
ation and gravity.
will be excited and others will be inhibited. However, this does not mean
that there will be a cancellation of the responses in the CNS. The afferents
with a given polarization may project to different neurons in the vestibular
nuclei and may subserve different functions. Also, because there are different
polarizations within each macula, the CNS has information about linear
motion in three dimensions, even though there are only two maculae.
Vestibular Reflexes. The afferents go the CNS and^synapse on neurons in
the vestibular nuclei in the brain stem. Neurons in the vestibular nuclei then
project to other parts of the brain; some go directly to the motoneurons
innervating the extraocular muscles and to spinal motoneurons and others
go to the brain stem reticular formation, cerebellum, and other structures.
Direct connections between the vestibular nuclei and the extraocular
motoneurons constitute one important pathway by which eye movements
and the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) are controlled. The VOR is an eye Nystagmus: slow phase (com¬
pensatory) alternating with fast
movement that has a “slow” component opposite to the head rotation and phase (in opposite direction).
a “fast” component in the same direction as the head rotation. The slow
component compensates for the head movement and serves to stabilize an
image on the retina. The fast component serves to redirect gaze to another
part of the visual field. This alteration in the direction of the eye movement
during vestibular stimulation is one example of a normal nystagmus.
EVALUATION OF VESTIBULAR FUNCTION
A number of clinical tests can be performed to determine whether or not

the vestibular system is functioning normally and, if not, where the problem
might be. Some are designed to stimulate a particular end-organ, such as
one pair of semicircular canals or the otolith organs during whole body
rotation in the dark. Other tests are designed to look at the interaction
among several sensory inputs, such as muscle proprioceptive, visual, and
vestibular inputs, which can all be present during changes in body or head
posture.
One important objective for the otolaryngologist is to determine whether Differential diagnosis: inner ear
and central nervous system.
or not the cause for vertigo (the sensation that the world is moving relative
to the subject) is due to a problem in the inner ear and/or the eighth nerve
or in the central nervous system. Examples of central disorders include

multiple sclerosis and other demyelinating diseases, tumors, vascular disease
and stroke, and drug toxicity. Examples of peripheral disorders include
Meniere’s disease, labyrinthitis, ototoxicity due to antibiotics, and acoustic
neuromas.
Eye movements (VOR responses) are measured in many tests of vestibular
function. In these cases it is therefore necessary to first evaluate the
oculomotor system. This is done by examining spontaneous eye movements
in the light and dark and movements to visual targets, saccades, and pursuit
tracking.
For some vestibular tests it is necessary to prevent visual fixation and
optokinetic stimulation (movement of the visual surround relative to the
subject). For this purpose the stimulus can be applied in complete darkness,
with the eyes closed, or with the subject wearing +20 diopter lenses (Frenzel
glasses). In the latter two situations, however, the gain of the VOR is
reduced; complete darkness with the eyes open is the optimum condition.
The eye movements can be measured with electrodes placed on the outer
canthus of each eye for horizontal movements and above and below the eyes
for vertical movements (Fig. 3-3). There is an electrical potential difference
between the retina and cornea of each eye, which thus acts as an electric
dipole. Movement of the eye changes the orientation of the dipole, and this
changes the potential difference between the two electrodes on the surface
of the skin.
Caloric Stimulation. In this test the subject is placed with the plane of one
semicircular canal (usiftlly the horizontal) aligned with a plane vertical to
the earth. Then a fluid that is either warmer or colder than body temperature
is placed in the external ear canal. Consequent to this there is a transfer of
heat to or from the inner ear, which results in a convection current in the
endolymph. This causes a deflection of the cupula in the canal which is
aligned with gravity and stimulation of its affereflts. The maximum velocity
of the slow component and the time course of the nystagmus are measured
when there is no vision present.
The standard position is with the head tilted backward approximately 60
degrees so that the horizontal canal is in the vertical plane. A cold fluid
applied to the right ear causes a nystagmus with the slow phase to the right
and a warm fluid causes a slow phase to the left. The response typically lasts
Calorics: I) Stimulate horizontal
two to three minutes. A significantly reduced response to stimulation of one
canal in one ear; 2) Similar to
low frequency rotation. ear compared to the other is evidence for a peripheral deficit on that side.
However, the complete absence of a response to caloric stimulation does
not necessarily mean that there is no canal function on that side. The
stimulus is roughly equivalent to slowly moving the head in one direction
(although only one ear is stimulated) and is analogous to giving a single,
low-frequency, pure tone for evaluating hearing. A complete vestibular
examination should also evaluate the response to rapid head movements.
Rotation. There are two forms of rotation testing. One involves placing
the subject on a chair that is centered on the axis of rotation of a torque
motor. When the subject is seated upright and tilts his head approximately
Passive, whole-body rotation. 30 degrees downward, the horizontal canals can be maximally stimulated.
Neck movement is prevented so that rotation will move the body and head
together. Rotation may be unidirectional with constant angular acceleration
in one direction for a short time period (e.g., 18 seconds) or oscillatory
(e.g., sinusoidal). The amplitude and time course of the response are
EYES IN
'ry0 ■ NEUTRAL
POSITION
L y/®CI8*
EYES
SWING EYES
TO RIGHT SWING
TO LEFT
FIGURE 3-3. Principles of electronystagmography. A diagrammatic explanation of the

correctional potential and amplification of changes in electrical activity by differential
electrodes. The motion of the eyes is recorded on paper and represented by upward
and downward pen deflection. (From C1BA Symposia.)
measured for constant accelerations, and the phase and gain are measured
for sinusoidal rotations.
Another paradigm involves the subject himself moving his head back and
forth. In this case there is stimulation of both the vestibular receptors and
the receptors in the neck muscles. The latter may play an important role in
compensating for the loss of vestibular function. Although this is a Active head movement and high
complicating factor, the paradigm has the advantage that very rapid head frequency stimulation.
movements with large amplitudes can be attained so that the vestibular
labyrinth (together with the neck muscle receptors) can be very strongly
stimulated in a natural manner. This complements the lower frequency,

whole body rotation. Together these two tests can provide a quantitative
description of the vestibular system over a wide range of stimulus frequencies.
Compared to caloric stimulation, the rotation tests offer several
advantages: (1) The stimulus (i.e., acceleration of the head) can be controlled
and precisely measured, and this allows a quantitative analysis of input/
Advantages of rotation: I) Quan¬ output relations to be made. (2) The system can be tested over a wide range
titate the stimulus; 21 Vary stim¬
ulus parameters; 3) Information
of stimulus parameters (e.g., many frequencies of head movement). (3)
about both inner ear and CNS. Information about the integrity of both the peripheral labyrinth and the CNS
can be obtained. (4) Because of the quantitative methods of analysis, it
might be possible to more accurately measure vestibular function over time
in order to monitor the progression of a disease or the effectiveness of a
treatment.
The response to caloric stimulation, on the other hand, is more variable
from subject to subject. This is due, in part, to the fact that there is
considerable variability in the actual stimulus to the receptors. There is
variation in the time course over which the fluid is applied to the ear canal
and in the transfer of heat between the fluid and the labyrinth. The latter
depends upon the amount of tissue between the external ear canal and the
labyrinth and the blood flow through it, neither of which can be controlled
or measured. Thus, the time course and magnitude of the actual stimulus to
the semicircular canal are not known.
Positional Testing. At present there is no well-defined protocol for
quantitatively testing otolith function or for testing the effect of gravity on
the vestibular receptors. However, by placing the head in different positions
relative to gravity and at the same time measuring the eye movements, some
information can be gained. One condition that can be diagnosed is benign
paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV). In this case the vertigo is associated
with a rapid change in head position. It is sudden in onset and is of short
duration. The condition is believed to result from a structural alteration of
the cupula of the posterior semicircular canal, which makes it sensitive to
gravity.
A test for BPPV is the following: The patient is seated on an examining
table in a completely dark room (or wearing Frenzel glasses). Then the
patient is suddenly placed in a prone position with the head turned sharply
backward and to one side. When the affected side is down, there will be a
nystagmus (usually with a vertical or rotatory component) that is delayed in
onset (3 to 10 sec) and that lasts for only about 30 sec. Upon repeated
testing, the nystagmus will diminish and then disappear. It is fatigable. When
the nystagmus does not have a latent period and is not fatigable, CNS
disease must be considered as a possible cause.
Posturography. Recently a new technique has become available for testing
upright posture. Subjects stand on a platform that measures the force exerted
by each foot, and the positions of the head and hips are measured. Several
different conditions are used: normal vision with a fixed platform to stand
on, no vision (complete darkness), no ankle movement (the platform moves
Sensory conflict: vestibular sys¬ with the subject to keep the ankle angle constant and to thereby prevent
tem provides an inertial refer¬
stimulation of muscle and joint receptors), and visual conflict (the visual
ence.
field or drum that surrounds the subject moves with the subject as he sways
back and forth). Subjects who have impaired vestibular function have the
greatest difficulty when the platform and the visual field both move with the
subject. In this condition there is a sensory conflict: Vision and proprioceptive
inputs detect no motion while in fact the body is swaying back and forth. In
normal subjects, the vestibular system provides an inertial reference to
resolve this conflict and posture is maintained. The vestibular-deficient
subjects, however, cannot do this.
SUMMARY
The test paradigms discussed above illustrate some of the interactions

among visual, muscle proprioceptive, and the different vestibular sensory
signals, canal and otolith. In real-life situations all the sensory inputs
contribute to maintaining posture and gaze and adapting to a sensory, motor,
or CNS deficit. When evaluating the function of the vestibular system, it is
important to realize this and to use appropriate test stimuli under different
experimental conditions. There is no single test for vestibular function which
can answer all questions.
References
Black FO: Vestibulospinal function assessment by moving platform posturography. Am J
Otolaryngol 6:39-46, 1985.
Fineberg R, O’Leary DP, Davis LL: Use of active head movements for computerized vestibular
testing. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 113:1063-1065, 1987.
Honrubia V, Baloh RW, Yee RD, Jenkins HA: Identification of the location of vestibular
lesions on the basis of vestibulo-ocular reflex measurements. Am J Otolaryngol 1(41:291-
301, 1980.
Honrubia V, Jenkins HA, Baloh RW, et al: Vestibulo-ocular reflexes in peripheral labyrinthine
lesions: I. Unilateral dysfunction. Am J Otolaryngol 5:15-26, 1984.
Hudspeth AJ: Transduction and tuning by vertebrate hair cells. Trends Neurosci, Sept 1983,
pp 366-369.
Leigh RJ, Zee DS: The Neurology of Eye Movement. Philadelphia, FA Davis, 1983.
Miles FA, Lisberger SG: Plasticity in the vestibulo-ocular reflex: A new hypothesis. Annu Rev
Neurosci 4:273-300, 1981.
Robinson DA: The use of control systems analysis in the neurophysiology of eye movements.
Annu Rev Neurosci 4:463-503, 1981.
Takahashi M, Uemura T, Fuyishiro T: Compensatory eye movement and gaze fixation during
active head rotation in patients with labyrinthine disorders. Ann Otol 90:241-245, 1981.
4
AUDIOLOGY
by Frank M Lassman, Ph.D., Samuel C. Levine, M.D., and
Donna G. Greenfield, MS.
Purposes of Audiology
Audiology, which is the science of hearing, involves the evaluation of
hearing and the rehabilitation of individuals with communication problems
related to hearing impairment. There are two reasons for evaluation: (1)
medical diagnosis of the location and type of disease and (2) assessment of
the impact of hearing impairment upon learning, social interaction, and
vocation.
Hearing measurements can add precision to diagnose the locus of patho¬
logic involvement and specific disease entities. Patients with different diseases
within the same area (e.g., noise deafness and Meniere’s syndrome both
involve the cochlea) report very different hearing experiences and will have
potentially different audiometric findings. Likewise, the qualities of the
impaired hearing experience will limit attention skills, language development,
speech precision, and general communication effectiveness in ways specific
to the degree and type of impairment. Plans for special education and
rehabilitation should be influenced and guided by the hearing measurement
along with other important variables such as intelligence, motivation, and
family support. The physician is forced to look at the integrity of the middle
ear somewhat indirectly and is totally unable to examine the cochlea and
the auditory nervous system except by studying the way they function in
response to sound.
Types of Hearing Evaluation

The patient’s ability to hear can be determined in ways ranging from
informal procedures to highly standardized and precise measurements re¬
quiring special equipment. The more frequent and routine hearing testing
becomes in the office, the greater skill the examiner will develop in its use
and practical application. The following types of hearing tests will be
discussed in this chapter: tuning fork tests, pure tone audiometry, speech
audiometry, special tests, and pediatric audiometry. It is important that they
be viewed as an aggregate with supplementary and complementary purposes
generating a test battery.
Types of Hearing Impairment

Three general types of hearing impairment are identified by hearing tests:
conductive, sensorineural, and combined or mixed. Conductive hearing
46
4—AUDIOLOGY 47
problems are due to disorders of the external or middle ear. Sensorineural Types of hearing impairment:
(II conductive, (2) sensori¬
hearing problems are secondary to disturbance of the cochlea, eighth nerve,
neural (cochlear and retrococh¬
or central auditory channels. Earlier terms such as “nerve” loss and “per¬ lear), (3) mixed.
ceptive” loss have been discarded because most so-called nerve diseases
were found in or had originated in the cochlea, whereas “perceptive”
suggested a psychological dynamic. The distinction between “cochlear” and
“retrocochlear” is considered by some to be useful when the test battery is
sufficiently sophisticated. Mixed or combined hearing loss involves distur¬
bances of both conductive and sensorineural mechanisms.
Testing Models
Air conduction (AC) utilizes the external and middle ear in the transmis¬
sion of sound to the cochlea and beyond. It is thought to be the usual avenue
of sound transmission. In bone conduction (BC), the skull is set into vibration
by direct contact with a periodically oscillating body, such as a tuning fork.
The bone-conducted stimulus is thought to set the cochlear fluids into
motion, bypassing the external and middle ear. Bekesy (1932) has shown
that the vibrating patterns of the cochlea are the same regardless of whether
sound has been introduced by air conduction or bone conduction.
The bone conduction test has been traditionally treated as a measure of
the integrity of the cochlea and beyond. Normal bone conduction hearing
strongly suggests normal cochlear, nerve, and brain stem function. If the
sensorineural component (BC) is normal, while the total system (AC) is
impaired (BC>AC), the impairment is judged to have resulted from damage
to the remaining portion of the system, i.e., the middle ear and/or external
ear, not measured by the normal bone conduction finding. On the other
hand, if the bone conduction measurement is no more sensitive than the air
conduction (BC=£AC), the total impairment is judged to have resulted from
damage or change in the cochlear or retrocochlear mechanism. But many
investigators led by Tonndorf have challenged this traditional interpretation
of the absent air/bone gap. They demonstrate some elevation of bone
conduction threshold secondary to middle ear disturbances.
TUNING FORK TESTS
A set of tuning forks sampling the auditory range from low to high
frequencies makes a survey of hearing sensitivity easy for the physician. The
usual set samples some of the C notes of the musical scale, i.e., 128, 256,
512, 1024, 2048, 4096, and 8192 Hz. Hz is the abbreviation for hertz, which
is the contemporary designation for “cycles per second,” the unit of fre¬
quency. The higher the frequency, the higher .the pitch. Limiting the survey
to the so-called speech frequencies—512, 1024, and 2048 Hz—is usually
sufficient.
Threshold
The tuning fork is held by the. stem, and one of the tines is struck against
a firm but resilient surface, such as the heel of the hand or the elbow. Care
should be taken not to strike the fork against the edge of a table or some
other unyielding object that will produce overtones, some of which are
With care, forks canprovide iin- audible at some distance from the fork, and may even cause permanent
portant diagnostic information. alteration in the vibratory pattern of the fork. The fork is held close to the
ear, and the patient is asked to report when the sound is no longer audible.
At that report, the fork is placed next to the examiner’s ear and the interval
between that time and the time at which the sound is no longer audible to
the examiner is measured. The procedure not only provides a rough estimate
of relative hearing sensitivity but, if forks are available in various frequencies,
offers a pitch sensitivity pattern.
Schwabach Test
The Schwabach test compares the patient’s bone conduction to that of the
examiner. While the stem of the vibrating fork is held against the mastoid,
Schwabach: mastoid to mastoid, the patient reports when the sound becomes inaudible. At that moment, the
examiner applies the fork stem to his own mastoid and measures the time
(in seconds) the examiner can still perceive the sound.
A normal Schwabach is obtained when the patient and examiner have
approximately equal bone conduction. A prolonged or increased Schwabach
is assigned when the patient’s bone conduction is appreciably longer than
the examiner’s, as in the instance of conductive hearing impairment. When
the examiner can hear the fork well after the patient, suggesting a sensori¬
neural hearing impairment, the term diminished Schwabach is applied. The
interpretations of the Schwabach test are shown in Table 4-1.
Rinne Test
The Rinne test compares the patient’s hearing by bone conduction against
that by air conduction. The hilt of the vibrating fork is held against the
Rinne: compares bone conduc- patient’s mastoid (bone conduction) until sound is no longer heard; the tines
tion to air conduction are then piaced close to the same ear (air conduction). The normal ear will
resume hearing the fork by air conduction, a finding called the positive
Rinne (AOBC). These results are explained by an impedance mismatch.
The patient with sensorineural hearing impairment will also yield a positive
Rinne, if the fork is audible at all, since the sensorineural disturbance should
affect both air conduction and bone conduction routes equally (AOBC).
The term negative Rinne is applied when the patient cannot resume
hearing by air conduction after the fork is no longer audible by bone
conduction (AC<BC). Rinne test interpretations are summarized in Table
4-2.
TABLE 4-1. SCHWABACH TEST RESULTS, TYPE OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT,

AND LOCATION OF EAR DISORDER
SCHWABACH
TEST RESULT HEARING STATUS LOCUS
Normal Normal None

Prolonged Conductive loss External and/or middle ear
Diminished Sensorineural loss Cochlear and/or retrocochlear
4—AUDIOLOGY 49
TABLE 4-2. R1NNE TEST RESULTS, TYPE OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT,

AND LOCATION OF EAR DISORDER
RINNE TEST RESULT HEARING STATUS LOCUS
Positive AC > BC Normal or sensorineural None or cochlear-retrocochlear
impairment 1
Negative AC < BC Conductive impairment External or middle ears
Weber Test
The Weber test extends the familiar experience of hearing one’s own voice
louder when an ear is blocked. The stem of the vibrating fork is held to the
midline of the forehead, and the patient is asked to report whether the
sound is heard in the left, right, or both ears.
In general, the patient perceives the sound of the fork in the ear with
better bone cqaduction or greater conductive component. If the tone is
heard in the reportedly poorer ear, a conductive hearing loss should be
suspected for that ear. If heard in the better'ear, sensorineural loss is
suspected for the poorer ear. The fact that the patient lateralizes the
perception to the conduction-impaired ear rather than to the better ear may
seem incongruous to the patient and sometimes to the examiner.
The Weber test is most useful in instances of unilateral impairment, but
ambiguity may"develop when one ear has both conductive and sensorineural
(combined) involvement or when a tuning fork of only one frequency is
available. The clinician should use the Weber test only in conjunction with
other tests and should not interpret the test by itself.
Bing Test
The Bing test is an application of the so-called occlusion effect, in which
the fork is heard louder as the normal ear is occluded. If the auditory meatus
is alternately occluded and left open, as the vibrating fork is held to the
mastoid, an increase and decrease in loudness will be perceived by the
normal ear (positive Bing). A similar result will occur with sensorineural
hearing impairment, but the patient in whom the conductive mechanism is
already modified, as in otitis media or otosclerosis, should not notice any
loudness changes (negative Bing).
Reliability and Validity

With repeated careful administration of tuning fork tests, the examiner
develops skill in their use. Problems of reliability (repeatability) ensue from Reliability refers to the repeat¬
judgment errors of both patient and examiner regarding the “moment of ability of test results. Validity
here refers to the extent of test¬
inaudibility” as the tonal experience decays into silence. The tests are more ing what you think you are test¬
difficult to accomplish with children and patients with a limited attention ing. It is possible to have very
span. reliable and yet totally invalid
results.
The clinician should avoid the use of low-frequency (128 and 256 Hz)
forks, since they require control of background noise, as in a special sound-
conditioned room, which is usually unavailable to the average practitioner.
For physical reasons, a 500 Hz fork, rather than 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz forks,
is better able to provide useful Bing test results.
A common error in the Rinne and Schwabach tests arises from the nature
of bone conduction. A vibrating fork applied to the right mastoid vibrates
But diagnostic “power" will in¬ not only the right temporal bone but the entire head; thus, the left ear is
crease when forks are coupled being stimulated simultaneously. Attenuation across the head is minimal. In
with the other audiometric tests
in the diagnostic battery. the Rinne test the response to a bone-conducted stimulus will reflect the ear
with better bone conduction, regardless of which ear it may be. Hence, it is
possible to obtain the bone conduction response of the left ear when testing
the right ear. And if bone conduction is greater than air conduction, the
result is a false-negative Rinne.
Similarly, an increased or prolonged Schwabach for the right ear may
actually be a response of the left ear in which bone conduction is better than
in the right ear. The incidence of the false-negative Rinne and the false
increased Schwabach may be reduced by a request for localization from the
patient. It may also be controlled by the introduction of a masking noise
into the nontested ear from a masking device such as a “Barany buzzer.”
This should be done with some caution, since the high-intensity masking
noise may itself be lateralized across the skull and back to the tested ear.
Because of these problems of validity and reliability, it is wise to use a
battery of tuning fork tests, affording an opportunity for comparison among
test indications, rather than to depend upon one test. This also partly
accounts for the development of electrical audiometry.
PURE TONE AUDIOMETRY
Instruments called audiometers, which were developed in the early 1920’s,

sample the octave series of the C scale in the tradition of tuning forks. Tonal
intensity could be maintained at a fixed level rather than one that immediately
began a steady decay, as with tuning forks. The tone could be interrupted
as desired, or the intensity could be attenuated at fixed intervals with arrays
of electrical impedance—hence an opportunity to quantify the intensity of
the sound. It remained only to apply a unit of intensity, a decibel notation,
to the continuum of intensity, and the era of modern pure tone audiometry
was born. The decibel (dB) is a very convenient unit that is the logarithmic
ratio of two powers or pressures.
Pure Tone Audiometers

The pure tone audiometer is an electronic device which produces sounds
The “basics” of pure-tone that are relatively free of noise or sound energy in overtones, hence “pure”
audiometry. tones. A selection of tones approximately preserving the C scale octave
relations is available: 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, and 8000 Hz. Tones
at half-octave intervals (750, 1500, 3000, and 6000 Hz) are also provided.
The audiometer has three essential parts: a variable frequency oscillator to
produce these sounds, an attenuator to permit variations of intensity (typi¬
cally in 5 dB steps), and a transducer (either earphones or a bone vibrator
and sometimes a loudspeaker) to convert electrical to acoustic energy.
Air Conduction and Bone Conduction

There are two sources of sound, conventionally. One is from earphones
held snugly against the ears by a headband. Each ear is tested separately,
and the results are graphed as the air conduction audiogram. The second
4—AUDIOLOGY 51
source of sound is a bone conduction oscillator or vibrator held snugly

against the mastoid (or forehead) by a headband. The vibrator sets the skull
into oscillation with associated disturbance of the fluids of the cochlea. The
results, graphed as the bone conductioit'-audiogram, are usually interpreted
as bypassing the middle ear, being a measure of “cochlear reserve” and
reflecting the status of the auditory nervous system. We will see later how
the latter interpretation is not entirely accurate but is generally useful.
Threshold
The objective of the measurement is to determine the lowest intensity
level in decibels that can be heard for each frequency and thus the threshold
of audibility for that sound.
Audiometric Zero and Intensity Range

The threshold hearing level derived tor a patient is compared against
audiometric “zero.” This is the median average threshold of a large sample All patients are compared to a
of young adults with no hearing complaints, no history of ear disease, and group of young adults with nor¬
malhearing.
no recent colds. Each frequency has its separate zero with zero-calibrated
values built into the audiometer output. Since “zero” represents an average
value of threshold sensitivity, there must be lesser intensities available to
measure even more sensitive hearing. The same scale has not always been
used. Older test results may vary from current tests only because of the
different standards.
Audiometer intensities may range from -10 dB to as high as 110 dB. If
a patient requires 45 dB of intensity above the normal to perceive a particular
sound, his hearing threshold level is 45 dB; if his sensitivity is closer to the
normal and he requires an increase of only 20 dB above normal, his threshold
is a 20 dB hearing level. If it is indeed 10 dB more sensitive than the average,
his hearing threshold level is designated as a negative value, or -10 dB.
Audiogram Notation for Air Conduction

and Bone Conduction
The audiogram is a graph of the patient’s hearing sensitivity for various
frequencies. Measures are recorded for each ear separately, with frequency
displayed on the abscissa and intensity on the ordinate. Standard symbols
for air conduction and bone conduction are shown in the audiogram key in
Figure 4-1. Air conduction symbols are connected by a solid line as illustrated
on the audiogram. Bone conduction symbols are connected by a broken line
when an air-bone gap exists; otherwise, they are not connected. Color coding
is not necessary for identifying sidedness in this symbol system. However, if
color is employed, red should be used for the right ear symbols and
connecting lines and blue for the left ear. Graphing the right and left ears
on separate audiograms has been used to avoid audiogram clutter.
Procedures for Threshold Determination

Patient Preparation
1. The patient should be seated so that he cannot see the control panel
or the examiner. Many examiners prefer seeing the patient’s profile.
FREQUENCY (Hz)
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 AUDIOGRAM KEY

Right Let!
AC A 1
UnmaskedV-/ ^
AC l 1
Masked 4A
HEARING LEVEL IN dB (ANSI-69)
BC
Mastoid/
Unmasked'
BC
Mastoid Q
Masked
BC
Forehead “]
Masked
Both
BC
Forehead
Unmasked
Sound Field
j
s
Examples of No
Response Symbols
75>
SRT SPEECH DISCRIM.%
RT L RT L 7 *
FIGURE 4—1. Audiogram and key showing standard symbols.
2. Items that might prevent proper fitting of the earphones or might

otherwise affect the measurement results should be removed. Examples
include earrings, glasses, hats, some wigs, chewing gum, and cotton in
the external auditory canal. At this time the examiner might check for
collapsing external auditory canal by observing the movement of the
canal walls as he exerts pressure on the pinna and the tragus. Air-bone
gaps of as much as 15 to 30 dB have been reported from collapsing
canals. This problem can be dealt with by holding the earphones loosely
against the pinna, presenting the test stimuli in a sound field while the
opposite ear is muffed or masked, using circumaural earphone cushions,
or inserting an earmold into the canal to maintain an air passage to the
drumhead.
3. Instructions should be clear and concise. It is important that the patient
know what to listen for and what response behavior is expected. He
must be encouraged to respond to the faintest sound he can detect.
4. The opening in the earphone cushion is placed over the opening of the
auditory canal.
Simply raising the hand or finger or depressing a button that activates a

signal light is used as a response. The patient should be instructed to continue
to respond as long as he detects the test signal. This allows the examiner to
exert more control over the response behavior by varying not only the
interstimulus interval but also the duration of the signal itself. This is
particularly important when the patient gives numerous false-positive re¬
sponses.
Threshold Determination
1. Test the better ear first utilizing the following sequence of frequency
presentation: 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, 4000 Hz, 8000 Hz, 1000 Hz (repeat),
500 Hz, 250 Hz. With the exception of the 1000 Hz repetition, the
4—AUDIOLOGY 53
same "sequence can be used on the other ear. If a threshold difference

of 15 dB or more exists in any octave interval, the half-octave frequency
should be tested.
2. From a starting intensity of 0 dB hearing level (HL), the tone should
be presented in ascending 10 dB increments using a tonal duration of
one to two seconds until the patient responds. Hearing level is the
intensity in decibels necessary for a response from the patient compared
to the “zero” standard of the clinical audiometer.
3. The tone should be increased 5 dB, and if the patient responds, the
tone should be decreased in 10 dB steps until it is inaudible.
4. Successive ascents using 5 dB increments should continue until a mode
or typical response is obtained. This seldom requires more than three
ascents.
5. After establishing a threshold for the initial test frequency, enter the
appropriate symbol on the audiogram.
6. Proceed to the next frequency in the sequence. Initiate the tone at a
level 15 to 20 dB below the threshold of the previously tested frequency.
For example, if the threshold at 1000 Hz is 50 dB, begin testing at 30
or 35 dB at 2000 Hz.
7. This technique can be applied to establishing bone conduction thresh¬
olds as well as air conduction thresholds. In bone conduction threshold
audiometry, 6000 and 8000 Hz are usually not available.
Validity
Comparison of air conduction and bone conduction thresholds continues
to be an important determinant in the decision-making process related to
medical and surgical management of otologic diseases. The difference
between the air and bone thresholds is called the air-bone gap.
Interaural Attenuation and Cross Hearing

Interaural attenuation is the reduction of a signal’s intensity as it is
transmitted from one ear to the other. For example, a 1000 Hz tone presented
to one ear at 65 dB (re audiometric zero) may be subjected to 55 dB
interaural attenuation before it reaches the other ear as a 10 dB signal,
which will be perceived only if the cochlea receiving it is sensitive to 10 dB
signals. The terms cross hearing and shadow curve are commonly applied
when the listener responds to the test signal in the nontest ear. Cross hearing
most likely occurs through the skull via bone conduction even though the
signal is presented through air conduction receivers.
It appears that 45 dB is a reasonable estimate of the minimum interaural
attenuation that occurs before cross hearing results for the frequency range
from 250 Hz through 8000 Hz. Therefore, whenever there are air conduction Large sensitivity differences
interaural threshold differences of 45 dB or more, the validity of the results between ears merit close
attention.
obtained for the poorer ear should be questioned.
Interaural attenuation for a signal presented by bone conduction is
negligible: Placing the bone vibrator on either the mastoid or the frontal
bone will produce vibrations throughout the entire skull. This provides a
potential for essentially equal stimulation of both cochleas. The absence of
significant interaural attenuation for bone conduction signals often creates

problems in correctly identifying air-bone relationship in the test ear. For
example, when an air conduction threshold difference exists between ears,
the bone conduction threshold can, theoretically, be at least as good as the
air conduction threshold of the better ear. Is the air-bone gap on the test
ear a true gap or is it being cross-heard by the nontest ear?
In order to validate measurement results, it is necessary to exclude the
nontest ear by means of an efficient masker so that responses obtained from
the patient can be related to the test ear. Interaural attenuation data can be
applied to “rules” regarding when to mask. In air conduction testing,
whenever the presentation level of the test signal exceeds the bone conduc¬
tion threshold of the nontest ear by 45 dB or more, masking should be used.
In bone conduction testing, the nontest ear should be masked whenever an
air-bone gap exists on the test ear.
Masking
Masking is the obscuring of one sound by another, or the elevation in the
threshold of one signal produced by the introduction of a second signal.
Although the most efficient masker of a pure tone is another tone of the
same frequency, there is an obvious problem in differentiating the masked
signal from the masker. Narrow band noise is the most efficient masker of
pure tones. This consists of energy in a limited band of frequencies whose
center frequency is the same as the pure tone signal being tested. Getting
just the right level of masking is difficult. Too little masking results in
hearing in the nontest ear. Too much will give a wrong threshold.
Hood (1962) outlined the fundamental methods of masking:
1. Establish the air conduction audiogram of both ears in the normal way
of masking, if necessary, of the nontest ear, i.e., when the difference
in the hearing loss between the two ears exceeds 50 dB.
2. Find the bone conduction threshold with the bone conductor applied
to the mastoid of the test ear without masking of the nontest ear.
3. Apply the masking of the appropriate band to the nontest ear by means
of an insert receiver and find a bone conduction threshold reading.
4. Apply the “shadowing” procedure thus: Increase the level of the
masking noise by 10 dB above threshold and retest the bone conduction
threshold. If the bone conduction threshold is raised by 10 dB, increase
the masking intensity by another 10 dB and repeat. Continue this
procedure until the point is reached at which the bone conduction
remains constant with further additional incremented steps of 10 dB of
the masking noise. This is the “change over” point and gives the true
bone conduction threshold of the test ear.
Since masking signals follow the same rules of interaural attenuation as

other air-conducted stimuli being presented through the same type of
transducer, overmasking can occur when the level of the masker exceeds the
level of the bone conduction threshold of the test ear by 45 dB or more.
The linear relationship described previously will again be evidenced as
overmasking occurs. The “plateau” method described here is graphically
illustrated in Figure 4-2.
Speech signals follow the same general “rules” of interaural attenuation
and cross hearing as those assigned to pure tone signals. Thus, the same
FIGURE 4-2. The “plateau” method of masking. Line
AB illustrates the linear relationships between signal
and masking noise when the tone is cross-heard on
the masked ear. B is the change-over point, and line
BC is the plateau. Note that as the masking level is
increased, no changes in the threshold occur until
point C is reached. At this level, the noise reaches the
tested ear, and both ears are being masked (over¬
masking). The linear relationship, line CD, again exists
between tone and masking signal.
criterion regarding when to mask for pure tone testing is applicable when
doing speech audiometry; i.e., when presentation level of the signal exceeds
the bone conduction threshold of the nontest ear by 45 dB, masking should
be used. The examiner must pay particular attention to this relationship
when testing for speech discrimination, since the words are being presented
at suprathreshold levels.
Although narrow bands of noise are preferred when masking pure tones,
their frequency responses are too limited to mask the broad spectrum of
speech. The preferred maskers are either white noise or speech noise, which
is a white noise shaped by filters to resemble the frequency spectrum of
speech.
Regardless of which noise is utilized, effective masking levels must be
established for the particular audiometer being used. This can be accom¬
plished by averaging the effective levels at 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz or through
measurements on a group of individuals with normal hearing. The noise and
speech can be mixed into the same earphone and speech thresholds deter¬
mined when several noise levels are used. This tells the examiner the dial
setting required to obtain the desired threshold shift in the masked ear.
Classic Interpretation
Audiograms may be interpreted according to degree of loss, configuration Audiogram interpretation and
or pattern of loss, and air conduction-bone conduction relationships. the air/bone gap.
A “pure” conductive loss may show any degree of impairment up to
approximately 70 dB hearing level (HL). Losses greater than 70 dB HL
must include some sensorineural component. Sensorineural losses may be of
any degree, from the mildest to the most profound.
By far the most important contribution to audiogram interpretation is
found in the relationships between air conduction and bone conduction
thresholds, that is, the presence or absence of the air-bone gap. These
relationships may be described generally as follows:
1. When bone conduction thresholds are better (more sensitive) than air
conduction thresholds by 10 dB or more and are normal, the loss is
conductive (Fig. 4-3).
2. When bone conduction thresholds are the same as air conduction
thresholds and neither is normal, the loss is sensorineural (Fig. 4-4).
3. When bone conduction thresholds are reduced but are still better than
air conductions by 10 dB or more, the loss is mixed or combined (Fig.
4-5).
FREQUENCY (Hz)
250 500 lOOO 2000 4000 8000
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FIGURE 4-3. The reduced air conduction and normal bone
40 conduction (air-bone gap) thresholds typical of a conductive
hearing impairment.
50
60
70
80
90
1O0
FREQUENCY (Hz)
IIO
125 250 500 lOOO 2000 4000 8000
RT L RT l
-lO •—--
CD 10 -€ s
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FIGURE 4-4. Equally reduced air and bone conduction thresh¬
olds typical of a sensorineural hearing impairment.
z
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FREQUENCY (Hz) 110
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RT L RT L
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(ANSI-69)
10
20
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LEVEL IN dB
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FIGURE 4—5. Unequally reduced air and bone conduction
70 V /- thresholds with retention of air-bone gap typical of mixed
HEARING
y--1
or combined hearing impairment.
80
90
lOO
IIO

RT l RT L
4—AUDIOLOGY
When the air/bone gap is present there is some alteration of the conductive-
transforming mechanism of the external or middle ear. An absent air-bone
gap is seen as an index of sensorineural involvement. But the “Carhart
notch” in otosclerosis is recognized as a bone conduction threshold elevation
by a middle ear pathology, and others see a high frequency loss of bone
conduction secondary to otitis media. So caution should be exercised with a
strict interpretation of the absent air/bone gap.
More examples of typical audiograms are shown on pp 64-66.
IMPEDANCE AUDIOMETRY AND

ACOUSTIC IMMITTANCE
Tympanometry
Impedance audiometry has assumed an increasingly important role in the
audiologic assessment battery. Tympanometry is an indirect measure of the
compliance (mobility) of the tympanic membrane and ossicular system under
conditions of positive, normal, and negative pressure. High acoustic energy
is introduced into the ear by a probe tube; some is absorbed, and the
remainder is reflected back out the canal and collected by a second channel
of the probe tube. In the normal ear, a measuring device shows the reflected
energy to be less than the incident energy. On the other hand, when the ear
is filled with fluid, the drum is thickened, or the ossicular system is stiffened,
the energy reflected is greater than that in the normal ear. The amount of
reflected energy is more equivalent to the incident energy. This relationship
is used as a measure of compliance.
The tympanogram is a graphic representation of relative compliance in
the tympano-ossicular system while air pressure changes are produced in the
external meatus. Maximum compliance will be obtained at normal air
pressure, while compliance is reduced as air pressure is increased or de¬
creased from normal. Persons with normal hearing and with sensorineural
hearing impairments will demonstrate a normal tympano-ossicular system.
Tympanogram types
Liden (1969) and Jerger (1970) developed a classification of tympano-
grams. The classification types, which are illustrated in Figure 4-6, are as
follows:
Type A (Normal Tympanogram). Maximum compliance occurs at or near
ambient air pressure, suggesting normal middle ear pressure.
Type As. Maximum compliance occurs at or near ambient air pressure,
but compliance is lower than in type A. Fixation or stiffening of the ossicular
system is often associated with type As.
Type Ad. Very high maximum compliance occurs at ambient pressure,
with extremely rapid increase in compliance as pressures are reduced toward
normal ambient pressure. Type AD is associated with ossicular discontinuity
or a monomeric tympanic membrane.
Type B. The tympanogram is relatively “flat” or “dome shaped,” showing
little change in the reflective quality of the tympano-ossicular system as air
pressures change in the external canal. The type B tympanogram is associated
with middle ear fluid, thickened drum, or impacted cerumen. The impedance
characteristics of the tympano-ossicular system are dominated by the
incompressible nature of the abnormality present. Small pressure changes
have little effect.
COMPLIANCE
FIGURE 4-6. One system of tympanogram classification.

A = normal; As = stiffened tympano-ossicular system;
A0 = disarticulation; B = fluid, tympanosclerosis, or
impacted cerumen; C = negative middle ear pressure.
Type C. Maximum compliance occurs with negative equivalent pressure

in excess of 100 mm HzO in the external canal. Otoscopic examination
usually reveals a retracted tympanic membrane and may show some fluid in
the middle ear.
A W-shaped tympanogram associated with an atrophic scar of the tympanic
membrane or adhesion of the middle ear is discernible but usually requires
a higher frequency probe tone before it can be demonstrated.
Acoustic Immittance
Acoustic immittance measurements have developed with appropriate tech¬
nology to quantify the ease with which acoustic energy enters the ear. In
addition or in place of patterns A, As, AD, B, and C, acoustic immitance
describes and quantifies primary physical parameters of those patterns. These
include: (1) static admittance or tympanogram peak height; (2) equivalent
canal volume or acoustic admittance with +200 decapascals of ear canal
pressure; (3) tympanometric peak pressure (TPP), or the pressure at which
maximum admittance obtains; and (4) the gradient (GR) or tympanometric
width where there is 50 per cent reduction in the maximum admittance.
Whether immittance introduces new fundamentals or is a more precise
expression of the Jerger/Liden graphics may be argued. Nevertheless, a
clearer separation of measures may be correlated with ear disorders. The
advantage of a tympanogram type (A, etc.) is its broad-stroked description,
which can be eye-balled and communicated easily among professionals. The
admittance parameters have the potential for greater differentiation with a
profile of three to four parameters rather than any single measure.
Table 4-3 shows means and 90 per cent ranges for four admittance
parameters derived with the Welch Allyn Microtymp by Margolis and Heller
(1987) for children and adults. The parameters include peak admittance for
226 Hz (Peak Ya), equivalent ear canal volume ( + 200 Vec), tympanometric
peak pressure (TPP), and tympanometric gradient (GR).
The future direction for immittance testing exploits the differential ballis¬
tics and diaphragm physics made available by using Luscher frequency
stimuli. The potential here is to expose the presence of eardrum calcified
4—AUDIOLOGY 59
TABLE 4-3. NORMATIVE VALUES FOR FOUR TYMPANOMETR1C PARAMETERS*

CHILDREN ADULTS
Mean Range Mean Range
Peak Ya .50 .22-.81 .72 .27-1.38

(mmhos) .74 .42-.97 1.05 .63-1.46
+ 200 Vec (cc) — 30.4 -139-+ 11 -18 -33-0
TPP (daPa) 100 59-151 77 51-115
GR (daPa)
‘Derived by Margolis and Heller (1987) using a 226 Hz stimulus; parameters include peak eardrum
admittance (Peak Ya), equivalent ear canal volume ( + 200 Vec), tympanoffletric peak pressure (TPP), and
gradient (GR) or tympanogram width.
plaques, adhesions of the drum and ossicles, stapedial fixation, and other
middle ear aberrations not presently discernible with the conventional 220
Hz stimulus.
Acoustic Reflex
The acoustic reflex arc contains a direct pathway of three to four neurons.
It connects the auditory nerve to both stapedial motor neurons. The reflex
occurs bilaterally even though the eliciting signal is introduced to only one
ear. Contraction of the stapedial muscle, inserting in the head of the stapes,
produces a stiffening effect on the tympano-ossicular system. The result is
increased impedance, which manifests itself as an increase of the reflected
energy of the tone being presented to the probe tube ear. Signal strength to
elicit the reflex in subjects with normal hearing ranges from 70 to 90 dB HL
with a pure tone stimulus.
A mild to moderate unilateral conductive hearing loss (30 to 40 dB HL)
can elevate the acoustic reflex threshold by the amount of the conductive
component when the stimulus is presented to the impaired ear. Elevated
reflex thresholds have also been noted when cochlear losses exceed 60 to 65
dB HL on the stimulated ear.
The absence of the acoustic reflex can be attributed to various factors,
including a significant sensorineural hearing loss in the ear being stimulated,
a retrocochlear lesion in the stimulated ear, facial nerve involvement on the
probe ear side, congenital absence of the stapedius muscle, surgical removal
of the stapes, and a moderate or greater conductive hearing loss in the
stimulated ear.
The acoustic reflex may occur but not be a recordable event. For example,
the slight increase in tension caused by the contraction of the stapedius will
not significantly change the existing stiffness of the tympano-ossicular dis¬
continuity, since the contraction of the stapedius muscle cannot affect the
stiffness of the system.
Elevated acoustic reflex thresholds occur when stimulating the affected
ears of patients with extra-axial brain stem lesions and patients with multiple
sclerosis. In both classes of patients, there tends to be a high incidence of
acoustic reflex decay (continuous stimulation 10 seconds) with a reflex half-
life as short as 3 seconds in some individuals. Abnormal reflex decay can be
a sign of an eighth nerve tumor. The acoustic reflex is of value in assessing
peripheral facial nerve function. The acoustic reflex can be used in assessing
the hearing of neonates and other children too young to cooperate and as a
part of a test battery for functional hearing loss. Its accuracy is sufficient for
TABLE 4-4. CONDITIONS CONTRIBUTING TO NORMAL, ELEVATED,

AND ABSENT ACOUSTIC REFLEXES
Normal reflex (70 to 90 dB HL)
Normal hearing
Cochlear (recruiting) 60 dB HL
Elevated reflex (90 to 125 dB HL)
Unilateral conductive hearing impairment
(normal tympanogram, probe ear)
Cochlear (80 to 100 dB HL)
Retrocochlear hearing impairment
Absent reflex (125 dB HL)
Eighth nerve lesions
Unilateral conductive, probe ear
Bilateral conductive
Disarticulation, probe ear
Facial paralysis, probe side
Stapes fixation, probe ear
a rough estimate of the degree of loss. Table 4-4 summarizes conditions

contributing to normal, elevated, and absent acoustic reflexes.
SPEECH AUDIOMETRY
Pure tone testing provides information regarding degree of hearing loss,

audiometric configurations, and type of hearing loss, i.e., conductive or
sensorineural. Although inferences are drawn and speculations are made
from pure tone thresholds regarding the ability to hear and understand
speech, pure tone audiometry is not a direct measure of those abilities and
is subject to error. The need to assess the communication aspect of hearing
led to the development of tests that utilized speech itself as the stimulus
material. The development proceeded in two rather broad directions,
namely, measures of sensitivity (speech reception threshold) and measures
of understanding (word discrimination score).
Speech Reception (Recognition) Threshold

The speech reception threshold (SRT), which some refer to as the
recognition threshold or speech threshold (ST), is the faintest presentation
level in decibels at which the patient is able to correctly identify 50 per cent
of the test words. An efficient test utilizing spondee (two syllable, equal
stress) words has been developed which relates well with the threshold for
sentences and continuous discourse. The speech reception threshold test
utilizing spondee words is the conventional method of measuring sensitivity
for the understanding of speech.
The test can be administered using either recorded words or live voice
monitored with a VU meter. Better test-retest reliability is achieved when
recorded stimuli are used. The usual response required of the patient is a
verbal repetition of the words.
The spondee threshold agrees closely with the pure tone average of 500,
1000, and 2000 Hz or with the average of 500 and 1000 Hz when the hearing
drops sharply through the middle frequencies. This relationship can serve as
a means of assessing the reliability of the pure tone threshold data obtained
for a specific patient. The examiner should question a difference of 15 dB
4—AUDIOLOGY 61
or more between the SRT and the pure tone average. The patient may
misunderstand the directions, become uncooperative, or sometimes exagger¬
ate a hearing loss for personal gain.
Speech Discrimination
The assessment of a patient’s ability to recognize speech provides much
information. It is useful in diagnosis and treatment. A number of lists have
been developed which are phonetically balanced, i.e., reflecting the relative
incidence of the various speech sounds in the English language. Lists are Retrocochlear lesions may be
also balanced for vocabulary familiarity. The word lists are presented to the identified on discrimination
tests.
patient at a level 30 dB or 40 dB above his SRT. The patient responds
verbally. The speech discrimination score is a percentage based on the
number of words the patient repeats correctly.
The maximum speech discrimination score can generally be achieved when
the word lists are presented at 35 to 40 dB above the SRT of patients with
normal hearing, with conductive hearing loss, and frequently with mild
sensorineural losses. The expected score presented at this level may approach
94 to 100 per cent. For severe hearing impairments, in which threshold
approaches the output limits of the audiometer, test of discrimination is
often accomplished at the patient’s most comfortable level of loudness.
It may be necessary to present the word lists at several intensity levels in
order to demonstrate the top score. For some of these patients the max may
be no better than 50 to 60 per cent, and instead of a better score resulting
from greater intensity of the stimulus words, the score may actually deteri¬
orate. This phenomenon is called “rollover.” The most dramatic speech
discrimination losses occur when the patient has an eighth nerve lesion, such
as an acoustic neuroma; scores of 20 per cent or less can occur even with
relatively mild hearing levels.
The diagnostic power of discrimination tests may be enhanced by degrading
the stimulus or its environment. For example, word lists with filtering of
information above 500 Hz may be difficult to recognize through the ear
opposite the temporal lobe tumor or the temporal lobe epileptic focus.
Competing messages in the same ear with word lists will degrade performance
in the ear with the “bottleneck” problem of the acoustic tumor.
Problems
The nature of the recorded word lists will determine the discrimination
score. Variables such as precision of articulation, syllabic rate, and familiarity
are standardized within a given set of word lists but not among the sets.
Different sets yield different scores on the same ear.
AUDITORY BRAIN STEM EVOKED RESPONSE

TESTS (ABR)
Electrical potentials evoked by sound from the brain (scalp) have been
the subject of study by clinicians for three-quarters of this century. Various
response components including late responses, middle latency responses,
electrocochleography, and fast responses have attracted attention. Auditory
brain stem evoked response testing (ABR) has become more important over
the last 20 years and its clinical use has become widespread. ABR as we
know it was not really performed until 1968. Testing equipment was advanced
rapidly, and by 1971, Jewett had established definitive descriptions of what
the ABR looked like. Advancing this technology has been the rapid decline
in price and size of computer components that are essential to the operation
of ABR measurement apparatus.
Technique
ABR’s represent the electrical response of the eighth nerve and some
portion of the brain stem which occurs in the first 10 to 12 msec after an
auditory stimulus is sensed by the inner ear. By presenting a series of clicks
to the ear, synchronous firing from high frequency auditory fibers is elicited.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to read a single electrical response. In order to
clearly see this pattern, an averaging scheme must be used to make each of
the waves or stimulation sites apparent. Current standards present a click
stimulus at 75 dB or 80 dB above the threshold. This click repeats at a fixed
repetition rate, e.g., 11/sec or 33/sec, until 1500 or 2000 click responses have
been “averaged.” Electrodes placed over the mastoids are compared with
the midforehead, creating an EEG. By averaging these waves of the EEG,
a pattern emerges. These wave forms, which were described by Jewett in
1971, are labelled I through VII. It is clear now that waves I and II arise
from the area of the eighth cranial nerve and that later waves are generated
higher in the brain stem (Fig. 4-7).
Variables concerning the intensity and polarity of the click can be con¬
trolled. Patient conditions such as body temperature and medications can
affect the recording, but under most circumstances they are not a significant
problem in obtaining a reliable wave pattern.
The results of this test are then mapped out showing the relative time of
waves I through V. This time period is referred to as the latency of each
wave and the inter-wave latency intervals. It is also possible to describe
amplitudes and a general morphology.
Clinical Use
Clinically, the ABR is useful in several situations. First, it is helpful in the
diagnosis of cerebellopontine angle tumors. Second, it may be helpful in
I II III iv v
FIGURE 4—7. Jewett peaks are labeled with

roman numerals. Each time 2000 clicks
are averaged a new line is drawn. The lines
are all reproducible. As the sound level
approaches threshold, wave V appears to
move to the right and other waves are
less distinct.
I_i_I_I_I_L__I_I_i
0123456 78
milliseconds
4—AUDIOLOGY 63
FIGURE 4—8. The peaks are harder to see and

occur at a later time. The wave form is difficult
to reproduce on successive trials. This patient
had a 1.5 cm acoustic neuroma.
i i i i l_I-1-1-1
012345678
milliseconds
Meniere's disease and non-Meniere’s dizziness. Third, it is helpful in estab¬

lishing a hearing threshold for infants and difficult-to-test patients. Finally,
it may have value in evaluating auditory processing disorders.
ABR testing became a prominent method for the diagnosis of acoustic
neuromas. Selters and Brackmann reported very high predictive validity
(approximately 95 per cent) for this testing method. Specifically, the test is
better than any other audiologic test previously used. ABR measurements
are obtained using the latency between waves I and V. As this wave I to III
latency increases, the likelihood of a diagnosis of cerebellopontine tumor
increases. This is true even when lesions are extremely small and other tests
may be unrevealing. As the mass becomes larger and damage to hearing
becomes more severe, the wave forms may become indistinct and may even
disappear entirely (Fig. 4-8).
Meniere’s Disease
In evaluating patients with Meniere’s disease, it is important to look for
retrocochlear causes of pathology, such as acoustic tumors. Additionally, it
is important to ascertain that the problem is in fact in the cochlea itself.
ABR is an accurate indicator of this process. Apparently, cochlear lesions
have little effect on the latencies and conduction times in the pathway once
the cochlear delay has been removed. As the intensity of the stimulus
increases, the delay declines dramatically. This decline is nonlinear and is
indicative of the loudness recruitment seen in Meniere’s disease.
Threshold Evaluation
Patients who are uncooperative, or patients who cannot cooperate because
of age or mental status, can have their hearing evaluated using ABR. It is
difficult to obtain an absolute threshold, but it is possible to get close to a
threshold using ABR. It is often used in neonatal intensive care situations,
in which infants are particularly prone to sensorineural hearing loss. ABR
thresholds with clicks correlate well with pure tone thresholds of 2 KHz and
4 KHz. They correlate less well with 500 Hz, although recent work with
special filters and other strategies may help with this problem.
Brain Stem Disorders

Dysfunction of the brain stem can be evaluated using the ABR. The test
has been found to be helpful in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. MS
patients have ABR’s that are difficult to reproduce. They have frequently
changing ABR patterns that can be normal at one time and unrecognizable
or distorted the next. It provides a way of documenting and, in some cases,
diagnosing multiple sclerosis.
Coupled with the electric responses of later time frames to form an electric
response battery, the ABR can help to describe the integrity of the entire
auditory nervous system and address such considerations as auditory proc¬
essing disorders and attention deficits.
PEDIATRIC AUDIOMETRY
The normal development of speech and language communication, personal

and family relationships, and intellectual and educational achievement de¬
pends upon intact hearing. It therefore becomes incumbent upon the
physician either to develop some skill in evaluating the hearing of young
patients or to identify available resources to accomplish this objective.
It is now clear that the early years are especially important for the
acquisition of language skills. Early identification is critical if the hearing-
impaired infant is to have the necessary rehabilitative and educational
assistance and if the family is to have the appropriate support. A child who
is not learning to talk by the age of 12 io 18 months naturally causes parental
anxiety; this condition should also signal to the family physician a high risk
for hearing impairment and the necessity for hearing evaluation.
The hearing of all infants and children can be evaluated. The hearing
measurement of children can be subdivided into four categories: (1) behav¬
ioral observation audiometry, (2) play audiometry, (3) speech audiometry,
and (4) “objective” audiometry, usually requiring special technology. The
physician should be able to perform selected tests from each of these
categories.
FREQUENCY (Hz)
125 250 500 lOOO 2000 4000 8000
-IO-
-< ( _ / -^
o -<-<-£-«-<-
\
io-
HEARING LEVEL !N dB (ANSI-69)
-6 V
20 ---—sQ
)—( r )-^c
FIGURE 4-9. The most common conductive type audiogram

40-
is that for serous otitis media. Its air conduction audiogram
50--- is relatively flat, with a mild to moderate degree of impairment
and an air-bone gap usually at all frequencies. Screening
60 -- audiometry programs that ignore losses less than 20 dB HL
70- are likely to miss the mild serous otitis shown here.
80-
90-
lOO —-
11O ------

RT25dB RT 94-100
4—AUDIOLOGY 65
FREQUENCY (Hz)
1000 2000 4000 8000
«;
-10
O / / /
\
FIGURE 4—10. The increased impedance of acute purulent 10
otitis media, tympanosclerosis, or ossicular disarticulation re¬

20-
sults in a larger air-bone gap and conductive impairment. But
note that the discrimination score remains high despite the 30
greater air conduction threshold loss.
40
c
I
50 ( X-
y
)^-(
60
70
80
90
100
110
FREQUENCY (Hz) SRT SPEECH DISCRIM.%

RT 50dB RT 94-100
125 250 500 lOOO 2000 4000 8000
FIGURE 4—11. The possibility that the aging process is general

and not confined to one aspect of the auditory system should
make the audiogram of presbycusis less predictable. Meta¬
bolic, vascular, atherosclerotic, cochlear-mechanical, sensory
(organ of Corti), and neural degenerative changes have been
suggested. A separate audiogram for each of these changes
seems reasonable, but statistically a "typical’' audiogram does
emerge showing hearing impairment, greater for the high
frequencies, with no air-bone gap. Speech discrimination is
reduced, often beyond the prediction from the purely filtering
model of the audiogram. This latter failure in discrimination,
greater than would be expected from the audiogram, has
earned the special name “phonemic regression” and is
thought to be suggestive of neural and/or central factors.
FREQUENCY (Hz)
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Rl30dB RT 52-68
FIGURE 4-12. The average air conduction audiograms for

successive age intervals found at the Wisconsin State Fair in
1954. The average audiogram of several 80-year-old pa¬
tients is shown with the average speech audiometric findings.
(Data from Hearing Levels of Adults by Age and Sex, United
States, 1960—1962. Public Health Service Publication No
1000, Ser 11, No II; recalculated by H Davis to ISO
reference level for Chapter IV in Davis H, Silverman SR:
Hearing and Deafness. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1970.)
FREQUENCY (Hz)
250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
FIGURE 4—13. The characteristic notch at 4000 Hz (3000 to

6000 Hz) secondary to continuous noise exposure is seen.
The notch deepens and widens with continuing exposure, lack
of recovery time, and increase of intensity, especially for certain
patients. Discrimination for speech is eventually compromised
as the loss broadens to involve first 2000 Hz and then 1000
Hz.
FREQUENCY (Hz!
250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

RT O-IOdB RT 94-100
o Z /
N /
10
FIGURE 4—14. The progressive nature of otosclerosis requires
at least two or three audiograms before the complete audio¬ 20
metric signature is manifest. The first audiogram shows a low- 30

frequency compression resulting from the tightened ossicular
r
chain (ankylosis). The notch in the bone conduction at 2000 40 j
Hz is called the "Carhart notch.” The audiogram flattens in the (
50
next stage with air-bone gaps leveling. In the third stage, bone
conduction worsens and there is a high-frequency sensori¬ 60
neural hearing loss, suggesting cochlear otosclerosis.
70
80
90
FREQUENCY (Hz)
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 SRT SPEECH DISCRIM.%
RT 35dB RT 94-100
FIGURE 4-15. Another fluctuant hearing impairment meriting

serial audiometry is exemplified by endolymphatic hydrops.
This disease often shows a low-frequency sensorineural hear¬
ing loss. The degree of impairment may vary sometimes as
much as 30 to 40 dB from day to day. Discrimination scores
will vary with the degree of loss and can be very poor,
especially in later or mature stages of the disorder.

RT 40dB RT 70
4—AUDIOLOGY 67
Newborn to 24 Months
A number of clinical tests have given way to ABR testing in this area.
Behavioral tests were often difficult to evaluate, were sometimes inconsistent,
and required more experienced examiners. Most neonatal units use ABR to
screen any child thought to be at risk for hearing loss. Current recommen¬
dations include:
1. Family history of deafness

2. Maternal rubella
3. Any child with anomalies of the head and neck
4. Bilirubin of 20 mg/dl or higher
5. Birth weight of 1500 gm or less
in "older’ children, sedation with chloral hydrate may be necessary in
order to limit their activity. This does not interfere with the test results.
Rarely, only general anesthesia will settle a hyperactive child. While this is
not desirable, it can be used successfully.
Instrumental or Operant Conditioning

(Play Audiometry)
Two to Four Years

Instrumental or operant conditioning, known familiarly as “play audiome¬
try,” is remarkably successful with children two to four years of age. If the
child will accept the headphones, and most will with proper inducements,
this method will produce an audiogram for each ear separately, including an
air-bone comparison.
The child is taught (conditioned) to put an object in a specific place (e.g.,
put a marble in the box, cow in the barnyard, a ring on the post, or the
piece in the form board) when he hears the sound. Enthusiasm or praise is
usually sufficient reinforcement. Threshold finding method is similar to that
for adults. If those methods fail, an ABR may be useful.
Speech Audiometry
Using speech to measure hearing has impressive face validity. When the
child can repeat words, point to the proper object, or perform the requested
action, the examiner has sampled a considerable portion of the nervous
system, but there are problems. The language chosen must be appropriate
for the child’s age and cultural environment. The intrinsic limitation on
language development imposed by the hearing impairment will limit the
range of vocabulary, sentence complexity, and so on. Nevertheless, certain
practices in speech audiometry are useful.
Three-year-old and some two-year-old children can be taught to repeat
familiar words or point to familiar objects. A speech reception threshold
can be obtained if these words are spoken or played through a calibrated
speech audiometer.
Discrimination scores can be accomplished with single syllable word lists
at a kindergarten level (PB-K). A number of auditory discrimination tests
(the DIP, the WIPI, and the G-F-W) have been standardized as picture
identification tasks for young children.
For the child who is adventitiously hearing impaired, the physician ought
to be able to obtain speech reception thresholds and discrimination estimates
similar to those obtained in adults, but the language restrictions of the
congenitally hearing impaired child will seriously limit applications without
considerable listening training.
NONORGANIC HEARING IMPAIRMENT
A “functional” or “nonorganic” hearing impairment suggests that there is

no otologic disorder to account for hearing loss behavior. It is partly a
diagnosis by exclusion, yet many patients with this diagnosis exaggerate an
existing organic hearing problem (functional overlay), making this criterion
difficult to maintain.
An operational definition of some popularity relies on the identification
of audiometric inconsistencies. The “nonorganic” component is the discrep¬
ancy itself. The rationale continues that if “nonorganic” is dependent upon
audiometric discrepancy, then the confirmation of organic involvement is
found in audiometric findings that are internally consistent. The more
sensitive thresholds, especially the best speech thresholds and discrimination
scores, are favored as organic measures when consistency has been demon¬
strated.
The identification of nonorganic hearing impairment depends upon the
observation and measurement of inconsistent behaviors, primarily audio¬
metric. These behavioral categories include the following:
1. Inconsistent communicative and social behaviors

2. Inconsistent audiometric behavior
3. Audiometric test-retest inconsistency
4. Audiometric intertest inconsistency
5. Special behavioral tests
6. Special “objective” tests
Special Behavioral Tests and Objective Tests
The^Stenger test is usually an effective verification of unilateral deafness.

A louder sound in one ear will mask the presence of the same sound at low
sensation level in the other. If a tone is introduced into the good ear at 5 to
10 d6 above threshold, it will be reported as audible. If the same tone is
introduced simultaneously into the opposite ear at a higher loudness expe¬
rience, it will be audible only in the second ear. If the second ear is truly
hearing impaired, the patient will report hearing (good ear). But if deafness
is feigned for the second ear, the patient will not report detection because
awareness is controlled by the masking from the opposite (“deaf”) ear.
When sound is extinguished from the second ear, the patient will again
report hearing from the first ear.
The modified Stenger test, or speech Stenger, is especially useful when
the patient experiences diplacusis, a different pitch experience in the right
versus left ear for the same objective pure tone stimulus. Diplacusis, often
seen with cochlear disorders, will enable the awareness of sounds in both
ears during the Stenger test. The Stenger test can then be accomplished with
a speech stimulus in the same intensity relationships as the pure tone Stenger
test.
4—AUDIOLOGY 69
The Doerfler Stewart test of either monaural or binaural impairment

exploits the ability of those with normal hearing and conductive and
sensorineural hearing impairments to recognize speech when background
noise is 10 to 25 dB more intense than speech. The nonorganic impairment
often shows a “noise interference level” at an intensity level equal to the
speech intensity level.
Another test of the effect on speech is the “delayed feedback” or “delayed
side tone” test. As the patient reads aloud, his speech is recorded and played
back to him with a 0.2 second delay time through earphones. Changes in
fluency, rate, and intensity level, sometimes rather dramatic, will occur when
delayed speech reaches an interfering intensity level. It is most effective with
claims of profound unilateral (good ear masked) or bilateral impairment.
Those with valid hearing impairment will demonstrate no disturbance.
Objective tests cited earlier are useful with the problem. The patient is
betrayed by a normal acoustic reflex threshold while feigning total deafness.
The ABR threshold is obviously useful and is instructive in describing a
functional component superimposed on an organic loss.
HEARING CONSERVATION IN INDUSTRY
Although some industries have had effective hearing conservation pro¬

grams for many years, proliferation of such programs did not occur until the
passage of the federal Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), which
mandated efforts to protect the hearing of employees working in areas of
high noise levels. The act specifies noise measurement techniques, provides
guidelines for noise control, suggests allowable exposure durations for
various noise levels, and outlines a hearing conservation program.
To determine the effect of the noise on hearing, it is necessary to establish
pre-employment or pre-exposure baseline hearing data. This serves several
functions: (1) it establishes a base line against which subsequent hearing test
results can be compared; (2) it identifies hearing loss that existed prior to
placement in an environment with potentially damaging noise levels; and (3)
it helps to establish the employer compensation liability.
Although personal ear protective devices (ear plugs or muffs) serve to
reduce the level of noise reaching the ear, the most effective means of
employee protection is reduction and control of the environmental noise
level itself. Assessment of the effectiveness of the protective measures can
be accomplished by periodic monitoring of the employees’ hearing as well
as the noise levels of the environment.
HEARING AIDS
Anyone who has trouble hearing and understanding speech should be

considered for amplification. Fitting a hearing aid is a complicated process
involving not only the severity and type of loss, but also ear differences,
discrimination skills, and other psychoacoustic variables. It must also address
cosmetic considerations, family and social pressures, sensorimotor skills, and
independence. The Food and Drug Administration regulations mandate a
30-day trial for the new hearing aid user, a time to explore whether the
instrument is appropriate and effective.
Amplification Features
A hearing aid is a miniature public address system. It has a microphone,
an amplifier, a loudspeaker, and a battery as power source. It is further
adapted with gain control, tone control, and maximum power control.
Recently, automatic signal processing devices have been added in an effort
to improve the signal-to-noise ratio in background noise. These components
are “packaged” for wearing in the ear (ITE) (Fig. 4-16) behind the ear
(BTE) (Fig. 4-17), and on the body (Fig. 4-18). The smallest of the ITE
type are the “canal” aids with some components set deeper in the canal and
closer to the eardrum.
Hearing Aid Selection

Once it has been determined that an individual would benefit from hearing
aid use, the specifications for that aid must be selected. A number of
methods and formulas have been developed to accomplish this objective.
Generally, each selection procedure requires audiometric information con¬
sisting of (1) the hearing thresholds, (2) the most comfortable level (MCL)
and (3) the loudness discomfort level (LDL). The various formulas are
FIGURE 4-17. A •‘behind-the-ear” (postauricular) hearing aid.

4—AUDIOLOGY 71
FIGURE 4-18. Earmold types. Above, From left to right are a

nonoccluding earmold with tube held by a retainer, an earmold
with a short and hollowed bore, and a standard earmold.
Beiow, Earmold with vent indicated by arrow.
similar in that they prescribe the amplification needed to optimize speech

discrimination without reaching the loudness discomfort level. Usually, the
threshold of each frequency is multiplied by a factor that may range from
approximately 0.33 to 0.50 depending on frequency.
These formulas do not propose that the hearing loss will be completely
compensated by the hearing aid. Indeed, a person with a 60 dB sensorineural
hearing loss would find 60 dB of gain intolerable and would prefer a gain of
30 dB to 40 dB.
Behind the Ear (BTE) and in the Ear (ITE)

The choice between BTE and ITE style of hearing aid depends upon
severity of hearing loss and patient preference. With advances in hearing
aid technology, ITE hearing aids can be used with hearing losses of up to
70 to 80 dB hearing level. ITE aids, with large vents or the so-called IROS
fitting, can be effective with precipitous hearing losses of higher frequencies.
The canal style hearing aid, popular because of cosmetic appeal, provides
benefit for mild-to-moderate hearing losses. However, it has less flexibility
in frequency response and available gain compared with the BTE or ITE
hearing aids. Canal fittings are further handicapped in small ears where
venting is difficult, and the user experiences a “down-the-barrel” enclosure
effect.
Ear Selection
Binaural hearing is strongly recommended whenever possible. The advan¬
tages of binaural amplification may include (1) improved speech discrimi¬
nation in background noise; (2) binaural summation, which results in a
loudness advantage compared with the loudness when listening to the same
signal monaurally; (3) the “squelch effect,” or suppression of background
noise when attending to a primary signal; (4) elimination of the head shadow
effect; (5) localization; and (6) judgments of naturalness.
For personal or for audiologic reasons, some patients may not be candi¬
dates for binaural amplification. Therefore, it becomes necessary to select
the one ear that can benefit most from amplification. Generally speaking,
the ear chosen is the ear with the better speech discrimination and widest
dynamic range. The dynamic range is the difference between the hearing
threshold level and the threshold of discomfort.
Unilateral Hearing Loss. If the unilateral hearing loss does not exceed 60
to 70 dB hearing loss, if speech discrimination is relatively good, and if
amplified sound is tolerated well, amplification can be used in the impaired
ear. This arrangement will provide the user with some binaural cues and will
minimize the head shadow effect.
If the impaired ear does not meet these criteria, a CROS (Contralateral
Routing of Signals) hearing aid can be used. The microphone is housed in
one hearing aid, and the amplifier and receiver are located in the second
hearing aid. This arrangement also can be built into eye glasses. The signal,
therefore, is delivered from the impaired ear to the ear with normal hearing.
A radio frequency circuit may be used to transmit sound from one side to
the other. Although the CROS hearing aid does little to improve localization,
it does occasionally prove helpful in certain noise listening conditions and
also minimizes the head shadow effect.
Variations of the CROS, namely, the Bi-CROS or the Multi-CROS, can
be used when a significant hearing loss exists in the better ear, and the
poorer ear is not deemed suitable for amplification. The Bi-CROS has a
microphone in each hearing aid and a single amplifier feeding sound into
the better ear.
Hearing Aids for Children

Amplification for hearing-impaired children should be Tecommended as
early as possible. As soon as hearing measurements indicate the presence of
a hearing loss sufficient to cause a delay in the child’s speech and language
development and medical evaluation indicates the loss is not reversible,
hearing aid usage should be initiated.
For obvious reasons, the hearing-impaired infant is unable to provide the
audiologist with much information regarding how the aid sounds or with
data regarding speech discrimination function with various aids. The choice
of hearing aid is usually based not on direct psychoacoustic measures of
aided hearing performance but on the electroacoustic characteristics of
several suitable instruments and an extrapolation of data obtained when
those aids were used by older children and adults. Any error in fitting an
aid to a very young child should be in the direction of underfitting rather
than overfitting the loss, avoiding high acoustic gain and excessive maximum
power.
Cochlear Implants
Some individuals receive little benefit from hearing aid use. Indeed, the
hearing aid may provide the individual with only vibrotactile stimulation and
not with improvement in speech discrimination.
For some of these individuals, the cochlear implant has been recom¬
mended. The cochlear implant is designed for patients with profound
sensorineural deafness. The functioning of the sensory hair cells is impaired
in these individuals, whereas the auditory nerve may still function adequately.
Several kinds of cochlear implants have been developed. All the devices
have four features in common: a microphone for picking up the sound, a
microelectronic processor for converting the sound into electrical signals, a
transmission system for relaying the signals to the implanted components,
4—AUDIOLOGY
and a long, slender electrode that the surgeon inserts into the scala tympani
to the inner reaches of the cochlea. This electrode is intended to deliver
electrical stimuli directly to the fibers of the auditory nerve in one or more
places. Some devices developed have only single-channel electrodes, whereas
others have multichannel electrodes.
Depending on the type of cochlear implant, it may provide information
regarding intensity, segmental features such as voiced/voiceless, consonants,
tempo and rhythm, intonation, and word stress. These auditory cues in
conjunction with lipreading may significantly improve speech discrimination
abilities. The multichannel devices seem to be assisting lipreading and, in a
few patients, seem to improve discrimination without lipreading. Work in
this area continues to be experimental, and clinical decisions should remain
conservative and realistic.
AURAL REHABILITATION
Aural Rehabilitation for Adults

The goal of aural rehabilitation should be to improve the patient’s
effectiveness in everyday communications. Developing a rehabilitation pro¬
gram to achieve this goal is dependent on a comprehensive assessment of
the individual patient’s communication problem and social and vocational
communication needs. Participation by the patient depends on his motiva¬
tion; therefore, it is important that he understand his communication problem
and be informed regarding ways therapy can assist him in resolving or
minimizing some facets of that problem. Since communication is a dynamic
process occurring between two or more persons, inclusion of the patient’s
family or close friends during specific segments of therapy may prove
beneficial.
Lipreading, or speechreading, and auditory training are traditional com¬
ponents of aural rehabilitation. The patient should be helped to make
maximal use of visual clues while recognizing some of the limitations of
speechreading. During auditory training, the therapist may have the patient
practice auditory discrimination by having him listen to monosyllabic words
in quiet and noisy surroundings. Additional work might center on localiza¬
tion, telephone use, means of improving the signal-to-noise ratio, and care
and maintenance of the aid.
Patients may be seen on an individual basis and in group sessions.
Counseling and specific tasks can often be accomplished most effectively on
a one-to-one basis. Group sessions allow an opportunity to structure various
types of communication situations that might be considered normal, everyday
situations for demonstration and teaching purposes.
The patient should be assisted in developing an awareness of environmen¬
tal cues and how those cues can supplement his reduced auditory information.
How language structure imposes certain restraints on the speaker should be
demonstrated. Environmental clues, facial expression, body movement, and
natural gesture tend to complement the spoken message. When the auditory
information necessary for comprehension is incomplete, the environmental
clues serve to fill in the gaps. All aspects of aural rehabilitation should help
the patient to interact more effectively with his environment.
Education of the Hearing-Impaired Child

The importance of preschool training for hearing-impaired children cannot
be stressed too strongly. Infants before the age of six months have been
observed to grossly discriminate speech patterns. First words generally
emerge between 12 and 16 months of age, and children between one and
five years of age are most responsive to learning language. When diagnosis,
hearing aid usage, and language training are initiated early, maximum
stimulation can be provided during that critical period for language acquisi¬
tion. The increasing number of schools and rehabilitation centers providing
training for the hearing-impaired child reflects this concern for early educa¬
tional and language training opportunities. Many programs do not have a
minimum age for enrollment; the only requisite for admission is identification
of the hearing loss, regardless of age.
Preschool Programs
Because of the influence of the parents’ language input on the child’s early
linguistic maturation, parents are encouraged to assume a more active role
in the education and language training of their hearing-impaired preschool¬
ers. Many preschool programs offer descriptions and demonstrations of
techniques that the parents can use at home to assist the child in developing
lipreading and listening skills. The parents also receive instructionTegarding
hearing loss, language development, communication problems, hearing aid
maintenance, and child management. During the first three years, the parents
are the primary source of language stimulation. Most educators feel that as
the parents’ knowledge about communication increases, their effectiveness
as teachers will likewise increase.
When the child is enrolled in a nursery school program, the teacher
assumes a more dominant role in language training. The parents’ participa¬
tion, while not diminishing, is more closely related to the teacher’s lesson
plans in order to supplement and expand classroom activities at home. The
emphasis of the nursery school program is on language development,
expansion of vocabulary, improved communication skills, and socialization
with peers.
As a child prepares to leave the preschool program, placement recom¬
mendations are made based on his language and communication skills, social
maturity, and academic readiness. Placement options include a self-contained
class for hearing impaired in a day school setting, residential school for
hearing impaired, or full- or part-time integration (mainstreaming) in a
normal hearing class.
Integration (Mainstreaming)
Children who are integrated into normal classes generally have developed
good aural/oral communication skills. However, children whose primary
method of communication is sign language may attend normal classes with
the help of an interpreter.
Efforts should be made to provide <the necessary adaptations and services
to maintain the child in the regular classroom. The ambient noise level and
reverberation characteristics of typical classrooms tend to create difficulties
for the hearing-impaired student. Preferential seating near the teacher,
4—AUDIOLOGY 75
acoustic treatment of the classroom (drapes, carpet, acoustic tiles), or the

use of an auditory trainer can alleviate the problem significantly. Academic
tutoring with emphasis on previewing and reviewing new vocabulary and
new concepts can serve to fill in what the child misses in the classroom.
Methodology
The form of communication one should teach the hearing-impaired child
has been a matter of controversy for many years. Initially, the methods were
reduced to oralism vs. manualism (sign language), with many advocates and
variations on each theme.
There are several different methods used to develop oral language/speech
skills by deaf children. They emphasize lipreading and hearing in various
combinations from the extreme of amplified hearing exclusively and without
lipreading to almost the same emphasis on lipreading. As hearing aids of
greater strength and fidelity were developed, the child’s residual hearing
became a more important determinant of the educational method. The
development of auditory training devices with the teacher wearing a micro¬
phone/transmitter at a constant distance from her mouth afforded greater
speech precision and better speech/background noise relationships.
American Sign Language (Ameslan) is a system of handsigns in general
use in this country. Each gesture signifies a word, a phrase, or a concept.
Abstractions tend to be communicated in concrete terms. The main criticism
of Ameslan is its crude grammar. The syntactical structure does not mirror
spoken or written English nor are there markers for past tense or plurals.
The various shadings and subtle differences in words may come blurred in
Ameslan communication.
Finger spelling is a finger alphabet. It is usually used to augment rather
than replace Ameslan. Finger spelling is important when exact names and
numbers need to be communicated in an otherwise almost totally Ameslan
system. Ameslan and finger spelling were developed into variants, such as
Seeing Essential English (SEE), which answered some of the criticism of
Ameslan alone. The “combined approach” and the “Rochester method”
joined manual communication with speech.
More recently, Total Communication has emerged to become a leading
educational philosophy and practice. Its basic tenet is that every possible
means should be used to communicate with the hearing-impaired child. The
child is exposed to sign ^language, finger spelling, natural gestures, facial
expressions, lipreading, bodily movement, speech heard through a hearing
aid, and auditory training. Some critics question whether multimodal or
even bimodal stimulation can be facilitative or just confusing. Many believe
that the teacher’s bias determines the child’s eventual choice of communi¬
cation modality.
Whatever approach is best suited for the hearing-impaired child depends
upon a number of factors such as age of onset and of identification, severity
and type of hearing loss, auditory processing skills, home environment and
parental involvement, and age of hearing aid usage. In an enlightened
program, advocacy of a method does not occur. The unique talents and
needs of the individual child are considered by the professional along with
the family, and the educational method or approach is tailored to meet those
needs.
References
Bfi?iyiST36ZU1932e°rie d6S h6renS bd d£r Schallaufnahme durch Knochcnlcitung. Ann Physik
CaS‘ R: Chnical aPPllcation of bone conduction audiometry. Arch Otolaryngol 51:798-807,
G1pubhshkertIEl,98J7aCkSOn ^ J°Sey ^ ^ ABR Handbook' 2"d ed. New York, Thieme
HronfrihntBOne fc°ndu,?ion: A rev'ew of the Present position with special reference to the
contributions of Dr. Georg von Bekesy. J Acoust Soc Am 24:1325-1332, 1962.
Jerger J. Chnic,a! experience with impedance audiometry. Arch Otolaryngol 92:311-324 1970
94 aSb-eorSr Aud,t°ry evoked far fields ^raged from the scalp of humans’ Brain
Katz J: Handbook of Clinical Audiology. 3rd ed. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1985.
1969° lhe SC°Pe 3nd appllcatlon of current audiometric tests. J Laryngol Otol 83:507-520,
M268197-208’ lg^ JW: Screening tympanometry criteria for medical referral. Audiology
PamastoladidIs,yITranrsdI Da’ Sensorineural hearing loss in chronic otitis media and

mastoiditis. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 14:108-115, 1970
.■sellers WA, Brackmann DE: Acoustic tumor detection with brainstem electric response
audiometry. Arch Otolaryngol 103:151-124, 1977. P
Tonndorf^J: Bone conduction: Studies in experimental animals. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 213:1-
248 PART THREE—THE NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES
References
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1 111:31,1974.
Andrewes CH: Rhinoviruses and common colds. Ann Rev Med 17:361-370, 1966.
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Dykes, MH, Meier P: Ascorbic acid and the common cold. JAMA 231:1073, 1975.
Karlowski TR, et al: Ascorbic acid for the common cold. JAMA 231:1038, 1975.
Luke M, Mehrize A, Folger F, Rowe R: Chronic nasopharyngeal obstruction causing cor
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McDonald TJ, DeRemee RA, Kern EB, Harrison EG: Nasal manifestations of Wegener’s
granulomatosis. Laryngoscope 84:2101-2112, 1974.
Meyer HM: The control of viral diseases. J Pediatr 73:653, 1968.
Ogura J, Togawa K, Dammkeohler D, et al: Nasal obstruction and the mechanics of breathing
Arch Otolaryngol 83:135-150, 1966.
Paoling L: Ascorbic acid and the common cold. Scott Med J 18:1-2, 1973.
Riggs RH: Some congenital nasal anomalies including dermoid cysts. J Louisiana State Med
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Schaeffer JP: The Nose, Paranasal Sinuses, Nasolacrimal Passageways and Olfactory Organ in
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Settipane GA: Allergic rhinitis—update. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 94:470-475, 1986.
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Stahl RH: Allergic disorders of the nose and paranasal sinuses. Otolaryngol Clin North Am
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5
DISEASES OF THE
EXTERNAL EAR
by Lawrence R. Boies, jr., M.D.
The external ear includes the auricle, or pinna, and the external auditory
canal. The canal has both a cartilaginous and a bony portion. As noted in
Chapter 2, the tympanic membrane divides the middle ear from the external
ear.
The external ear serves to collect and funnel sound waves to the middle
ear structures. Because of the unique anatomy of the auricle and the curved,
or spiral, configuration of the canal, the external ear protects the tympanic The external ear affords protec-
membrane from injury, foreign bodies, and thermal effects (see Fig. 1-1). Hon to the tympanic membrane.
The external auditory canal is roughly 2.5 cm long, extending from the
anterior lip of the concha to the tympanic membrane. The outer one third
is referred to as cartilaginous, while the inner two thirds is the bony portion
(Fig. 5-1). The narrowest area-of the canal is near the bone-cartilage
FIGURE 5—1. The external auditory

canal. The shape, direction, and rel¬
ative dimensions of the external
canal are shown. Inset a shows sec¬
tion through cartilaginous portion
with its glandular structures, inset b
shows section through bony por
tion.
77
78 PART TWQ—
—THE EAR
junction. Only the outer one third, or cartilaginous portion, is mobile. When
The auricle is pulled posterolat- one inserts an otoscope, the auricle normally must be pulled posterolaterally
eraily to insert an otoscope. in order to view the bony canal and tympanic membrane. Together with the
outer layer of the tympanic membrane, the canal forms an epithelium-lined-
pouch that can trap moisture, making this area susceptible to infections
under certain conditions.
The skin lining the cartilaginous portion is thicker than that lining the
bony portion and contains hair follicles, the number of which varies among
individuals but which help afford a barrier in the canal. The anatomy of the
bony external auditory canal is unique in that it is the only place in the body
where there is skin directly overlying bone with no subcutaneous tissue.
Thus, this area is extremely sensitive and any swelling is very painful, as
there is no room for expansion.
One way the external ear provides protection is through the formation of
cerumen, or ear wax. Most of the glandular structures, the sebaceous and
apocrine glands that produce cerumen, are located in the cartilaginous
Cerumen has protective portion of the canal. The exfoliated cells of the stratum corneum also
qualities. contribute to the formation of this unusual substance, which provides a
protective, water-repellent coating to the canal wall. The pH of the combined
ingredients is around 6, an additional factor that acts to prevent infection.
Furthermore, migration of desquamated epithelial cells provides a self¬
cleansing mechanism from the tympanic membrane outward.
Infection and inflammation of the external ear canal are among the most
Ear canal infections are more common otolaryngologic problems, especially during warm, humid weather.
common in a warm, humid The more common presenting symptoms of conditions involving the auricle
environment.
and external auditory canal may include the following: pain (otalgia), itching,
swelling, bleeding, and a blocked sensation.
A careful examination of the ear and surrounding region will usually
reveal a specific problem. The importance of the remainder of the otolar¬
yngologic examination should be stressed. Points of interest in the patient’s
history might include past external ear infections, recent swimming, other
skin problems, allergies, trauma, and the use of ear jewelry, especially items
containing nickel.
CERUMEN
Cerumen is the product of both sebaceous and apocrine glands, which are
located in the cartilaginous portion of the external auditory canal. There are
two basic types, “wet” and “dry.” Their autosomal pattern of inheritance
was not widely recognized until 1962 when it was reported by Matsunaga.
The wet type is dominant. Caucasians have a greater than 80 per cent
probability of having a wet, sticky, honey-colored ear wax that may darken
on exposure to the elements. Blacks have an even greater predisposition
toward this type. In the Mongoloid races, including the American Indian,
the dry, scaly, “rice brand” phenotype is more frequently seen. Neither
variant has a clear association with inflammatory conditions involving the
external canal.
Cerumen is known to have protective qualities. It acts as ad/ehicle for the
removal of epithelial debris and contaminants away from the tympanic
membrane. It provides lubrication and prevents desiccation of the epidermis
Cerumen has bactericidal with its associated Assuring. Studies have demonstrated that wet and dry
properties, cerumen have quite'similar bactericidal effects. Although these studies were
carried out in vitro, it is probable that in vivo results would be comparable.
5—DISEASES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR 79
It is the^fatty acids, lysozyme, and Immunoglobulin components of cerumen

that are believed to be inhibitory or bactericidal.
Excessive cerumen accumulation is not a disease. Some people produce
an unusual amount just as some perspire more easily than others. In some
individuals, the cerumen can cake and form a solid plug; in others, a large
amount of cerumen with a buttery consistency blocks the canal. The patient
may experience a sense of blockage or pressure. When a solid plug of
cerumen becomes moistened, such as following bathing, it may swell and
cause temporary hearing impairment.
There is a general tendency for cerumen to be drier in older individuals Cerumen tends to be drier in
older individuals.
because of physiologic atrophy of the apocrine glands with subsequent
lessening of the sweat component of the cerumen. Also, in older patients in
particular, canal blockage may be due not to wax but to a build-up of
epithelial debris. Because the normal external canal is narrowest at the mid¬
portion, use of cotton swabs can push the cerumen deep to the narrow
isthmus against the drumhead, making removal difficult and painful.
Removal of cerumen is most commonly done with a curette under direct
visualization. One should emphasize here the importance of adequate
visualization and exposure. In most cases this is best accomplished with head Several methods are available
for cerumen removal.
mirror illumination and a simple speculum. Water irrigation by special metal
syringe is another common method. Some physicians recently have preferred
the use of a dental-type irrigating device. While the pinna is elevated
superiorly and posteriorly to straighten the canal, body temperature water
is administered in a posterosuperior direction to allow the water to pass
between the mass of cerumen and the posterior wall of the canal. In a fair
number of cases, however, after several irrigations the patient will still
complain of blockage, and examination reveals a large plug still present. At
this point suction is occasionally employed. The Hartmann-type of alligator
forceps is also useful in removing hard plugs. In using irrigating devices one
must take great care not to damage the tympanic membrane. If there is any Avoid irrigation if a tympanic
membrane perforation may
question of a prior tympanic membrane perforation, irrigation should be
exist.
avoided.
Occasionally the patient is sent home and instructed to use an appropriate
ear drop for a brief period of time. Such preparations include mineral oil,
hydrogen peroxide, Befirox, and Cerumenex. Long-term or improper use
of some commercial preparations may cause skin irritations or even contact
dermatitis.
KERATOSIS OBTURANS AND CHOLESTEATOMA OF

THE EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL
Two distinct entities, keratosis obturans and cholesteatoma of the external

auditory canal, may present as a keratin plug occluding the external auditory
canal, jftferatosis-obturans is usually bilateral and may be associated with
bronchiectasis and chronic sinusitis. The patient presents with pain and
hearing loss. Although widening of the external canal and hyperplasia and
inflammation of the epithelium and subepithelium are observed, there is no
bony erosion. Both an overproduction of squamous epithelium and squamous
plugs and a faulty migration of the epithelium have been postulated to cause
this condition. Plug removal and treatment of the inflammatory process are
the recommended therapy.
Cholesteatoma of the external auditory canal is usually unilateral. The

patient presents with dull pain and intermittent otorrhea due to bony erosion
and secondary infection. Circumscribed periostitis and faulty epithelial
migration have been postulated as causes. Treatment consists of debridement
of the bone, or canalplasty and tympanomastoidectomy where appropriate,
to prevent the progression of bony erosion.
EXTERNAL OTITIS
The term external otitis has long been used to describe a variety of
conditions. The spectrum of infections and inflammations includes both acute
and chronic forms. Under infections one must consider bacterial, fungal,
and viral-agents. Noninfectious inflammations include the dermatoses, some
of which are primary conditions directly involving the external ear. Shapiro
has pointed out that the distinction between an external otitis that is primarily
a dermatosis and that which is of infectious origin is not always clear. A
dermatosis may become infected after a time, while a skin infection may
develop an eczematous reaction to the causal organism. Again, a careful
history and examination often will give a clue to the primary condition.
Emphasis here will be on the infections and inflammatory conditions of
the external ear which most frequently confront the physician.
Infections may occur as a result of certain predisposing factors, such as
the following:
1. Change from the normally acid pH of the canal skin to an alkaline pH

2. Environmental changes, especially the combination of increased tem¬
perature and humidity
3. A mild trauma, frequently due to excessive swimming or cleaning of
the ear
Principles in management which apply generally to all types of “external

otitis” include the following:
1. Careful cleaning of the canal by suetion or cotton wipes

2. Evaluation of discharge, canal wall edema, and tympanic membrane,
if possible: decision whether to use a wick to apply medication
3. Selection of local medication
Acute Infections and Inflammations

Furunculosis (Otitis Externa Circumscripta)
This common condition is confined to the fibrocartilaginous portion of the
external auditory meatus (Fig. 5—2). If the examiner passes a speculum into
the canal without first retracting the pinna to observe the ear, this infection
Furunculosis begins in a pilose- could be missed. Furunculosis begins in a pilosebaceous follicle and is usually
baceous follicle.
caused by Jitaphylopoccus aureus or S. albus. In more severe cases, surround¬
ing cellulitis may extend beyond this area. Pain may be quite marked because
of limited room for expanding edema in this anatomic area. Eventually,
abscess-formation occurs and a “point” may form, at which time drainage
can be established by needle. Otherwise, treatment will depend on furuncle
size and the surrounding reaction. Systemic treatment may be advisable.
Topical medications (Table 5—1), heat, and an analgesic are generally
prescribed.
FIGURE 5-2. A furuncle in the external auditory canal

may be extremely painful because it develops in a mem-
branpcartilaginous area where there is little room for
expansion. Invariably this cause of pain in the area of the
ear is suspected when passive movements of the auricle
cause discomfort.
Diffuse Otitis Externa

This type of infection is otherwise known as “swimmer’s ear.” Occurring Swimmer's ear is common dur-
during hot, humid weather, it is caused predominantly by the^Fseudomonas '"Shot’ humid weather.
group and, less often, by Staphylococcus albus, Escherichia coli, and Enter-
TABLE 5-1. TOPICAL DRUGS FOR TREATMENT OF EXTERNAL OTITIS

DRUGS SPECTRUM OF ORGANISMS
Colistin Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Klebsiella-Enterobacter group
Escherichia coli
Polymyxin B Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Escherichia coli
Neomycin Staphylococcus aureus and a. albus
Escherichia coli
Proteus group
Chloramphenicol Staphylococcus aureus and S. albus
Escherichia coli
Proteus group
Nystatin
Clotrimazole
Miconazole
Tolnaftate ■ Fungal organisms
Carbol-fuchsin
(Castellani’s paint!
Thymol/alcohol
Salicylic acid/alcohol Mainly fungal’organisms—may also be effective against
Boric acid/alcohol bacterial infections by lowering pH of canal, skin
Acetic acid/alcohol
M-cresyl acetate
Generally antiseptic
Aqueous merthiolate
obacter aerogenes. Lakes, oceans, and private pools are all potential sources
of this type of infection. Diagnostic features include:
1. Tragal tenderness
2. Severe pain
3. Canal wall swelling involving most of the canal
4. Scanty discharge
5. Normal or slightly diminished hearing
6. Absence of obvious fungal particles
7. Possible presence of tender regional ^denopathv
Diffuse otitis externa usually is The stroma overlying the bone of the inner third of the canal is very thin,
very painful. allowing minimal room for swelling. Thus, the subjective discomfort the
patient experiences is often out of proportion to the extent of the disease
visualized.
Because of the degree of circumferential canal wall edema often seen, a
wick may be required to bring medication into contact with most of the
canal wall. A short strip of gauze packing may be used for this purpose;
Use of an ear wick may be however, specially designed products, such as the Pope Otowick, are now
indicated. widely available and are generally preferred. An alligator-type ear forceps
is ideal for introduction of ear wicks, with the wick then kept saturated with
the selected otic solution. One has the choice of several different otic
medications for the treatment of diffuse external otitis (see Table 5-1).
Frequently used otic dr-ops include Cortisporin (polymyxin B, neomycin,
hydrocortisone), Coly-My.cin S (colistin, neomycin, hydrocortisone), Pyoci-
din (polymyxin B, hydrocortisone), VoSol HC (acetic acid—nonaqueous 2
per cent, hydrocortisone), and Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol).
Only in severe cases should systemic drugs be considered; bacterial
sensitivity studies are recommended. Systemic antibiotics are required es¬
pecially if perichondritis or chondritis of the ear cartilage is suspected.
Diffuse external otitis secondary to acute or chronic otitis media may be
encountered. Treatment then must be aimed primarily toward the middle
ear involvement in these cases.
Fungal Infections (Otomycosis)

Several fungi may cause inflammatory reactions in the external auditory
canal. The two most common fungi found there are Pityrosporum and
Aspergillus (A. niger, A. flavus). The Pityrosporum organism may cause
only a superficial scaling similar to dandruff of the scalp, may be associated
with an inflammatory seborrheic dermatitis, or may form the basis on which
more uncomfortable infections develop, such as furuncles or eczematous
changes. The same is true of the Aspergillus organism. It is sometimes found
in the canal in the absence of any symptoms except for a sense of blockage,
or it may be involved in an inflammatory process, invading the epithelium
of the canal or drumhead and causing acute symptoms. Occasionally,
Candida albicans is encountered.
Fungal infections are much more common in the southeastern United
States and in the tropics. Also, it should be noted that there has been a
tendency in lay terminology to attribute most external ear infections to “a
fungus.” This obviously is not the case.
Treatment again involves careful cleansing of the canal by wiping, suction¬
ing, and, at times, even gentle irrigation followed by drying. Available otic
solutions such as VoSol (acetic acid—nonaqueous 2 per cent), Cresylate
(m-cres.yLace.tate), and Otic Domeboro (acetic acid 2 per cent) are of value
in most cases. Recently, there has been increasing acceptance of specific
topical fungicides such as nystatin-containing preparations (Mycostatin, My-
colog) and ^fotrimazole (Lotrimin), which are not available solely as otic
preparations.
Herpes Zoster Oticus (Ramsay Hunt Disease)

The onset of facial-paralysis, when accompanied by otalgia and a herpetic
eruption involving portions of the external ear, is considered to be caused
by a viral infection involving the/g'eniculate ganglion. The vesicular skin
involvement may be limited to the specific area of the external canal
innervated by a small sensory branch of the seventh cranial nerve, extend
to the auricle, or have faded by the time the patient is seen. Other
combinations of symptoms may exist owing to progressive involvement of
vestibular and acoustic fibers of the eighth cranial nerve. Treatment is mainly
symptomatic, although systemic steroids are not infrequently prescribed for
the facial paralysis, depending on results of nerve function testing.
Perichondritis
This condition develops when trauma or’ inflammation causes an effusion
of serum or pus between the layer of perichondrium and the cartilage of the
external ear. In most cases of trauma, the injury is in the form of aflaceration
or is the result of incidental damage during surgery on the ear. Occasionally,
it follows 'simple bruising without hematoma. An inadequately treated
furuncle provides a ready source of a potent causative agent, such as a
virulent type of micrococcus (!Staphylococcus), -Streptococcus, or Pseudo¬
monas-aeruginosa. The diagnosis is simple; the involved part of the auricle
swells, becomes'reddened, feels warm, and is very tender upon palpation
(Fig. 5-3).
FIGURE 5—3. Perichondritis of the auricle

A parenteral antibiotic is indicated as well as topical treatment of any

associated canal infection. Choice of preferable drug is based on culture
results or other indications of the organism involved. If the condition Seems
to be spreading and there is evidence of fluid under the perichondrium,
incision for the evacuation of fluid is indicated. Because cartilage has no
Incision and drainage of fluid or direct blood supply, when the perichondrium is separated, cartilage necrosis
pus under the perichondrium is may ensue. Necrotic cartilage, therefore, should be excised and*'drainage
usually indicated.
maintained. Gross permanent deformity of an auricle can result from
perichondritis.
Eczematous Dermatitis
The practicing otolaryngologist not infrequently encounters a lesion that
involves the external canal and adjacent portions of the'meatus and concha
^ Differentiation between a pri¬ and is characterized by 'redness, 'itching, 'swelling, and a'stage of watery
mary dermatosis and infection exudation followed by crusting. As implied earlier, the differentiation
may be difficult.
between primary-dermatosis and infection may be difficult. A seborrheic
dermatitis or a skin reaction related to neomycin sensitivity may present in
this fashion. The label of eczematous dermatitis is often used because of the
characteristic appearance of the lesion.
When a considerable portion of the auricle is involved and the lesion
seems to be spreading, wet dressings using a solution such as Bttrew’s may
be advisable for 24 to 48 hours, at which time fluoiinated steroid ointment
and solution are employed. Naturally, if an infection is suspected, topical
antibiotics may be required.
Mf the acute stage is not controlled, chronic changes characterized by
thickening of the skin, and even stenosis of the external canal, may develop.
The chronic stage may be troublesome because of periods of uncomfortable
itching and the tendency of the patient to resort to scratching, thus causing
further irritation. In such cases consultation with a dermatologist may be
beneficial.
Chronic Infections and Inflammations

Bacterial infections of the external auditory canal wall may become chronic
owing to lack of treatment, inadequate treatment, recurrent trauma, the
presence of a foreign body such as a hearing aid mold, or a draining otitis
media. Management involves identification of the organism and factors
contributing to the chronicity.
Long-standing cases may cause gradual stenosis of the canal due to fibrotic
thickening of the wall (Fig. 5-4). A surgical procedure involving resection
of the thickened canal tissue and grafting has been devised and has been
successful in alleviating an otherwise irreversible condition.
The most common chronic fungal ear infections seen by the otolaryngol¬
Chronic fungal infections may ogist are those infesting mastoid cavities in need of cleaning. Following
occur in mastoid cavities in
removal of infection debris, such cavities may be treated with antifungal
need of cleaning.
drops or powdered with a combination of neomycin and boric acid.
Another frequently seen chronic condition might be termed the “chronic
itchy ear” for want of a better term. In most cases this condition would best
be classified as a primary noninfectious dermatosis. There may have been a
history of an acute external otitis. On examination the canal skin appears
dry, with absence of cerumen and occasional signs of excoriation. No exudate
or discharge is present. Treatment is directed toward control of itching.
FIGURE 5-4. Stenosis of the external auditory

canal caused by fibrotic thickening of the walls due
to chronic infection.
Usually long-term application of hydrocortisone cream is required. In some

cases psychiatric help may be indicated.
Necrotizing External Otitis

In treating external otitis in the elderly person, one should always bear in
mind the possibility of necrotizing external otitis, a severe infection involving
the temporal bone and soft tissue of the ear. Caused by Pseudomonas Necrotizing external otitis is
aeruginosa, it is generally found in elderly diabetics and is considered more more commonly seen in elderly
common in warm climates. diabetics living in a warm envi¬
ronment.
Patients with recalcitrant external otitis of more than two weeks’ duration
should be evaluated carefully for other symptoms indicating necrotizing
external otitis. In some cases patients have presented with seventh cranial
nerve dysfunction and normal ear examination. Comprehensive diagnostic
imaging, including CT, bone scan, and gallium scans, can be helpful to
determine the presence of this disease. Routine bone scans alone are not
sufficient to differentiate between severe external otitis and necrotizing
external otitis.
Although extended mastoidectomy was the favored mode of treatment,
with the advent of Pseudomonas-specific antibiotics, systemic antibiotic Systemic antibiotic intervention
intervention is currently the first line of therapy. It has been postulated that is currently the first line of ther¬
apy.
invasive surgery without antibiotic coverage will encourage the spread of
infection in these already debilitated patients. It is therefore recommended
that surgery be limited to the removal of sequestra, drainage of abscesses,
and local debridement of granulation tissue. The recommended drug therapy
is an^fflioaglycoside plus an anti-Pseudomonas beta-lactam antibiotic.
It must be emphasized that even though the patient may appear to be
cured, prolonged therapy of at least six weeks is recommended, therapy that Prolonged therapy is recom¬
is now possible on an out-patient basis owing to the advances in home health mended.
care.
Relapsing Polychondritis
This disease of unknown etiology leads to inflammation and destruction
of cartilage. While this is a generalized disorder of cartilage, involvement of
Involvement of both nasal and the nose and ears is seen in 80 to 90 per cent of cases. The auricular
aural cartilage is seen in up to deformity resembles an acute infectious perichondritis or an inflamed cauli¬
90 per cent of cases.
flower ear. The loss of cartilage may lead to “floppy” ears and saddle-nose
deformities. Alternation of the inflammation between the two ears (without
predisposing cause) or the presence of fever suggests this disorder. Tinnitus
and vertigo may be encountered as well as hearing loss due to collapse of
the external auditory meatus. When the larynx, trachea, and bronchi are
involved, hoarseness and even death due to collapse of laryngotracheal and
bronchial walls may result.
Disease activity fluctuates, and the disorder has an unpredictable prog¬
nosis. There may be a single occurrence or multiple recurrences over many
years. Treatment includes salicylates or corticosteroids for an acute attack,
although some controversy surrounds the use of the latter. Dapsone has
been used to prevent recurrent attacks. Affected structures should be
protected from trauma.
TRAUMA
Lacerations
The most common keerations of the ear occur as a result of the patient
digging in an ear with a finger or using an instrument such as a hairpin or
paper clip. A laceration of the canal wall may result in transient bleeding,
thus worrying the patient, who will usually then consult a physician. No
treatment other than keeping the ear dry is normally required. The patient
is reassured following examination to rale out tympanic membrane perfora¬
tion.
Severe lacerations involving the auricle should be explored for cartilagi¬
nous damage. The cartilage should be approximated carefully before plastic
repair of the skin is done. Such wounds should be. observed closely for the
development of infections of the perichondrium. Prophylactic antibiotics are
given if there has been gross contamination of the wound or exposed
cartilage.
Frostbite
Frostbite of the auricle can occur rapidly in environments with a low
temperature and a high wind chill factor. Because it is insidious, it is not
painful until rewarming occurs. Outcome depends on the depth of injury
and the duration of exposure. Injury is thought to occur by direct cellular
damage and by microvascular insult leading to local ischemia.
Rapid rewarming is the current therapeutic recommendation. The affected
Rapid rewarming in water be¬ ear should be bathed in water at a temperature between 100 and 108°F until
tween 100 and 108°F is recom¬
mended for frostbite.
there is objective evidence that thawing has occurred. Analgesia will be
required. The full extent of injury may not be apparent for several days, so
the patient who is sent home must be followed carefully.
Surgical debridement should be delayed. Clinically apparent infection
should be treated with antibiotics. Patients with very stiff cartilage of the
pinna probably had prior frostbite.
Hematoma
This condition is most frequently seen in wrestlers and boxers. Untreated,
it may result in the so-called cauliflower ear. Simple needle aspiration of the
hematoma has been used in the past, but most physicians now recommend
more vigorous treatment by incision and drainage of collected blood under
sterile conditions, followed by the application of a pressure dressing, partic¬
ularly in the conchal area. Localized pressure is better obtained by using
through and through sutures over dental rolls or other similar materials.
Treatment is best accomplished as soon as practical following injury, before
organization of the hematoma begins. Wrestlers should be reminded about
wearing protective headgear, even during practice.
MALFORMATIONS
A variety of congenital abnormalities involving the external ear and canal

result from maldevelopment in both the first and second branchial arches.
The auricular deformities are the most prominent, of which the most common
is the lop-ear deformity in which the ears protrude excessively. Several
plastic procedures have been devised for the correction of this condition.
Further discussion of this topic is included in Chapter 27.
Other malformations of the auricle include an abnormally large or small
pinna (macrotia and microtia). Congenital defects such as rudimentary ear
appendages and even total absence of the ear are occasionally encountered
and may be associated with partial or complete stenosis of the canal. Such
conditions may involve both soft tissue and bone. In select cases surgical
procedures can correct hearing loss resulting from canal stenosis.
Another, rarely seen, developmental defect of the ear involves first
branchial cleft abnormalities. These present as cysts or sinus tracts involving
the pinna and external auditory canal. There are two types of first branchial
cleft abnormalities. Type I anomalies contain ectodermal tissue only, are
FIGURE 5-5. Infected preauricular sinus.

free of cartilage, and are of first cleft origin only. Type II abnormalities
contain both epithelium of first cleft origin and cartilage from the first and
second arches. The sinus tract may be observed to drain intermittently and
occasionally become infected (Fig. 5-5). Usually a tract can be identified by
methylene blue injection and excised. In some patients, these tracts may
pass medially or lateral to the facial nerve; thus, the facial nerve must be
identified during the dissection.
NEOPLASMS
A variety of skin lesions, including neoplasms, may be encountered on
the auricle and in the external canal (Fig. 5-6). Few are peculiar to this
anatomic region. Somewhat unusual from the standpoint of appearance is
the osteoma, a benign tumor of the external canal wall which presents as a
single, firm, rounded growth attached by a smaller bony pedicle to the inner
third (or bony portion) of the canal wall. This tumor should be differentiated
from an exostosis, which is more common and which consists of a rounded
protuberance of hypertrophic canal bone (usually multiple and bilateral).
The cause of exostoses is not completely clear; it has been stated that these
growths occur more frequently in people who do a great deal of swimming
in cold waters. Exostoses usually require no treatment, although they may
result in more frequent canal blockage by cerumen in some individuals.
Osteomas are carefully chiseled from the canal wall with the aid of the
operating microscope. Benign polyps from the middle ear present in the
external canal. Careful removal under the operating microscope is indicated
if they are not responsive to medical treatment; in such cases they should
be examined histologically.
Squamous cell carcinoma, the most common malignancy of the external
auditory canal, is amenable to cure if diagnosed early and properly treated.
Chronic discharge, often serosanguinous, and free bleeding, pain, and
swelling within the canal are manifestations that, singly or in combination,

should suggest the possibility of a new growth. A chronic external otitis that
does not respond to the preceding recommendations requires a biopsy. Facial
paralysis is a late development.
Malignant tumors involving the pinna are much more common than those
seen in the canal itself. The two main types seen are squamous cell and
basal cell carcinomas. The preferred initial treatment is surgical excision.
Regional node dissection may be indicated with the squamous cell variety.
MISCELLANEOUS
Sebaceous cysts occur in the postauricular fold and are often multiple.
Large cysts may become inflamed intermittently and are more likely to be
cured by complete excision than by drainage alone.
Nodules involving the helix may represent localized areas of chondritis,
known as chondrodermatitis nodularis chronicis helicis (painful nodule).
They are more common in men and occur most often on the superior helix
or anthelix. While steroid injection is sometimes adequate treatment, local
excision provides both a cure and a pathologic diagnosis.
Gouty tophi may occur in the subcutaneous tissue or cartilage of the
auricle as whitish-yellow nodules containing urate or sodium biurate cystals.
Unsightly tophi may be excised.
Pain in the area of the auricle and external canal in the absence of physical
findings certainly deserves investigation. The subject of otalgia will be
discussed in Chapter 9.
References
Chai T-J, Chai TC: Bactericidal activity of cerumen. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 18:638-
641, 1980.
Chander JR: Malignant external otitis. Laryngoscope 78:1257-1294, 1968.
Corey JP, Levandowski RA, Panwalker AP: Prognostic implications of therapy for necrotizing
external otitis. Am J Otol 6:353-358, 1985.
Fairbanks DN (ed): Antimicrobial Therapy in Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery. 4th
ed. Washington, DC, American Academy of Otolaryngology, 1987.
Goodman WS, Middleton WC: The management of chronic external otitis. J Otolaryngol
13:183-186, 1984.
Hyslop NE: Ear wax and host defense. N Engl J Med 284:1099-1100, 1971.
Lucente FE, Parisier SC, Som PM, Arnold LM: Malignant external otitis: A dangerous
misnomer? Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 90:266-269, 1982.
Matsunaga E: The dimorphism in human normal cerumen. Ann Hum Genet 25:273-286, 1962.
Meyers BR, Mendelson MH, Parisier SC, Hirschman SZ: Malignant external otitis. Arch
Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 113:974-978, 1987.
Naiberg J, Berger G, Hawke M: The pathologic features of keratosis obturans and cholesteatoma
of the external auditory canal. Arch Otolaryngol 110:690-693, 1984.
Neal GD, Gates GA: Invasive Pseudomonas osteitis of the temporal bone. Am J Otol 4:332-
337, 1983.
Senturia BH, Morris MD, Lucente FE: Diseases of the External Ear. 2nd ed. New York,
Grune & Stratton, Inc, 1980.
Sessions DG: Frostbite of the ear. Laryngoscope 81:1220-1232, 1971.
Shapiro SL: Some remarks on otitis externa. Eye Ear Nose Throat Mon., 52:61-68, 1973.
Shire JR, Donegan JO: Cholesteatoma of the external auditory canal and keratosis obturans.
Am J Otol 7:361-364, 1986.
Sismanis A, Huang CE, Adedi E, Williams GH: External ear canal cholesteatoma. Am J Otol
7:126-129, 1986.
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6
DISEASES OF THE
MIDDLE EAR AND MASTOID
by Michael M. Paparella, M.D., George L. Adams, M.D., and
Samuel C. Levine, M.D.
Diseases of the middle ear and mastoid are common throughout the
United States and the world. For example, excluding the common cold,
several studies indicate otitis media to be the next most common problem
seen in a pediatric office. Inflammation of the middle ear cleft (eustachian
tube, middle ear, and mastoid) is especially prevalent in children and in
underserved areas such as ghettos, Indian reservations, and certain areas of
Alaska. It is also likely that genetics plays a role, as there is often a history
of ear disease in parents and siblings. Since the widespread use of antibiotics
for otitis media and mastoiditis in the mid-1930’s, the rates of mortality and
serious complications resulting from otitis media have been greatly reduced.
However, today, middle ear disease often presents in a chronic or insidious
form causing hearing loss and drainage. Morbidity usually means hearing
loss, which interferes with educational, social, or professional functions. In
school-age children middle ear fluid problems (for example, serous otitis
media) are quite common; the child may demonstrate a poor performance
in school until the problem is detected through screening and is then
diagnosed and treated.
DISEASES OF THE TYMPANIC MEMBRANE
Diseases of the tympanic membrane are usually associated with pathologic

changes of the middle ear and mastoid. These tympanic membrane changes
seen during otoscopic examination provide important information for diag¬
nosing underlying disorders, such as active or inactive otitis media and
mastoiditis. Occasionally diseases are primarily localized in the tympanic
membrane (see Fig. 1-2 A).
Tympanic membrane diseases accompanied by underlying pathologic proc¬
esses can result in the following physical features. The tympanic membrane
may become thickened owing to inflammation. It may contain white thick
patches or even become entirely white and thick owing to deposition of
hyalinized collagen in its middle layer as a result of previous inflammation
(tympanosclerosis). The tympanic membrane may become thinner from loss
of its middle layers (mernbrana propria); this is almost always due to
eustachian tube ventilation dysfunction. In such cases of ventilation dysfunc¬
tion, the eustachian tube either may provide inadequate ventilation or may
remain open all the time, allowing air to move in and out of the middle ear
90
6—DISEASES OF THE MIDDLE EAR AND MASTOID 91
with respiration, resulting in ischemia and necrosis of the fibrous (middle)

layer. The tympanic membrane may be retracted if there is a vacuum in the
middle ear, or it may bulge when fluid, infection, or a tissue mass such as a
tumor is present in the middle ear. Most commonly a perforation may exist
in the tympanic membrane. Perforations can result from trauma and may or
may not be accompanied by an underlying problem such as an ossicular
chain disruption. Chronic otitis media with drainage is always accompanied Chronic otitis media implies a
by a perforation of the tympanic membrane. Such perforations may be tympanic membrane perforation
with intermittent or persistent
extremely small and difficult to see or quite large and obvious. These discharge.
perforations can be classified as four types, based on the site of pathologic
involvement: tubal, central, marginal, and pars flaccida. The first two are
generally safe; the last two usually are more serious (Fig. 6-1).
Myringitis refers to an inflammation of the tympanic membrane. As has
been indicated, inflammation of the tympanic membrane can accompany
middle ear inflammation or be associated with external otitis. However,
myringitis specifically pertains to inflammation in which the tympanic mem¬
brane is primarily involved. In hemorrhagic, or bullous, myringitis the most
notable finding is bleb formations (bullae) on the tympanic membrane and
adjacent canal wall. This clinical appearance can occur in children, in whom
it is associated with the common bacteria that cause acute suppurative otitis
media. These bullae contain serous fluid, blood, or both, and appear red or
purple. Differential diagnosis includes external otitis and herpes zoster oticus
(Ramsav Hunt syndrome). In adults hemorrhagic mvringitis is usual1'' a «-“1a
FIGURE 6—1. A, Tubal perforation near

the tympanic mouth of the eustachian
tube. The disease is essentially an inflam¬
mation of the mucosa of the eustachian
tube and middle ear. B, This large, central
perforation may be accompanied by ne¬
crosis of the ossicles, granulations, and
polyp formation. C, This marginal per¬
foration or (D) this small perforation
through pars flaccida is often accom¬
panied by cholesteatoma.
limited disease and is associated with infections caused by Mycoplasma

pneumoniae. Sensorineural hearing loss has been reported as a result of this
infection. When there are systemic manifestations, erythromycin is the drug
of choice. For relief of pain the blebs or vesicles can be disrupted with a
fine needle or myringotomy knife.
DISORDERS OF THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE
The eustachian tube connects the middle ear cavity with the nasopharynx
and is intimately related to diseases of both. The lateral third as it enters
the middle ear is bony, whereas the medial two thirds is fibrocartilaginous.
The infant eustachian tube differs from that of the adult. In the infant it is
short, wide, and horizontal in location, and this is one reason why inflam¬
mation of the eustachian tube is so common in infants, especially during the
period of bottle feeding. As the child grows, the eustachian tube elongates,
narrows, and develops a downward course medially. The tube is normally
Tensor veli palatini muscle closed and opens by active muscular contraction of the tensor veli palatini
function is essential for proper
muscle during swallowing and certain other times such as yawning or opening
eustachian tubal activity.
of the ja\\Sb-Eunctk>nsi*f the eustachian tube are (1) ventilation, (2) drainage,
and (3) pj$Jtîion. of the middle ear from contamination by nasopharyngeal
sefiE&tions. Ventilation provides equalization of atmospheric pressure on
both sides of the tympanic membrane. The tube opens by muscular activity
when the pressure differential is 20 to 40 mm Hg. An intact tensor .veli
palatini, muscle is essential for this function.
Eustachian tube ventilation can be assessed in the office by looking for
lateral displacement of the tympanic membrane with an otoscope or, in the
presence of a perforation, listening through an auscultation tube while the
patient squeezes the nostrils and swallows (Toynbee maneuver) or squeezes
the nose and blows hard against the occluded nostrils, with a closed mouth,
allowing his ears to “pop” (Valsalva.maneuver). The middle ear can also be
inflated by politzerization, during which air is forced through the nose while
the nasopharynx is closed as the patient swallows. The air is introduced
through the nose with a Politzer bag with an olive tip. Direct eustachian
tube catheterization was a common procedure in the past but is seldom
performed today.
Secretions formed in the middle ear will drain into the nasopharynx
through a normally functioning eustachian tube. A vacuum will develop in
the middle ear during periods of eustachian tube obstruction. Prolonged
obstruction can lead to increased fluid production, perpetuating the problem.
When not relieved by medical management, the vacuum has to be interrupted
by myringotomy. Then drainage of the fluid can occur via the eustachian
tube.
Being normally closed, the eustachian tube protects the middle ear from
contaminated nasopharyngeal secretions and pathogenic organisms. The
normal protection can be interfered with by heavy nose blowing or continual
exaggerated sniffling, thus allowing passage of organisms into the middle
ear.
Disorders affecting the eustachian tube include an abnormally patent tube,
palatal myoclonus, obstruction, and cleft palate.
Abnormally Patent Eustachian Tube

An abnormally patent eustachian tube is open all the time so that air
enters the middle ear with respirations. The patient’s history usually reveals
a significant weight loss which leads to loss of adipose tissue around the
eustachian tube orifice. Other chronic illnesses and certain muscular disorders
have an association with this condition. A significant number of women on
birth control pills and men taking estrogens have been observed to have a Autophony results from an ab¬
patent eustachian tube. The condition can produce autophony (hearing one’s normally patent eustachian
tube.
respiration), a sensation of fullness, or a “plugged-up” feeling in the ear.
During otoscopic examination, the patient is asked to breathe heavily through
the nose while the mouth is closed. The tympanic membrane in this patient
will be atrophic and thin and will move in and out with respiration, a tell¬
tale diagnostic sign. A variety of procedures can be employed to obstruct
the eustachian tube at its pharyngeal end. A simple and effective method
that has been used to correct this problem is to insert a ventilation tube
through the tympanic membrane in order to decrease the disturbing effects.
Palatal Myoclonus
Palatal myoclonus is a fairly rare condition in which the palatal muscles
undergo periodic rhythmic contractions. This results in a clicking sound in
the ear of the patient and may be heard by the examiner’s ear. Although
the exact cause of palatal myoclonus is unknown, it has been associated with
vascular lesions, multiple sclerosis, aneurysms of the vertebral artery, tumors,
and various other lesions of the brain stem or cerebellum. Usually no
treatment is needed; rarely, incision of the tensor tympani muscle of the
middle ear can be considered.
Eustachian Tube Obstruction

Eustachian tube obstruction can result from a variety of conditions,
including inflammation such as nasopharyngitis or adenoiditis. When a
nasopharyngeal tumor obstructs the eustachian tube, the first clinical finding
can be fluid in the middle ear. As such, in any adult patient with chronic
unilateral serous otitis media the possibility of nasopharyngeal carcinoma
must be considered. Obstruction may also be caused by a foreign body, such
as a posterior pack for nasal epistaxis, or mechanical trauma from aggressive
adenoidectomy resulting in scarring and closure of the tube. Operative
procedures that interfere with the tensor veli palatini also can cause perma¬
nent eustachian tube dysfunction, although not actual obstruction. Such
procedures include aggressive operative procedures for surgical removal of
tumors in the vicinity of the pterygoid plates.
Cleft Palate
Cleft palate deformity results in eustachian tube dysfunction due to lack
of anchorage of the tensor palatini muscle. In the unrepaired cleft palate,
this prevents the muscle from exerting sufficient contraction on the eustachian
tube orifice to open it during swallowing. This inability of the tube to open
results in inadequate ventilation of the middle ear, and inflammation ensues.
Thus, the incidence of middle ear disease in children with cleft palate is
extremely high, varying from recurrent serous otitis media to tympanoscle¬

rosis to chronic suppurative otitis media. The incidence of middle ear
abnormality is almost 100 per cent in the first three months of life. By mid
teen age, there is a less frequent inciderice of serous otitis media, but many
adolescents have a conductive hearing impairment and an abnormal appear¬
ing tympanic membrane. Otologic management requires early treatment of
aural disease. Surgical repair of the cleft palate is undertaken as soon as
possible for functional purposes. Many children require frequent placement
of ventilation tubes, and often a long-lasting type tube is inserted. Aden-
oidectomy in cleft palate patients or patients with a submucous cleft is
avoided, since this can produce palatal dysfunctions, nasality of voice, and
regurgitation of liquids into the nasopharynx.
Barotrauma*
Barotrauma is damage to tissues caused by changes in barometric pressure
Boyle’s Law: volume of a gas which occur during diving or flying. Boyle’s Law states that a decrease or
varies inversely to pressure. increase in environmental pressure will expand or compress, respectively, a
given enclosed volume of a gas. If the gas is contained within a flexible
structure, that structure can be damaged by this expansion or compression.
Barotrauma can occur whenever the gas-filled spaces in the body (middle
ear, sinus, lung) become enclosed spaces through blockage of normal venting
pathways.
The middle ear is the most common site of barotrauma, primarily because
of the complexity of eustachian tube function. The eustachian tube is
normally closed but opens with swallowing, chewing, yawning, and the
Valsalva maneuver. Colds, allergic rhinitis, and individual anatomic variation
all predispose to eustachian tube dysfunction. Increasing pressure requires a
“clearing” action as described above to equalize pressure, but decreasing
pressure can usually be equalized passively. As environmental pressure
decreases, the air in the middle ear will expand and passively vent through
the eustachian tube. As environmental pressure increases, the air in the
middle ear and within the eustachian tube is compressed. This tends to
collapse the eustachian tube. Once the pressure difference between the
environment and the middle ear space becomes too great (about 90 to 100
mm Hg), the cartilaginous portion of the eustachian tube will firmly collapse.
If more air cannot be added through the eustachian tube to restore the
middle ear volume, structures of the middle ear and adjacent tissue can be
damaged as the pressure difference continues to grow. A predictable -se¬
quence of injury occurs as the relative vacuum develops within the middle
ear space. First the tympanic membrane is retracted inward. This stretches
the eardrum and causes rupture of small vessels to produce an injected
appearance and hemorrhagic blebs within the drum. As the pressure builds,
small vessels within the middle ear mucosa also dilate and rupture, causing
a hemotympanum. Occasionally the pressure will rupture the tympanic
membrane.
Middle ear barotrauma can occur in underwater diving or flying. The
change in pressure in the first 17 feet of water is equal to the pressure change
*The section on Barotrauma was written by Rick Odlund, M.D., former Navy Diving Medical
officer.
in the first 18,000 feet of altitude. Therefore, changes in environmental

pressure occur much more quickly in diving than in flying. This explains the
higher relative incidence of middle ear barotrauma in divers. Middle ear
barotrauma can occur with compressed air diving (SCUBA) or breathhold
diving. It most commonly occurs at depths of 10 to 20 feet. Although the
relative incidence is higher in diving, more people fly than dive. Commercial
aircrafts are pressurized, but only to 8000 feet. The potential for barotrauma
is clearly present, but not at the incidence level caused by diving.
Symptoms of middle ear barotrauma include pain, a feeling of fullness,
and decreased hearing. The diagnosis is confirmed by otoscopy. The eardrum
will be injected and may exhibit hemorrhagic blebs within the drum or blood
behind the drum. Occasionally, the tympanic membrane will perforate.
There may be a mild conductive hearing loss. The treatment consists of
decongestants and cessation of diving or flying until the patient can equili¬
brate middle ear pressures again. Severe cases may take as long as four to
six weeks to resolve, but most resolve in two to three days. Antibiotics are
not indicated unless a perforation has also occurred in dirty water. Prevention
can be accomplished by avoiding flying or diving with colds and using proper
clearing technique. Once pain is present, the eustachian tube has probably
collapsed. When diving the best action at this point is to abort the dive or
ascend a few feet and try equalizing the pressure again. When flying in
commercial aircraft this is not possible, so it is very important to prevent
collapse of the eustachian tube. The best method is to begin gentle clearing
maneuvers several minutes before the scheduled arrival time. If the person
must fly with a cold, decongestant nasal spray or oral decongestants should
be utilized.
It should be emphasized that persistent tinnitus, vertigo, and sensorineural
hearing loss are symptoms of inner ear damage. Infrequently, middle ear
barotrauma will result in damage of the inner ear. Inner ear damage is a
serious problem and may require surgical treatment to prevent permanent
hearing loss. All persons complaining of hearing loss with barotrauma should
have a tuning fork test battery done to be sure the hearing loss is conductive
and not sensorineural. Brief episodes of vertigo that occur while ascending
or descending are called alternobaric vertigo. This is a common complaint,
usually associated with middle ear barotrauma. As long as the vertigo stops
within a few seconds, no treatment or further evaluation is necessary.
DISORDERS OF THE OSSICULAR CHAIN
The importance of the transmission of sound from the intact tympanic

membrane to the oval window by the intact ossicular chain was discussed in
Chapter 2. Disruption of this chain or fixation, whether by disease, trauma,
or a congenital process, will be discussed here.
Congenital Problems
The ossicles can be congenitally deformed, disrupted, or fixed. Since they
derive from the first and second branchial arches, other developmental
anomalies of these arches (syndromes) often occur as well, such as Treacher
Collins syndrome, which is congenital stenosis of the ear plus maxillofacial
dysostoses. Ossicular deformities can also occur in isolation. Common
deformities include a missing portion of the incus and fixation of the stapes.
There are a variety of forms of congenital stenosis. These children may be
born without a pinna or with only a rudimentary one (microtia). The
deformity of the pinna can, in a general way, be correlated with the amount
of deformity to be expected below in the middle ear and tympanic membrane.
There can be complete lack of development of the external auditory canal,
or it can appear with a blind end or develop with a concentric narrowing.
The functional aspects of this problem (deafness) should be corrected before
consideration is paid to cosmetic repair of the pinna. Children with congenital
hearing loss require early identification and treatment. Hearing aids should
be used at the earliest possible time. Cosmetic correction of a microtia is
recommended before first grade to reduce peer pressure. Bone-anchored
hearing aids may assist the surgical aplasia procedures. Isolated ossicular
deformities are usually correctable through surgery. If the stapes is fixed, a
stapedectomy and prosthesis replacement will re-establish hearing.
As mentioned before, the ossicles can become fixed owing to tympano¬
sclerosis in patients who have previously had otitis media.
Otosclerosis
Otosclerosis is an autosomal A common cause of conductive hearing loss in adults is otosclerosis.
dominant trait. Otosclerosis is an autosomal dominant disorder, seen in both men and
women, that begins to cause progressive conductive deafness in early
adulthood. The patient develops symptoms in the late teens and early
twenties. While usually bilateral, it can occur unilaterally. Histologically,
otosclerosis is quite common, occurring in as much as 10 per cent of the
population. However, only a small percentage develop the clinical manifes¬
tations of hearing loss. This is a disease of the bony labyrinth, in which an
area of otospongiosis (soft bone) forms, especially in front of and adjacent
to the footplate, causing fixation of the footplate. Although conductive
deafness is the main problem, in time sensorineural hearing loss due to
cochlear otosclerosis can develop as well.
The patient usually complains of a hearing loss when a level of 40 dB or
greater is reached. The primary care physician’s most important diagnostic
tool is the 512 Hz tuning fork to demonstrate a negative Rinne test. Bone
conduction is heard louder than air conduction by the patient. The Weber
test is helpful and will be positive in the involved ear if unilateral otosclerosis
is present or in the ear with the greater conductive hearing loss. The
tympanic membrane is usually normal in appearance but occasionally will
have a pink or orange discoloration due to the vascular otospongiosis in the
middle ear as seen through the tympanic membrane (positive Schwartze’s
sign). Surgical procedures offer an excellent chance for restoring hearing,
depending mainly on cochlear function. The major postoperative complica¬
tion is sensorineural hearing loss, with an incidence of 2 to 3 per cent in
experienced hands. Patients must be assessed very carefully through audio¬
logic as well as otologic examination (Fig. 6-2).
Middle Ear Trauma

Perforation of the tympanic membrane can be caused by sudden changes
in pressure—barotrauma, blast injuries—or by foreign objects in the ear
FIGURE 6—2. A, The operating microscope,

which is a standard instrument for otologic
microsurgery, B, The otologist’s microscopic
view showing adequate plate exposure
achieved when facial canal (a) and pyramidal
process (b) are seen. C, Stapedectomy
prostheses: a, vein-polyethylene strut (Shea); b,
wire fat (Schuknecht) (connective tissue pre-
, ferred by author); c, wire on compressed Gel-
foam (House); d, wire Teflon piston; e, Teflon piston (Shea). In some cases there is obliterative otosclerosis so that (D)
the very thick footplate is thinned with a microscopic drill and a large (at least 1 mm) opening is made. £, The piston
prosthesis is secured into position by Gelfoam or connective tissue over the footplate. (6 to £ from Paparella MM
Shumrick DA (eds): Otolaryngology, Vol 2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co., 1973, p 305.)
canal (cotton-tipped applicators, pen tips, paper clips, etc.). Symptoms

include pain, bloody drainage, and hearing impairment (“it sounds like I’m
in a barrel”).
Perforations occurring during Clean, traumatic perforations are treated by protecting the ear from water
water sports require systemic
and administering systemic antibiotics if there is pain or inflammation. Most
antibiotics.
clean, uncomplicated perforations will heal spontaneously. When sponta¬
neous healing does not occur, repair can usually be done in the office setting
and requires unrolling the edges of the perforation and applying one of
many materials suitable for “patching.” When not effective, a more formal
myringoplasty will be required.
Contaminated perforations, such as those that occur from a fall while
water skiing, are treated with antibiotic ear drops as well as systemic
antibiotics because infection with drainage invariably occurs. No attempt at
closure is made until the infection resolves.
Perforations caused by hot slag, as can occur in welders, are particularly
painful and difficult to close by usual means. The heat cauterization of the
adjacent tissues which occurs prevents spontaneous closure.
Of greatest concern are perforations resulting in injury to the ossicular
chain. This injury is suspected when significant hearing loss (>25 dB) and
vertigo, rather than pain and a hollow sensation of sounds, are present. The
Vertigo and/or sensorineural perforation may be in the posterior superior quadrant. The presence of
hearing loss occurring with a
traumatic perforation represents
vertigo and hearing loss is a true otologic emergency, and immediate
an otologic emergency. exploration of the middle ear and ossicular chain is necessary. A displaced
or subluxed stapes may be encountered. Retrieval of the stapes from the
oval window or even a stapedectomy may be necessary. The vertigo will be
controlled, but hearing recovery cannot be assured.
Blast injuries from close proximity to an explosion are particularly prond
to long-term sequelae. Rather than discrete ruptures of the tympanic
membrane, particles of squamous epithelium are scattered throughout the
middle ear. The ossicles can be displaced an incredible distance. Ultimate
results are dependent upon the extent of injury, but prolonged drainage and
possible later cholesteatoma formation are possible.
ACUTE PURULENT OTITIS MEDIA
Hippocrates said, “Acute pain of the ear with continued strong fever is to
be dreaded for there is danger that the man may become delirious and die.”
Acute otitis media and mastoiditis were major problems prior to the
introduction of antibiotic therapy in the mid 1930’s. Today patients with
uncomplicated acute otitis media are treated successfully by the pediatrician
or the family physician.
The middle ear is usually sterile, which is remarkable considering the flora
of organisms which exists in the nasopharynx and pharynx. The combined
physiologic action of cilia and mucus-secreting enzymes (for example, mur-
amidase) and antibodies acts as a defense mechanism when these microbial
contaminants are exposed to the middle ear space during the act of swallow-
ing. Acute otitis media results when this physiologic mechanism is disrupted.
In addition to the surface defense mechanism, an important subepithelial
capillary network provides humoral factors, polymorphonuclear leukocytes,
and other phagocytic cells. Obstruction of the eustachian tube is a basic
causative factor in acute otitis media. Thus, a major barrier against bacterial
TABLE 6-1. PATHOGENIC BACTERIA IN CHILDREN WITH ACUTE OTITIS MEDIA

Streptococcus pneumoniae
Haemophilus influenzae (nontypeable)
Streptococcus Group A
Branhamella catarrhaUs
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Infants
Chlamydia trachomatis
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella species
invasion is lost, and bacterial species that may not ordinarily be pathogenic
are able to colonize the middle ear, invade tissue, and cause infection.
Although the majority of respiratory infections are caused by viral agents,
most acute otitis media infections are caused by pyogenic bacteria. The most
frequently recovered bacteria include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemo¬
philus influenzae, and beta-hemolytic streptococci (Table 6-1). Streptococcus
pneumoniae is by far the most common organism in all age groups. H.
influenzae is a frequent pathogen recovered from children under five years
of age, although it remains a significant pathogen in adolescents as well.
Classic symptoms of acute purulent otitis media include pain, fever,
malaise, and sometimes headache in addition to earache; in children partic¬
ularly, anorexia and sometimes nausea and vomiting are present. Fever may
be quite high in small children but can be absent in 30 per cent of cases.
The tympanic membrane typically is red and bulging either in part or in its
entirety (Fig. 6-3), and the vessels over the tympanic membrane and malleus
handle become injected and therefore more prominent. In short, there is an
abscess of the middle ear.
Because of the increasing incidence of ampicillin resistance, antibiotics are
combined with clavulanic acid and are effective against beta-lactamase
formers. Either a cephalosporin or ampicillin combined with clavulanic acid
has become the preferred medication for these resistant organisms. Sulfisox-
azole plus erythromycin is another effective substitute in penicillin-allergic
patients. All medications should be administered for at least 10 to 14 days,
and a follow-up examination is a must to assure complete resolution.
FIGURE 6—3. A, Early stage of acute purulent otitis media. B, Later stage of acute otitis media.
(Courtesy of Dr. Richard A. Buckingham and Dr. George E. Shambaugh, Jr.)
In addition to antibiotic therapy as described above, dry heat application

helps provide relief, analgesics may help, and some physicians recommend
anesthetic ear drops. The patient is preferably seen two days after initiating
treatment. If there is no evidence of resolution, either clinically or by
examination, then a myringotomy should be performed to lessen the com¬
plications, which will be discussed later.
OtitiS'Prone Children
Otitis media is one of the most common infections in children. In some
studies it is estimated to occur in 25 per cent of children. It is more common
Otitis-prone child: in Native American and Eskimo children than in whites and least common
—male
in blacks. The majority of episodes occur in the first two years of life, with
—under age 2
—Native American, white a second peak incidence during the first year of school. Those who have had
—first episode usually under six or more episodes of otitis media before age six have been termed “otitis-
age 6 months
prone.” A study by Howie showed that an episode of S. pneumoniae
—S. pneumoniae episode
infection in the first year of life was associated with continuing incidence of
repeated episodes of acute otitis media. Boys are affected more than girls.
These children did not have an increased incidence of allergic conditions.
Eight serotypes of S. pneumoniae are responsible for more than 75 per cent
of episodes of acute otitis media. Thus, the development of a pneumococcal
vaccine could be an important step in controlling these repeated episodes.
Treatment of children with this high propensity to develop otitis media is
either medical or surgical. Medical management includes administration of
antibiotics in low dosage for periods of up to three months in the winter.
Another alternative is placement of ventilation tubes. The decision to
perform myringotomy is generally based on failure of medical prophylaxis
or the development of allergic reactions to commonly employed antimicro¬
bials, either the sulfa drug group or the penicillins.
Serous Otitis Media

Serous otitis media and mucoid otitis media have similar etiologies. Serous
otitis media is caused by a transudation of plasma from the blood vessels
into the middle ear space largely due to hydrostatic pressure differences,
whereas mucoid otitis media results from active secretion from glands and
cysts in the lining of the middle ear cleft. Eustachian tube dysfunction is a
major underlying factor. Other causative factors include hypertrophy of the
adenoids, chronic adenoiditis, cleft palate, tumors in the nasopharynx,
barotrauma, associated inflammation such as sinusitis or rhinitis, radiation
therapy, and immunologic or metabolic deficiencies. Allergy can play an
adjunctive role in causing middle ear effusions.
These middle ear fluid problems are most common in children and usually
Middle ear effusion is the most manifest as a conductive loss. This is the most prevalent cause of hearing
common cause of hearing loss
in school-age children.
loss in school-age children. There may be recurrent attacks of acute purulent
otitis media between which the ears never return to normal. Language delay
may occur when this becomes prolonged. A conductive hearing loss, which
Middle ear effusion often has no seldom exceeds 35 dB, is frequently picked up in a school or screening
symptom other than hearing
loss. It is often recognized on
audiogram. Children seldom volunteer that they have any difficulty. The
pre-school screening. child may be described by the teacher as inattentive. Adults generally
describe their symptoms more dramatically, and the symptoms include a
“plugged up” feeling in their ears and decreased hearing acuity. They may
note an improvement in hearing with position changes of the head. Tinnitus

may result from movement of middle ear fluid; dizziness is rarely a problem.
Physical examination reveals drumhead immobility as assessed with a
pneumatic otoscope. Positive and negative pressures (see Fig. 1-2) are
applied to the ear canal after obtaining an adequate seal. If there is air in
the tympanum, it will be compressed and the drumhead will move inward
with the application of positive pressure and outward with negative pressure. Pneumatic otoscopy demon¬
Movement is either damped or does not occur in the presence of serous strates decreased drumhead
mobility. It may also demon¬
otitis media or mucoid otitis media. In serous otitis media an amber or
strate "bubbles" behind the
yellow drumhead may be seen, whereas in mucoid otitis media the drumhead tympanic membrane.
has a duller and more opaque appearance. The malleus appears short,
retracted, and chalky white. Occasionally in serous otitis media fluid levels
or bubbles are seen through a semitransparent tympanic membrane (Fig. 6-
4). The tympanic membrane may appear blue or purplish if blood products
are also present in the middle ear.
Serous fluid has been collected for study at the time of myringotomy.
Cultures have been positive for bacterial organisms in about 40 per cent of
cases. The organisms are identical to those obtained by tympanocentesis for
acute otitis media. Thus, antimicrobial selection is similar for acute and
serous otitis media. The frequency and type of positive cultures are the same
for both the mucoid and serous types of otitis media.
Treatment for these conditions is first medical and then, if need be,
surgical. Medical treatment includes antibiotics, antihistamines, deconges¬
tants, eustachian tube ventilation exercises, and allergic hyposensitization.
Allergic hyposensitization is reserved for cases in which definite allergies are
demonstrated by skin testing. Dietary limitation is advised when food allergy Antihistamines are of value only
is demonstrated. Antihistamines are used only in children or adults with when there is demonstrable na¬
sal or sinus congestion.
associated nasal or sinus congestion. Neither antihistamines nor deconges¬
tants are of value when there is no associated nasopharyngeal congestion.
The patient is evaluated for other associated problems such as chronic
sinusitis, nasal polyps, nasal obstruction, and adenoid hypertrophy. Medical
management for mild serous otitis media is continued for a period of three
months. By this time, 90 per cent of patients will have resolved the fluid.
FIGURE 6—4. A, Serous otitis media. B, Bubbles in the middle ear are seen in serous otitis
media after inflammation. (Courtesy of Dr. Richard A. Buckingham and Dr. George E.
Shambaugh, Jr.)
Fluid persisting after 3 months Persistence of fluid is an indication for surgical correction. This consists of a
of medical management with
myringotomy incision, removal of the fluid, and Often insertion of a pressure
hearing loss is an indication for
myringotomy. equalization tube. The pressure equalization tube acts as a vent to allow air
to enter the middle ear. This relieves the vacuum and lets the fluid drain or
be absorbed.
The decision to proceed to surgical intervention is not made on duration
alone. Severity of the hearing impairment and frequency and severity of
preceding problems are considered. The problem is most often bilateral, but
a child with a thin fluid, minimal hearing loss, or unilateral problem may be
treated for a longer period by a more conservative approach. On the other
Unilateral serous otitis media in hand, thinning of the tympanic membrane, deep retraction, significant
an adult requires investigation
hearing impairment, and poor school performance may be indications to
of the nasaopharynx for tumor.
proceed to myringotomy sooner.
The ventilation tubes are left in place until spontaneously extruded—
usually within a period of six months to one year (Fig. 6-5). Unfortunately,
because of recurrence of the fluid, some children require insertion of special
tubes designed to stay in for longer than one year. The disadvantage of
these longer-lasting tubes has been the persistence of a perforation after
extrusion. Ventilation tube insertions have provided immediate restoration
of hearing and correction of severely retracted tympanic membrane, espe¬
cially when there is persistent negative pressure.
The greatest disadvantage of ventilation tubes has been the need to keep
the middle ear dry. Various plugs have been devised for this purpose.
Myringotomy incision and tube placement have also been on rare occasion
associated with the development of a cholesteatoma. Drainage through the
tubes is not unusual and may be associated with upper respiratory infections
Persistent drainage through a or allowing water to enter the middle ear, and, in certain cases, can be a
ventilation tube requires cul¬
ture, systemic antibiotics, and
persistent, unexplained problem. In these instances, medical management
appropriate topical antibiotic with systemic antibiotics or antibiotic ear drops has to be continued for long
drops. periods of time, even while tubes are in place. Failure to respond to this
type of management necessitates mastoid radiographs and further evaluation.
The value of adenoidectomy for chronic serous otitis media is still contro¬
versial. Certainly in individuals with large adenoids causing nasal and
nasopharyngeal obstruction, there is a role for this procedure. The majority
of children do not fit this category. The value of adenoidectomy in children
with moderate adenoid tissue and recurrent problems is still being evaluated.
The most recent study (Gates) reports adenoidectomy is beneficial even
when the adenoid tissue is not obstructing.
Radiologic Assessment of the Middle Ear

and Mastoid
Temporal Bone. After obtaining a thorough history and careful otoscopic
evaluation of the external and middle ear, it may be determined that x-ray
examination of the temporal bone will be necessary. As with any x-ray
examination, the most useful information can be obtained if the physician
and radiologist confer with each other and discuss the specific problem being
evaluated. In this way the most helpful radiologic studies can be performed,
and the information obtained will be of greater value to the clinician.
Conventional radiographs of the temporal bone are specifically useful in
studying the mastoid, middle ear, labyrinth, and internal auditory canal.
The most common views are the Law, Schuller, Mayer, Owens, Towne, and
6— DISEASES OF THE MIDDLE EAR AND MASTOID 103
B
FIGURE 6-5. A, Myringotomy incision. B, Aspiration of fluid. C, Insertion of ventilation tube. D, Ventilation
tube in place. E, Type I, standard ventilation tube (left) and type II, larger ventilation tube with larger inner
flange and opening for chronic, obstinate cases (right). Both tubes are made of silicone rubber. (A to D
from Paparella MM, Shumrick DA (eds): Otolaryngology, Vol 2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1973, p 90.
£ from Paparella MM, Payne E: Otitis media. In Northern J (ed): Hearing Disorders. Boston, Little, Brown
and Company, 1976, Fig 10—2.)
FIGURE 6 6. Law position. The external canal, tympanic cavity, vestibule, and internal canal are
shown by an area of diminished density behind the mandibular condyle. The attic-aditus-antral
areas are obscured entirely. The pneumatic ceils of the mastoid process are well visualized. (From
Compere WE Jr: Conventional radiologic examination of the temporal bone. In Shambaugh GE |r
(ed): Surgery of the Ear, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1967, p 103.)
Stenvers views (Figs. 6-6 to 6-10). Prior to the advent of antibiotics, the
Law view was of particular value in evaluating acute mastoiditis. This is a
nearly direct lateral view. Even today it is usually obtained prior to any
mastoid surgery to determine the position of major landmarks such as the
mastoid tegmen and sigmoid sinus as well as the general overall size of the
mastoid. The additional lateral elevation of the x-ray beam in the Schuller
view not only shows those structures seen in the Law position, but also
permits visualization of the attic or epitympanum. By angulation of the head
45 degrees, the Mayer position is obtained. This film demonstrates the region
of the antrum and the head of the malleus. By a modification of the direction
of the x-ray beam, it is also possible to demonstrate the incus and the area
of the epitympanum. The Owens view is similar to the modification of the
Mayer position, but less angulation of the beam provides a better
visualization of the ossicles and epitympanic recess as they are now visualized
above the petrous ridge. Another modification of an oblique view is known
as the Chausse III projection. It provides additional information about the
structures in the middle ear.
The Stenvers position views the long axis of the petrous pyramid to
demonstrate the internal auditory canal, the labyrinth, and the antrum. The
Towne view shows both petrous pyramids through the orbits, permitting
direct comparison of the petrous pyramids and internal auditory canals on
the same film. When the physician is most interested in structures of the
middle ear, the standard Schuller, modified Mayer, and Chausse III views
FIGURE 6-7. Schuller position.

By Increasing the elevation of
the beam, the labyrinth is de¬
pressed and the head of the
malleus is visible above the crest
of the petrosa. Compare with
Figure 6-6. (From Compere WE
Jr: Conventional radiologic ex¬
amination of the temporal bone.
In Shambaugh GE Jr (ed): Sur¬
gery of the Ear, 2nd ed. Phila¬
delphia, WB Saunders Co, 1967,
p 104.)
KEY TO THE LINE DRAWING

1. Root of the zygoma
2. Condyle of the mandible
3. Temporomandibular joint
5. Tympanic cavity
6. Epitympanic cavity
7. Malleus
10. Area of the adltus
11. Area of the antrum
12. Mastoid cells
13. Mastoid tip
14. Anterior plate of the lateral sinus
15. Tegmen plate
16. Arcuate eminence
21. Petrosa
22. Anterior crest of the petrosa
25. Auricle
will provide the most information. If, however, there is a possibility of an

acoustic neuroma or abnormality in the petrous region or internal auditory
canal, the Towne, Stenvers, and transorbital views should be obtained.
The degree of mastoid cell development is described on radiographs by
the terms pneumatic, diploic, sclerotic, and undeveloped. The generally
accepted view of mastoid development is the following: When normal

pneumatization of a mastoid occurs unhindered by recurrent episodes of
infection in childhood or other developmental abnormalities, the resultant
well-developed mastoid air spaces are referred to as pneumatic. When the
pneumatization of the mastoid is disturbed by some infectious process there
FIGURE 6—8. Mayer position show¬

ing malleus and incus in tympanic
cavity with cells of attic. The antrum
Is partially obscured by the arcuate
eminence. (From Compere WE |r:
Conventional radiologic examination
of the temporal bone. In Sharnbaugh
GE Jr (ed): Surgery of the Ear, 2nd
ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
1967, p 106.)

4. External auditory canal
5. Tympanic cavity
7. Malleus
8. Incus
10. Area of the aditus
12. Mastoid cells
13. Mastoid tip
i 4. Anterior plate of the lateral sinus
15. Tegmen plate
21. Petrosa
22 Anterior crest of the petrosa
25. Auricle
FIGURE 6—9. Owens position. Incus

and malleus are clearly seen in the
tympanic cavity, with epitympanum
and antrum in normal relationship.
(From Compere WE Jr: Conven¬
tional radiologic examination of the
temporal bone. In Shambaugh GE
Jr (ed): Surgery of the Ear, 2nd ed.
Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
1967, p 108.)

3. Temporomandibular Joint
4. External audltoiy canal
5. Tympanic cavity
7. Malleus
8. incus
10. Area of the aditus
12. Mastoid cells
13. Mastoid tip
14. Anterior plate of the lateral sinus
15. Tegmen plate
21. Petrosa
25. Auricle
may be only a few groups of large cells present. Such an appearance is

referred to as diploic. A small number of patients will have dense bone in
the region of the mastoid. This probably results from osteoblastic activity
stimulated by the repeated' or chronic infection. This pattern is referred to
as a sclerotic mastoid. It is common to find cholesteatoma development in
this type of mastoid.
FIGURE 6—10. Stenvers position show¬

ing internal auditory canal, labyrinth,
and antrum. (From Compere WE Jr:
Conventional radiologic examination
of the temporal bone. In Shambaugh
GE Jr (ed): Surgery of the Ear, 2nd ed.
Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1967,
p 109.)

5. Tympanic cavity
9. Combined shadow of malleus and incus
12. Mastoid cells
13. Mastpid tip
15. Tegmen plate
17. Superior semicircular canal
18. Horizontal semicircular canal
19. Cochlea
20. Internal auditory canal
21. Petrosa
23. Petro-occipital suture
24. Sagittal crest of the occipital bone
CT Scanning
Computed tomography has in most instances become the preferred method
of diagnosing middle ear, mastoid, and inner ear abnormalities (Fig. 6-11).
Initially used for determining the presence of acoustic neuromas, the more
refined CT scanners are capable of demonstrating ossicular discontinuity,
FIGURE 6-11. CT scans of a normal ear and mastoid. A, PAC, large petrous air cell; EAC, external auditory canal; SS,
sigmoid sinus; MAC, mastoid air cells. Arrow points to the basal turn of the cochlea. B, A series of small arrowheads
outlines the course of the facial nerve through the fallopian canal. The large arrow points to the malleus, showing how
the head of the malleus lies within the attic of the middle ear space.
congenital anomalies, and extent of middle ear diseases such as cholestea¬

toma. This permits the operating surgeon to know whether the facial nerve
is dehiscent by erosion of the cholesteatoma. In certain situations CT scans
can even demonstrate fistulization into the horizontal semicircular canal. In
congenital disorders CT scans have even been able to demonstrate the
absence of a normally patent cochlea. Standard CT scanning is done in the
axial plane. When special information is necessary, the sections can be
retaken in the coronal plane or computerized reconstruction can be per¬
formed in the coronal plane.
Acute Coalescent Mastoiditis

Fortunately, this serious complication in the preantibiotic era is seldom
seen today. Yet, for some reason, it is seen once or twice a year in major
institutions. The diagnosis may be missed by the fact that the patient has
received some antibiotics that were effective in altering the classic physical
findings but not in eliminating the infection. In the untreated case, there is Acute mastoiditis:
fever, pain, and hearing loss occurring in association with acute otitis media. —fever
—pain
The tympanic membrane bulges outward; there is sagging of the posterior
—hearing loss
superior canal wall, postauricular swelling displacing the pinna outward and —bulging tympanic membrane
forward, and mastoid tenderness, especially posterior and slightly superior —sagging posterior canal wall
—postauricular swelling
to the level of the external canal (Macewen’s triangle).
—mastoid tenderness
Radiologic examination in coalescent mastoiditis reveals opacification of —radiologic findings
the mastoid air cells by fluid and interruption of the normal trabeculations
of the cells. The loss of the individual cell outlines distinguishes the findings
from those of serous otitis media, in which the cell outlines remain intact.
Mastoiditis can occur in patients who have been immunosuppressed or
who have neglected acute otitis media; it is possibly related to the virulence
no PART TWO—THE EAR
of the causative organism. The usual responsible organisms are the same as
those that cause acute otitis media.
Treatment initially is a wide myringotomy, culture, and appropriate
intravenous antibiotics. When the radiologic examination shows loss of the-
trabecular pattern or there is progression of disease, an urgent, complete
mastoidectomy is mandatory to prevent serious complications such as pe¬
trositis, labyrinthitis, meningitis, and brain abscess.
CHRONIC INFECTION OF THE MIDDLE EAR

AND MASTOID
Since the middle ear is connected to the mastoid, chronic otitis media is
accompanied by chronic mastoiditis. These inflammatory problems can be
considered active or inactive. Active refers to the presence of infection with
drainage from the ear or otorrhea resulting from underlying pathologic
changes such as cholesteatoma or granulation tissue. Inactive refers to the
sequelae from a previously active infection that has “burnt out”; thus
otorrhea is absent.
Patients with inactive chronic otitis media often complain of a hearing
loss. There may be other symptoms of vertigo, tinnitus, or a sense of fullness
as well. A dry perforation of the tympanic membrane is usually seen. Other
changes may indicate tympanosclerosis (white patches in the tympanic
membrane), loss of ossicles which is sometimes visible through the tympanic
membrane perforation, and fixation or disruption of ossicles from previous
infection. If there is sufficient disability and hearing loss, surgical correction
or tympanoplasty can be considered.
Signs and Symptoms

Active chronic otitis media means there is an aural discharge. The otorrhea
and chronic suppuration of the middle ear may indicate on first examination
the nature of the pathologic process. In general, the otorrhea from chronic
otitis media may be purulent (thick, white) or mucoid (watery and thin),
depending upon the stage of inflammation. A mucous discharge results from
activity of secretory glands in the middle ear and mastoid. A very foul¬
smelling, putrid discharge of dirty grayish yellow color suggests cholestea¬
toma and its degenerating products. Small, white, shiny flakes may be seen.
Bacteriologic examination of the discharge from chronic middle ear suppu¬
ration provides little practical information for management. Secondary
invaders, such as staphylococci, Proteus vulgaris, and Pseudomonas aerugi¬
nosa, and numerous anaerobic bacteria as part of a mixed flora are invariably
found in chronic aural discharge. The most common anaerobes are members
of the Bacteroides species. A thin, watery discharge and a history of painless
onset should suggest the possibility of tuberculosis. If there is a thin, fetid
discharge with blood, the possibility of malignancy should be considered.
Another important symptom in chronic otitis media is hearing loss, which
is usually conductive but may be mixed. When the hearing loss is slight even
though the pathologic involvement is extensive, the diseased area, or
cholesteatoma, may be effectively conducting sound to the oval window.
Pain is an uncommon symptom in chronic middle ear suppuration, and its
presence is a serious sign. It may mean that a complication is impending due
FIGURE 6-12. In cases of chronic sup¬

puration of the middle ear the fistula test
is used to determine the presence of an
erosion through the horizontal semicir¬
cular canal. The Politzer bag fitted with
an atomizer tip supplies a convenient
means of compressing the air in the
external canal, if a fistula is present, the
compression of the air will cause vertigo
and usually nystagmus. If the test is
negative, there is no fistula or the laby¬
rinth is dead.
to blockage of secretion, exposure of dura or lateral sinus wall, or imminent Vertigo in a patient with chronic
brain abscess formation. Vertigo in a patient who has chronic middle ear middle ear disease suggests
erosion of the horizontal semi¬
suppuration is another serious symptom. This suggests the presence of a circular canal.
fistula, which means an erosion of the bony labyrinth, most commonly the
horizontal semicircular canal. This is a serious finding, since infection can
then pass from the middle ear and mastoid into the inner ear, thereby
causing labyrinthitis (complete deafness) and, from there, possibly menin¬
gitis. A fistula test should be performed in every case of chronic middle ear
suppuration when there is a history of vertigo. A fistula test requires Fistula test: positive pressure
application of both positive and negative pressure to the tympanic membrane applied by pneumatic otoscope
causes vertigo and nystagmus.
and thereby across the middle ear space. The pneumatic otoscope, if an
excellent seal can be obtained, may be suitable for this purpose. The test
should be routinely done in patients with chronic otitis media, since a fistula
may be present in the absence of vertigo (Fig. 6-12). A negative fistula test,
however, does not exclude the possibility of a fistula.
Tympanic membrane perforations may be marginal or central. If the
perforation is marginal or in the attic, cholesteatoma should be suspected.
Granulation tissue may be seen filling the perforation or, in some instances,
will form a sizable polyp extruding into the ear canal. Special care is required
when this polyp is removed under the microscope to avoid injury to the
ossicular chain. Multiple perforations in the tympanic membrane in adults
suggest the possibility of tuberculous infection of the middle ear.
Radiologic examination usually reveals a sclerotic-appearing mastoid,
often smaller and less pneumatized than the opposite or normal side. Bone
erosion, especially in the area of the attic (scutum missing), suggests
cholesteatoma.
Treatment
Conservative treatment for chronic otitis media consists essentially of
advising the patient to keep water out of the ear and cleansing in the office
with careful spot suctioning. Hydrogen peroxide or alcohol can be used for
cleansing with a soft cotton-tipped wire applicator for removal of diseased
tissue and inspissated suppuration. Local powders and ear drops, usually
containing antibiotics and steroids, can be applied. Attention is directed to
regional infections of the upper respiratory system. Antibiotics can be helpful

in ameliorating the acute exacerbations of a chronic otitis media. However,
antibiotics are not generally useful in treating this condition because, by
definition, chronic otitis media means that intractable pathologic changes
already exist, and antibiotics will not prove useful in curing this condition.
If surgery is planned, systemic antibiotic treatment for several weeks prior
to surgery may reduce or eliminate active drainage and enhance the surgical
results.
Cholesteatoma is usually first One of the pathologic conditions one sees in chronic otitis media and
evident through a perforation in
the posterior superior quadrant
mastoiditis is cholesteatoma, which is keratinizing squamous epithelium
of the tympanic membrane. (“skin”) that becomes entrapped in the middle ear space and mastoid. This
usually occurs secondarily to invasion of epithelial cells from the adjacent
external auditory canal through the attic into the mastoid. Rarely, this can
occur congenitally by entrapment of epithelial cells behind an intact tympanic
membrane. Cholesteatoma in the middle ear could be called an epidermal
A cholesteatoma develops as a cyst, a lesion sometimes seen in the cerebellopontine angle as well. The
blind epithelium-lined sac with a
epithelium gradually increases in size, as if trapped in a bottle with a narrow
small bottleneck opening. It
gradually expands eroding the neck. Release of enzymes and products of degradation as well as pressure
surrounding bone. will result in adjacent bone erosion. Until it becomes infected or impairs
hearing, a cholesteatoma can reach considerable size with resultant loss of
It may remain asymptomatic un¬ mastoid bone, ossicles, and bony protection of the facial nerve. Another
til it becomes acutely infected
or erodes the ossicular chain,
pathologic change seen in chronic otitis media is granulation tissue, which
horizontal canal, or facial can also cause osseous destruction and severe changes throughout the middle
nerve. ear and mastoid. Granulation tissue can appear in an immature (soft) or
mature (fibrous) form. A specific kind of granulation tissue is cholesterol
granuloma, in which cholesterin clefts are seen within a bed of granulation
tissue with interspersed giant cells (Fig. 6-13). This disorder is always treated
by surgery and requires a mastoidectomy.
Surgery
Surgery is aimed at eradicating infection and obtaining a safe, dry ear
through a variety of tympanoplasty and mastoidectomy procedures. The
primary purpose of surgery is removal of disease and is achieved if proper
FIGURE 6—13. Cholesterol granuloma.

Cholesterin clefts are seen in a bed of
dense fibrous granulation tissue with in¬
terspersed giant cells. (From Paparella
MM, Shumrick DA (eds): Otolaryngol¬
ogy, Vol 2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders
Co, 1973, p 109.)
healing results (Fig. 6-14). The purpose of mastoidectomy is to eradicate

infected tissue, creating a safe, dry ear; the purpose of tympanoplasty is the
preservation and restoration of hearing, using procedures to graft the
tympanic membrane and reconstruct the middle ear. The secondary objective
is, when possible, to maintain or improve hearing (tympanoplasty). If chronic
otitis jnedia and mastoiditis are serious, and especially if a complication
exists or is impending, mastoid surgery can be considered at any age. In
general, tympanoplasty is performed less commonly in children below the
age of five. This is because of the high incidence of ear infections in these
children, who have not yet achieved adequate eustachian tube function.
Many different tympanoplasty techniques exist, including grafting (skin,
fascia, homologous tympanic membranes) and reconstruction (homologous
ossicles, cartilage, alloplastic materials). In Figure 6-15, the classic tympa¬
noplasty types are described.
COMPLICATIONS OF ACUTE OTITIS MEDIA

AND MASTOIDITIS
The complications of acute or chronic middle ear disease and mastoiditis

can involve changes directly occurring within the middle ear and mastoid or
secondary infection of the surrounding structures. The structures immediately
adjacent to the mastoid are shown in Figure 6-16. There are preformed
pathways of extensions of infection into the area as well as extension of
disease process by bony destruction with erosion as in the cholesteatoma or
middle ear and mastoid with chronic granulation tissue. Erosion of the hard
bony covering protecting the labyrinth and the tegmen can occur with chronic
infection. The preformed pathways existing along these channels are more
likely to be the route of dissemination of infection in the acute processes.
Middle Ear Complications
Conductive hearing loss can result from chronic otitis media. If a tympanic
membrane is intact, the middle ear contains air, and there is a disruption of
the ossicular chain, a maximum conductive hearing loss of 60 dB will result. The maximum conductive loss
occurs when there is ossicular
The magnitude of the conductive loss may not always correlate with the
discontinuity in the presence of
severity of the disease, since pathologic tissues can also conduct sound to an intact tympanic membrane.
the oval window. Sensorineural deafness can result from acute otitis media
as well as chronic otitis media. Any time there is an infection in the middle
ear space, especially under pressure, there is a possibility that the products
of infection will spread through the round window membrane into the inner
ear, causing sensorineural hearing loss. The infection is usually limited to
the basal turn of the cochlea, a portion that is not tested routinely when
hearing is measured. Over time, however, the hearing loss can spread until
it does become a problem later in life. This emphasizes the need for more
aggressive treatment to prevent possible permanent sensorineural loss from
developing in patients with acute otitis media who do not undergo resolution
within 48 hours with appropriate antibiotic therapy (Fig. 6-17).
Facial Nerve Paralysis. The facial nerve can be injured by either chronic
or acute otitis media. In the case of acute otitis, the nerve is affected by
purulent material directly in contact with the nerve. Because there may be
114 PART TWO—TH E EAR
Dural piafc
(Middle fossa)
Pos+,-sup. on
FIGURE 6—14. A, Simple mastoidectomy. The external auditory canal and middle ear are left intact while
the mastoid is exenterated of disease and cell structures. B, Mastoid surgery can also be approached
endaurally, as seen here. A larger opening (meatus) into the ear canal remains. C, Modified radical
mastoidectomy. In this operation the mastoid is exenterated and the posterior canal wall is removed. The
middle ear may be normal or nearly normal; however, often, tympanoplasty techniques need to accompany
the mastoid procedure. Postoperatively, one sees a mastoid cavity and a relatively normal appearing
tympanic membrane. D, Classic radical mastoidectomy indicates removal of all diseased tissues in the
middle ear and mastoid. The otologist usually attempts to preserve or restore hearing through tympano¬
plasty as well.
Anterior
FIGURE 6-14 Continued £, Completed radical

mastoidectomy from surgeon's point of view
demonstrates the important anatomic structures,
a, Epitympanum; b, tegmen tympani; c, tegmen
mastoideum; d, sinodural angle; e, lateral sinus; f,
digastric ridge; g, mastoid tip; h, floor of middle
ear (Jugular dome); i, eustachian tube (protym¬
panum); ), semicanal of tensor tympani muscle; k,
horizontal facial nerve; I, cochleariformis process
and tensor tendon; m, lateral semicircular canal; n,
vertical facial nerve and ridge; o, round window;
p, stapes; q, pyramidal process and stapes tendon;
r, promontory. (£ from Paparella MM, Shumrick
DA (eds): Otolaryngology, Vol 2. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1973, p 290.)
FIGURE 6-15. Tympanoplasty types. Middle ear spaces (mainly mesotympanum) decrease in size from type I to type IV.
Assuming many other factors, the most common of which is good eustachian tube function, to be stable and under
control, hearing results are decreasingly good as one proceeds from type I through type IV tympanoplasty. Under
favorable conditions, type 1 tympanoplasty should result in normal or nearly normal restoration of conductive hearing,
whereas type IV should result in approximately a 30 db air-bone gap. A, Type I—graft rests on malleus. B, Type II—grafts
rests on incus. C, Type III—graft attaches to head of stapes. D, Type IV—graft attaches to footplate of stapes. £, Type Va—
fenestration of lateral semicircular canal (arrow). F, Type Vb—stapedectomy (arrow). (From Paparella MM, Shumrick DA
(eds): Otolaryngology, Vol 2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1973, p 292.)
116 PART TWO—TH E EAR
FIGURE 6-16. To understand complications

of otitis media, one should consider spread
of infection to regional structures. A, Sub¬
periosteal space; B, subdural space; C, menin¬
ges; D, brain: E, petrous apex; F, labyrinth; G,
facial nerve; H, neck. Another area, not shown
here, is the lateral sinus in the back of the
mastoid. (From Paparella MM, Payne E: Otitis
media. In Northern ] (ed): Hearing Disorders.
Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1976,
Fig 10-8.)
FIGURE 6-17. A, Accurate visualiza¬

tion of the drumhead under magni¬
fication and complete immobilization
of the patient, using general anes¬
thesia for children, are essential. The
myringotomy knife should incise only
the drumhead. B, Two sizes of suc¬
tion tubes which can be used to
aspirate middle ear fluid. When the
fluid is thick, use of the larger suction
tube is indicated.
B
Petrositis occurs in individuals of chronic petrositis is surgical, and during surgery for chronic ear infection
with pneumatized petrous petrous air cells are explored and diseased tissue is evacuated using a variety
apetic cells.
of techniques.
Lateral Sinus Thrombophlebitis. Infectious invasion of the sigmoid sinus,,
as it courses through the mastoid, results in thrombophlebitis of the lateral
sinus. Small fragments of the thrombus break off, creating a shower of
infectious emboli. Fever, unexplained by other findings, is the first sign of
this invasion. It tends to fluctuate considerably and, as the disease develops
fully, a septic or “picket fence” (spiking) pattern results. Chills often
accompany a rise in temperature; pain is isolated to the area of the mastoid
emissary vessels, which can become red and tender. This is called Griesinger’s
sign. The diagnosis is confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or
digital subtraction angiography. Blood cultures may be positive, particularly
if made at the time of the chill. Treatment is surgical and consists of removing
the focus of infection in the infected mastoid cells, necrotic lateral sinus
plate, or an infected and often necrotic lateral sinus wall. Drainage of the
sinus and evacuation of the infected clot are indicated. Ligation of the
internal jugular vein to prevent escape of the infected emboli into the lung
and to other parts of the body is performed.
Extradural abscess: Extradural Abscess. Extradural abscess represents a collection of pus
-pulsatile, purulent discharge
between the dura and the bone overlying either the mastoid cavity or the
—severe earache
—ipsilateral headache middle ear. It is most frequently assciated with chronic suppurative otitis
-low grade fever media with granulation tissue or cholesteatoma with erosion of the tegmen
—develops during episode of
in this region. Symptoms include severe earache and headache.
acute otitis media.
Subdural Abscess. A subdural abscess may develop as direct extension of
Subdural abscess: an extradural abscess or by extension of thrombophlebitis through the venous
—develops from chronic
channels. Symptoms include fever, headache, and the development of coma
otitis media
—headache in a patient with chronic suppurative otitis media. Multiple central nervous
—fever, restlessness system findings include seizures, hemiplegia, and a positive Kernig’s sign.
—focal seizures
While an extradural abscess is frequently drained through the mastoid cavity
—difficulty speaking
—coma at the time of radical mastoidectomy, a subdural abscess requires primary
—CSP may be normal, no neurosurgical drainage.
organisms.
Central Nervous System Complications
Meningitis. The most common intracranial complication from suppurative

otitis media is meningitis. It can result from acute or chronic otitis media
and can be localized or generalized. Although these two types are clinically
similar, the spinal fluid of patients with generalized meningitis will often
reveal bacterial organisms, whereas in localized meningitis, viable
microorganisms cannot be recovered from the spinal fluid. Clinical features
of meningitis include stiffness of the neck, increased temperature, nausea
and vomiting (sometimes projectile), and headache. In advanced cases, there
is also coma and delirium. On clinical examination there is resistance to
flexion of the neck and a positive Kernig’s sign. Usually sugar is low and
protein is elevated in the spinal fluid. Treatment of meningitis is
chemotherapeutic, and the patient is treated intensively with antibiotics
specific for the organisms involved. Meningitis is treated first, and
subsequently, if necessary, the ear infection is corrected through surgery.
Any case of recurrent otitic meningitis requires that the ear infection be
eradicated surgically.
Brain Abscess. As a complication of otitis media and mastoiditis, brain

abscess can affect the cerebellum in the posterior cranial fossa or the temporal
lobe in the middle cranial fossa. Brain abscess is usually formed as a
consequence of direct extension of the otologic infection or thrombophlebitis.
An extradural abscess usually forms prior to development of the brain
abscess. Symptoms of a cerebellar abscess are generally stormier than those
of the temporal lobe abscess. Cerebellar abscess may present with symptoms
of ataxia, dysdiadochokinesia, intention tremor, and past pointing. Focal
seizures or aphasia may be present with temporal lobe abscesses, and other
symptoms include toxicity, headache, fever, vomiting, and a lethargic state
suggesting cerebral involvement. A slow pulse and convulsive seizures are
significant signs. Papilledema may also be present. Contrast CT scan or MRI
allows localization of the lesion. The treatment is primarily surgical, and the
abscess must be drained by traditional methods or needle aspiration and the
patient placed on an intensive course of antibiotics. Following recovery after
neurosurgical treatment of the brain abscess, combined otologic and
neurosurgical approaches will be necessary to prevent recurrences.
Otitic Hydrocephalus. This condition consists of an increase in intracranial
pressure with normal cerebrospinal fluid findings except for a marked
increase in pressure. It may accompany an acute or chronic ear infection.
Symptoms of this condition include intense persistent headache, diplopia,
blurring of vision, nausea, and vomiting. Papilledema is present. Treatment
consists of repeated lumbar punctures and management of persistent ear
infection as well. It is believed that involvement of the lateral sinus leads to
the inability of arachnoid granulations to absorb cerebrospinal fluid that is
formed.
Myringotomy
Myringotomy is the incision of the tympanic membrane, either to provide
ventilation to the middle ear, to permit drainage of middle ear fluid, or to
obtain cultures. The procedure is performed under the operating microscope
using general or local anesthesia. In the office setting, local anesthetic
appropriately injected into the external canal or iontophoresis using a 2 per
cent xylocaine solution placed in the ear canal provides sufficient anesthesia.
Local anesthesia is particularly useful in older children or adults with serous
otitis media but is less effective when the tympanic membrane is acutely
inflamed. It is not used in the presence of external otitis. A curvilinear
incision is made about 2 mm from the margin of the drumhead starting
below and continuing upward anteriorly or posteriorly. Incisions are made Myringotomy incisions are made
in the anterior interior or poste¬
in the anterior inferior or posterior inferior quadrant to avoid injury to the rior inferior quadrants.
ossicular chain. It is technically easier to make the incision in the posterior
inferior quadrant, and this area is less sensitive. The blade is never inserted
more than 2 mm in order to prevent touching the medial wall of the middle
ear, which can cause pain and bleeding. Further, there can be a dehiscence
or bulge of the jugular vein coming onto the floor of the middle ear.
Disruption of the ossicular chain is avoided by placing the incision in the
inferior quadrants. Damage to the round window is avoided by making an
incision only through the tympanic membrane and by limiting the depth of
the incision (Fig. 6-17).
Myringotomy is performed for treatment of complications of otitis media
such as mastoiditis or facial nerve paralysis developing during a course of
otitis media. A wide “smile” type of incision is made. In these situations no

tube is inserted. Continuous drainage, supportive care, and intravenous
antibiotics are given. The wide myringotomy allows an opportunity to obtain
a culture and Gram’s stain. Special small collection devices are available to
obtain secretions for study. Current indications for myringotomy in acute
Myringotomy is required to otitis media are (1) persistent pain after 48 hours of antibiotic treatment; (2)
obtain a culture in immunocom¬
potential development of complications such as acute mastoiditis or facial
promised patients.
nerve paralysis; (3) development of acute otitis media while on a systemic
antibiotic; (4) development of otitis media in an immunosuppressed patient.
One of the most common indications for myringotomy today is persistent
chronic serous otitis media that has failed medical management. In this case
ventilation tubes are frequently inserted at the time of myringotomy. This
prevents closure of the myringotomy site, as the tube may remain in place
up to six months. Myringotomy incisions without tube placement often heal
within 48 hours. Current indications for ventilation tube placement (PE
tubes) at the time of myringotomy are the following:
1. Recurrent episodes of acute otitis media in spite of continuous prophy¬

lactic antibiotics
2. Persistent serous otitis media that has not responded to conservative
management (usually a period of three months after an episode of
acute purulent otitis media)
3. Persistent negative middle ear pressure and resultant atelectasis of the
tympanic membrane, especially retraction into the posterior superior
quadrant
4. Development of persistent negative middle ear pressure in patients
undergoing hyperbaric oxygen treatment
5. In association with certain middle ear reconstructive procedurgs in
which eustachian tube dysfunction is considered marginal
TUMORS OF THE MIDDLE EAR AND MASTOID
A variety of tumors, benign and malignant, can originate in the middle

ear, mastoid, and adjacent regions, especially the external auditory canal.
These tumors can be considered primary, indicating their origin in the
temporal bone, or secondary, indicating that they have metastasized to the
temporal bone from a distant site or invaded the middle ear from an adjacent
area, usually the parotid gland.
Primary Tumors
Of the primary tumor types, the glomus jugulare or glomus tympanicum

tumor is the most important and most common. The tumor originates from
glomus bodies that relate to the jugular bulb in the floor of the middle ear,
or they can originate from nerve distributions elsewhere in the middle ear.
The tumor is histologically similar to carotid body tumors or chemodectomas.
A malignant variety has been reported but is extremely rare. Through
expansion this tumor can cause adjacent destruction resulting in hearing loss
and a sense of fullness, and in some cases it may extend to the base of the
skull, causing cranial nerve and intracranial complications. It is a highly
vascular tumor and can often be seen as a bulging purplish mass in the floor
of the middle ear through a semitransparent tympanic membrane. The
blanching that occurs by pressure from a pneumatic otoscope is called
Brown’s sign. The CT scan with contrast is the most useful diagnostic test.
In some instances angiography and retrograde jugular venography are
necessary to make the diagnosis and determine the blood supply and extent
of the tumor. Certainly a tissue diagnosis requires surgical exploration of
the site, and in most instances surgery is the preferred modality of treatment.
If the tumor is extensive, combined surgery and radiotherapy often are
indicated. Unresectable tumors do show response to radiation therapy.
Other benign tumors include neurofibroma of the facial nerve, hemangioma,
and osteoma.
Primary malignant tumors that can involve the middle ear space include
squamous cell carcinoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, adenoid cystic carcinoma,
and adenocarcinoma.
Rhabdomyosarcoma occurs in young children. This disease was once
considered universally fatal, whereas in recent years there have been reported
cures with combined radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
Many squamous cell carcinomas originate primarily from the ear canal
and then invade the middle ear and mastoid secondarily. It is especially When external otitis does not
important to suspect any lesion in the external canal which does not heal resolve with usual treatment, a
biopsy is indicated.
spontaneously or with appropriate medical treatment as representing a
possible malignancy. Persistent chronic external otitis is a definite indication
for biopsy of the external ear canal. If these tumors are found early, the
patient has a much better chance of being cured than if the lesion progresses,
necessitating total temporal bone resection and yielding a much lesser chance
for survival. Occasionally, tumors, especially with superimposed infection,
will present with symptoms of drainage, especially bloody drainage. Other
symptoms include pain, a sense of fullness, hearing loss, and if the vestibular
labyrinth is involved, vertigo. Facial nerve paralysis develops if the tumor Facial nerve paralysis is a late
erodes through the posterior canal wall and involves the facial nerve, but sign of malignancy of the tem¬
poral bone.
this generally occurs late in the course of the disease. The tumor will also
extend anteriorly through fissures into the region of the parotid gland and
pterygomaxillary fossa.
The most common malignant tumors of the middle ear in adults are
adenoid cystic carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. The most common malig¬
nancy to extend from the external canal to the middle ear is squamous cell
carcinoma. Other less common tumors capable of arising in the external
canal and then invading the middle ear are adenoid cystic carcinoma,
malignant melanoma, and neglected basal cell carcinoma.
Secondary Tumors
Tumors that arise from distant primary foci and metastasize to the middle
ear, mastoid, and temporal bone include adenocarcinoma of the prostate,
mammary carcinoma, hypernephroma or renal carcinoma, bronchogenic
carcinoma, gastrointestinal carcinoma, and melanoma.
In addition, the middle ear and mastoid can be invaded by tumors from
adjacent areas such as meningioma, acoustic neuroma, glioma, neurilemoma,
adenoid cystic and mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the parotid gland, and
nasopharyngeal cancers extending up the eustachian tubes.
Hematologic malignancies such as malignant lymphoma and leukemia
frequently involve the temporal bone, almost always involving the bone
marrow of the petrous apex, and can also cause infiltration of the middle
ear and eustachian tube, resulting in conductive hearing losses and effusions.
In terminal or severe leukemia, actual hemorrhage can take place in the
inner ear, causing sudden profound deafness as well as vestibular symptoms.
References
Bluestone CD, Stool SE: Pediatric Otolaryngology. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1983, p
16.
Draf W, Schulz P: Insertion of ventilation tubes into the middle ear: Results and complications
Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 89(Suppl 68):303, 1980.
Gates GA, Avery CA, Cooper JC, Prihoda TJ: Chronic secretory otitis media: Effects of
surgical management. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 98(Suppl 138):1, Jan 1989.
Healy GB, Teele DW: The microbiology of chronic middle ear effusions in children. Laryn¬
goscope 87:1472, 1977.
Holm VA, Kunze L: Effects of chronic otitis media in language and speech development
Pediatrics 43:833-839, 1969.
Howie VM, Ploressard JH, Sloyer JL: The “otitis prone” condition. Am J Dis Child 129 678-
688, 1975.
Jokipii AMM, Karma P, Ojala K, et al: Anaerobic bacteria in chronic otitis media. Arch
Otolaryngol 103:278, 1977.
Klein JO: Microbiology of otitis media. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 89(Suppl 68) 98 1980
Miglets AW, Saunders WH, Paparella MM: Atlas of Ear Surgery. St Louis, The CV Mosby
Co, 1986.
Moller P: Long-term otologic features of cleft palate patients. Arch Otolaryngol 101:605-607,
Paparella MM, Shumrick DA (eds): Otolaryngology. Vol 1: Basic Sciences and Related
Disciplines. Vol 2: Ear. Vol 3: Head and Neck. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1980.
Paradise JL, Bluestone CC, Taylor FH, et al: Adenoidectomy with or without tonsillectomy
for otitis media. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 92(Suppl 107):36,1983.
“ugh GE Jr, Glasscock ME: Surgery of the Ear. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
Teele DW Klein JO, Rosner BA: Epidemiology of otitis media in children. Ann Otol Rhinol
Laryngol 89(Suppl 68):5, 1980.
DISEASES OF
THE INNER EAR
by Samuel C. Levine, M.D.
Patients who experience disease of the inner ear have symptoms of hearing
loss, tinnitus, and disequilibrium. The physiology of hearing and balance has
been covered in previous chapters. Here we discuss the clinical presentation
of these problems and review by disease process the disorders of the inner
ear. After discussing the clinical presentation of these problems in a general
way, the chapter is divided into two large sections. The first deals with
diseases that predominantly affect the cochlea and the later section deals
with diseases that primarily affect the vestibular system. Since the two
systems are physically interrelated, it is rare that a process involves only one
of the structures. For this reason, there is some repetition.
Clinical Issues
History. The history of hearing loss is often one of the most difficult to
ascertain. A frequently heard clinical complaint is “My hearing is fine. My
wife insisted that I come in and have my hearing tested.” Patients will also
have significant trouble describing when they first noticed that they had a
hearing problem. This is often associated with a time that they first were
unable to use a telephone or found that while they were in a car with
competing noise they had a problem with their hearing. It is important for
diagnostic reasons to ascertain whether the patient has fluctuation in his or
her hearing or a distinctly one-sided problem. Some factors in the history
may even suggest the type of hearing loss which a patient has experienced.
Patients who have high-tone sensorineural hearing loss will describe an
inability to hear a female speaker or may have problems with certain words
with high-tone consonants such as “f,” “s,” or “th.”
It is important to obtain a work and social history in any case related to
hearing loss. Patients who have had military exposure to noise often will
have high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss. Similarly, adults who have
worked for many years in loud work places will develop hearing problems.
Ototoxic drugs may cause similar complaints. Finally, certain families appear
to be prone to familial hearing loss. If this is not elicited in the history, it
can be easily overlooked.
Tinnitus. Tinnitus is defined as an abnormal ringing noise in the ear. It is Tinnitus is any abnormal noise
extremely common and is associated most frequently with sensorineural that the patient hears.
hearing loss. Anyone who complains of a pulsatile sound must be examined
for an anatomic source. Anatomic sources for the tinnitus include vascular
problems such as aberrant vessels or middle ear tumors. Patients who have
a sensorineural etiology to their tinnitus will describe worsening of tinnitus

in quiet environments where competing noise is not covering the problem.
They often will complain of bothersome tinnitus surrounding the time of
falling asleep and first awakening.
Dizziness. In obtaining a history of dizziness, it is first important to attempt
to differentiate dizziness of vestibular origin from that of central origin or
from those causes that are unrelated to the balance system. If the patient
suggests that he has had a loss of consciousness or has the sensation that he
is about to faint during any of his attacks of dizziness, a nonvestibular
etiology is likely.
In obtaining the history, it is important to get as accurately as possible the
date of onset, the character of the initial phase of dizziness, the activity that
the patient was carrying on at the time of onset, the duration of the
symptoms, and finally the recovery period. The course of the illness is also
clarified by obtaining a history of the frequency of recurrences (Table 7-1).
Dizziness caused by vestibular Classically, vestibular dizziness creates a sensation of whirling or spinning,
disorders is characterized by either of the patient or the environment. In more chronic cases and in
nausea, spinning sensations,
and blurry vision. bilateral cases of peripheral dizziness, patients may experience only a
“drunken” feeling or a feeling of severe unsteadiness.
Vestibular symptoms of dizziness are often associated with somatic
symptoms as well. Patients will complain of severe nausea and occasionally
vomiting during attacks of vestibular dizziness.
Patients with vestibular symptoms often complain of blurred vision or
difficulty focusing on a given object. They rarely complain of symptoms of
double vision, scotomata, or blind spots. These unusual visual changes
suggest a nonvestibular etiology.
Physical Examination
A thorough examination of the head and neck is absolutely essential to

diagnose disorders of the inner ear. A full neurologic examination is also
required. It is of importance to examine every cranial nerve, especially those
immediately above and below the eighth cranial nerve, including an exami¬
nation of visual acuity as well as range of eye motion. The eyes need to be
examined for evidence of nystagmus. Neurologic tests such as the Romberg,
in which a patient is asked to stand and close his eyes, are extremely
informative. Sway and unsteadiness seen with the eyes closed which goes
TABLE 7—1.DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS OF DIZZINESS

CENTRAL PERIPHERAL
Onset Variable Sudden
N ature/description Unsteady (swimming), Spinning, turning
“lightheaded”
Duration Constant, varying Episodic, motion-related,
<2-3 days
Fatigable Rarely Yes
Visual effects Closing eyes does not alter Closing eyes makes symptoms
worse
Visual symptoms Double vision, blind spot Blurry vision
Auditory symptoms No Yes
Headaches Yes No (but aural fullness)
Systemic effects None Nausea, vomiting
ENG results Abnormal saccades; difficulty Decreased unilateral caloric
following a target
7—DISEASES OF THE INNER EAR 125
away when the patient can see again is suggestive of labyrinthine pathology.
Patients should be examined for joint position sense and peripheral sensation.
Cerebellar function can be tested by finger-to-nose and rapid alternating
movements.
Laboratory Evaluation
Any patient who complains of hearing loss or tinnitus must have a thorough
audiologic evaluation. This includes hearing threshold evaluation in frequen- Any patient who complains of
cies from 250 Hz to 8 kHz. When appropriate, bone conduction, tympano- hearing loss or tinnitus must
11 1 j * have an audiosram
grams, and reflexes need to be examined. If the patient’s symptoms suggest
a vestibular etiology or the etiology of a patient’s dizziness cannot be
ascertained by history alone, an electronystagmography (ENG) examination
is necessary. Thorough ENG testing requires visual tracking, rapid deviation
of eye movement, and caloric testing; optionally the patient may have
bithermal caloric stimulation or rotational chair testing. ENG test equipment
and procedures vary widely. The person performing the test needs to have
experience in the operation and standardization of the equipment.
Laboratory tests may be obtained when it is considered appropriate. A
suggested battery might include a CBC, urinalysis, coagulation function,
glucose tolerance tests, thyroid and lipid testing, and an FTA-ABS test.
Metabolic causes of dizziness or hearing loss are few, but they represent
correctable causes for the patient’s symptoms.
DISEASES PRIMARILY AFFECTING

THE HEARING MECHANISM
More than 16 million Americans are classified as having a significant

hearing loss. These hearing loss patients can be classified into two basic
categories, one being congenital causes and the second being acquired
etiologies. It is estimated that between 2000 and 4000 infants are born deaf
every year (Fig. 7-1). Only half of these are of genetic etiology and about
one third of the cases have no cause that is ever found. In those cases that Only half of all congenital hear¬
have genetic causes, roughly two thirds are recessive, one third are dominant, ing loss is of a genetic cause;
of these one third are dominant,
and only 2 per cent are X-linked. Recent changes in audiology have enabled two thirds are recessive, 2 per
earlier detection and therapy for the profoundly deaf child. Most institutions cent are X-linked.
2000 -4000 DEAF OF THE

INFANTS/YEAR : GENETIC :
FIGURE 7—1. Pie chart. There are 2000 to 4000 deaf

infants born each year in the United States; only half have
genetic causes. Of those infants with a known genetic
cause of hearing loss, most are recessive. Only 2 per
cent of the known genetic causes of hearing loss are X-
linked.
2% X-Linked
now have screening procedures in their neonatal intensive care units to

attempt to detect hearing loss in infants.
The impact of hearing loss on older individuals has been known for a long
time. From 1980 until 1985, the average age of the United States population
has increased by two years. Government estimates of spending for special
education, hearing aids, and compensation for those with hearing problems
amounts to $500 million each year and, in the face of an aging population,
there is serious concern about the ability of any insurance program to cover
the tremendous cost of hearing loss.
Congenital Deafness
The list of genetic causes of hearing loss is extremely long. This is reviewed
in Table 7-2. The most common causes of sensorineural hearing loss in
children are reviewed in Table 7-3. Proctor reviewed these causes and
showed that eight leading causes account for almost half of all hereditary
hearing loss. Leading the list is diabetes. Hyperlipidemia is the second
leading cause and otosclerosis is third. The remaining five causes represent
less than 1 per cent each.
Congenital Deafness of Genetic Origin

Deafness of Genetic Origin Occurring Alone
Michel’s Deafness. This entity, described by Michel in 1863, is charac¬

terized by total lack of development of the inner ear. Michel’s deafness is
thought to be autosomal dominant in transmission.
Mondini’s Deafness. In 1791, Mondini described a partial aplasia of the
bony as well as membranous labyrinth. This malformation results in a
flattened cochlea with development only of the basal turn so that instead of
2V2 turns there are only IVi turns, while the middle and apical tppns occupy
a common space. The osseous vestibular labyrinth may also be malformed.
Dysgenesis of the organ of Corti causes the hearing loss. This condition is
transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait.
_TABLE 7-2. GENETIC HEARING LOSS IN CHILDREN

Without associated anomalies With integumentary disease
Inner ear anomalies Waardenburg's syndrome
Michel’s aplasia Oculocutaneous albinism
Alexander’s aplasia Ectodermal dysplasia
Mondini’s dysplasia
Scheibe’s dysplasia With renal disease
Alport’s syndrome
With eye disease Potter’s syndrome
Usher’s syndrome
Refsum’s syndrome With metabolic disease
Cockayne’s syndrome Pendred’s syndrome
Optic atrophy Mucopolysaccharidosis
Cataracts
With cardiovascular disease
With musculoskeletal disease Jervell and Lange-Nielson syndrome
Albers-Schonberg disease Hyperlipidemia
Paget’s disease
With chromosomal anomalies
Treacher Collins syndrome
Down’s syndrome
Goldenhar’s syndrome
Other
Crouzon’s syndrome
Apert’s syndrome
Klippel-Feil syndrome
Osteogenesis imperfecta
TABLE 7-3. MAJOR CAUSES OF SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS IN CHILDREN

Diabetes Paget’s disease
Hyperlipoproteinemias Rubella
Otosclerosis Retinitis pigmentosa
Rh incompatibility Pendred’s syndrome
Scheibe’s Deafness. Scheibe, in 1892, described this type of aplasia, in

which the bony labyrinth is fully developed but the pars inferior (saccule
and cochlear duct) is represented by mounds of undifferentiated cells.
Scheibe’s aplasia is the most common of all inherited congenital deafness
disorders and is usually transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait. Patho¬
logic findings are similar to those seen in animals with congenital genetic
deafness. There may be some residual hearing in the low frequencies (Fig.
7-2).
which the bony labyrinth is fully developed but the pars inferior (saccule
in 1904, described this type of inherited deafness characterized by aplasia of
the cochlear duct. The organ of Corti and adjacent ganglion cells of the
basal coil of the cochlea are most severely affected, resulting in a high-
frequency hearing loss. Bony and membranous labyrinths otherwise appear
normal.
Deafness Associated with Other Abnormalities
Waardenburg’s Disease. This syndrome is transmitted as a dominant

trait. The primary features include lateral displacement of the medial canthi
and lacrimal points, a flat nasal root, hyperplasia of the eyebrows, partial or
total heterochromia of the irides, partial albinism in the form of a white
forelock, and congenital deafness in approximately one fourth of these
patients. The degree of deafness may be severe or mild.
Albinism. Albinism may be autosomal dominant, recessive, or sex-linked.
Deafness associated with albinism may be bilateral and severe.
Hyperpigmentation. Severe sensorineural deafness has been found in
persons affected by hyperpigmented areas of skin. The pigmentary defects
FIGURE 7—2. Labyrinthine capsule in Al-

bers-Schonberg disease in an infant 13
months of age. A.L., Apposition line.
G.O., Globuli ossei. E.C., Endosteal cap¬
sule. L.B., Lamellar bone. P.C., Periosteal
capsule. S.B., Skeinlike bone. I.L.B., In¬
completely lamellar bone. (From Jackson
C, Jackson CL: Diseases of the Nose,
Throat and Ear (ed 2). Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1959.)
12S PART TWO—THE EAR
progress from small spots in localized areas in childhood to larger lesions

over the entire body in adults.
Onychodystrophy. The association of congenital male dystrophy and
congenital sensorineural deafness is probably a recessive trait. The affected
siblings have small, short fingernails and toenails and severe high-frequency
deafness.
Pendred’s Disease (Nonendemic Goiter). It has been estimated that
this syndrome may account for as many as 10 per cent of the cases of
recessive hereditary deafness. It is characterized by abnormal iodine metab¬
olism resulting in thyroid enlargement which usually appears in adolescence,
with nodular development in adulthood. The affected persons are usually
born with severe hearing loss.
Jervell’s Disease (Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Disease). The main
characteristics of this syndrome include a prolongation of the Q-T interval,
Stokes-Adams attacks, and congenital bilateral severe hearing loss. It has
been estimated that this disease is related to 1 per cent of all recessive
hereditary deafness. Syncopal attacks begin to occur in childhood, and
affected persons usually die suddenly in childhood.
Usher’s Disease. The main features of this syndrome are progressive
retinitis pigmentosa and congenital severe to moderate sensorineural hearing
loss, Inheritance of this disease is usually through recessive transmission,
but it may be sex-linked or dominant. The hearing loss is bilateral and
severe.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Chromosomal anomalies account for some types of congenital deafness.

They are not truly hereditary but represent cases in which an extra
chromosome has been added to one of the 22 pairs of autosomal
chromosomes.
Trisomy 13-15 (D). This syndrome may include low-set ears, undiffer¬
entiated pinnae, absence of the external auditory canals or the middle ear,
cleft lip, cleft palate, microphthalmia, coloboma irides, and aplasia of the
optic nerve. Infants with this syndrome usually die within a short time.
Trisomy 18 (E). This syndrome may include low-set ears, malformed
pinnae, micrognathia, flexion of the index finger over the third finger, and
prominent occiput. Patients with this syndrome fail to thrive and usually die
in infancy.
Congenital Deafness of Nongenetic Origin

Rubella. Still one of the most common causes of nongenetic congenital

deafness is rubella (German measles). With the use of the present rubella
vaccine, this particular disease should eventually be eliminated. If a woman
Women who contract rubella in contracts German measles within the first three months of pregnancy, the
the first trimester have children
at higher risk for hearing loss.
probability is high that her child will suffer some degree of sensorineural
hearing loss. A child with congenital rubella may also suffer from other
defects, such as cardiac defects, mental retardation, and blindness. Pathologic
examination shows aplasia of the organ of Corti and of the saccule (pars
inferior). The pars superior is generally normal.
Erythroblastosis Fetalis. Kernicterus in the newborn may result from
Rh blood incompatibility of the parents. This disease is characterized by a
deposition of bilirubin in the central nervous system, and jaundice, mental

retardation, cerebral palsy, and deafness may be present shortly after birth
in these infants. Postpartum exchange transfusion is the treatment for this
problem; however, the child may still have some high-tone sensorineural
loss. Therefore, the physician should be alert to this possibility.
Cretinism. Thyroid disease may be associated with deafness, as in this
syndrome, which is usually referred to as endemic cretinism. It is generally
accepted that iodine deficiency is responsible for the cretinism. This condition
is usually found in certain geographic locations, such as the Alps. The
hearing loss is of a mixed type, being both sensorineural and conductive.
Nongenetic Deafness Occurring Alone
Causes of congenital deafness which may occur without associated

abnormalities include premature birth, hypoxia, and prolonged labor. There
is also the possibility that the mother received ototoxic drugs during
pregnancy which may impair the hearing of the child. The pathology in these
diseases has not been well studied.
Delayed or Acquired Genetic Deafness

It is important for the clinician to recognize deafness as early as possible
and to advise the patient accordingly.
abnormalities include premature birth, hypoxia, and prolonged labor. There
Deafness). The genetic nature of this type of hearing loss may be over¬
looked owing to its clinical similarity to other types of sensorineural hearing
loss. Correct diagnosis depends primarily upon a careful history of the
problem in relation to its occurrence in other members of the family. The
diagnosis is often made by excluding all possible extrinsic causes, leaving
only an intrinsic cause—namely, genetic hearing loss—as the most likely
possibility. The deafness is usually bilateral and is considered to be an
autosomal dominant disorder. It can appear in childhood or in early
adulthood and will progress in severity during the remainder of the patient’s
life. Genetic progressive deafness is characterized by a bilateral, generally
flat or basin-shaped sensorineural configuration on the audiogram with fairly
good discrimination. There may be absence of the organ of Corti and spiral
ganglion cells in the basal turn and, most important, irregular degeneration
of the stria vascularis (Fig. 7-2).
Otosclerosis. Otosclerosis is an autosomal dominant disorder and has
been described in Chapter 6. It causes primarily a conductive hearing loss,
which may be associated with a progressive sensorineural hearing loss.
The number of described genetic syndromes involving deafness is so large Any syndrome with renal disor¬
that a detailed discussion of each is impossible. Therefore, the more common ders, retinitis pigmentosa, facial
anomalies or cardiac problems
syndromes that may be encountered will be discussed. may have hearing loss as part
Alport’s Disease. This dominantly transmitted syndrome is a progressive of the clinical picture.
renal disease (glomerulonephritis) that usually begins in childhood. Kidney
degeneration is usually accompanied by a progressive sensorineural hearing
loss that increases as renal malfunction worsens. Hearing loss associated
with Alport’s syndrome is bilateral, symmetric, and greater in the high
frequencies. Response to caloric tests may be reduced. Males are affected
more frequently than females.
130 PA RT TWO—TH E EAR
von Recklinghausen’s Disease. This syndrome is a localized form of

neurofibromatosis which includes bilateral acoustic tumors. Peripheral signs
of the disease such as hyperpigmented spots on the skin are often present.
The disease is usually transmitted through dominant inheritance.
Hurler s Syndrome. This disease begins in early childhood and results
in skeletal deformity, dwarfism, mental retardation, enlargement of the
spleen and liver, blindness, and profound sensorineural hearing loss. It
appears to be transmitted as a recessive trait and may be sex-linked. It is
usually fatal.
Klippel-Feil Syndrome. This syndrome consists of skeletal defects,
which may include fusion of the cervical vertebrae, spina bifida, scoliosis,
and torticollis. Vestibular dysfunction and profound sensorineural deafness
may also be present. The disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait.
Refsum’s Disease. This disease is characterized by retinitis pigmentosa,
ichthyosis, polyneuropathy, ataxia, and hearing loss. Approximately half of
the patients with Refsum’s disease have a progressive sensorineural hearing
loss. The disease is transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait.
Alstrom’S Disease. The primary features of this syndrome are retinitis
pigmentosa, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and progressive deafness. Hearing
loss appears around age 10 and is slowly progressive. The syndrome is
inherited through autosomal recessive transmission.
Paget’S Disease. Osteitis deformans, or Paget’s disease, is characterized
by skeletal deformities of the skull and the long bones of the legs. The
disease usually begins in middle age. This disease is inherited as an autosomal
dominant trait (Fig. 7-3).
FIGURE 7—3. Paget’s disease, vertical section through the temporal bone. C.C., Remants
of the old cochlear capsule. C.T., Cavum tympani. J.A.M., Internal auditory meatus. M.T.T.,
Tensor tympani muscle. N.B., Newly formed bone. N.VII, Facial nerve. (Photomicrograph
from Otological Research Laboratory, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia
University.) (Reprinted from Jackson C, Jackson CL: Diseases of the Nose, Throat and Ear
(ed 2). Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1959.)
Richards-Rundle Syndrome. The main features of the syndrome

include mental deficiency, ataxia, hypogonadism, and severe deafness. All
these symptoms appear in childhood. Hearing loss is total by five or six
years of age. Transmission is through autosomal recessive inheritance.
Crouzon’s Disease. Craniofacial dysostosis is characterized by prema¬
ture synostosis of the cranial suture, exophthalmos, parrot or hook nose,
short upper lip and protruding lower lip, atresia of the auditory meatus, and
a mixed hearing loss. The syndrome is inherited as an autosomal dominant
trait.
Infectious Causes of Hearing Loss

Middle Ear Infections. An infectious process in the middle ear can
obtain access to the inner ear. Metabolic products pass from the middle ear Middle ear infections can lead
into the cochlea or vestibule through the round or oval window. The to sensorineural hearing loss
by passing toxic byproducts
frequency and severity of this process are not well documented. It can occur through the round or oval win¬
in acute otitis but is seen more often in chronic cases. If a cholesteatoma dow.
forms and invades the inner ear, deafness is the usual result.
Viruses. Viral infections that cause hearing loss include mumps, chick-
enpox, measles, influenza, herpes zoster, and adenoviruses. Mumps is the
leading cause of unilateral acquired hearing loss in children. Measles remains
the leading cause of bilateral hearing loss. Viral etiologies are usually seen
in children. Their role in adults is less well defined.
Meningitis. Meningitis is a major cause of hearing loss in children. The
loss is usually bilateral but may on occasion be unilateral. The hearing loss
usually occurs in patients who are comatose for some period of time. The
hearing loss appears to occur early in the process, which may not be aborted
even with appropriate antibiotic therapy (Fig. 7-4).
Syphilis. Congenital syphilis should always be considered as a cause for
acquired sensorineural hearing loss. A fluctuating unilateral or bilateral
hearing loss with changes in balance may appear at any time during a
FIGURE 7—4. Microphotograph

showing invasion of the meninges
of the internal meatus from labyrin¬
thitis. Soft tissue parts of the coch¬
lea are destroyed. A collection of
pus (P) has formed in the base of
the modiolus. Note thickened dura
mater and granulation tissue (D).
(From Jackson C, Jackson CL: Dis¬
eases of the Nose, Throat and Ear
(ed 2). Philadelphia, WB Saunders
Co, 1959.)
patient’s life. Only FTA-ABS tests are reliable in the diagnosis of later
phases of syphilis.
Bullous Myringitis. This is an infectious process involving the middle
layer of the tympanic membrane. It is a painful process that has been
associated with high-tone sensorineural hearing loss.
Ototoxic Drugs
Table 7-4 presents an extensive list of drugs and chemicals that affect the
inner ear and hearing mechanism. As a general rule, any drug or chemical
that causes a renal toxic effect can and usually does cause some ototoxicity.
Each of the listed drugs can cause both vestibular and hearing symptoms.
Most of the medications listed are irreversible in their effects, although if
the effect is detected early enough and the drug discontinued some hearing
loss can be reversed. Drugs with ototoxic effects that are particularly
reversible include salicylates. Salicylate poisoning results in a 30- to 40-dB
flat hearing loss that is reversible when the drug is discontinued. Similarly,
erythromycin causes hearing loss only when given intravenously and in
relatively high doses. When this drug is withdrawn, the hearing loss is also
reversed. Medications such as dihydrostreptomycin have been banned in the
United States because of their long-term effects on the auditory system.
Even after dihydrostreptomycin is discontinued, effects on the hearing system
can occur as late as a month following discontinuation of the drug.
When using any ototoxic agent: In handling patients who are on potentially ototoxic drugs, the first rule
It) get baseline hearing levels,
12) test for balance, (3) warn
is that the patient must be warned about the potential side effects. If
the patient of the potential possible, baseline studies including balance and hearing tests should be
toxicity. performed before the drug is prescribed. At the first warning sign, a repeat
TABLE 7-4. OTOTOXIC AGENTS

Antibiotics Antineoplastics
Aminoglycosides Bleomycin
Streptomycin Nitrogen mustard
Dihydrostreptomycin cii-Platinum
Neomycin
Gentamicin Miscellaneous
Tobramycin Pentobarbital
Amikacin Hexadine
Other Antibiotics Mandelamine
Vancomycin Practolol
Erythromycin
Chemicals
Chloramphenicol
Carbon monoxide
Ristocetin
Oil of chenopodium
Polymyxin B
Nicotine
Viomycin
Aniline dyes
Pharmacetin
Alcohol
Colistin
Potassium bromate
Diuretics
Heavy Metals
Furosemide
Mercury
Ethacrynic acid
Gold
Bumetanide
Lead
Acetazolamide
Arsenic
Mannitol
Analgesics and Antipyretics

Salicylates
Quinine
Chloroquine
test need's to be done. Drug level monitoring will show toxic levels in some
cases prior to evidence of the drug’s toxic effect. Decisions to remove
ototoxic drugs from a therapeutic regimen must be weighed against the
potentially life-threatening disorders that they are treating.
Acoustic Tumors
The most common inner ear tumor causing hearing loss is an acoustic
neuroma. Acoustic neuromas are benign tumors of the Schwann cells
covering the eighth nerve. These schwannomas occur most often on the
balance portion of the eighth nerve. Other causes of hearing loss by tumors
in the internal auditory canal include seventh nerve neuromas, meningiomas,
hemangiomas, and aberrant vessels. Tumors in younger individuals or a
family history of acoustic neuromas may represent an early manifestation of
von Recklinghausen’s syndrome. Von Recklinghausen’s disease causes all
cases of bilateral acoustic neuromas. The usual course of an acoustic neuroma
is that the patient develops a unilateral sensorineural hearing loss. This is at
first mild, but as the tumor continues to grow, it slowly crushes the nerves
of the internal auditory canal. Rarely, patients complain of vestibular
symptoms. The hearing loss progresses slowly in most cases. Acoustic
neuromas can, however, cause sudden hearing loss or Meniere-like syn¬
dromes as well. Any unilateral or asymmetric hearing loss is an acoustic Any asymmetric hearing loss re-
neuroma until proved otherwise. Discovery of small acoustic neuromas is quires further work-up with ABR,
made by having a high degree of suspicion leading to ARR ("auditory CT’orM,ll‘
brainstem response) testing and radiologic confirmation. Acoustic tumors
are seen only on enhanced CT scans with high-resolution thin slices. MRI
also provides an excellent view of these tumors and is probably more
sensitive than CT scanning (Fig. 7-5).
Acoustic tumors may be removed surgically by three major routes. They
can be resected from the middle fossa, from the posterior fossa, or across
FIGURE 7—5. A right cerebellopontine angle tumor is seen

on MRI. The signal is more intense than nearby brain. The
black line behind it is a large blood vessel. Acoustic neuromas
are usually seen extending into the internal acoustic canal.
the labyrinth. The selection of a given procedure or combination of proce¬

dures is based on tumor size, potential for hearing preservation, and surgical
experience.
Trauma
Trauma to the inner ear can be divided into two primary forms. One is
acoustic energy and the second is mechanical energy. In injuries causing
mechanical trauma to the temporal bone, temporal bone fractures are
possible. Structurally, the temporal bone is made of some of the densest
bone in the human body. It is protected by its central location. When the
temporal bone fractures, it rarely does so without associated problems.
These can and usually do include loss of consciousness, subdural or epidural
hematoma, or concussion. Ultimately, this means that the patient’s hearing
is not a critical problem given (or requiring) acute treatment. These patients
often will need neurosurgical procedures.
Temporal bone fractures are divided into two general groups (Fig. 7-6).
Temporal bone fractures are 80 One is longitudinal fractures; the second is transverse fractures. Statistically,
per cent longitudinal, 20per gp per cent Qf tpc fractures are longitudinal and 20 per cent are transverse.
Longitudinal fractures begin at the foramen magnum and travel out to the
external auditory canal. The ear usually bleeds and there is a conductive
hearing loss. Transverse fractures account for a high proportion of injuries
to the labyrinth and facial nerve because the fracture line travels through
the petrous apex or the labyrinth. Labyrinthine injuries can be less severe,
causing a concussion phenomenon with recovery of balance and hearing, or
more severe, with total loss of hearing.
ERANSVERSE FRACTURE LONGITUDINAL FRACTURE

FIGURE 7-6. A temporal bone fracture. Temporal bone fractures are divided into longitudinal and transverse
types. Transverse fractures usually involve the geniculate ganglion (A) and the inner ear (B). Longitudinal
fractures go through the tympanic membrane (C). Either type can injure the middle meningeal artery (D).
7—DISEASES OF THE INNER EAR
Blast injuries cause a concussion wave that does more damage to the
middle ear than to the inner ear, but high-tone sensorineural hearing loss
can result from this type of injury. Acoustic trauma is perhaps the most
common cause of sensorineural hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss is
caused by both loudness and length of exposure. The Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) has established standards that are
believed to relate hearing loss to the exposure of workers to loud noises
over time in the work place. While levels of 80 dB for 8 hours are thought
to be safe, exposure to 110 dB noise over a relatively brief period of time is
considered dangerous to the long-term safety of the hearing mechanism.
Experience has shown that high-tone hearing loss occurs first, and this is
believed to be related to the acoustic energy and the natural frequency of
the inner ear hearing mechanism. Early on, noise exposure results in a
temporary threshold shift. These generally improve in less than two weeks.
Repeated trauma results in permanent threshold changes.
Presbycusis
Presbycusis is the loss of hearing over time due to the aging mechanism
in the inner ear. There are four pathologic types that have been classified
by Schuknecht. The first phenomenon is sensory presbycusis. In this form
of pathology hair cells are lost first. Later, this leads to a loss in cochlear
neurons. Usually this involves hair cell loss on the basal turn of the cochlea
and high-tone hearing loss. Neuropresbycusis, on the other hand, involves a
primary loss of cochlear neurons with relative preservation of the hair cells.
There is relatively greater loss of word discrimination in this case and only
a gradual loss of hair cells over time. Strial presbycusis leaves excellent word
discrimination scores after a degenerative process causes moderate to severe
hearing loss that is relatively flat in nature. Pathologically, the stria vascularis
appears to degenerate and shrink. Finally, cochlear-conductive hearing loss
leaves a normal neuronal and hair cell population without damage to the
stria vascularis but shows a hearing loss that is thought to be related to a
limitation of movement in the basilar membrane. The exact nature of the
pathologic process is not clear.
Idiopathic Causes of Hearing Loss
Meniere’s disease is believed to be a disorder caused by swelling of the

endolymphatic space. Patients with Meniere’s disease of a cochlear nature
describe fluctuation in hearing loss with a low-tone tinnitus. Attacks can last
several minutes to hours. Losses are usually temporary but can become
permanent over longer periods of time. Usually Meniere’s disease involves
vestibular changes and for that reason it is discussed in the next section.
Multiple sclerosis is also a cause of varying degrees of hearing loss. The
structural location of the hearing loss is not clearly explained. It is relatively
rare that multiple sclerosis patients develop total sensorineural hearing loss
and deafness. It is of value to note that next to visual symptoms, the most
common manifestation of MS can be in the eighth cranial nerve.
Issues of Sudden Hearing Loss

Sudden hearing loss can be a very frightening experience for a patient. It
warrants the immediate attention of the physician. The problem can be
related to a known cause or may be idiopathic. The loss may be minimal or
severe, temporary or permanent. The disorder is only a symptom complex
and it is not exceedingly common. Few good studies have been done to
document the pathophysiology or relative success of different treatment
regimens.
In approaching a patient with sudden hearing loss, every effort should be
made to try to discover the cause of the hearing loss and measure its severity.
Attention should be devoted to ruling out cardiovascular, diabetic, or other
systemic causes. An otologic and audiologic exam as well as a CT scan may
be required.
More often than not, no cause is found. Patients should be informed of
their prognosis and treatment options. Prognosis is best if treatment was
sought within 24 hours of onset and if hearing is still at a relatively good
level. Prognosis deteriorates rapidly with longer time periods of severe
hearing loss in older patients who develop dizziness.
Idiopathic sudden hearing loss
Treatment is directed at several potential causes of idiopathic sudden
is thought to be caused by
thromboembolic or immune hearing loss. One thesis suggests the cause to be thromboembolic in small
events. vessels of the ears. Proponents of this theory treat patients with vasodilators,
plasma expanders, or anticoagulants. An alternate thesis suggests that an
unknown virus or immunologic event leads to the sudden hearing loss. The
proponents of this thesis suggest the use of high-dose steroids to reduce
inflammatory products. These drugs are used for short periods of time.
Overall, patients who are put at bed rest and treated seem to have a higher
recovery rate than those who are not treated.
Treatment Concepts
Any patient suffering from a known etiology of hearing loss should first
have that etiology controlled. Any patient on ototoxic drugs should have the
drugs stopped if at all possible. Patients who are in noisy work places should
wear protection and should limit their exposure to loud noise. Once trauma
to the acoustic mechanism has occurred by whatever method, hearing loss
is usually permanent. Currently, treatment of hearing loss involves amplifi¬
cation using an external hearing aid. While implantable devices are consid¬
ered, the common application of such devices is not yet available. In severe
cases, cochlear implantation with an electrode array is possible at this time
Only the totally deaf patient is currently considered for implantation in this
manner.
Tinnitus poses one of the most complex problems to treatment. It is purely
a psychoacoustic phenomenon and, therefore, cannot be measured. It has
been estimated that 13 million people suffer with this problem. Perhaps one
million patients suffer severe or debilitating tinnitus. Often masking of the
tinnitus is the most practical alternative. Recommendations to patients
involve the use of masking with a fan or “pink” noise such as an FM radio
tuned off of the station. If these simple measures do not help and the patient
has a hearing loss, then treatment with an amplification method is recom¬
mended. In severe cases that have failed these methods, a tinnitus device or
instrument is prescribed. In these cases, producing the pitch or frequency of
the tinnitus can sometimes create a masking inhibition that persists even
after the device is turned off. A small number of patients respond to this
form of therapy. Other methods such as DC stimulation have been tried and
occasionally are of value. More often, patients respond well to biofeedback
or other psychologic methods to help them deal with their symptoms in a
better manner.
DISEASES THAT PRESENT WITH VERTIGO AS A

PRIMARY SYMPTOM
Balance depends upon four separate and interdependent systems. First, Balance comes from vestibular,
the vestibular system senses accelerating movement and perceives gravity. ocular, proprioceptive, and cen¬
tral (neural) sources.
Proprioceptive cues from joint position senses and muscle tone provides
information concerning the relationship of the head to the remainder of the
body. Third, vision gives perceptions of position sense, speed, and orienta¬
tion. Finally, all of these senses are integrated through the brain stem and
cerebellum.
Nonvestibular Causes of Dizziness

Hyperventilation. Hyperventilation is one of the more common causes
of nonvestibular dizziness. Symptoms of lightheadedness and paresthesia in
the distal extremities occur with rapid ventilation. The circumoral area is
particularly prone to sensations of paresthesias. This is often associated with
hysterical types of personalities.
Hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia is a transient reduction in blood glucose
which occurs in chemical diabetics. It is often accompanied by symptoms of
nausea and vomiting, but true spinning vertigo is rare. Patients complain of
symptoms of unsteadiness and lightheadedness associated with severe sweat¬
ing and pallor.
Vascular Causes. Any vascular phenomenon that compromises the
blood supply to the brain stem and cerebellum can lead to symptoms of
dizziness or unsteadiness. The most common form of this is a migraine
variant. Patients who complain of classic symptoms of migraine headache
also can occasionally complain of dizziness. This phenomenon is caused by
vertebrobasilar spasm. Longer-term disequilibrium and unsteadiness of sim¬
ilar etiologies are caused by vertebrobasilar artery insufficiency. Often this
is associated with atherosclerotic heart disease and embolic phenomena.
Rarely is the vertebrobasilar system involved in an isolated manner; more
commonly, the carotid arteries are also involved. In order to cause symptoms
of dizziness, vertebrobasilar blood flow must be significantly compromised
to flows below 50 per cent of normal.
Cervical Vertigo. The exact role of cervical vertigo is uncertain.
Initially, this was thought to be a variant of vertebrobasilar insufficiency.
Recently the definition has changed in that cervical joint position sense is
thought to be lost in some patients, and this produces symptoms of dizziness.
The only form of therapy is physical therapy to restore strength in the neck.
Vertigo on a Vestibular Basis (Table 7-5)

Benign Positional Vertigo. Benign positional vertigo is usually seen
in patients who note that, with a certain position of the head, they have
TABLE 7-5. COMMON DISORDERS OF THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM

PROCESS TYPE AND LOCATION
Infections Labyrinthitis Bacterial, viral, syphilitic,
cholesteatoma, herpes zoster
Petrositis Bacterial
Meningitis Bacterial, viral
Encephalitis Viral
Vascular Occlusion Vertebral, basilar, internal auditory
Aneurysm artery, PICA, AICA
Infarction
Arteriovenous malformation
Migraine
Trauma Bone fracture Longitudinal and transverse
Barotrauma Round or oval window fistula
Concussion Labyrinth, brain stem, cerebellum
Avulsion Eighth nerve
Neoplasm Cancer Metastases and primary malignancy of
Glomus temporal bone involving labyrinth
Schwannoma Eighth nerve
Meningioma Internal auditory canal
Epidermoid Labyrinth
Primary brain tumor
Metabolic Diabetes mellitus

Otosclerosis
Paget’s disease
Thiamine deficiency
Familial ataxia
Osteopetrosis
Toxins See Table 7-4
Unknown Meniere’s disease Autoimmune, idiopathic
causes Vestibular neuronitis Viral?
Cupulolithiasis Cupular
Multiple sclerosis
acute attacks of transient dizziness. This is accompanied by nystagmus that

fatigues on repeated testing. Typically, there is a brief delay from the onset
of the change in position to the onset of vertigo. The first attack is usually
the most severe, and repeated attacks become less severe in nature. Patho¬
logically the calcified cupula is thought to fracture, leading to this syndrome.
For this reason, the disease is sometimes referred to as cupulolithiasis.
Treatment is usually directed toward symptomatic relief and reassurance
that the process usually resolves spontaneously.
Vestibular Neuronitis. Vestibular neuronitis is caused by an unknown
source. It is essentially a clinical disorder in which the patient complains of
severe dizziness with intractable vomiting, nausea, and inability to stand or
walk. These symptoms can go on for three to four days. Some patients need
to be hospitalized for symptoms of dehydration. Attacks leave the patient
with unsteadiness and imbalance for several months. Repeated episodic
attacks can occur. There is usually no change in hearing with this phenom¬
enon.
Labyrinthitis (Fig. 7-7). Labyrinthitis is an inflammatory process in¬
volving the inner ear mechanism. There are different clinical and pathologic
classifications. The process can be either acute or chronic and can be either
toxic or suppurative. Acute toxic labyrinthitis is caused by an infection of
nearby structures; whether it be the middle ear or the meninges makes little
A B
FIGURE 7—7. A, Microphotograph showing the early serofibrinous stage of meningitic labyrinthitis.
Serofibrinous exudate (E) has collected mainly in the middle coil. Pus cells have invaded the modiolus
but not the labyrinthine fluids. B, Microphotograph showing the diffuse purulent stage of meningitic
labyrinthitis. Pus cells are diffusely distributed throughout the cochlear spaces and the modiolus.
Destruction of the cochlear duct has already occurred in the basal coil. (From Jackson C, Jackson CL:
Diseases of the Nose, Throat and Ear (ed 2). Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co. 1959.)
difference. Toxic labyrinthitis usually resolves with some loss of hearing and
vestibular function. This is thought to be caused by toxic products from an
infection and not by viable organisms. Acute suppurative labyrinthitis occurs
with an acute bacterial infection that extends into the structures of the inner
ear. The chances of complete loss of hearing and vestibular function are
quite high. Finally, chronic changes can exist from any source and may lead
to endolymphatic hydrops or pathologic changes ultimately sclerosing the
labyrinth.
Meniere’s Disease (Fig. 7-8). Meniere’s disease is a disorder of swelling
in the endolymphatic space. This pathologic process is referred to as hydrops.
Pathologically, Meniere’s disease is caused by a swelling of the endolymphatic
compartment. When this process reaches a pinnacle, a Reissner’s membrane
ruptures, mixing endolymph and perilymph. This causes a temporary hearing
loss that resolves when the membrane reseals and the chemical composition
of the endolymph and perilymph returns to normal. Classically, the patient Meniere's disease is character¬
develops a low-tone sensorineural hearing loss followed by a symptom of ized by hearing loss, tinnitus,
dizziness, and pressure or full¬
low-pitched tinnitus. Patients describe aural fullness and then become acutely ness in one ear.
vertiginous. Attacks last between 15 minutes and several hours in duration.
This classic picture can be modified to involve only the vestibular portion of
the labyrinth when symptoms involve only changes in balance and aural
FIGURE 7—8. Meniere's disease. This

shows the enlargement of the scala
media. The Reissner’s membrane is
stretched to the point that it is plas¬
tered on the superior wall of the
cochlea.
fullness. Meniere’s disease is an unpredictable disorder that can occur at any

time, although primarily it affects middle-aged women. The disease fluctuates
over long periods of time without significant variation, but in certain cases
the disease can progress rapidly, leading to total hearing loss and lack of
reliable vestibular function in the ear. Unfortunately, fluctuation over a long
period of time is the norm. Meniere’s syndrome is a similar clinical picture
that is caused by a known etiology. These causes include hypothyroidism
and syphilis. Treatment of the idiopathic process involves limitation of salt
in the diet and the prescription of a mild diuretic to prevent the formation
of endolymphatic hydrops. Symptomatic treatment with vestibular suppres¬
sants is recommended. In cases of medical failure, surgical therapy is directed
either at improving the flow of endolymph through the endolymphatic duct
and sac or at sectioning the vestibular nerve through a number of surgical
routes.
Recent literature suggests that some cases of bilateral Meniere’s disease
may be caused by an immune phenomenon. This has not been well docu¬
mented, although treatment with steroids has resulted in dramatic improve¬
ment in both hearing and function in selected patients.
Perilymph Fistula
Patients who have sudden barotrauma in the area of the ear can experience
sensorineural hearing loss and dizziness. This is seen in divers, flyers, and
anyone who has a sudden change in pressure in the middle ear space. These
sudden changes can cause a disruption of the round or oval window
membrane, allowing perilymph to leak into the middle ear space. The role
of minor pressure changes such as sneezing has not been determined. Some
cases of perilymph fistula have developed without apparent pressure change.
The fistula can be repaired by sealing a leak with fat grafts. Resolution of
the symptoms of dizziness occurs in only a few cases. The rates of occurrence
and cure are still debatable.
Treatment
A majority of the diseases listed here cause a change in the vestibular
function. This means that neural firing from the nerves is still present, but
the data transmitted to the brain are unreliable. Treatment is directed toward
reducing the level of function of the vestibular nerve in the brain stem.
Vestibular suppressants include antihistamines and benzodiazepines. The
two primary drugs used for this are Antivert and Valium. Both drugs give
symptomatic relief but do not generally make symptoms completely disap¬
pear.
Severe and persistent cases of vestibular vertigo can be treated with
vestibular nerve sections through one of at least three routes. First, the
nerve can be sectioned through the middle fossa. This procedure is primarily
limited to patients under 60 years of age in good health and those willing to
accept a half-head shave. A second route involves the posterior fossa, where
a suboccipital craniectomy is performed and the nerve is identified in the
internal auditory canal. The procedure carries some risk to the facial nerve
as well as the cochlear nerve but can usually be accomplished without
significant difficulty. The degree of completeness of the section has been
under question in recent literature. The final route is a translabyrinthine
approach with removal or destruction of the entire vestibular system. In this
case, there is a high degree of success, but all patients will lose hearing in
the affected ear.
References
Hughes G: Clinical Otology. New York, Thieme, Inc., 1986.
Konigsmark BW, Gorlin RJ: Genetic and Metabolic Deafness. Philadelphia, WB Saunders
1976.
Schuknecht HF, Gulya AJ: Anatomy of the Temporal Bone. Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger,
DISORDERS OF
THE FACIAL NERVE
by Robert H. Maisel, M.D., and Samuel C. Levine, M.D.
Paralysis of the facial musculature produces abnormalities of facial expres¬

sion, difficulty eating, and problems maintaining clear vision. Patients who
suffer this disorder immediately notice the severe cosmetic and functional
deformities. Often * they relate no apparent reason for the onset of this
disorder. Bell’s palsy is a peripheral seventh nerve paralysis for which no
apparent explanation can be found. The term assumes that a thorough
evaluation for some of the known causes of facial paralysis has been
completed. The first examining physician should evaluate the patient, assess
facial nerve function, and obtain appropriate laboratory studies. This chapter
includes the anatomy and pathophysiology of the facial nerve. The diagnostic
tests necessary for evaluation of facial nerve function are discussed and the
differential diagnosis is reviewed.
GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FACIAL NERVE
In order to evaluate the causes of facial paralysis, it is necessary to

understand the anatomy and function of the nerve. The seventh cranial
nerve begins at the brain stem and follows a course through the temporal
bone, ending in the muscles of the face. There are at least five major
branches. While the seventh cranial nerve carries innervation to facial
motion, it also provides lacrimation, salivation, impedance regulation of
the middle ear, and the senses of pain, touch, temperature, and taste (Fig.
8-1).
The seventh nerve nucleus is in the region of the pons. Here, it receives
information from the precentral gyrus of the motor cortex, which innervates
the ipsilateral and contralateral forehead. The cerebral cortical tracts also
innervate the contralateral portion of the remainder of the face. The motor
nucleus innervates only the ipsilateral facial nerve. As the nerve leaves the
brain stem, a branch of the eighth nerve referred to as the nervus intermedius
separates and joins the seventh nerve as it enters the internal auditory canal.
The facial nerve makes two The nerve turns anteriorly and enters the geniculate ganglion. The ganglion
sharp turns (first and second
genua) as it passes through the
contains the cell bodies for taste to the anterior tongue and those for touch,
temporal bone. pain, and temperature to the external auditory canal. A number of nerve
fibers pass through the ganglion and form the greater superficial petrosal
nerve (parasympathetic). This runs along the floor of the middle fossa and
enters the pterygoid canal. It then passes into the sphenopalatine ganglion
142
8—DISORDERS OF THE FACIAL NERVE 143
LACRIMAL
FIGURE 8—1. Topographic anatomy of the facial nerve. Physiologic testing permits determination of the
site of the injury. Lesions medial to the geniculate ganglion will cause diminished tearing. A lesion within
the middle ear may cause absence of the stapedial reflex. Injury to the chorda tympani will diminish taste
and salivation.
and anastomoses with fibers that innervate the lacrimal apparatus. The facial
fibers make a sharp turn posteriorly at the geniculate ganglion and descend
through the labyrinthine segment to the tympanic segment of the nerve. The
nerve enters the tympanic segment and makes a second genu (or turn). It is
here, near the oval window, that the nerve can become exposed and may
be palpable in the middle ear. The nerve descends from the genu vertically
and gives a branch to the stapedius muscle. Below this level, a second branch
emerges and backtracks through the ear as the chorda tympani nerve. The
chorda carries fibers of touch, pain, temperature, and taste to the anterior
two thirds of the tongue. It also controls salivation from the submandibular
glands. It passes between the malleus and incus (Fig. 8-2) and exits the The bony covering overthefa-
temporal bone through the iter anterior. The major portion of the facial ciat nerve in the middle ear can
nerve carries motor fibers that exit from the stylomastoid foramen just dehiscent.
medial to the mastoid process. Seventy per cent of the fibers at this point
represent motor fibers to the face. The nerve subsequently turns anteriorly
and divides into five major branches—the temporal, zygomatic, buccal,
mandibular, and cervical. The branches may anastomose with one another
as the nerve passes through the parotid gland (Fig. 8-3).
PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Facial movement is a result of up to 7000 motor fibers moving in synchrony

to initiate muscular contraction. Each axon connects synaptically to several
muscle fibers. Neurotransmitter chemicals (acetylcholine) and enzymes (cho-
Geniculate ganglion
Greater & Lesser sup.
petrosol n.
TYMPANIC..
FIGURE 8—2. Course of the facial

nerve in the temporal bone. (From
Shambaugh GE, Clemis JD: Facial
Stapedius n. nerve paralysis. In Paparella MM,
Shumrick DA (eds): Otolaryngology.
Chorda
Vol 2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
tympani n.
1973, p 265.
MASTOID,
Stylomastoid
foramen
Posterior
auricular n.
Digastric n.
Digastric n.. TRUNK OF FACIAL
Upper Division I
Forehead
Post, auricular n. Orbicularis of eye
^ .Lower
FIGURE 8—3. Peripheral distribution wy. ' . Division!
of the facial nerve. (From Sham¬
baugh GE, Clemis JD: Facial nerve ..Orbicularis
paralysis. In Paparella MM, Shum¬
/ of mouth
rick DA (eds): Otolaryngology. Vol
2, Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
1973, p 266.)
Platysma
S of neck
line transferase) are manufactured by the nerve cell body in the pons and
are transported along the nerve to the motor end plate through the micro¬
tubular systems. It is believed the neurometabolites are carried proximally
by similar transport mechanisms from each axon. The facial nerve has a
single motor neuron that is located within the central nervous system (CNS).
The sensory cell bipolar neurons have their nuclei outside of the central
nervous system, with one axon from the periphery to the cell body and
another from there to the central nervous system. The motor cell axon is
covered by Schwann cells, which form the neural tubule for nonmyelinated
nerves and which themselves lay down the insulating myelin for myelinated
nerves. A node of Ranvier, which represents the junction between Schwann
cells, is seen every millimeter. The basement membrane on the outside of
the Schwann cell is continuous so that the axon is never in contact with
extracellular spaces (even at the nodes of Ranvier). The axon receives its
oxygen from the Schwann cells and rejuvenates its axoplasm from the parent
neuron. The rate of axoplasmic metabolism as well as its rate of movement
appears to be about 1 mm a day. It progresses from the central nervous
system cell distally; this is the rate of regeneration of an axon where the
nerve is completely transected.
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY'NEUROPATHOLOGY OF INJURY
When an axon is injured either by direct trauma or due to metabolic

events, marked histologic and measurable biochemical changes may occur
all the way back to the cell body. Pressure on a nerve may result in a
damming of the flow of axoplasm. Nerve injuries have been classified in a
system of five degrees of increasing complexity and decreasing likelihood of
uncomplicated recovery. A first-degree injury, or conduction block, is also The first-degree conduction
called neurapraxia. This occurs when the conduction of impulses is blocked, block is called neurapraxia.
damming axoplasm transport (in both directions) with some axoplasm
transport continuing (Fig. 8-44).
FIRST DEGREE INJUR\

(Conduction Block)
SECOND DEGREE
INJURY
B
FIGURE 8—4. A, First-degree injury. Nerve fiber is twisted or compressed in such a way as to distort
intraneural anatomy yet allow axoplasmic flow in both directions. Note that the myelin layer is also
maintained in these injuries. 6, Second-degree injury. With continued pressure, torsion, or both, axoplasmic
continuity is disrupted. The distal axon's trophic influence on myelin layer is lost, resulting in distal
degeneration of the myelin layer. Schwann cell and endoneurium, which together constitute the endoneurial
tube, remain intact. (From Johns ME, Crumley RL: Facial nerve injury, repair, and rehabilitation [a self-
instructional package], Washington, DC, American Academy of Otolaryngology, 1979, pp 19-20.)
The distance from the site of injury to the ceil body in the pons determines
to some degree the amount of injury to the entire nerve. If the injury occurs
in the internal auditory canal with axon disruption, long distances of
axoplasm are lost and the permanent damage is greater than when such an
injury occurs distally near the motor end plates. Younger people make a
more complete recovery from the same nerve injury (if repaired) than do
older people and people with chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes) or metabolic
disorders. If the amount of pressure on the nerve is sufficient to completely
block the movement of axoplasm past the site of injury over several days,
axonotmesis (second-degree injury) occurs with loss of axonal continuity
(Fig. 8-4B). This results in wallerian degeneration distally. The axons may
continue for several days being electrically responsive to external stimulation
(distally) but with no voluntary motor movement or electrical conductivity
across the site of injury. Histologically, the proximal nerve remains normal
but biochemical changes occur. Axonotmesis and neurotmesis have several
histologic correlates. The Schwann cells become swollen and phagocytic.
They then multiply until they fill the connective tissue tubule surrounding
each nerve fiber. The neuron deprived of nutrients normally brought back
through the axons loses Nissl substance with swelling of cytoplasm (chro¬
matolysis). The distant nerve continues to undergo changes, which are
usually not evident until three or four days after injury. The formation of
Biingner’s bands occurs. These are thought to provide a biochemical mode
of attraction for new nerves. When the nerve fiber is cut, repairing nerve
produces in its healing phase a growth cone at the proximal end of the axon.
It begins to grow toward the original distal end where the new motor end
plates are. There are multiple protoplasmic processes of the growth cone,
and a single regenerating axon will branch and enter Schwann cells of many
tubules, while similarly a single Schwann cell may be shared by many small
axons. Similarly, growth to another nerve may occur. Histochemical analysis
of a regenerating neuron shows increasing levels of RNA synthetase and
There is theoretical evidence to glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, maximizing at about 21 days. Some
suggest that the repair ot a cut
facial nerve is more likely to be theorists have suggested, on the basis of this information, that cut nerves
effective if done 21 days after heal best if repaired at this time, but immediate repair is still the treatment
the injury. of choice. Delay is unwarranted owing to scarring and physical changes in
the wound.
Facial muscles are branchiomeric muscles, and greater muscle wasting is
seen in somatic muscle than in branchiomeric muscle after loss of motor
nerves. In humans it has been noted that there is a progressive but mild
decrease in facial muscle fiber size over the two weeks after complete
denervation. Observation has not shown complete degeneration of facial
muscle fibers following denervation. For these reasons, it is believed that
rehabilitation of the facial muscles by nerve transfer or reanastomosis of the
original injured nerve is reasonable for periods of at least 24 months after
injury. The facial nerve really goes through three stages after injury. Stage
1, which occurs up to 21 days, involves the physiologic events described
above, in which the cell body undergoes metabolic transformation and begins
to regenerate to create axoplasm that will inhabit the now empty neurotu¬
bules.
Stage 2, which lasts up to two years, is a period when the cell body and
the proximal segment can regenerate using the Biingner’s bands or reserved
endoneural tubes through which the regenerating axons can reach the facial
muscles. Therefore, certainly up to two years after an injury, it should be It is possible to repair the facial
considered plausible to reanastomose the severed nerve, interpose a cable nerve up to two years after the
injury.
graft between the two points of loss of continuity, or transfer another
functioning motor nerve to the distal nerve segments. Stage 3, which is
usually characterized by distal neural scarring and muscle degeneration,
obviously precludes consideration of restoring neuromuscular continuity.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTING
A number of diagnostic tests are used to evaluate facial nerve function.

Since a major portion of the facial nerve is in the temporal bone, tests
directed toward hearing are frequently used to evaluate the nearby structures.
The goal of testing is to locate the lesion and to project the ultimate outcome
of the paralysis.
AUDIOLOGIC TESTING
Any patient who suffers a facial nerve palsy needs to have a complete
audiogram. Testing must include air conduction and bone conduction thresh¬
olds, as well as tympanometry and stapes reflexes. The function of the eighth
cranial nerve can be evaluated using auditory brain stem evoked response
(ABR) tests. This test is most helpful in detecting pathology in the internal
auditory canal. A conductive hearing loss suggests an abnormality in the
middle ear space, and in view of the exposure of the facial nerve in this area
infectious sources need to be considered. Reflex testing is much more
complex. A loud tone is presented, either to the ipsilateral or contralateral
ear, which evokes a reflex movement of the stapedius muscle. This changes If facial nerve paralysis devel¬
the tension on the tympanic membrane and results in a change in the ops during acute otitis media,
the nerve may be dehiscent in
impedance of the ossicular chain. If the tone is presented to the opposite, the middle ear.
normal-hearing ear and the reflex is elicited, the seventh nerve is thought to
be intact at this point. Absence of this reflex when either ear is stimulated
suggests an abnormality of the afferent seventh cranial nerve.
TEAR TESTS
By using a Schirmer test, the tearing function of the eye can be evaluated. The Schirmer test compares
These strips are commercially available and are placed over the lower lid tearing on both sides.
into the conjunctival sac on both sides (Fig. 8-5). After three minutes, the
length of the strip that is moist is compared to the opposite side. A difference Decreased tearing on the
of greater than 25 per cent suggests potential involvement of the seventh Schirmer test means injury to
the greater superficial petrosal
cranial nerve. The side of less tearing is interpreted to represent greater nerve or to the facial nerve
superficial petrosal nerve activity due to loss of action in the parasympathetic
nerve of Wrisberg (Table 8-1).
FIGURE 8-5. A Schirmer’s test demonstrating decreased lacrimation of the right eye in
comparison to the left eye.
TASTE
Measurement of taste is a reliable indicator of the interruption of the

function of the chorda tympani nerve. Salt and lemon juice are two easy
taste tests to obtain. Saccharine or sugar can also be used. Loss of taste due
to injury is limited to the anterior two thirds of the tongue and stops at the
midline.
TABLE 8-1. FACIAL NERVE TEST RESULTS

STAPEDIUS
SCHIRMER’S REFLEX
LACRIMATION SALIVARY IMPEDANCE TASTE
SITE OF LESION TEST FLOW TEST TEST TESTING
Cerebral hemisphere - — _ _
Brain stem -+- ■+■
Cerebellopontine angle to + + + 4-
geniculate ganglion
Geniculate ganglion to stapedius - + —
+
muscle
Stapedius muscle to stylomastoid - + _ +
foramen
Face - - -
Key: - usually normal
± possibly abnormal
+ often abnormal
SALIVATION
Salivation tests can be performed by cannulating the submandibular glands.

A small section of No. 50 polyethylene tubing is inserted into Wharton’s
duct. A piece of cotton saturated with lemon juice is placed in the mouth,
and one must see the flow of saliva in both tubes. The volume can be
compared at one minute. A reduction in salivary flow of 25 per cent is
considered abnormal. The same problems exist with this pathway as with
taste, since both are transmitted by the chorda tympani nerve.
Tests such as the Schirmer test, acoustic reflex, taste, and salivary flow
were once thought to have localizing value. That is to say, they could point
to the specific site of a lesion. This is not a reliable phenomenon but may
be of topognostic value.
NERVE FUNCTION TESTS
A number of nerve function tests are available. They include electro¬

myography (EMG), electroneuronography (ENOG), and maximal stimula¬
tion tests. EMG’s are frequently performed by neurology services. They
have value later in determining the patient’s course in reinnervation re¬
sponses. EMG’s can be classified as showing a normal response, a denerva¬
tion, a fibrillation, or a bizarre pattern suggestive of a myopathy or a
neuropathy (Fig. 8-6). Unfortunately, before 21 days following an acute
paralysis, the value of an EMG is limited. Prior to 21 days, if the face does
not move, the EMG will show denervation potentials. Fibrillation potentials
are a positive sign showing recovery of some fibers. These potentials are not
seen before 21 days.
ENOG obtains more information at an earlier time. ENOG carries out a
stimulation at one point and measurement of the EMG at a more distal
point on the nerve. Nerve conduction velocity can be calculated. If there is
a 90 per cent reduction in ENOG versus the other side at ten days, the
chances of recovery are significantly reduced. Fisch and Eselin reported that
a 25 per cent drop resulted in incomplete recovery in 88 per cent of their
patients, whereas 77 per cent who maintained a response greater than that
had normal recovery of their facial nerve.
Finally, the maximal stimulation test is easy and convenient. In this test,
C0NDUC- CONDUC¬ DEGENER- DEGENER¬

NORMAL TION TION ATION ATI ON RECOVERY
BLOCK BLOCK (early) (late)
( mild) (severe)
CON
FIGURE 8—6. Schematic representation of electromyographic recordings of facial paralysis.

(From Mathog RH, Hudson WR: Electrodiagnosis in facial paralysis. South Med ] 63 37-
40, 1970.)
FIGURE 8-7. The facial nerve excitability test demonstrating stimulation of the lower
division of the facial nerve just anterior to the stylomastoid foramen.
the probe is pressed against the face in the area of the facial nerve. The
current is slowly increased to 5 ma, or until the patient has discomfort (Fig.
8-7). The forehead, eyebrow, periorbital area, cheek, nasal ala, and lower
lip are tested by gently sweeping the electrode. Any movement in the area
indicates a normal response. A small difference in response between the
paralyzed side and the normal side is considered to be a sign of recovery.
Marked decrease means that twitch on the paralyzed side occurs at 25 per
cent of the current used on the normal side. When compared at ten days,
92 per cent of the Bell’s palsy patients had some return of function. When
the electrical response was lost, 100 per cent had incomplete return of
function. In those patients in whom there was a marked decrease, 73 per
cent had incomplete return of facial function. The statistics suggest that the
most reliable form of testing is direct nerve function tests.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
The differential diagnosis of facial nerve paralysis is lengthy. It involves

congenital, infectious, traumatic, neoplastic, vascular, and finally idiopathic
causes. The following list covers major causes but is not meant to be
complete.
CONGENITAL LESIONS
Congenital causes of facial nerve paralysis are uncommon. One of the Mobius’ syndrome: (1) external
more common causes in this category is Mobius’ syndrome. In this case, the ZtZôfZTneJe!
facial nerve forms but it is a fibrotic tract. And while muscle development ^ |///r andXII.
may be present in some cases, it usually rapidly degenerates to fibrosis.
Unfortunately, these children have no response to any electrical testing at
birth and will not develop any form of facial movement because of the
abnormality.
More often, facial nerve paralysis is a result of childbirth trauma. During
the process of childbirth, fractures of the temporal bone can occur. The use
of forceps has been indicated as a potential cause of many of these lesions.
Any neonate identified with a seventh nerve paralysis should have tests as
soon as possible. Stimulation of the face after birth will differentiate
congenital causes from birth trauma. If the injury occurs in the birth process,
electrical stimulation will be possible for several days. This is an important
finding in both the diagnosis and prognosis of the facial palsy.
INFECTIONS
Infections occurring anywhere along the path of the facial nerve can lead
to paralysis. Rarely, meningitis will present with facial nerve palsy. Abscesses
in the parietal-cortex region can create a central paralysis. This is diagnosed
by the ability to move the forehead on the affected side but the inability to
move the remainder of the face on that side. Ramsay Hunt syndrome, or
herpes zoster oticus, involves the nerve and creates a rash in the external
auditory canal and pinna. Small pustules form in the external auditory canal
and are extremely tender (Fig. 8-8).
Bacterial infections of the middle ear can paralyze the face. Infections can
be acute or chronic. They can involve only inflammatory materials, or
cholesteatomas may also be present. An uncommon tick-borne illness called
Lyme disease can also cause paralysis of the facial nerve among other cranial
nerve palsies.
FIGURE 8-8. Kamsay Hunt syndrome demonstrating

a vesicular rash of the pinna. (From Becker W, et ah
Atlas of Otorhinolaryngology. Philadelphia, WB Saun¬
ders Co, 1969, p 11.)
TRAUMA
Facial nerve evaluation should Trauma to the temporal bone is a common cause of facial palsy. Fractures
be performed immediately on can be both longitudinal and transverse (see Chapter 2). While longitudinal
any patient with a basilar skull
fracture. The prognosis is better fractures are much more common, transverse fractures injure the nerve
if the nerve functions partially, many times more frequently. The energy needed to cause a temporal bone
even if it is later found to fracture is substantial, and many of these palsies are not noticed until the
be paretic.
patient awakens from coma following a motor vehicle accident.
VASCULAR LESIONS
The role of vascular lesions in facial nerve function is an area of dispute.

While the presence of aneurysms or thrombosis of major vessels is an
uncommon cause of facial palsy, it is indisputable. Recently, there has been
discussion of abnormal loops of normal vessels being located near the
internal auditory canal. These loops have been blamed for facial spasm and
tics but not overt paralysis. The importance of these vascular loops is not
yet clear.
NEOPLASMS
Tumors of the cerebellopontine angle, particularly acoustic neuromas and

The development of facial nerve meningiomas, are the most common neoplasms causing facial nerve paralysis.
paralysis in a patient with exter¬ Facial nerve neuromas are distinctly uncommon. Other neoplasms of the
nal otitis suggests malignancy.
middle ear can result in facial paralysis. These include benign causes such
as glomus jugulares or more malignant causes such as histiocytosis, rhabdo¬
myosarcomas, and squamous cell carcinomas.
IDIOPATHIC CAUSES
Some causes of facial paralysis are more difficult to determine. Some

metabolic causes include diabetes mellitus and a genetic disorder known as
Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. A large number of patients with facial
nerve palsies never have a cause discovered. While a viral source has been
suggested and vascular causes have been sought, no real etiology has ever
been determined for many facial nerve palsies. Although Sir Charles Bell
first described facial nerve palsies that were of traumatic origin, we now
associate his name with idiopathic facial palsies.
The most common cause of unilateral facial paralysis remains Bell’s palsy.
Bell’s palsy means unilateral, The pathogenesis of this disorder is still unclear, probably because it
idiopathic, peripheral facial represents many inciting agents. Some cases result from viral inflammation,
nerve paralysis. Before diagnos¬
ing as Bell's palsy, other etiolo¬ while others may represent a polyneuropathy due to systemic or central
gies of facial nerve paralysis nervous system disorder. Bell’s palsy is a unilateral weakness or paralysis of
must be ruled out. the face with no readily identifiable cause and virtually always has some
recovery of function within six months. It has been hypothesized that
ischemic and immunologic factors may be related directly to the pathogenesis
of this disorder. There is always a peripheral facial nerve dysfunction with
involvement affecting all five major branches. The onset is acute, with a
progressive course reaching the stage of greatest muscle weakness within
three weeks. Upper respiratory inflammation symptoms may precede the
onset of paralysis. Severe ear pain may occur early; dysacusis and other
signs such as dysgeusia relating to parasympathetic nerve paresis accompa¬
nying the facial motor hypofunction are consistent with the diagnosis.
Careful history-taking and physical examination including otoneurologic
work-up are necessary to exclude disorders that may, at first glance, mimic
a Bell’s palsy and, therefore, deserve their own diagnosis. Once the diagnosis
is secured by the absence of historic events such as a slowly progressive or
recurring facial paralysis and the absence of either active middle ear disease
or palpable masses in the parotid gland, a treatment plan should be derived
and explained to the patient.
TREATMENT
The value of topognostic-prognostic testing and treatment remains a matter

of frequent debate. Some physicians do nothing except observe the patient
periodically. Often, however, an audiogram is obtained which suggests a
retrocochlear mass lesion (acoustic neuroma). If a facial weakness occurs
with an ipsilateral sensorineural hearing loss, careful neuroradiographic Sensorineural hearing loss +
facial nerve paralysis = inter¬
evaluation of the posterior fossa and skull base is firmly indicated to
nal auditory canal tumor.
completely rule out a small acoustic neuroma. Improvement of the facial
paralysis is insufficient with associated findings to ignore the need for
radiographs.
Topognostic testing has been used for the past 20 years to help locate the
site of lesion. It was particularly valuable for the surgeon contemplating
surgical decompression of the facial nerve. Intact tearing indicates that
decompression to the level proximal to the cochlear air form process may
be sufficient. Similarly, an intact stapedial reflex suggests that the vertical
segment of the facial nerve is involved while the horizontal segment in the
middle ear has been spared.
Surgeons who consider surgical decompression on the theory that the
nerve is compressed either by fiber sheath or by edema of the nerve within
the bony canal have used facial nerve stimulation tests. In this test, the
normal side of the face is compared to the paralyzed side; using either the
minimal test or the maximal stimulation test, as described above, a decision
is reached about the likelihood of axonotmesis which, if present, would
suggest the value of surgical decompression. If electrical tests remain equal When electrical tests show
identical responses on both
between the two sides, neurapraxia is the diagnosis and excellent spontaneous
sides, the prognosis for recov¬
recovery is to be expected. Many clinicians use the ENOG prognostic test ery of nerve function is excel¬
following the proposed guidelines of Esslen and Fisch (Fig. 8-9). Patients lent.
who have 90 per cent or greater reduction of amplitude within ten days of
onset have a 50 per cent chance for a poor prognosis. For these patients,
surgery can be considered.
Patients with facial nerve paralysis have complications during the early
phase due to the paralysis itself. There are problems with control of oral
secretions which create drooling, inability to whistle, trouble with speaking
clearly, biting the buccal mucosa because of loss of motor tone, and popping
of food in the paralyzed buccal pouch. This requires manipulation with finger
FIGURE 8-9. The prognosis for recovery follows the response to evoked electro¬
myography noted within the first 10 days. Prognosis is poor if the response to
evoked electromyography is lost within the first 5 days and is favorable, if the
response is maintained beyond 10 days, and especially 14 days. Early return of
voluntary motor unit action potentials noted by EMG within the first 14 days
indicates that the nerve is recovering and portends a favorable prognosis. (Reprinted
by permission from May M: Office medical management of acute facial palsies. In
May M (ed): The Facial Nerve. New York, Thieme Medical Publishers, inc 1986 p
334.1
or tongue to easily swallow the food. There have been recommendations by

physical therapists that stimulation of the muscles to preserve tone is
important during the paralyzed phase in anticipation of spontaneous or
surgical recovery. This is under strong debate and currently we do not
recommend this to our patients, although if they have decided upon it
themselves we do not condemn such treatment.
X\ When facial nerve 8rafting is not possible, other cranial nerves in the area
nerve VH. Can use(^' The spinal accessory nerve can be used to innervate the facial
nerve and has occasionally been used in circumstances in which radical neck
dissection was necessary but the proximal eleventh nerve was free of tumor
However, because of the morbidity to the shoulder, this graft is rarely used.
A much more common nerve graft is the hypoglossal nerve to facial nerve.
This nerve, even when split and shared between the tongue muscles and the
facial muscles, may cause paralysis of the tongue muscles; until facial
reanimation occurs, the combined missing function of both nerves makes
speech as well as chewing and swallowing difficult. In patients with multiple
cranial neuropathy of nerves such as 10 and 12, the 12 and 7 anastomosis is
less certain.
Medical therapy for Bell’s palsy requires attention to the paralyzed eyelid.
Most patients will have some drying of the eye, and corneal protection using
either eye drops or ointments is necessary. A moisture chamber or glasses
should be worn when the patient is exposed to wind or dust.
When a relatively long period of paralysis is expected or when the paralysis
will be permanent, surgical treatment of the eye is necessary. A tarsorrhaphy
has been used in the past, but it is a complicated procedure that produces
significant patient morbidity and can be difficult to reverse should the patient
request it or should facial nerve function return. A reasonable alternative is
to place gold springs in the eyelids. Similarly, fascial slings to create a
symmetric resting facial tone are useful, and in the course of surgical
FIGURE 8—10. Masseter and temporalis muscle transfer to facial muscles.

(From Freeman BS: Facial palsy. In Converse )M (ed): Reconstructive Plastic
Surgery. Vol III. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1964, p 1151.)
FIGURE 8—11. Localization of the pathologic changes observed in the meatal and labyrinthine segments of
the facial nerve following total intratemporal exposure for Bell's palsy. Note that, in 8 of 11 cases, the
observed pathologic alteration of the facial nerve fibers was particularly evident in the distal part of the
internal auditory canal. (From Fisch U, Esslen E: Total intratemporal exposure of the facial nerve: Pathological
findings in Bell’s palsy. Arch Otolaryngol 95:337. Copyright 1972, American Medical Association.)
treatment a unilateral face lift to tense the skin on the paralyzed side
similarly makes a more pleasant presentation of the patient with paralysis
(Fig. 8-10).
Some clinicians recommend prednisone at a dose of 1 mg/kg/day for up
to 14 days as medical therapy for Bell’s palsy. There is little agreement in
the literature on the effect of steroids in preventing denervation, synkinesis,
autonomic mass movement, and crocodile tearing, and little evidence that
they alter the course of the paralysis or palsy. Steroids do stop the otalgia,
and for patients with severe otalgia this is a good medical treatment. All
other medications are unproven in this disease. From 1970 to 1985 the best
surgical treatment was either a transmastoid facial nerve decompression
from the geniculate ganglion distally to the level of the stylomastoid foramen
or a middle fossa decompression as advocated by Fisch. Figure 8-11 shows
the location of the surgical pathology in 12 cases of Bell’s palsy.
More otologists are at present reluctant to recommend transmastoid
surgery; when electrical tests and clinical evaluation suggest surgery, a neuro¬
otologic approach through the middle cranial fossa is often the treatment
undertaken.
References
Adour KK, Bell DM, Wingord J: Bell’s palsy: Dilemma of diabetes mellitus. Arch Otolaryngol
99:114-117, 1974.
Alford BR, Jerger JF, Coats AC, et al: Neurophysiology of facial nerve testing. Arch
Otolaryngol 97:214-219, 1973.
Cannon CR, Jahrsdoerfer RA: Temporal bone fractures, review of 90 cases. Arch Otolaryngol
109:285-288, 1983.
Fisch U: Surgery for Bell’s palsy. Arch Otolaryngol 107:1-11, 1981.
Harner SG, Daube JR, Ebersold MJ, Beatty CW: Improved preservation of facial nerve
function with use of electric monitoring during removal of acoustic neuromas. Laryngoscope
96:65-69, 1986.
Kettel K: Peripheral facial paralysis in fractures of the temporal bone. Arch Otolaryngol 51:25—
41, 1960.
Malone B, Maisel RH: Anatomy of the facial nerve. Am J Otolaryngol 9(6):497-504, 1988.
May M, Hughes GB: Facial nerve disorders, update 1987. Am J Otolaryngol 8:167-180, 1987.
9
FACIAL PAIN,
HEADACHE, AND OTALGIA
by Lawrence R. Boies, Jr., M.D.
The otolaryngologist is routinely called upon to diagnose and treat head

pain; he or she may also be consulted by another physician in an attempt to
diagnose headache resulting from a less than obvious cause. Probably the
most overdiagnosed condition, particularly on the part of the laity, is “sinus "Sinus headache" is overdi-
headache,” possibly due in part to the continual barrage of television ads agnosed by the laity.
promoting over-the-counter drugs for the relief of “sinus headache.” Fur¬
thermore, there has been a tendency on the part of the physician to indict
the sinuses when the cause of a headache cannot be easily explained, an
indictment that is not difficult to understand owing to the frequency of nasal
obstruction and hypersecretion from the nasal mucosa, as well as the
anatomic position of the nasal fossae and the accessory sinuses in the general
area in which headaches are often centered.
The intention here will not be to encompass the entire subject of facial
pain and headache, but rather to outline a diagnostic approach to these
problems while emphasizing the elements of the otolaryngologic physical
examination related to them. Therefore, only those diagnostic entities of
particular interest to the otolaryngologist will be discussed here; appropriate
chapters in a standard textbook of neurology are recommended for concur¬
rent study.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEADACHE
In the early 1960’s a committee was formed to classify the causes of head
pain according to etiology so that the student and practicing physician might
approach the problem in a more organized manner.* The report distinguished
between migraine headaches, considering them vascular in nature, and
tension headaches, relegating them to the musculature. This classification
has been widely applied since that time; however, in the interim, there have
been significant questions raised concerning this dichotomy and the conse¬
quent treatment of these disorders. Rather than separate entities, the view
is currently being postulated that migraine, tension, and cluster headaches
are differing manifestations of central nervous system disturbances involving
the upper brain stem, limbic system, and/or hypothalamus. These distur-
*The Committee was composed of Drs. Arnold P. Friedman (chairman), Knox H. Finley,
John R. Graham, E. Charles Kunkle, Adrian M. Ostfeld, and Harold G. Wolf.
157
bances are thought to biochemically affect perception of and sensitivity to

pain as well as cause the observed vascular and/or muscular changes. These
new data will greatly broaden the understanding and treatment of headaches;
however, a new, replacement classification system encompassing these var¬
ious findings has not yet been formulated. Until that time, for ease of
discussion, we will continue to rely on the original classification system,
which is herein included in its entirety.
The term headache commonly denotes head pain from brow level up. This
outline defines headaches somewhat broadly: It covers both painful and
nonpainful discomforts of the entire head, including the face and upper nucha.
Since so much that a man describes as headache may be any abnormal head
sensation, it is essential for proper treatment to determine whether the
complaint is actually one of pain. A useful scheme for the classification of the
varieties of headache is one based on pain mechanisms. The divisions rest on
experimental and clinical data, together with reasonable inference; the story is
far from complete. Yet the arrangement can serve as a framework for diagnostic
criteria for the major clinical types of headache, and by emphasis on basic
mechanisms it offers a logical approach to the planning of therapeutic trials.
For convenience, short and simple names are suggested for certain major
entities and are indicated in boldface type.
Essential in the study of headache in most instances is an appraisal of its
close link to the patient’s situation, activities, and attitudes. Sometimes in
obvious ways, more often in subtle ones, headache may be the principal
manifestation of temporary or sustained difficulties in life adjustment. These
relationships are notably evident in groups I through V.
Major Categories
I. Vascular headache of migraine type
A. “Classic” migraine
B. “Common” migraine
C. “Cluster” headache
D. “Hemiplegic” and “ophthalmoplegic” migraine
E. “Lower-half” headache
II. Muscle-contraction headache
III. Combined headache: vascular and muscle-contraction
IV. Headache' of nasal vasomotor reaction
V. Headache of delusional, conversion, or hypochondriacal states
VI. Nonmigrainous vascular headaches
VII. Traction headache
VIII. Headache due to overt cranial inflammation
IX-XIII. Headache due to disease of ocular, aural, nasal and sinus, dental, or
other cranial or neck structures
XIV. Cranial neuritides
XV. Cranial neuralgias
Descriptions
I. Vascular Headaches of the Migraine Type. Recurrent attacks of headache,
widely varied in intensity, frequency, and duration. The attacks are commonly
unilateral in onset and are usually associated with anorexia and sometimes with
nausea and vomiting; some are preceded by, or associated with, conspicuous
sensory, motor, and mood disturbances; they are often familial.
Evidence supports the view that cranial arterial distention and dilatation are
importantly implicated in the pain phase but cause no permanent changes in
the involved vessel. Listed below are particular varieties of headache, each
sharing some, but not necessarily all of the mentioned features:
A. “Classic” Migraine. Vascular headache with sharply defined, transient
visual and other sensory or motor prodromes or both.
9—FACIAL PAIN, HEADACHE, AND OTALGIA
B. “Common” Migraine. Vascular headache without striking prodromes

and less often unilateral than A and C. Synonyms are “atypical migraine” or
“sick headache.” Calling attention to certain relationships of this type of
headache to environmental, occupational, menstrual, or other variables are
such terms as “summer,” “Monday,” “week-end,” “relaxation,” “premen¬
strual,” and “menstrual” headache.
C. “Cluster” Headache. Vascular headache, predominantly unilateral on
the same side, usually associated with flushing, sweating, rhinorrhea, and
increased lacrimation, brief in duration and usually occurring in closely packed
groups separated by long remissions. Identical or closely allied are erythropro-
sopalgia (Bing), ciliary or migrainous neuralgia (Harris), erythromelalgia of
the head or histaminic cephalgia (Horton), and petrosal neuralgia (Gardner et
al.).
D. “Hemiplegic” Migraine and “Ophthalmoplegic” Migraine. Vas¬
cular headache characterized by sensory and motor phenomena that persist
during and after the headache.
E. “Lower-Half” Headache. Headache of possible vascular mechanism
centered primarily in the lower face. In this group there may be some instances
of “atypical facial” neuralgia, sphenopalatine ganglion neuralgia (Sluder), and
vidian neuralgia (Vail).
II. Muscle-Contraction Headache. Ache or sensations of tightness, pressure,
or constriction, widely varied in intensity, frequency, and duration, sometimes
long-lasting, and commonly suboccipital. It is associated with sustained con¬
traction of skeletal muscles in the absence of permanent structural change,
usually as part of the individual’s reaction during life stress. The ambiguous
and unsatisfactory terms “tension,” “psychogenic,” and “nervous” headache
refer largely to this group.
III. Combined Headache: Vascular and Muscle-Contraction. Combinations
of vascular headache of the migraine type and muscle-contraction headache,
prominently coexisting in an attack.
IV. Headache of Nasal Vasomotor Reaction. Headaches and nasal discomfort
(nasal obstruction, rhinorrhea, tightness, or burning), recurrent and resulting
from congestion and edema of nasal and paranasal mucous membranes, and
not proven to be due to allergens, infectious agents, or local gross anatomic
defects. The headache is predominantly anterior in location and mild or
moderate in intensity. The illness is usually part of the individual’s reaction
during life stress. This is often called “vasomotor rhinitis.”
V. Headache of Delusional, Conversion, or Hypochondriacal States. Head¬
aches of illnesses in which the prevailing clinical disorder is a delusional or
conversion reaction and a peripheral pain mechanism are nonexistent. Closely
allied are the hypochondriacal reactions in which the peripheral disturbances
relevant to headache are minimal. These also have been called “psychogenic”
headaches.
N.B.: The foregoing represent the major clinical disorders dominated by
headache—those which are particularly common and in which headache is
frequently recurrent and disabling.
VI. Nonmigrainous Vascular Headaches. Associated with generally nonre¬
current dilatation of cranial arteries.
A. Systemic infections, usually with fever.
B. Miscellaneous disorders, including hypoxic states, carbon monoxide
poisoning, effects of nitrates and other chemical agents with vasodilator
properties, caffeine-withdrawal reactions, circulatory insufficiency in the brain
(in certain circumstances), postconcussion reactions, postconvulsive states,
“hangover” reactions, foreign protein reactions, hypoglycemia, hypercapnia,
acute pressor reactions (abrupt elevation of blood pressure, as with paraplegia
or pheochromocytoma), and certain instances of essential arterial hypertension
(e.g., those with early-morning headache).
VII. Traction Headache. Headache resulting from traction on intracranial
structures, mainly vascular, by masses.
A. Primary or metastatic tumors of meninges, vessels, or brain.
B. Hematomas (epidural, subdural, or parenchymal).
C. Abscesses (epidural, subdural, or parenchymal).
D. Postlumbar puncture headache (“leakage” headache).

E. Pseudotumor cerebri and various causes of brain swelling.
VIII. Headache Due to Overt Cranial Inflammation. Headaches due to
readily recognized inflammation of cranial structures—resulting from usually
nonrecurrent inflammation, sterile or infectious.
A. Intracranial disorders—infectious, chemical, or allergic meningitis,
subarachnoid hemorrhage, postpneumoencephalographic reaction, arteritis,
and phlebitis.
B. Extracranial disorders—arteritis and cellulitis.
IX-XIII. Headache Due to Disease of Ocular, Aural, Nasal, and Sinus,
Dental, or Other Cranial or Neck Structures.
IX. Headaches due to spread of effects of noxious stimulation of ocular
structures (as by increased intraocular pressure, excessive contraction of ocular
muscles, trauma, new growth, or inflammation).
X. Headaches due to spread of effects of noxious stimulation of aural
structure (as by trauma, new growth, or inflammation).
XI. Headaches due to spread of effects of noxious stimulation of nasal and
sinus structures (as by trauma, new growth, inflammation, or allergens).
XII. Headaches due to spread of effects of noxious stimulation of dental
structures (as by trauma, new growth, or inflammation).
XIII. Headaches due to spread of pain from noxious stimulation of other
structures of the cranium and neck (periosteum, joint ligaments, muscles, or
cervical roots).
XIV. Cranial Neuritides. Caused by trauma, new growth, or inflammation.
XV. Cranial Neuralgias. Trigeminal (tic douloureux) and glossopharyngeal.
The pains are lancinating (“jabbing”), usually in rapid succession for several
minutes or longer, are limited to a portion or all of the domain of the affected
nerve, and are often triggered by end-organ stimulation. Trigeminal neuralgia
must be distinguished in particular from “cluster headache” (I, C), with which
it is often confused.
N.B.: So-called chronic post-traumatic headache may arise from any one of
several mechanisms. Such headache may represent sustained muscle contraction
(II), recurrent vascular dilatation (I, B), or rarely, local scalp or nuchal injury
(XIII) In some patients, the post-traumatic pain is part of a clinical disorder
characterized by delusional conversion or hypochondriacal reactions (V).
EVALUATION OF HEADACHE
History
The patient with a headache problem invariably deserves a complete

medical history review. First, the given head pain profile should be estab¬
lished with emphasis on the following aspects:
1. Time relationships
a. Age of patient at onset
b. Duration of problem
c. Duration of single attacks
d. Frequency of attacks
e. More frequent occurrence at a certain time of day
f. Onset following trauma or development of another medical problem
2'. Prodromal or associated symptoms (if any)
3. Location
4. Quality
5. Precipitating factors
9—FACIAL PAIN, HEADACHE, AND OTALGIA 161
6. Factors intensifying pain

7. Response to medication (type)
8. Recent or previous dental work
9. Psychosocial history
A family history of headache, emotional disturbance, or organic disease
states should not be overlooked; 75 per cent of migraine sufferers have a
relative also afflicted. Occupational as well as sociologic factors may be of
interest; stress and environmental pollutants have been implicated. Items of
significance in the past medical history include allergy, cardiovascular disease,
hypertension, head or neck trauma, neurologic disorders, glaucoma, and
emotional problems in addition to ear, dental, and sinus disease. Drug use
should be documented. Occasionally a precise diary of all dietary intake and
headache attacks must be kept by the patient.
Clinical Examination
Manifestations of systemic conditions mentioned in the headache classifi¬
cation should be searched for. A complete neurologic examination may be
indicated in certain cases. Specific points relating to the examination of the
head and neck might include the following:
Auscultation for bruit (e.g., neck, parietotemporal areas)

Eye examination (visual acuity, visual fields, abnormal eye movements,
funduscopic examination, ocular tension)
Evaluation of cranial nerve function
Palpation for arterial tenderness
Palpation for muscle spasm and tenderness (including muscles of masti¬
cation)
Evaluation for nuchal rigidity
Complete otolaryngologic examination, including evaluation of occlusion
Palpation of temporomandibular joints
Certain physical findings noted on the general otolaryngologic examination
and relating to head pain may seem obvious. The preceding classification
suggests areas and types of pathologic changes to be aware of. However,
some areas that are frequently overlooked by the physician include the
temporomandibular joints, portions of the pharynx requiring indirect ex¬ Mirror or fiberoptic examination
amination, and the teeth. Mirror (or fiberoptic) examination of the pharynx of the pharynx is important in
evaluation of unexplained otal¬
is especially important in evaluating otalgia in patients with no apparent
gia.
signs of ear disease; occult neoplasms in the pharynx may present in this
manner. Physicians should become acquainted with the more common forms
of dental disease. The nasal spaces should be examined carefully in all
patients with headache possibly related to the nose or sinuses. The rhino-
scopic examination should include a fiberoptic exam of nasal and posterior
nasal spaces. After initial rhinoscopy the physician should decongest the
nasal mucosa with ephedrine, phenylephrine, or cocaine solution. Re¬ Rhinoscopy following deconges¬
examination is then performed. Noteworthy findings might include septal tion is emphasized.
irregularities, contact points between septum and turbinates, suppurative
drainage, polyps, or other neoplasms. The response qf the patient to nasal
shrinkage is an important diagnostic point if head pain is present at the time
of examination. Likewise, relief of pain following specific cocainization of
the sphenopalatine ganglion, which is located lateral to the posterior tip of
the middle turbinate, is helpful in establishing a diagnosis.
In certain patients laboratory and radiographic examinations are indicated.

Some of the studies to consider include the following:
1. Paranasal sinus, skull, dental, cervical spine, temporomandibular joint
radiographs
2. CT scan of head
3. MRI scan of head
4. Lumbar puncture (cerebrospinal fluid examination)
5. Personality profile (e.g., Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
6. Electroencephalogram
7. Thermography
Differential Diagnosis
Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary (27th Ed) defines headache or
cephalgia (cephalalgia) simply as pain in the head. Neuralgia, on the other
hand, is a paroxysmal pain that extends along the course of one or more
nerves. It is usually of a severe, stabbing character. Both primary and
secondary causes of neuralgia should be considered.
Head pain may be divided into acute and chronic (or chronic recurring)
types. Obviously, acute types may become chronic. Generally, one would
associate the term acute with head pain related to acute febrile states; acute
infections involving the ears, sinuses, or teeth; intracranial hemorrhage;
meningitis, cerebritis, and brain abscess; and with primary attacks of mi¬
graine, cluster headache, the cranial neuralgias, and glaucoma. The remain¬
der would be termed chronic.
Friedman has stated that most patients with headache as a major complaint
TABLE 9-1. FEATURES OF CERTAIN HEAD PAIN CONDITIONS_

CONDITION LOCATION ASSOCIATED SYMPTOMS
Cluster headache Behind or above one eye with Nasal congestion, lacrimation,
extension to temple or maxilla conjunctival injection; may occur at
night
Muscle-contraction headache “Hatband,” bitemporal, occipital, Chronic anxiety; in some cases may be
suboccipital related to occupational muscle fatigue
Nasal vasomotor reaction In and around nose, ethmoid, and Nasal obstruction and rhinorrhea often
maxillary areas; may radiate into occur
frontal area
Temporal arteritis In area of temporal (often bilateral) Ischemic optic neuritis
or other involved branches of
extracranial arteries
Acute sinusitis Pain in area of involved sinus; Fever, malaise, tenderness over
sphenoid sinusitis may cause involved sinus, nasal discharge and
retro-orbital, occipital, or congestion, associated upper
vertex pain respiratory tract infection
Chronic sinusitis Infrequently causes chronic head pain; Nasal polyposis, chronic suppurative
may be confused with vasomotor nasal discharge
reaction, since symptoms are in same
general area
Temporomandibular joint dysfunction In and around ear with radiation into Aural fullness; clicking in joint
neck or temporal area
Trigeminal neuralgia Face; any of the three divisions of the Usually associated trigger zones that
trigeminal nerve may be involved, respond to light contact
alone or in combination
Glossopharyngeal neuralgia Pharynx with radiation into ear Salivation; trigger zones in tonsillar
region
do not have a serious organic disease. Roughly 90 per cent of chronic

headaches, in his experience, are either migraine vascular headaches, muscle-
contraction headaches, or a combination of the two. Nevertheless, one
should carefully rule out organic disease or serious psychologic problems in
all patients with chronic recurring head pain. Some puzzling patients require
close observation and symptomatic or trial therapy to establish a diagnosis.
Van Allen and Friedman point out that time, patience, and careful re¬
examination can solve many difficult problems.
There are several components that make up a head pain profile. Table 9-
1 has been constructed as a guide to differential diagnosis using location and
associated symptoms in outlining certain clinical entities of particular interest
to the otolaryngologist. The remainder of this chapter will be devoted to an
expanded discussion of these entities.
CLINICAL ENTITIES OF PARTICULAR INTEREST TO

THE OTOLARYNGOLOGIST
Cluster Headache
According to the classification presented earlier, cluster headache is now
considered a vascular headache of the migraine type. Previously used terms
for this condition are mentioned in the outline (I, C). The predominantly
unilateral facial and head pain occurs primarily in men, with sudden onset
and abrupt cessation. It is said to be the most excruciating of the vascular Cluster headaches are said to
headaches. There is no prodrome. Frequent attacks, one to three per day, be the most excruciating of the
vascular headaches.
of short duration, typically 45 minutes to one hour, tend to occur in clusters
or clumps during a period of up to three months. Periods of remission may
last from months to even years, averaging two years. The focus of pain is
usually centered behind one eye, with radiation to involve the entire side of The focus of pain is usually be-
the face and neck. The pain is often associated with flushing, sweating, hind one eye.
increased lacrimation, and rhinorrhea on the involved side. It is not unusual
for an attack to occur at night, awakening the patient from his sleep. An
attack may be precipitated by alcohol, histamine, and other vasodilators.
The mechanism involving dilatation of the extracranial and dural arteries is
generally accepted; however, the interrelationships and specific nature of
neurologic, humoral, and psychologic factors are not understood completely.
The main entities to consider in the differential diagnosis include trigeminal
neuralgia, acute glaucoma, intracranial aneurysm, and acute sinusitis, partic¬
ularly with sphenoid involvement. Features such as lack of trigger points,
unilateral lacrimation, lack of other eye findings, and the general pattern of
attacks help distinguish cluster headache in the differential diagnosis.
The following modes of treatment are available:
1. The inhalation of 100 per cent oxygen may abort an acute attack. Some
patients keep an oxygen tank at their bedside.
2. Ergotamine has been the most dependable drug. However, because of
gastroparesis, oral ergotomine is not always appropriate. Ergotomine
inhalation has been found to be suitably fast and effective. Also
available are sublingual, parenteral, and rectal forms.
3. Local application of anesthetic (lidocaine) nose drops has been reported
to be an effective abortive agent.
4. Methysergide has been used successfully as prophylactic treatment.
Propranolol (Inderal) has been advocated in preventive therapy by

some neurologists.
5. The most effective approach to managing cluster headaches is the
prophylactic daily administration of various drugs during the cluster
period. These include ergotamine, methysergide maleate, corticoste¬
roids, lithium carbonate, calcium channel blockers (especially verapa¬
mil), and indomethacin.
6. Psychotherapy may be helpful in this and other forms of vascular nead
pain.
Histamine desensitization has been shown to be of little value.
Muscle-Contraction Headache
Otolaryngologists frequently encounter headache originating in the mus¬
cles and fibrous structures about the head. The pain is often of a chronic
nature and is located in the frontal, temporal, occipital, and suboccipital
regions (Fig. 9-1). Tension is a common cause, although fatigue and
"Hat band” headaches are com- inflammatory disturbances may be factors. Fortunately, many tension head-
monly caused by tension. aches are Qf a miid character. The patient complains of the sensation of a
tight band (“hat band”) around the head, but it is not severe enough to
be painful. This sensation is produced by a mild, involuntary increase in
mast, m
Lev. auric, n.
scap. m
Trap, m.
FIGURE 9-1. There are numerous possibilities in the muscular, nervous, and vascular
structures in the posterior neck and occiput for the production of headache or neuralgia.
temporal muscle tension. Treatment consists of sympathetic listening and

practical advice such as heat and massage.
A more severe form occurs with a chronic state of tension of the postural
muscles of the head and neck, often bilateral. In particular, the muscles of
the shoulder girdle and back of the neck are affected, becoming hypertonic
with resultant occipital pain referred to the vertex. A frequent cause is
simple anxiety; muscular fatigue seen with certain occupations or athletic
sports may also be a cause. Biofeedback and relaxation have both been used
successfully by many practitioners to treat this type of headache, with
training aimed at relaxing the specific muscles involved as well as general
relaxation involving the entire body.
Muscle-contraction headaches that are secondary to structural abnormali¬ Structural abnormalities of the
ties in the neck are often included in the tension group but should not be neck should be considered in
evaluating occipital headaches.
considered as such. These include cervical spondylosis, a condition often
observed in the elderly. In cervical spondylosis, the headache pain tends to
be dull and is moderated by massage and/or heat. Other therapies include
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, other forms of ohysical therapy, anti¬
depressants, and muscle relaxants.
Irritation of one or more of the cervical roots (cervical radiculopathy) may
lead to headaches, often present upon waking. Treatment of these headaches
focuses upon the involved roots, e.g., use of a cervical collar, particularly at
night, intermittent cervical traction, or injection of sensitive areas.
Rooke and Rushton state that there is a tendency to label as tension any
chronic cervico-occipital headache that occurs in the absence of demonstrable
organic disease, especially when other anxieties or tensions exist in the
patient. Suspicion that the diagnosis of tension headache is incorrect should
be aroused by the following features:
1. It is unilateral.
2. It responds favorably to simple analgesia.
3. It is modified by position or activity.
4. It is described in simple, accurate terms.
5. Despite chronicity, there are periods of clear-cut relief.
6. There is an element of progression.
Other terms may be brought up in discussions involving muscle-related

pain. Myalgia is defined as simple muscle pain that has been linked with
physical allergy and autonomic instability. Myofascitis refers to a localized
inflammatory condition involving muscle and overlying and adjacent fasciae
with resultant fibrosis. Other inflammatory processes from a variety of causes
may specifically involve muscle (myositis) or fibrous structures (fibrositis,
fasciitis, tendinitis). These conditions, alone or in combination, do involve
appropriate structures around the head and neck. Many do result in muscle
spasm but would more likely be classified under group XIII of the outline
presented earlier in this chapter.
Fibrositis, or fibromyalgia, is a common condition that has long been the Fibromyalgia continues to be a
subject of controversy. Many physicians have not recognized it as a discrete controversial subject.
entity but rather have viewed the reported pain as psychogenic in origin,
representing a manifestation of a reactive disorder. This conclusion was
supported by the lack of significant histopathology or laboratory and radio-
graphic changes. However, as criteria evolve to standardize the diagnosis of
this condition, its existence has gained a greater degree of credibility.
Goldenberg cites the primary standard to be a minimum number of tender

points (ranging from 4 to 12) at characteristic locations. Other important
symptoms include disturbed sleep, fatigue, and morning stiffness.
Therapy for fibrositis is nonspecific, with many patients benefiting from a
multifaceted approach, including reassurance that this condition is not life-
threatening or progressive, simple analgesics or nonsteroidal anti-inflamma¬
tory medications, tricyclic agents, psychotherapy, and physical therapy.
Nasal Vasomotor Reaction
This condition is discussed further in Chapter 12 under the heading of

vasomotor rhinitis. The majority of patients who suffer from the nasal
congestion and engorgement caused by it complain mainly of nasal obstruc¬
tion with or without rhinorrhea. Headache associated with vasomotor rhinitis
is the exception rather than the rule. Pain originating in the nose or sinuses
may be caused by the following:
1. Contacts within the nasal fossae

2. Environmental or other changes resulting in a temporary negative
pressure in one or more of the paranasal sinuses (e.g., barosinusitis)
3. Disease within a sinus, causing pressure or tension
McAuliffe et al. have demonstrated pain-sensitive areas in the nasal space

and the regions to which pain originating therein is referred. These pain-
sensitive areas are the following:
1. Nasofrontal area
2. Middle meatus, especially around the ostia
3. Generally, the septum and lateral nasal wall
Stimulation of the anteroinferior portion of the septum, middle and inferior

turbinates, and ostia of the maxillary sinus refers pain to the malar and
zygomatic regions of the ipsilateral side. Stimulation of the superior portion
of the nasal fossa refers pain to the eye, intraorbital area, and lower portion
of the frontal bone.
Pain produced by these contacts is more often acute and somewhat
temporary but may become recurrent. Emotional factors may play a role in
chronicity. Holmes pointed out that anxiety, conflict, frustration, and re¬
sentment may result in nasal hyperemia, swelling, hypersecretion, and,
ultimately, pain.
The concept of a “vacuum” type pain mechanism has enjoyed intermittent
A "vacuum" type pain mecha¬ attention among rhinologists, beginning with the writings of Sluder, in which
nism is frequently mentioned as
a cause of recurring nasofrontal he described an acute frontal headache that was frequently present upon
headaches. arising and characterized by tenderness in the area of the floor of the frontal
sinus on the involved side. He believed that this entity arose from temporary
closure of the nasofrontal duct and resultant negative pressure within the
sinus cavity. As Shapiro pointed out, this would be analogous to the middle
ear condition occurring with a blocked eustachian tube. Obviously, such a
mechanism could be invoked by several other pathologic processes besides
vasomotor rhinitis. Also, individual local anatomic variants undoubtedly
play a role in the production of symptoms. The clear-cut entity of aerosi-
nusitis or sinus barotrauma makes Sluder’s proposed mechanism more
plausible.
Treatment for headache related to vasomotor rhinitis is relatively limited,
provided that one has ruled out allergic conditions, infections, and anatomic
deformities. Nasal sprays such as Afrin may be efficacious on a short-term
basis. Systemic decongestants have been used with good results in some
patients. In unyielding cases partial turbinectomy or electrocautery of the
turbinates may be performed. Vidian nerve section may be considered in
extreme cases.
“Lower-half” Headache
This term has been used in reference to lower facial pain. Included in this
grouping are atypical facial neuralgia, sphenopalatine ganglion neuralgia Atypical “lower-half" headaches
are currently thought to be of
(Sluder), and vidian neuralgia (Vail). Current thought is that, in general,
vascular origin.
most pain syndromes involving this area are vasodilating in origin and are
not due to neuropathic processes, unless one might implicate the autonomic
nervous system in specific cases. True neuralgias involving only the sensory
fibers of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve which pass through
the sphenopalatine ganglion may exist but probably are rare. Greater
involvement of the maxillary trunk should give a picture indistinguishable
from a second-division trigeminal neuralgia. However, these atypical lower
face pain syndromes have generally been more diffuse, deep-seated, and
poorly localized. They have occurred in a younger age group and have been
void of trigger zones. Few have been relieved by nerve section. Certainly a
careful intranasal examination (including sphenopalatine ganglion cocaini- A careful intranasal examination
is recommended.
zation) is recommended in such cases. Contacts between the nasal septum
and lateral wall should be considered as causes of this type of head pain;
however, treatment generally is directed toward a vasodilating etiology.
Temporal Arteritis
Temporal arteritis is a condition of unknown cause. Although originally
described as involving the temporal arteries, it is now referred to generally
as extracranial arteritis, since it may involve other branches of the external
carotid system. Moreover, arteries elsewhere in the body may be affected.
Classically, the arteritis is of the giant cell type.
The condition often causes constant, moderately severe head pain that
tends to be bilateral and is associated with tenderness in the area of the
involved arteries; it may mimic migraine, muscle-contraction, or cluster
headache. The pain is not influenced by cough or head movements. Most
commonly, temporal arteritis occurs in older individuals and may be accom¬
panied by generalized weakness and anemia. Diagnosis is made by biopsy Diagnosis is made by biopsy and
microscopic examination of a
and microscopic examination of a suspected vessel. The sedimentation rate
suspected vessel.
is often markedly increased. Blindness may occur owing to ischemic optic
neuritis; therefore, prompt treatment with high-dose, prolonged prednisone
is recommended to minimize or prevent this complication.
Sinusitis
Acute rhinosinusitis certainly can result in contacts within the nasal fossae
in addition to pressure or tension within a given sinus. Contact pain patterns
have been discussed. Individual sinus involvement will tend to produce the
following general pain locations:
1. Maxillary: anterior facial (cheek) with radiation into teeth, orbital, and
malar regions
2. Ethmoids: interocular with spread into frontal location
3. Frontal: forehead, interocular, and temporal areas
4. Sphenoid: retro-orbital, radiation toward vertex and occasionally the
mastoid areas
One must remember that several or all sinuses (pansinusitis) may be
involved on one or both sides.
When headache with chronic sinusitis is encountered, it is usually due to
pathologic conditions such as a mucocele or osteoma or is related to an
intercurrent acute flare-up. Certainly any chronic inflammatory process in
the nasal region can result in contact pain, as previously noted. Tumors,
although rare in this area, must be considered.
Diagnosis and treatment of sinusitis are discussed in Chapter 13.
Inflammation involving dental structures may mimic sinus pain and may
also actually cause maxillary sinusitis.
Otalgia
Otalgia, or ear pain, may be due to primary or secondary causes. In some
cases the term reflex or referred otalgia has been used for the secondary
type. Primary causes of otalgia are usually apparent on careful otologic
examination. Such conditions are outlined in the first portion of Table 9—2.
Often when a patient has ear pain, particularly when it is of a mild degree,
he or she is not able to identify the location of the pain more specifically
FIGURE 9-2. Right ear showing vesicular

lesions of herpes zoster oticus. The patient
presented with facial paralysis and severe
pain in the region of the right ear.
TABLE 9-2. CAUSES OF EAR PAIN

I. Primary Pain (Originating in Ear) II. Secondary (Referred) Pain Continued
A. External ear 3. Peritonsillar abscess
1. Furunculosis 4. Retropharyngeal abscess
2. Foreign body in external ear canal 5. Ulceration
3. External otitis
6. Postadenoidectomy or posttonsillectomy
4. Abscess of auricle 7. Nasopharyngeal fibroma
5. Perichondritis of auricle 8. Malignant growth
6. Eczema of meatus C. Oral cavity
7. Impacted cerumen 1. Dental neuralgias
8. Frostbite of auricle
a. Dentine exposed, pulp inflamed, or nerves
9. Herpes simplex and herpes zoster oticus (see dying
Fig. 9-2) b. Unerupted or impacted wisdom or molar
10. Malignant and benign growth of external ear teeth
11. Fungal infections (otomycosis) c. Traumatic occlusion of teeth, faulty closure
12. Acute myringitis and myringitis bullosa of jaw, and improper fit of dentures
13. Trauma of tympanic membrane and external 2. Acute diffuse glossitis or stomatitis
canal 3. Carcinoma of tongue
B. Middle ear or mastoid D. Esophagus
1. Acute otitis media 1. Foreign body
2. Acute mastoiditis 2. Hiatus hernia
3. Acute aerotitis media (barotrauma) 3. Inflammation
4. Acute eustachian tube obstruction 4. Malignant and benign growths
5. Complications of otitis media and mastoiditis E. Miscellaneous causes
a. Petrositis 1. Mumps
b. Facial paralysis 2. Acute thyroiditis
c. Labyrinthitis 3. Trigeminal neuralgia
d. Inner ear deafness 4. Sinuses
e. Subperiosteal abscess a. Inflammation
f. Extradural abscess b. Malignant and benign growth
g. Subdural abscess 5. Temporomandibular arthritis
h. Brain abscess 6. Erysipelas
i. Venous sinus thrombophlebitis 7. Raynaud’s disease
j. Meningitis 8. Chilblains
6. Malignant and benign growth of middle ear 9. Postauricular lymphadenitis
and mastoid process 10. Glossopharyngeal neuralgia
C. Idiopathic (tic-like pain confined to the ear) causes 11. Sphenopalatine ganglion cephalgia
1. Geniculate complex of the seventh cranial 12. Elongation of the styloid process
nerve
13. Involvement of upper three cervical nerves
2. Tympanic branch of the ninth cranial nerve a. Whiplash injury and other cervical spine
II. Secondary (Referred) Pain lesions
A. Larynx
b. Inflammation such as tabes dorsalis or
1. Cancer herpes
2. Ulceration 14. Angina pectoris
3. Perichondritis and chondritis 15. Thoracic aneurysm
4. Arthritis of cricoarytenoid joint 16. Innominate artery aneurysm
B. Pharynx (naso-, oro-, and hypopharynx) 17. Affections of nasal passageway
1. Pharyngitis 18. Affections of lung and bronchus
2. Acute tonsillitis (palatine, lingual, pharyngeal)
Source: Nelms CR. Paparella MM: Otalgia. Minn Med 52:955, June 1969.
than in the general area of the external ear and deeper. Therefore, when
there is no evidence of acute middle ear inflammation or disease in the
external ear, it is important to determine which lesions might be present in
the distribution of the sensory fibers of the several cranial nerves that supply
these structures but have ramifications in more distant areas.
The fifth, seventh, ninth, and tenth cranial nerves have sensory fibers in
some areas of the auricle, the external canal, and the tympanum, with
considerable overlap in the areas supplied. Also, the second and third
cervical nerves supply sensation to the postaural area, while the auriculotem¬
poral branch of the fifth nerve innervates some of the external ear and a
considerable area in front of the auricle and around the temporomandibular
joint. For the most part, in cases of secondary or referred otalgia, one cannot
Pharyngeal and laryngeal maiig- determine the nerve through which pain is being referred until a lesion is
nancies must be ruled out in found. The most important lesions that demand early detection are, of
cases o unexpame otagia. course) malignancies. The patient with a lesion on the rim of the larynx, in
the piriform sinus, or on the epiglottis may complain of earache on the
involved side. The reference is through the superior laryngeal branch of the
vagus nerve. Any lesion, including early carcinoma, in the area of the
palatine tonsils, the adjacent tongue, and lingual tonsils may cause earache
via the glossopharyngeal nerve. Otalgia that occurs following tonsillectomy
may be explained in the same manner (Fig. 9-3).
Dental disease may cause earache referred through a branch of the
trigeminal nerve. Molar impaction and dental infection are common causes.
CNS
«r|w
.-|o
l|2|<
w|lu|S
°lol
”Ie|
MIDDLE EAR
FIGURE 9-3. This diagram illustrates the man¬

ner by which referred pain arises in the ear
from a pharyngeal or oral cavity focus. Note
that the fifth and tenth cranial nerves refer to
the external canal and the ninth nerve to the
middle ear. Patients are unable to distinguish
external from middle ear pain, however, and
all referred pain from the pharynx is alike.
(From Moloy P: How to manage the patient
with a lump in the neck. Primary Care
9(2):292, 1982.)
ORAL Jiwl
^
1
— — ——-
Ao)
\ zl OROPHARYNX
1 ( CAVITY r
1
ORAL CAVITY ^-
%g
u
1
1
1 /
L . /
LARI
Temporomandibular Joint Dysfunction
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) dysfunction is a common cause of sec¬

ondary otalgia, with the patient frequently complaining of ear infection. The TMJ dysfunction is a common
cause of secondary otalgia.
pain may be perceived as a deep, boring pain in the ear mimicking acute
otitis media; however, the classic hearing loss associated with infection is
not present in these patients. Muscle spasm may accompany temporoman¬
dibular joint dysfunction. The temporalis, masseter, and medial and lateral Muscle spasm may accompany
TMJ dysfunction.
pterygoid muscles are primarily involved, with the trapezius, suboccipital,
frontal, and occipital muscles involved occasionally on a secondary basis.
Many times the patient exhibits malocclusion and, on occasion, malposition
of the maxilla and/or mandible. It is important to know whether the patient
has had any recent dental work or has a past history of orthodontic treatment.
A past history of gout, rheumatoid arthritis, trauma, Paget’s disease,
hyperparathyroidism, or arteritis is important in the differential diagnosis of
temporomandibular joint dysfunction. Bruxism, or grinding of the teeth, A history of bruxism is of
interest.
may cause joint dysfunction or muscle spasm, with nocturnal grinding being
manifested as morning headache and unconscious stress-induced daytime
grinding producing evening headache.
A complete otolaryngologic examination should be performed, with special
attention to the dentition and function of the masticatory muscles. The teeth
should be examined for dental caries and for malocclusion as well as for
missing or extracted teeth and crown or bridge work. If the patient is
edentulous, the degree of stability of the dentures, particularly the lower,
should be evaluated, as ill-fitting dentures may cause symptoms of tempo¬
romandibular, joint dysfunction. The temporomandibular joint should be
palpated for evidence of opening or closing click, crepitus, or restricted Dental examination including
palpation of the TMJ and mus¬
anterior motion on opening, also referred to as translation. The muscles of
cles of mastication is important.
mastication should be palpated, including the temporalis muscle, the mas¬
seter muscle, and the pterygoids, which are palpated intraorally. Jaw opening
and closing should be observed, with any changes or deviation of the jaw to
the right or left noted. Measurements should be made on maximal mouth
opening between the edges of the upper and lower incisors; this measurement
in the average adult is greater than 40 mm. Measurement of less than 40
mm may indicate decrease in joint function and in translation. A complete
cranial nerve examination should also be performed; on rare occasions
parapharyngeal tumors or tumors at the base of the skull can cause restricted
mouth opening and temporomandibular joint symptoms; however, these
tumors frequently cause sensory and/or motor changes, particularly involving
cranial nerves V, VII, IX, X, and XI. Radiographic evaluation should
include a panoramic dental radiograph to visualize the joints and, if indicated,
further joint imaging techniques such as contrast arthrotomography or
magnetic resonance imaging.
Initial symptomatic treatment includes a soft to liquid diet, heat applied
over the affected muscles, and anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin or Conservation treatment is often
other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents. Many times oral splints are the sufficient.
initial treatment for these patients to disocclude the teeth and allow the
mandible to assume the normal position, thereby allowing the muscles of
mastication to relax and assume a more normal function. If the cause of the
joint dysfunction is related to the occlusion, then correction of the malocclu¬ Correction of malocclusion may
be necessary in some cases.
sion is extremely important. This may range from very minimal grinding of
the occlusal surface of the teeth, known as occlusal equilibration, to ortho-
dontic treatment for more severe malocclusions; in some cases, orthognathic

surgery, that is, elective osteotomies with repositioning of the maxilla,
mandible, or both, is required. In frank degenerative joint disease or with
disk dislocation, joint surgery may be indicated as the treatment of choice.'
This may include a tightening of the joint capsule with removal of the
meniscus of the joint, or, in more extensive cases, joint replacement with
either alloplastic materials or autogenous grafts.
Trigeminal Neuralgia
The diagnosis of primary trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux) is usually
The sharp, lancinating pain with not difficult because of the character of the pain. In this type of headache
trigger zones is characteristic
of trigeminal neuralgia. the pain is of sudden onset, sharp and lancinating, and initiated at trigger
zones about the face which react to light physical contact or drafts of air. It
usually occurs in persons beyond middle age and may involve one or more
of the divisions of the trigeminal nerve. The ophthalmic division is least
frequently affected. Attacks may occur every few seconds, with intervals of
freedom. Periods of recurrent attacks may last from a few days to a few
weeks. Remissions of months to years are seen. The disease is usually
unilateral and the cause is unknown.
In the secondary type of trigeminal neuralgia, the pain as a rule is of a
chronic nature, with longer episodes and less severe attacks. Trigger zones
are uncommon. The cause is found to be some lesion involving one of the
Specific causes must be ruled nerve roots. Tumors, both intra- and extracranial, must be ruled out. While
out before making the diagnosis
of a primary neuralgia. occasionally multiple sclerosis is found to be the cause, dental, nasal, and
sinus diseases are the more common causes. In actuality, the neurologic
disturbance associated with the aforementioned temporomandibular joint
dysfunction may involve a branch of the trigeminal nerve and, therefore,
technically would be considered a secondary form.
Drug treatment consists of use of phenytoin (Dilantin), baclofen, clona¬
zepam, valproic acid, or carbamazepine (Tegretol) alone or in combination.
When prescribing Tegretol in particular, the physician must be aware that
severe, sometimes irreversible, adverse reactions involving the hematopoietic
system can result. Early detection of hematologic change is important, since
in some patients the resultant aplastic anemia is reversible.
Patients unresponsive to the medical treatment described are managed by
alcohol injection or rhizotomy of the involved nerve or nerve root. Currently,
percutaneous radiofrequency rhizotomy seems to be the method of choice!
Other treatment possibilities include surgical ablation of the gasserian
ganglion or nerve decompression.
Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia
Primary glossopharyngeal neuralgia, a tic douloureaux of this nerve, is
relatively rare. The paroxysms of stabbing pain in the ear, with trigger zones
in the tonsillar area of the involved side, accompanied by salivation, provide
A common secondary form may
a picture in which the diagnosis is not difficult. A secondary form that is
he seen briefly after
tonsillectomy. common is seen in the earache following tonsillectomy or with any inflam¬
matory or neoplastic process involving the tonsillar area and adjacent areas
in the absence of middle ear disease. As previously discussed, one must
consider the many causes of referred otalgia when entertaining the diagnosis
of glossopharyngeal neuralgia.
PART THREE
THE NOSE AND

PARANASAL SINUSES
10
APPLIED ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NOSE
by Peter A. Hilger, M.D.
The nose is an important organ that deserves more consideration than it

normally receives; it is one of the body’s most important protectors against
an unfavorable environment and has been for millenia.
In an era in which an ever-increasing number of scientific studies and
publications have been devoted to airborne occupational hazards and air¬
borne pollutants, a basic understanding of the anatomy and physiology of
the nose is important.
The nose performs a number of functions: it subserves the sense of smell,
prepares inhaled air for use in the lungs, furnishes the air resistance necessary
for normal functioning of the lungs, exerts certain reflex effects upon the
lungs, and modifies speech.
ANATOMY
External Nose
The midline structure projecting outward from the plane of the cheeks
and upper lip, the external nose may be divided structurally into three
divisions: the bony vault, the most superior, is immobile; below it comes the
slightly movable cartilaginous vault; and lowest is the movable nasal lobule.
Considering the bony skeleton only, the lower half of the pyriform aperture
divides the internal from the external nose. Superiorly, the external nasal
skeletal structures include the ascending processes of the maxillae and the
two nasal bones, all supported by the nasal process of the frontal bone and
a portion of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. The anterior nasal
spine, representing the portions of the embryologic medial maxillary process
that engulfs the anterior premaxilla, may also be considered a part of the
external nose. The next division, the slightly movable cartilaginous vault, is
made up of the upper lateral cartilages, fused with each other in the midline
and also fused with the upper margin of the quadrangular septal cartilage.
The lowest third of the external nose, the nasal lobule, has its shape
maintained by the lower lateral cartilages. The lobule encloses the nasal
vestibule and is delineated medially by the columella, laterally by the alae
of the nose, and anterosuperiorly by the nasal tip (Fig. 10-1). Mobility of
the nasal lobule is necessary for facial expression, sniffing, and sneezing.
The subcutaneous muscles of expression over the nasal bones, anterior
cheeks, and upper lip assure this mobility. Subcutaneous connective tissue
177
Lower lateral
cartilage
Nares
Nasal septal
cartilage
Dorsunv
Anterior nasal
Alar groouo
Supratip spine
area External nares
Tip Nasolabial fold
Columella Nasolabial angle
Nasal bones
Frontal process
of maxilla
Upper lateral
cartilages
Nasal septal
FICURL 10—1. The external portion of the nose.
cartilage
Lower.lateral
cartilage
and skin complete the needed tissues of the external nose. The soft tissue
division between the internal and external nose has as its inferior margin the
pyriform crest with its skin cover, the nasal septum medially, and, as its
superior and lateral delineation, the lower margin of the upper lateral
The nasal valve is the narrowest cartilage. This narrowest structure of the entire upper respiratory tract is
structure in the upper respira¬ referred to by the anatomist as the limen nasi or the os internum, and by
tory tract.
the physiologist as the nasal valve of Mink. The designation “valve” is
appropriate because it moves with, and helps regulate, respiration.
Internal Nose
This structure extends from the os internum anteriorly to the posterior
choana, which divides the nasal cavity from the nasopharynx. The nasal
septum, a bony midline structure, anatomically divides the organ into two
noses. The internal lateral nasal walls are further structured by the turbinates
and the irregular air spaces between them—the inferior, middle, and superior
meati (Fig. 10-2). While the skeletal outlines appear to assure rigid diameters
of the air spaces, the soft tissue coverings of the internal nose tend to vary
greatly in thickness, altering the resistance, and, consequently, the pressures
and flow volumes of the inspiratory and expiratory air currents. The varying
diameters come about from strictly mucosal congestion and decongestion,
from changes in the vascular swell bodies of the turbinates and upper septum,
and from crusts and deposits or drainage of mucosal secretions.
10—APPLIED ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NOSE 179
The nasolacrimal duct empties into the inferior meatus anteriorly. The The frontal, maxillary, and ante¬
rior ethmoid sinuses open into
hiatus semilunaris of the middle meatus provides sinus ostia for the frontal,
the middle meatus.
anterior ethmoid, and maxillary sinuses. The posterior ethmoid sinus cells
drain into the superior meatus, and the sphenoid sinus drains into the
sphenoethmoid recess (Fig. 10-3).
FIGURE 10-3. The lateral wall shown without the turbinates. The ostia of the paranasal
sinuses as well as the nasolacrimal duct can be seen opening into the appropriate meatus.
The olfactory nerve endings occupy fairly small areas on the medial and
lateral internal nasal wall, high up in the nasal vault. Structural deformities,
as well as excessive mucosal thickening or edema, can prevent the inspired
air streams from reaching the olfactory area and, thus, severely interfere
with olfaction.
¥he skeletal portion of the septum is composed of the septal cartilage
(quadrangular) anteriorly, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid above, the
vomer and rostrum of the sphenoid posteriorly, and a ridge below comprising
the crest of the maxillas and the crest of the palatines (Fig. 10-4). Ridges
and spurs, which sometimes require removal, occur not infrequently. Warp¬
ing of the septum, which may be due to growth factors or trauma, may be
so great that it interferes with the air flow and must be corrected surgically.
Minor septal deformities rarely The adjacent turbinates commonly compensate for irregularities in the
alter nasal air flow because of
turbinate compensation. septum (if they are not too great) by increasing in size on the concave side
and decreasing on the other side in such a way as to maintain the optimum
width of the air spaces. Thus, even though the septum is warped, air flow
may be even and normal. Areas of erectile tissue on both sides of the septum
serve to adjust its thickness under varying atmospheric conditions.
Paranasal Sinuses
Human beings have about 12 cavities along the roof and lateral aspects of
the nasal air space, varying in number, shape, size, and symmetry. These
sinuses are hollows within the several facial bones and are accordingly named
maxillary, sphenoid, frontal, and ethmoid sinuses (Figs. 10-3 and 10-5).
The latter usually consist of interconnected small groups of anterior and
posterior ethmoid cells, each group having an ostium draining into the nose.
All of the sinuses are lined with a modified respiratory epithelium capable
of producing mucus and, having cilia, of emptying secretions into the nasal
cavities. In health, the sinuses are essentially air-filled.
ID—APPLIED ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NOSE 181
Middle
turbinate
Orbital
cavity
Hiatus
Septum
semilunaris
Hiatus Ethmoid
air cells Inferior
semilunari:
turbinate Maxillary
Ostium of sinus
Maxillary sinus
Sphenoid
sinus
Nasal
Nasofrontal
septum
duct
Ethmoid
air cells
FIGURE 10-5. A, A sagittal section through the right ethmoid

and sphenoid sinuses and right middle meatus at the level of
the middle turbinate. The irregular configuration and number of
the ethmoid air cells are seen. B, A coronal section through the
sinuses and the orbits. The proximity of the sinuses to the orbits
and intracranial space is seen, as is the irregular shape of the
nasal chamber. C, An axial section through the sinuses and Sphenoid
orbits. The proximity of the ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses to
each other and to the orbital contents is seen. sinuses
A rudimentary maxillary sinus, or antrum, is most consistently present at The maxillary sinus is the only
birth. The other paranasal sinuses appear in early childhood within the facial sinus routinely present at birth.
bones. These bones outgrow the cranium while supporting it. As their firm
centers are resorbed, nasal mucous membranes are drawn into the newly
forming cavities.
HISTOLOGY
The Respiratory Mucosa of the Nose

The usually ciliated, pseuaosrratified columnar epithelium of the respira¬
tory apparatus varies considerably in different portions of the nose, depend¬
ing on pressure and velocity of the air streams, their temperatures, and their
predominant moisture content (Fig. 10—6). Thus, the anterior ends of the
turbinates and the septal mucosa for a short way past the os internum are
still lined by a stratified squamous epithelium without cilia—an extension of
the skin of the nasal vestibule. Along the main path of the inspiratory
currents the cells become columnar; the cilia are short and slightly irregular.
Cells of the middle and inferior meatuses, handling most of the expiratory
flow path, grow long and evenly spaced cilia. The sinuses contain cuboidal
FIGURE 10-6. Photomicrographs of res¬

piratory epithelium as related to the im¬
pact of respired air. a, Preturbinal area;
b, anterior end of inferior turbinate; c,
inferior meatus showing glands contain¬
ing serous and mucous cells; d, middle
third of inferior turbinate. Within the si¬
nuses, the epithelium is of the cuboidal
type.
epithelium and cilia uniform in length and spacing. The force of the air
currents passing through the various localities also influences the thickness
of the lamina propria and the number of glands in this mucosa. It is thin
where there is a low or gentle air flow and thick where the air streams are
strong. Secretion-producing glands and goblet cells, the sources of the
mucous blanket, are found in proportion to the thickness of the lamina
propria. The very viscous and sticky mucous blanket catches dust, inspirated
foreign bodies, and bacteria and, through the action of the cilia, carries
these substances to the pharynx, to be swallowed and destroyed in the
stomach. Lysozyme and immunoglobulin A (IgA) are found in the mucous
blanket and give further protection against pathogens. The mucous blanket
in the nose is renewed about three to four times an hour. The cilia—tiny,
hairlike structures—move in unison rapidly in the direction of the blanket’s
flow, then bend and recover much more slowly. Their stroke rate is 700 to
1000 cycles per minute.
Cilia
The cilia, about 5 to 7 microns in length, are located on the end plates of
the surface cells in the epithelium and number about 100 per square micron,
with about.,250 per cell in the upper respiratory tract. The cilia seem to work
almost automatically. For example, it is possible to tear a cell into small bits
without stopping ciliary movement; a single cilium will continue to stroke as
long as a tiny bit of cytoplasm containing its basal body remains attached to
it. All of the cilia in an area of epithelium are coordinated in a marvelous
manner. Each, as it strokes, moves metachronously with the surrounding
cilia. As one observes them stroking, the ranks bow in unison and the files
in sequence. Not only are the strokes of adjacent cilia coordinated as to
time, but the directions of untold millions in a sinus are so coordinated as
to be an important factor in carrying the mucus to the nasopharynx.
The structure of the cilia has been revealed by the transmission electron
microscope (Fig. 10-7). They are built up of two single central microtubules
surrounded by nine pairs of microtubules, all enclosed within the thin,
fragile, trilaminar cell membrane. Each cilium consists of a shaft, a tapered
tip, and a basal body. Not all microtubules extend completely to the tip.
The two central single microtubules do not extend below the level of the
cell surface. However, just below the level of the cell surface, each pair of
peripheral microtubules is joined by a third microtubule in the basal body,
a structure found in the apical cytoplasm. These triplets then continue to
descend further in the apical cytoplasm as rootlets, gradually tapering off.
In stroking, the individual cilia do not merely move back and forth like
wheat stalks in a grain field. Each stroke has a powerful, rapid phase in the
direction of flow with the cilium straight and stiff, followed by a slower
phase of recovery during which the cilium bends. The time relationship
between the effective phase and the phase of recovery has been worked out
experimentally, on the rat. The ratio is 1:3; i.e., the effective phase takes
one third the time of the phase of recovery. The stroke is not unlike the
arm stroke of a swimmer.
Cilium
Bridge
Subfiber A
Subfiber B
Radial spok«
Spoke head
^3STTt—'Central
>/Ok/ / microtubule
p/tSC
Doublet
microtubule
hw
Ciliary membrane
Dynein arms
FIGURE 10—7. Anatomic detail of a cilium.
Olfactory Area
Great interpersonal variations characterize the structure of the olfactory
region; these differences may be in the thickness of the mucosa (it is usually
about 60 microns thick), in the size of the cells, and in the olfactory vesicles.
The border between the respiratory and olfactory regions is generally very
sharply defined but irregular. In man the olfactory pseudostratified columnar
epithelium is composed of three cell types: (1) olfactory bipolar nerve cells;
(2) sustentacular, supporting cells, which are the most numerous; and (3) a
few, small basal cells, which are probably stem cells for the sustentacular
cells (Fig. 10-8).
Each olfactory cell is a bipolar neuron. In the epithelium they are evenly
distributed among the supporting cells. These olfactory sense cells constitute
The olfactory bipolar neurons the only portion of the central nervous system that reaches the surface of
niir^rTttemus^sUmihat the body- The distal end of such a cel1 is a modified dendrite that protrudes
reaches the body's surface, above the surface of the epithelium, forming the so-called olfactory vesicle.
On the surface of this vesicle are 10 to 15 nonmotile cilia. The proximal end
of each cell tapers to a thin process about 0.1 micron in diameter, which is
the axon. This axon joins with other similar axons to form the olfactory
nerves, which pass through the cribriform plate into the olfactory bulb,
where they form synapses with the dendrites of a second set of neurons. The
axons of this second set of neurons form the olfactory tract, which passes to
the brain to connect with numerous nuclei, fasciculi, and other tracts. The
central olfactory apparatus is highly complex.
The supporting sustentacular cells probably do more than just support; it
is postulated that the sustentacular cells provide lateral support and also
represent a means of intraepithelial ionic communication via their junctional
complexes with the olfactory bipolar neurons. They are supplied at the
Olfactory
bulb
Olfactory
tract
Glomerulus
FIGURE 10-8. The olfactory area. Located

high in the vault of the nose, this is the only
Sustaining area of the body in which an extension of the
cell central nervous system comes into contact
with the environment.
Microvilli
surface with numerous microvilli—up to a thousand on a cell—which form

a thick brush border. These cells have no motile cilia. The microvilli are
tiny outpouchings of the cell membrane, like the fingers on a rubber glove,
and are not at all like the usual respiratory cilia (see Fig. 10-7). These
microvilli increase the surfaee-area enormously, but their function is not yet
well understood.
A great number of glands (glands of Bowman) lie in the lamina propria
in the olfactory region. Opening onto the surface through rather wide ducts,
their cells are cuboidal or low cylindrical.
Blood Supply
The sphenopalatine branch of the internal maxillary artery supplies the
conchae, meatus, and septum. The anterior and posterior ethmoidal branches
of the ophthalmic artery supply the ethmoidal and frontal sinuses and the
roof of the nose (Figs. 10-9 and 10-10). A branch of the superior labial The superior portions of the na¬
sal cavity are nourished by the
artery and the infraorbital and alveolar branches of the internal maxillary
ethmoid arteries, while the pos¬
artery supply the maxillary sinus, and the pharyngeal branch of the same terior and inferior portions are
artery is distributed to the sphenoid. The veins form a close cavernous plexus supplied by the maxillary artery.
under the mucous membrane. This plexus is especially well marked over the
middle and inferior conchae and the lower portion of the septum, where it
forms the erectile tissue, \4tpous drainage is accomplished principally
through the ophthalmic, anterior facial, and sphenopalatine veins.
Anterior
ethmoid Posterior
artery ethmoid
ârtery
Spheno¬
palatine
FIGURE 10—9. The blood supply of the lateral nasal wall. The artery
ethmoid arteries are branches of the ophthalmic artery from
the internal carotid artery. The sphenopalatine and greater
palatine arteries are terminal branches of the external carotid
artery.
Nasal branch
Posterior of greater
palatine artery
ethmoid
arteries
Anterior
ethmoid artery
Kiesselbach's
FIGURE 10-10. The blood supply of the nasal
plexus
septum. In addition to the vessels supplying
the lateral nasal wall, branches from the supe¬
rior labial artery and palatine artery reach the
septum. Kiesselbach’s plexus is the most com¬
Posterior
mon area for epistaxis.
septal
nasal
Septal arteries
branch of
superior
Major palatine
labial artery
artery
Lymphatic System
The nose has a rich supply of lymphatics occurring in an anterior and a
posterior network. The anterior network of lymphatics is small and drains
along the facial vessels to the neck. They serve the most anterior portion of
the nose—the vestibule and the preturbinal area.
The posterior network serves the majority of the nasal anatomy, joining
three main channels in the posterior area of the nose—the superior, middle,
and inferior channels. The superior group, from the middle and superior
turbinates and that portion of the nasal wall, pass above the eustachian tube,
and empty into the retropharyngeal lymph nodes. The middle group, passing
below the eustachian tube, drain the inferior turbinate, inferior meatus, and
a portion of the floor and go to the jugular chain of lymph nodes. The
inferior group, from the septum and part of the floor of the nose, pass
through the lymph nodes along the internal jugular vessels (Fig. 10-11).
Nerve Supply
Directly involved are the first cranial nerve for olfaction, the ophthalmic
and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve for all other sensory afferent
impulses, the facial nerve for movement of the respiratory muscles of the
external nose, and the autonomic nervous system. This last is mainly by way
of the sphenopalatine ganglion, to control the diameters of veins and arteries
in the nose as well as mucous production, thus modifying air flow conduc¬
tance, temperature, and moisture regulation of the air streams (Fig. 10-12).
FIGURE 10— li. Lymphatic drainage of

the nose and sinuses. The anterior net¬
work of lymphatics drains the external
portion of the nose and preturbinal area
via nodes in the preauricular and sub¬
mandibular regions. The posterior net¬
work supplies the majority of the internal
portion of the nose via retropharyngeal
nodes.
FIGURE 10-12. The nerve supply of the nose. Olfaction Is mediated by the olfactory nerve located
high in the nasal vault. Autonomic control of nasal physiology is mediated primarily by sympathetic
and parasympathetic fibers that reach the nose by way of the sphenopalatine ganglion. Sensation is
from the ethmoid branches of the ophthalmic division of the fifth cranial nerve and the maxillary
division of the fifth nerve.
PHYSIOLOGY
Olfaction
Just as nasal anatomy makes inspection of the olfactory cleft with a nasal
speculum usually not possible, for the same reason inspiratory air flow curves
normally do not reach high enough into the cleft to allow us to detect an
odor, unless it is very strong. If we are to be successful at identifying a given
odor, we usually have to sniff, that is, create additional negative pressure to
pull the entering air currents up into the olfactory area. With pathologic
nasal airway obstruction a patient will often complain of anosmia before
mentioning that he has become a mouth breather. Moreover, since we A decrease in the sense of
characterize different foods by a combination of taste and smell, the patient’s smell is often perceived as a
decrease in taste.
presenting complaint may be that food does not “taste right” anymore.
Man’s sense of smell is rudimentary compared to other members of the
animal kingdom, yet the sensitivity of this organ is truly startling. McKenzie
states that vanillin is perceptible by us as a smell when it is present in
concentrations as low as 5 x 10-10 gm/L of air. The process by which odors
are perceived has not been determined with certainty, but there are two
theories that suggest chemical or undulation mechanisms. According to the
chemical theory, particles of odorous substances are distributed by diffusion
PART THREE—THE NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES
throughout the air and cause a chemical reaction when they reach the
olfactory epithelium. According to the undulation theory, waves of energy
similar to light impinge upon the olfactory nerve endings. Regardless of
mechanism, the olfactory sense is quickly exhausted.
It is still very difficult to standardize in a laboratory test descriptions of
different characteristics of various odors or measurements of comparative
odor concentrations. Amoore identified seven main categories of odors,
adequate to encompass and describe all the varieties perceived. Although
many investigators agree with his theory, his system is still not accepted in
routine clinical practice or as the basis for determining disability ratings.
Instead, for the most part, investigators try to distinguish between anosmia,
hyposmia, normal olfaction, and parosmia (perverted olfaction) by offering
an odoriferous substance, such as oil of clove, in various air dilutions to the
test subject.
The sinuses have no obvious physiologic function. Negus is of the opinion
that they serve the sense of smell by accommodating extension from the
ethmoturbinals, especially in the frontal and sphenoid sinuses. Ethmoturbin-
als covered with olfactory epithelium occur in some of the lower animals. In
man, the sinuses are empty and our sense of smell is far inferior to that of,
for instance, the dog or cat; man’s ethmoturbinals have apparently disap¬
peared during the process of evolution.
Airway Resistance
The human breath begins at the rim of the nostril. The act of breathing
conveys air through the upper and lower respiratory tract to the alveoli of
the lung in sufficient volume, with sufficient pressure, moisture, warmth,
and cleanliness, to assure optimal conditions for oxygen uptake, and in the
reverse process optimal elimination of carbon dioxide brought to the alveoli
by the blood stream (Fig. 10-13). The nose, with its many inspiratory and
FIGURE 10-13. The pattern of airflow through the nose.

The majority of the air stream arcs through the nose near
the middle turbinate rather than along the floor of the
nose. Turbulent flow enhances the physiologic functions
of filtration, humidification, and warming of air as well as
regulation of airway resistance.
expiratory baffles and the valvelike action of the erectile tissues in the Variations in nasal resistance
turbinates and septum, smoothes and shapes the air streams, regulates are due primarily to changes in
the erectile tissues of the turbi¬
volumes of passing air and pressure, and conducts most of the air-condition¬ nates.
ing activities (air filtration, control of temperature and humidity).
Changes in air pressure which take place inside the nose during the
respiratory cycle have been measured using rhinomanometry. During quiet
respiration air pressure changes inside the nose are minimal and normally
are not greater than 10 to 15 mm H20, with an air flow rate varying between
0 and 140 ml/min. At inspiration a drop in pressure occurs; air flows out of
the sinuses. During expiration there is a small increase in pressure; air flows
into the sinuses. Sinus air exchange is very minor on the whole, except
during the act of sniffing, the mechanism whereby air delivery to the olfactory
membranes lining the sinuses is increased.
A wide range in nasal airway resistance has been noted in normal
individuals. More than 50 per cent of the total respiratory resistance during The nose provides more than 50
normal respiration is due to the total nasal resistance. In striking contrast, per cent of normal respiratory
resistance.
only 20 per cent of total respiratory resistance is accounted for by the oral
passage during mouth breathing. In the majority of individuals there is a
change from nasal to oronasal breathing during exercise with its increased
air requirements. A wide variation normally exists, however, as to when this
transition occurs. Although oral breathing is demonstrably easier, individuals
will usually resort to it as their normal style of breathing only in the case of
uncompensated nasal stenosis or when poor pulmonary function cannot
overcome normal nasal resistance. With complete nasal obstruction and its
resultant necessary transoral respiration, an increase in Pco2 has been noted
by some investigators. This preference for nasal breathing is requisite during
the first six months of human life and continues to provide protection against
airborne hazards throughout life.
Several areas of the nose where the air passage narrows can be likened to
“valves.” In the vestibular segment of the nose there are two such narrow¬
ings. The more anterior narrowing is found between the posterior aspect of
the upper lateral cartilage and the nasal septum. Any deviations of the nasal
septum in this area often cause an increased narrowing with its resultant
symptomatic airway obstruction. Such deviations can result from trauma or
growth irregularities. The second narrowing is found at the bony piriform
aperture. These two areas can be considered highly significant clinically in
the greater preponderance of intranasal surgical corrections.
A normally occurring alternation in nasal resistance between the right and An alternating cyclic variation in
left nasal passages has been demonstrated through the use of rhinomanom¬ airway resistance exists be¬
tween the right and left nasal
etry. Respiration volumes in the two passages are altered through alternating
passages.
congestion and decongestion of the erectile tissue covering the nasal turbi¬
nates on opposite sides of the septum. Cycles in normal individuals have
been found to vary from 1 hour to 6 hours in length, with an average cycle
length of 2Vi hours. These fluctuations are not normally noted by most
individuals, since total nasal resistance tends to remain at a constant level.
Air Conditioning
During the brief time that air traverses the horizontal portion of the nasal
passage, 16 to 20 times a minute in normal respiration, the inspired air is
warmed (or cooled) to near body temperature and its relative humidity is
brought to near 100 per cent.
FIGURE 10-14. Nasal temperature regulation. Despite

extremes of environmental temperature, as air passes
deeper into the nose (from sampling position 1 to
position 3) the temperature is adjusted to near body
temperature.
Extremes of temperature and dryness of inspired air are compensated for

by modification of the air flow (Fig. 10-14). This is carried out by physical
changes in the erectile tissues of the nose.
Air Purification
The hairs, or vibrissae, of the skin-lined nasal vestibule play a role in air
filtration. More prominent in males, it is not understood what role this sex
differentiation plays in air filtration needs.
The irregular internal anatomy of the nasal passages causes eddies in the
FIGURE 10-15. Variations of total respiratory deposition in

relation to breathing frequency for different size particles. (Re¬
drawn from Dennis, 1961; reproduced, with permission, from
Scientific Foundations of Otolaryngology editors, London. Hild-
ing A.C.: Nasal filtration. In Harrison, Donald, and Hinchdiffe,
Ronald, (Eds.): Scientific Foundations of Otolaryngology. Lon¬
don, Heinemann, 1976.)
FIGURE 10-16. Percentage of inhaled particles passing through

(penetrating) the nasal chamber in relation to particle size (mean
size), taken from a variety of particles. Airflow, 18 liters per
minute. Experimental findings (solid line) are compared with
theory (calculated findings). (Redrawn from Landahl, 1950;
reproduced, with permission, from Scientific Foundations of
Otolaryngology editors, London.)
inspired air, resulting in a deposition of particulate matter in the nose and

nasopharynx. This foreign material, including bacteria and viruses (which
frequently coalesce into large particles), is either expectorated or carried by
mucociliary transport to the stomach for sterilization by gastric secretions
(Figs. 10-15 and 10-16).
Soluble gases are also removed from the air as it passes through the nose.
The greater the water solubility of the gas, the more completely it is removed
by the nasal mucosa. Pollutants such as hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide,
and ammonia, are all highly soluble and therefore well-cleansed from the
inspired air. Conversely, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons have a very
low solubility and thus pass straight through to the lungs.
Mucociliary Function
The transport of foreign particles deposited from inspired air posteriorly
to the pharynx, where they are either swallowed or expectorated, is carried
out through action of cilia moving the mucous blanket with its entrapped
particles (Fig. 10-17). Nasal airflow turbulence provides extensive exposure
mucus.
of inspired air to the nasal epithelium with its mucous blanket, a highly
viscid, continuous sheet of secretion which extends into all of the spaces and
angles of the nose, sinuses, eustachian tubes, pharynx, and the entire
bronchial tree.
The upper layer of this exceedingly thin mucous blanket, which is rich in
glycoproteins, is the more viscid, with a tensile strength that allows the cilia’s
stiff forward motion to keep the blanket moving posteriorly in a continuous
stream. The lower,.periciliary layer is more serous, providing little hindrance
to the bending, ciliary recovery stroke. The mucous blanket is renewed by
the submucosal glands two to three times an hour.
Just as the ciliary movement of the bronchopulmonary lining propels the
mucous blanket toward the pharynx, so, too, do the cilia of the nose and
ears. A considerable negative pressure is created by the pulling action of the
cilia on the mucous blanket when any of these chambers is blocked by a
mucous plug. This may result in intense sinus pain as the plug clears the
ostium and, as the mucous plug moves down the auditory canal, may cause
atelectasis of the tympanic membrane.
Effective ciliary action has been shown to be compromised by extreme
drying of the air, as often occurs in many homes during the winter heating
months. It is also important to maintain the normally occurring neutral pH
of 7. Air pollution interferes with ciliary effectiveness in various ways.
Nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, frequent components of smog, compro¬
mise nasal health. Positively charged particulate matter can neutralize the
negative atmospheric ion count normally produced by solar irradiation.
Ciliary movement has been shown to be reduced and even to stop as the ion
count becomes more positive. As a result, although the patient may present
with a complaint of “sinusitis,” the real cause is impaired ciliary physiology.
Nasal mucus, in addition to its role in transporting particulate matter
deposited from inspired air, also transfers heat, normally warms inspired
and cools expired air, and humidifies the inspired air with more than a liter
of moisture each day. However, even this amount of moisture is often not
sufficient to humidify the highly desiccated air frequently encountered in
heated homes during northern winters. This may result in mucosal drying
with its many accompanying nasal problems. The degree of moisture in the
mucous blanket is determined by neural stimulation of the seromucous
submucosal glands in the nasal lining.
The anterior third of the nasal chamber changes in response to changes in
the physical properties of the inspired air. With a great deviation from the
norm the respiratory epithelium lining the anterior portion of the turbinates,
particularly the inferior turbinate, becomes transitional or squamous and no
cilia are observed. The mucous blanket in this region becomes more viscid
and movement is achieved only through the pulling transmitted along the
mucous blanket from still-ciliated areas located posteriorly. If there is a high
content of particles in the inspired air, as occurs in certain occupations,
crusting is observed around the vibrissae and the anterior turbinal ends.
The direction of mucous streaming in the nose is generally backward.
Since the cilia are more active in the protected inferior and middle meatus,
they tend to drag the mucous blanket from the common meatus into these
recesses. The direction of flow on the septum is back and somewhat
downward toward the floor. On the floor, the direction is back, with a
tendency to flow under the inferior turbinate into the inferior meatus. On
the medial aspect of the turbinates, the flow is back and downward, passing
under the inferior margin into the corresponding meatus. The drainage from
the nonciliated areas in the anterior third of the nose is practically all through
the meatus. This is the area that collects most of the airborne contaminants.
The direction of the flow in the sinuses is spiral, beginning, in humans, at
a point remote from the ostium. The rate increases progressively as the
ostium is approached, and in the ostium the mucous blanket passes out in
the form of a whirling tube at a rate of 15 to 20 mm/min.
The rate of mucous flow determined by ciliary action varies in different
portions of the nose; that of the anterior nasal segment may be only one
sixth that of the posterior, which is 1 to 20 mm/min. Mucociliary deficiencies,
either inherent or acquired, have been demonstrated to relate to significant
disease states.
The mucous blanket, in addition to trapping and removing inert particulate
matter, also presents a barrier to allergens, viruses, and bacteria. Although
viable organisms are readily cultured from the anterior nasal segment, it is
difficult to obtain a positive postnasal culture. Lysozyme, present in the
mucous blanket, is destructive to the walls of some bacteria. Active phago¬
cytosis in the nasal membrane provides subsurface protection. The respira¬
tory cell membrane also provides cellular-induced immunity.
Quantities of immunoglobulins are produced in the nasal mucosa, perhaps
in part by plasma cells normally found in the tissue. According to physiologic
need, IgG; IgA, and IgE have been observed. Allergic rhinitis occurs when
an inhaled allergen comes into contact with the IgE antibodies to that antigen
which are fixed to nasal mucosal and submucosal mast cells, generating and
releasing inflammatory mediators that produce characteristic nasal mucosal
changes.
Pulmonary Correlations
Normal pulmonary physiology is dependent upon nasal breathing. Bron¬ Pulmonary physiology is influ¬
chial tone is dependent upon nasopulmonary reflexes that also cause changes enced by the health of the nose.
in total pulmonary resistance and perfusion. Studies have reported instances
in which serious cardiorespiratory problems, ranging from moderate cardio-
megaly and right ventricular hypertrophy to severe right cardiac failure and
pulmonary edema, were caused by partial obstruction of the upper respira¬
tory tract. These changes were reversed after the airway was cleared.
However, these observations were made mainly in black children with
enlarged adenoids and were attributed to hypoxia and hypercapnia causing
a pulmonary vasoconstriction and elevated pulmonary arterial pressure. It is
therefore assumed that an individual susceptibility must be prerequisite for
these pathologies, since observation of these changes is very rare when
compared with the frequency of nasopharyngeal obstruction in children in
general.
Research has demonstrated a reflex transmitted from the nasal mucosa to
the homolateral lung. A decreased cardiac output and increased peripheral
vascular resistance have also been related to nasal membrane stimulation.
The peripheral vascular resistance, however, has not altered carotid flow.
This is a similar finding to that described in the “diving reflex,” which
selectively preserves cerebral blood flow.
SPEECH MODIFICATION
As discussed elsewhere, speech production is a complex process involving

the lungs acting as a power source, the larynx acting as a sound generator,
and structures in the head and neck, such as lips, tongue, teeth, etc., acting
as articulators to change the basic laryngeal sounds into understandable
speech. The nose and sinuses as well as the nasopharynx have a role in
articulation. In certain sounds such as “m,” “n,” and “ing,” nasal resonation
is important.
In general, speech that is abnormal due to alteration in the nasal spaces
can be considered hypernasal or hyponasal. Hypernasality results when
velopharyngeal insufficiency allows too many sounds to resonate in the nasal
spaces. Patients with unrepaired soft palate clefts typically demonstrate this
abnormal speech. Hyponasality results when sounds that normally resonate
in the nasal spaces are prevented from doing so. Nasal obstruction causing
this abnormality may be due to such diverse causes as an upper respiratory
infection, adenoid hypertrophy, or nasal tumors.
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furniture industry. Br Med J 2:587-596, 1968.
Aschan G, Drettner B, Ronge H: A new technique for measuring nasal resistance to breathing.
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Bates JH, Potts WE, Lewis M: Epidemiology of primary tuberculosis in an industrial school.
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11:1, 1901.
Dalhamn T: Studies on the effect of sulfur dioxide on ciliary activity in rabbit trachea in vivo
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Dalhamn T, Sjoholm J: Studies on S02, N02, and NH3. Effect on ciliary activity in rabbit
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Fry FA, Black A: Regional deposition and clearance of particles in the human nose. J Aerosol
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11
ALLERGIC CONDITIONS IN
OTOLARYNGOLOGY PATIENTS
by Malcolm N. Blumenthal, M.D.
Allergies are common conditions involving the nose and sinuses. They are
defined as adverse immune reactions. Atopy is a type of allergy which is
mediated by reagin-type antibodies. They include diseases such as seasonal
rhinitis, allergic asthma, and eczema. Although the IgE system is the main
immunoglobulin involved in the production of atopic conditions, other
immune mechanisms may play a role in the allergic reactions.
CLASSIFICATION OF ALLERGIC REACTIONS
Allergic reactions have been classified into those involving immunoglobulin

and those involving the cellular system (Coombs and Gell). This is an
arbitrary classification, and these systems may act intra- and interdepen¬
dency. The final clinical picture may involve nonimmunologic and immu¬
nologic mechanisms. In addition, several immune mechanisms may be
involved in the final clinical picture.
Immunoglobulin-Mediated Reactions
Antibody Cell-Associated Reactions (Reagin, Cytophilic, Anaphylactic
Antibodies). These reactions involve an antibody, usually IgE, attached by
the Fc portion to a cell containing mediators, or their precursors (mast cell,
basophil, eosinophil, macrophage). The Fab portion of these antibodies
interacts with the specific allergen (ragweed, mite, egg). Consequently there
is activation of several membrane-associated enzymes. Products of these
This process ernes immediate- enzymatic cleavages lead to the release of mediators (Table 11-1). These
rhinitis. mecâtors cause immediate-type reactions, occurring within seconds' to
minutes, such as edema, as well as late-phase reactions, occurring several
hours after the interaction. Late inflammatory reactions most likely result
from the release of mediators from the mast cells as well as from eosinophils,
macrophages, and platelets. Clinical examples are some cases of asthma,
anaphylaxis, and urticaria as well as seasonal rhinitis (Atkins and Zweiman;
Matthews; Plaut and Lichtenstein; Schwartz; Wasserman).
Antigen Cell-Associated Reactions (Cytotoxic, Blocking and Stimulating
Antibodies). These reactions involve an antibody, usually of the IgG and
IgM variety, interacting with an antigen that is part of or associated with the
cell wall. As a result these reactions, which are usually complement-
dependent, can cause damage, stimulation, or blockade. Those involving
damage to the cell are conditions such as Rh-positive and penicillin hemolytic
anemia and autoimmune thrombocytopenia. Stimulation from this type of
196
1 1 —ALLERGIC CONDITIONS IN OTOLARYNGOLOGY PATIENTS 197
TABLE 11-1. MEDIATORS OF ATOPIC REACTIONS (PARTIAL LIST)

Preformed
. Histamine
Proteoglycans
Heparin
Chondroitin sulfate
Proteases
Tryptase
Chymase
Hageman factor “activator”
Prekallikrein-activating elastase
Neutrophil chemotactic factor (high molecular weight)
Eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis
Aryl.sulfatase A and B
Lymphocyte chemotactic factor
Eosinophil chemotactic factor oligopeptide
Inflammatory factor of anaphylaxis
Superoxide dismutase
Myeloperoxidase
Newly generated or secondary agents
Arachidonic acid derivatives
Leukotrienes C4, D4, and E4 (slow-reacting substance of
anaphylaxis)
Hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid
Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid
Prostaglandins
Thromboxanes
Platelet-activating factor
Adenosine
Prostaglandin-generating factor of anaphylaxis
reaction may explain thyrotoxicosis. The blocking activity may be involved

in myasthenia gravis, insulin-resistant diabetes, and bronchial asthma and
rhinitis. The latter may be due to blocking antibodies directed against the
beta receptor site, causing an imbalance between the beta and alpha receptors
and resulting in a hyperreactive respiratory tract.
Antigen-Antibody Reactions and Cell-Independent Reactions (Arthus
Reaction, Immune Complex). These involve interaction of the antigen and
antibody independent of the cell, activating the complement and other
amplifying systems, resulting in an adverse reaction. The antibody usually is
of the IgG or IgM variety. Clinical examples of these reactions are serum
sickness, post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, and some types of hyper¬
sensitivity pneumonitis.
Cell-Mediated Reactions
Antigen interacting with T lymphocytes leads to the release of various
mediators, resulting in the clinical picture. Antibodies may assist in the
selection of the lymphocyte to interact. Clinical examples are contact
dermatitis and some transplantation reactions.
CLINICAL APPROACH TO THE DIAGNOSIS OF

ALLERGIC PROBLEMS OF THE NOSE AND SINUSES
The clinical evaluation of immunologically related diseases involves un¬

derstanding the immune system as well as its interaction with the external
environment. The clinical evaluation of allergies is complicated because of

the many variables influencing the clinical picture. Both immunologic and
nonimmunologic factors are involved. The following criteria should be
satisfied before a diagnosis of allergy is made.
Clinical Picture Compatible with an

Immunologic Reaction
The history and physical examination help to determine whether the
clinical picture is compatible with known allergic reactions. Typical occur¬
rences of hay fever, hives, angioedema, and asthma are easily recognized as
allergic reactions. For the less common manifestations such as fever, fatigue,
headaches, or dizziness, the diagnosis must be made with great care. In the
latter cases, nonimmunologic factors possibly contributing to the symptoms
must be carefully excluded.
Routine laboratory studies such as determination of the number of
eosinophils and serum IgE levels may be useful adjuvants to suggest the
diagnosis of an allergic problem. Eosinophils are associated with several
types of immune as well as nonimmune reactions (Cohen and Ottesen;
Eosinophil interpretation is Weller). Interpreting eosinophils is difficult because of problems of definition
difficult. anc| because eosinophils are influenced by exertion, certain drugs such as
steroids and beta-adrenergic agents, time of day, and techniques of assay,
as well as by their kinetics.
Immunologic and nonimmunologic reactions can result in eosinophilia in
the blood, tissues, and secretions (Table 11-2). Therefore eosinophils are
compatible with but not diagnostic of allergy.
Studies of the immunoglobulin levels in the blood will provide information
about the presence or absence of immunologically mediated diseases. In
general, increased levels are of little diagnostic value because they represent
a nonspecific manifestation of a variety of chronic diseases. Elevations of
IgE have been observed with many conditions, including some immunolog-
TABLE 11-2. CLINICAL EOSINOPHILIA (PARTIAL LIST)

Atopic conditions
Allergic rhinitis (hay fever)
Allergic asthma
Eczema
Parasitic infections (helminthic disease)
Immunodeficiency diseases (Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome,
hyper-IgE syndrome, graft-versus-host disease)
Bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
Drug reactions
Tropical pulmonary eosinophilia
Aspirin-sensitive asthma
Vasculitis (hypersensitivity angiitis, Churg-Strauss syndrome,
hypersensitivity vasculitis)
Loffler fibroplastic endocarditis
Connective tissue diseases (dermatomyositis, rheumatoid arthritis,
polyarteritis nodosa)
Eosinophilic gastroenteritis
Hypereosinophilic syndrome
Adrenal insufficiency
Neoplastic diseases (Hodgkin’s disease, immunoblastic
lymphadenopathy, eosinophilic leukemia)
1 1 — ALLERGIC CONDITIONS IN OTOLARYNGOLOGY PATIENTS 199
TABLE 11-3. ELEVATED SERUM IGE LEVELS (PARTIAL LIST)

Atopic conditions
Allergic asthma
Allergic rhinitis
Eczema
Infections
Viruses (infectious mononucleosis)
Parasitic infections (helminths)
Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
Immunodeficiency states
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome
Nezelof syndrome
Hyperimmunoglobulin syndrome (Hill Ouie syndrome)
Neoplastic conditions
Multiple myeloma
Hodgkin’s disease
Acute graft-versus-host disease
ically mediated conditions (Geha; Welliver). IgE levels are more often
elevated than not with such atopic diseases as asthma, rhinitis, eczema, and
allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. In addition, elevated levels are also
found with many other diseases (Table 11-3). There are a large number of IgE elevation is compatible with
commercial immunoassays for total serum IgE levels that use a variety of but not diagnostic of allergy.
assay techniques. Elevated IgE levels, like eosinophils, are compatible with
but not diagnostic of allergic reactions.
Many other laboratory procedures such as complement studies and ra¬
diography are available to provide information that the disease process is
compatible with an immunologically mediated disease. None of these tests
are sufficient for the diagnosis. Therefore, the next step is to identify the
allergen and determine how it is related to the symptom.
Identification of the Allergen and

Its Relationship to the Clinical Picture
Historical information and provocative and elimination testing are the
main methods used to satisfy this criterion. At the present time there are no
in vitro studies available.
The patient’s history is of the utmost importance in determining which
factor or factors may precipitate or aggravate the allergic clinical picture.
For respiratory allergies the time of year should be noted. Typically the
trees pollinate earliest in the spring, followed by the grasses. Weeds pollinate
in the fall. Molds such as Cladosporium may occur all through the year
depending upon the climate. They are usually highest during the late summer.
Mites, one of the major components of house dust, may be present all
through the year but occur in greater numbers in the warmer, more humid
months (Platts-Mills et al; Solomon and Mathews).
In addition to the history, provocation tests and elimination procedures The patient’s history, provoca-
may be helpful to demonstrate relationships between allergens and the metl>
clinical picture. The clinical significance of allergenic inhalants, contactants,
and ingestants may be determined by placing them in direct contact with the
involved organ. Inhalation or oral challenges are the common provocative
tests performed. Elimination diets as well as avoidance of suspected aeroal-
lergens or contactants are also useful to establish the triggering factor.
Demonstration of an Immune Mechanism Involving

the Suspected Allergen
The third criterion to be satisfied is the demonstration of an immune
mechanism that can interact with the suspected allergen. Proving a direct
cause and effect is difficult. Demonstration that an antibody interacts with
an allergen does not verify the cause of the disease. Despite this limitation,
methods are available to provide evidence that an immune mechanism is
involved and what the mechanism may be. These tests are done to confirm
the presence of an immune mechanism, not to identify the causative agent.
In Vivo Methods. Many in vivo methods are used to study the
Skin testing is the most com¬ immunoglobulin as well as the cellular system. Skin testing is the main in
mon my to demonstrate re- vivo method to identify IgE or reaginic antibody (Belin and Norman; Gleich
aginic antibodies.
et al). This reaction occurs within minutes after introduction of the allergen.
It interacts with the reaginic antibodies attached to cells which release
mediating substances. As a result, an immediate wheal/flare as well as a late-
phase reaction may develop. Testing can be performed using a prick or
scratch and an intradermal injection. Their exact relationship is not well
defined. Intradermal testing is more sensitive but more likely to produce
systemic reactions in highly sensitive individuals, is less clinically significant,
is more time consuming to perform, and is more uncomfortable for the
patient. Intradermal testing is used if prick or scratch tests are negative or
questionable.
It should be realized that skin tests need to be interpreted in view of the
clinical picture. There are no absolute cut-offs defining a positive or negative
reaction.
In Vitro Methods
Quantification of Specific IgE. After the IgE was characterized in
1968 it was possible to raise antisera against this immunoglobulin class. This
The RAST method is the most opened up the area of performing immunoassays (Emanuel; Gleich et al).
popular my to quantify IgE.
The most widely used version is the radioallergosorbent test (RAST), which
employs allergen insolubilized on a cellulose paper disc (allergosorbent) that
binds specific IgE (and other antibody classes) from serum during a first
incubation. The immunoglobulin-bound solid phase is then washed, and
1-125 isotope-labeled anti-IgE (fc) or enzyme-labeled anti-IgE (Fc) is incu¬
bated with the washed disc in a second incubation. After further washing
the radioactivity bound to the IgE on the disc is counted, or, in the case of
enzyme-labeled antibody, a substrate is incubated to produce a colored or
fluorescent product. The radioactivity bound to the disc or the quantity of
product generated by enzyme activity is related to the disc-bound IgE by a
The RAST results do not always reference serum source from which unknown specimens are interpolated. It
correlate with clinical allergy.
should be stressed that the scoring systems for all of these procedures have
not been well related to the clinical picture. In general, a high value will
include fewer nonallergic patients but will also exclude allergic subjects. A
low score will include more allergic subjects as well as nonallergic individuals.
All the results must be interpreted in relationship to the history. The
advantages and disadvantages of this assay are summarized in Table 11-4.
During the past several years modifications of the original RAST have
been marketed for the measurement of specific IgE in the human serum.
The relative performance of these newer systems is still largely unevaluated.
TABLE 1 1-4. COMPARISON OF SKIN TESTS, HISTAMINE RELEASE, AND RAST

SKIN HISTAMINE RAST
Least patient risk 3 1 1

Most quantitative 3 2 1
Least affected by drugs 3 2 1
Can be performed on 3 1 1
most patients
Most sensitive 1 2 3
Rapid results 1 3 2
Largest number of allergens 1 3 2
Least expensive 1 3 2
Not influenced by IgG 1 2 3
Scale: 1 = high; 3 = low.
In principle, most of the assays are of similar design to the RAST. They
differ mainly in the solid phase used to fix the allergen, the type of tracer
attached to the anti-IgE detection protein, and the instrument required to
read the final signal (Emanuel).
Measurement of the Release of Mediators. IgE can be measured
using assay systems of the release of mediating substances (Gleich et al).
The most common is the histamine release assay. This method involves using
peripheral leukocytes that contain basophils assumed to have attached IgE.
Increasing amounts of test allergen are added to the cells, and the release
of histamine is measured using a biologic, fluorometric, or immunoassay
system. The amount of histamine released is expressed as a percentage of
total histamine in the cells. These methods have been expensive and time-
consuming. New methodology may allow this procedure to be more econom¬
ical and easier to perform. The histamine release systems measure not only
IgE antibody but possibly other reaginic antibodies as well as their ability to
attach to cells and release mediating substances. Their other advantages and
disadvantages are summarized in Table 11-4.
Comparison of In Vivo and In Vitro Testing for Reaginic Anti¬
bodies. The clinical evaluation of immunologically mediated disease can be
performed using in vivo and in vitro methods. One of the major problems
with all these tests has been the variability of allergens from lot to lot and
from supplier to supplier. Another has been the lack of reliable information
on the relevant biologic potency of extracts. Better standardization proce¬
dures are resolving these problems (Blumenthal et al).
Generally a significant positive correlation is found between RAST tests,
skin tests, histamine release assays, and histories. The skin test is the most The skin test is the most sensi-
sensitive assay at the present time for IgE-mediated reactions. tive method.
Indications for performing the RAST and the histamine release assay are
(1) situations in which the patient cannot be skin tested such as the presence
of dermatographism, dependence on medication that interferes with skin
testing, extreme youth and age when skin testing is difficult to perform and
interpret, and previous extreme sensitivity to the test allergen, (2) the need
to confirm the significance of a positive skin test, and (3) a strong history of
allergen sensitivity but a negative skin test.
At the present time, skin testing is the initial method used to confirm the
presence of an IgE mechanism involving the suspected allergen. This is due
to the lower cost and greater sensitivity of this method. If RAST or the
histamine release assay is to be performed first, it is with the knowledge that
these methods are less sensitive and more expensive and skiri testing still
may have to be done if the in vitro tests are negative.
ALLERGIC RHINITIS, NASAL POLYPS, AND SINUSITIS

Rhinitis, nasal polyps, and sinusitis have been noted to be associated with
allergic mechanisms (Smith).
Allergic rhinitis occurs in 10 per Incidence. Although the exact incidence of allergic rhinitis is not definitely
cent of the population.
known, approximately 10 per cent of the general population appears affected
(Norman, 1985). Nasal polyps and sinusitis appear to be increased in subjects
with allergic rhinitis. A triad of aspirin sensitivity, nasal polyps, and bronchial
asthma has been described in 2 to 28 per cent of individuals with bronchial
asthma (Giraldo et al; McDonald et al). These individuals will frequently
have problems with other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as
indomethacin and ibuprofen.
Pathogenesis. Allergic rhinitis is thought to involve reaginic antibodies,
basophils, mast cells, and the release of such mediating substances as
histamine, prostaglandin, and leukotrienes, which, in turn, act on the na¬
sal passages to produce the clinical manifestations. Other immunologic
mechanisms may be involved in producing an inflammatory reaction in the
nose. The role of allergic mechanisms in the development of nasal polyps
and sinusitis is not well defined.
Clinical Picture and Diagnosis. Allergic rhinitis typically begins at an early
age with symptoms of nasal congestion or obstruction, sneezing, watering
and itching of the eyes, and postnasal drip. The most common complaints
associated with nasal polyps are nasal obstruction and rhinorrhea. The
symptoms and signs from the development of sinusitis will depend upon the
sinuses involved. Typically there may be headaches, tenderness or pain in
the area of the involved sinuses, nasal occlusion, nasal discharge, and sore
throat. It has been suggested by some that active sinusitis can aggravate
bronchial asthma.
Physical examination in subjects with allergic rhinitis will reveal excessive
lacrimation and reddening of the sclera and conjunctiva, periorbital darkness
(allergic shiners), moderate to marked swelling of nasal turbinates^ which
will be pale to purplish in color, clear thin nasal secretions, and a’ lateral
crease of the ridge of the nose. Nasal polyps are most commonly seen in the
upper part of the lateral nasal wall around the middle turbinate. Typical
allergic nasal polyps are smooth, soft, glistening, and bluish in color. Pain
and tenderness over the involved sinuses may be seen in sinusitis.
Laboratory findings compatible with immunologic reactions include
increased eosinophils in the nasal secretion and peripheral blood and an
elevated serum IgE level. Sinus films may help diagnose sinus polyps and
sinusitis. Bilateral involvement is more compatible with an allergic
mechanism than is unilateral disease.
The antigen usually can be identified on the basis of the history, such as
Inhalant allergies usually cause seasonal variation or symptoms after exposure. If the antigen is not identified
allergic rhinitis.
by these means, provocative testing may be undertaken. Although usually
an inhalant, the allergen may be of another classification, such as an ingestant
or injectant.
Evidence should be found that the suspected antigen is interacting with
the immunologic system. Because the main immune mechanism producing
allergic rhinitis involves the reaginic antibody (IgE), skin testing for
immediate wheal/flare reactions and/or radioallergosorbent test (RAST) is Shin testing and/or RAST evalu¬
ation is recommended.
recommended.
Treatment. Therapy for allergic rhinitis, nasal polyps, and sinusitis falls
into five major areas.
Avoidance of the Causative Allergen. This may be accomplished
by isolating the patient from the allergen, placing a barrier between the
patient and the allergen, or removing the allergen from the patient.
Symptomatic Treatment with Drugs. Oral antihistamines are chem¬
ical compounds that antagonize the action of histamine through the compet¬
itive inhibition of histamine at the histamine-receptor sites. They should be
given in a rational way. Since patients exhibit marked variability in response
to various antihistamines, individualization of doses and frequency of admin¬
istration is important. Commonly used H, antihistamines are ethanolamines, Oral medications include a wide
variety of antihistamines and
ethylenediamine, alkylamines, phenothiazines, and miscellaneous agents decongestants.
such as cyproheptadine, hydroxyzine, and piperazine. Common side effects
seen with these antihistamines are sleepiness, loss of appetite, constipation,
anticholinergic effects such as drying of the mucous membranes, and difficulty
in urination. A new generation of H, antihistamine is under development.
As a group they lack any direct chemical relationship to histamine but have
a common structure of anâromatic nitrogen in the form of a piperidine,
piperazine, or pyridine. Furthermore, these structuTes are more polar and
so their access into the central nervous system is limited, thereby reducing
or eliminating related side- effects. These include antihistamines such as
terfenadine, loratidine, and astemizole. They also promise to be longer
acting (Dockhorn and Shellenberger).
It has been suggested by some investigators that H2 antihistamines such
as cimetidine and ranitidine may be useful when given along with the Hj
antihistamines if there is significant nasal obstruction. Symptomatic use of
H, and H2 antihistamines has given disappointing results in the treatment of
nasal polyps (Havas et al).
A decongestant may be given either alone or in combination with an H,
antihistamine orally or locally for the treatment of allergic rhinitis. The oral
route is usually preferred. Chronic use of local antihistamines and deconges¬
tants is not routinely recommended. Some information suggests that local
antihistamines may be sensitizing. In addition, use of local decongestants
over a long period of time may cause irritation and a “rebound phenomenon”
such as rhinitis medicamentosum (Blue). Their use for nasal polyps has been
disappointing.
Cromolyn sodium may be given intranasally. This drug will decrease the
release of mediating substances. It is considered a preventive medication
that is given before the onset of symptoms. Side effects are minimal ahd Topical therapy includes cromo¬
lyn and corticosteroids.
have been mainly those of local irritation. Its use for nasal polyps has not
been well demonstrated (Norman, 1983).
Corticosteroids may be used for the treatment of allergic rhinitis. They
may be given systemically as well as intranasally with a poorly absorbed
corticosteroid such as beclomethasone or flunisolide. The local medications
are preferred because of their more direct action and lower risk'of side
effects. They usually take several days to weeks to become effective. These
agents also have been reported to decrease the size of nasal polyps (Norman,
1983).
Allergen Injection, Immunotherapy, or Hyposensitization.

Hyposensitization can be used if When more conservative measures are not successful, allergen injection may
conservative care fails. be indicated. The procedure involves injecting gradually increasing doses of
the causative allergen to induce a tolerance to them in the allergic subjects.
Although effective for the treatment of allergic rhinitis, their effectiveness
for the treatment of nasal polyps has not been well established (Van Metre
and Adkinson).
Management of Complications or Aggravating Factors. Fatigue,
emotional stress, sudden temperature change, intercurrent infections, septal
deviation, and exposure to other air pollutants may precipitate, aggravate,
and perpetuate symptoms associated with allergic rhinitis, nasal polyps, and
sinusitis. Their treatment may be just as important as that directed to the
particular allergen.
Surgical Treatment. Surgery is usually done for nasal polyps and
sinusitis associated with an infectious factor if medical therapy fails. This
may provide the nose and sinuses with adequate ventilation and drainage
and also relieve any obstruction. Surgery may be used to eradicate chronic
mucosal disease of the sinuses and complications of sinusitis.
Prognosis. The prognosis and natural course of allergic rhinitis, nasal
polyps, and sinusitis have been very difficult to ascertain. Although early
reports have noted a high incidence of associated bronchial asthma, this has
not been well documented. There is the clinical impression that symptoms
of allergic rhinitis lessen with age. Individuals with nasal polyps appear to
have recurrences despite medical and/or surgical treatment (Smith).
Differential Diagnosis. Allergic rhinitis needs to be differentiated from
idiopathic or vasomotor rhinitis, infectious rhinitis, rhinitis secondary to
medications—both local (Neo-Synephrine, cocaine) and systemic (beta¬
blocking agents, aspirin, reserpine, morphine), rhinitis secondary to
mechanical factors, nasal tumors, nasal polyps, cerebrospinal rhinorrhea,
chemical irritants, psychological factors, and nasal mastocytosis. In addition
to allergies, individuals with nasal polyps should be evaluated for infectious
sinusitis and, in children, for cystic fibrosis. Sinusitis of nonallergic etiologies
such as trauma, chemicals, immunodeficiency, cystic fibrosis, Kartagener’s
syndrome, chronic granulomatous disease, and infections should be
considered in the differential diagnosis.
SUMMARY
Three criteria should be satis¬ Before a physician can confidently diagnose and treat an allergy, the
fied before diagnosis and
following criteria should be satisfied: (1) The clinical picture is compatible
treatment.
with an allergic reaction. (2) The causative agent has been identified. (3)
The immune mechanism has been established. After these criteria have been
satisfied, treatment can be given to interfere with the various ongoing
processes that result in the final allergic clinical picture.
References
Atkins P, Zweiman B: The IgE-mediated late phase skin response—unraveling the enigma. J
Allergy Clin Immunol 79:12, 1987.
Belin H, Norman PS: Diagnostic tests in the skin and serum of workers sensitized to B. subtilis
enzymes. Clin Allergy 7:55, 1977.
Blue JA: Rhinitis medicamentosa. Ann Allergy 26:425, 1968.
I 1 —ALLERGIC CONDITIONS IN OTOLARYNGOLOGY PATIENTS 205
Blumenthal MN, Fish L. Morris R, et al: Adverse health effects from allergens Minn Med
70:278, 1987.
Cohen S, Ottesen E: The eosinophil, eosinophilia. and eosinophil related disorders. In
Middleton E, Reed C, Ellis E (eds): Allergy: Principles and Practice. St Louis, CV Mosby
Co, 1983, p 701.
Coombs RRC, Gell PGH: Classification of allergic reactions. In Gell RRA. Coombs PGH
(eds): Clinical Aspects of Immunology, 2nd ed. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications
Ltd, 1968.
Dockhorn R, Shellenbergcr MK: Antihistamines: The new generation. Immunol Allergy Pract
9:124, 1987.
Emanuel I: Comparison of in vivo allergy diagnostic methods. Immunol Allergy Pract 7 483
1983.
Geha R: Fluman IgE. J Allergy Clin Immunol 74:109, 1984.
Giraldo B, Blumenthal M, Spink W: Aspirin intolerance and asthma: A clinical and immuno¬
logical study. Ann Intern Med 71:479, 1969.
Gleich G, Yunnginger J, Stobo J: Laboratory methods for studies of allergy. In Middleton E,
Reed C, Ellis E (eds): Allergy: Principles and Practice. St Louis, CV Mosbv Co, 1983, p
271.
Havas T, Cole P, Parker L, et al: The effect of combined H, and H; histamine antagonists on
alteration in nasal airflow resistance induced by topical histamine provocation. J Allergy Clin
Immunol 78:856, 1986.
Mathews K: Mediators of anaphylaxis, anaphylactoid reactions and rhinitis. Am J Rhinol 117
1987.
McDonald J, Mathison D, Stevenson D: Aspirin intolerance in asthma: Detection by oral
challenge. J Allergy Clin Immunol 50:198, 1972.
Norman PS: Review of nasal therapy: Update. J Allergy Clin Immunol 72:421, 1983.
Norman PS: Allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 75:531, 1985.
Platts-Mills TAE, Heymann PW, et al: Cross-reacting and species-specific determinants on a
major allergen from Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus and D. farinae\ development of a
radioimmunoassay for antigen PI equivalent in house dust and dust mite extracts. J Allergv
Clin Immunol 78:398, 1986.
Plaut M, Lichtenstein L: Cellular and chemical basis of the allergic inflammatory response. In
Middleton E, Reed C, Ellis E (eds): Allergy: Principles and Practice. St Louis, CV Mosbv
Co, 1983, p 119.
Schwartz L: Mediators of human mast cells and human mast cell subsets. Ann Allergv 58 226
1987.
Smith JM: Epidemiology and natural history <5f asthma, allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis
(eczema). In Middleton E, Reed C, Ellis E (eds): Allergy: Principles and Practice. St Louis
CV Mosby Co, 1983, p 771.
Solomon W, Mathews K: Aerobiology and inhalant allergens. In Middleton E. Reed C. Ellis
E (eds): Allergy: Principles and Practice. St Louis, CV Mosby Co, 1983, p 1143.
Van Metre TE, Adkinson NF: Immunotherapy for aeroallergen disease, hi Middleton E, Reed
C. Ellis E, et al (eds): Allergy: Principles and Practice. St Louis, CV Mosby Co, 1988 p
1327. f
Wasserman S: Mediators of immediate hypersensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 72:101, 1983.
Weller PF: Eosinophilia. J Allergy Clin Immunol 73:1, 1984.
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Immunol 78:278, 1986.
12
DISEASES OF THE NOSE
Although the nose sits in the center of the middle third of the face, it is a
structure often overlooked when human disease is discussed. Alterations of
nasal physiology create disturbances that run the gamut from temporary
inconvenience and mild illness, such as an upper respiratory infection, to
life-threatening disorders such as choanal atresia in the neonate. The effects
of altered nasal physiology can be seen locally, as in nasal allergy; regionally,
as in dental deformities and mouth breathing secondary to chronic nasal
obstruction; and systemically, such as cardiopulmonary failure secondary to
chronic nasal obstruction.
SYMPTOMS AND PHYSICAL FINDINGS
Symptoms of nasal disease include local as well as distant manifestations.

Local symptoms include nasal congestion or obstruction, rhinorrhea, bleed¬
ing, pain, anosmia or other alterations in the sence of smell, and postnasal
discharge. Similarly, systemic disease may present with nasal symptoms and
observable tissue changes. Examination of the nose may reveal mucosal
edema as a source of headache or a contributing factor to chronic otologic
disease.
Inspection and palpation are the most commonly employed and important
techniques of physical examination; however, we must not overlook other
methods, including listening to the patient’s respirations and speech, which
can point to abnormalities in the nose (Fig. 12-1). A satisfactory examination
is, of course, expedited by the judicious use of various instruments, such as
nasal specula, forceps, applicators, aspirators, mirrors, and optical instru¬
ments, which make it possible to visualize the dark recesses of the nasal
spaces and even photograph or televise the illuminated images (Fig. 12-2).
Tests to quantify alterations in olfaction and to provide objective measure
of nasal breathing are also available but less frequently used. Radiographic
evaluation of the nose and paranasal sinuses can range from simple sinus
films to more sophisticated CT scans and NMR images. Application of these
more sophisticated tests will be discussed when appropriate.
Thorough evaluation of the nose A systematic approach to physical examination of the nose is valuable in
requires evaûajiojijefaejnd that it ensures that a comprehensive examination is performed and that gross
abnormalities do not distract the examiner from more subtle, but nonetheless
significant, alterations. Examination usually starts with inspection of the
external nose. Observation and palpation may disclose such abnormalities
as previous scars and underlying malunited fractures, which can create nasal
206
12—DISEASES OF THE NOSE 207
Inspection and pal + Examination with Examination with

pation of external nose aid of reflected light nasal probes
FIGURE 12—1. A chart depicting

the procedures that may be used
in an examination to determine
the cause of nasal symptoms.
Examination by biopsy
obstruction. Examination of the internal portions of the nose can then be

carried out before introducing a nasal speculum. It is worthwhile to note the
position and configuration of the nasal vestibule. Local problems such as
friable, superficial blood vessels in the anterior portion of the septum which
have created recurrent epistaxis may be overlooked if one hurries to look
into the recesses of the nose. Similarly, the introduction of the nasal speculum
can distort the nasal ala and artificially support a collapsed cartilaginous
vault which was creating nasal obstruction. Evaluation of structures deeper
within the nasal spaces than the nasal vestibule will require a nasal speculum
and a coaxial light source. A head mirror is a simple and inexpensive tool
that can provide adequate illumination. A number of electric headlights are
available which are simpler to use but are considerably more expensive.
Whatever the source of illumination, it is important that it be coaxial so that
the deepest portion of the nose can be examined. Inspection of the nasal
chambers should include evaluation of the nasal septum or deformities that
can obstruct the airway. The status of the turbinates should be evaluated to
determine the presence or absence of edema or alterations in the normal
FIGURE 12—2. Instruments necessary for the study of the nasal space.
mucosal color as exemplified by the pale, boggy mucosa of the turbinates in

allergic rhinitis. Nasal polyps that typically originate in the middle meatus
can also be based directly on the turbinates, the septum, or the superior
meatus. Purulent discharge in the middle meatus may be indicative of
suppurative disease in the maxillary antrum, anterior ethmoid cells, or
frontal sinus. Similarly, discharge present in the superior meatus may indicate
an infection in the posterior ethmoid cells. In order to evaluate adequately
1 2—DISEASES OF THE NOSE 209
the intranasal structures, a topical vasoconstrictor such as Neo-Synephrine

should be applied without hesitation through an atomizer. Because of the
close relationship of the nose and paranasal sinuses, disease processes
affecting the nose may also involve the sinuses, and radiographic evaluation
may be indicated (see also Chapter 13).
If significant instrumentation within the nose, such as that required for
biopsy or control of bleeding, is necessary, application of a topical anesthetic
is advised. Cocaine, usually a 4 per cent solution, provides excellent
anesthesia as well as vasoconstriction. The solution may be applied through
an atomizer or on cotton pledgets. Because of potential toxicity, the total
dosage of cocaine in adults should not exceed 3 mg/kg. If the use of cocaine
is not advisable or if it is unavailable, lidocaine may be used in conjunction
with topical vasoconstriction. Before undertaking nasal biopsy, the physician
should be prepared to deal with the adverse affects of the anesthetics as well
as possible hemorrhage.
Posterior rhinoscopy is accomplished by placing a small mirror in the oral
pharynx with its surface facing directly into the nasopharynx (see Fig. 12-
1). A coaxial light source is again essential for adequate visualization and
illumination. This technique is valuable to visualize abnormalities such as
choanal polyps, hypertrophic turbinates, and purulent discharge from the
nose and paranasal sinuses which has been swept posteriorly through the
action of the cilia. Flexible fiberoptic nasopharyngoscopes can also be used
to examine the nose and nasopharynx. These instruments can be connected
to a television camera. The expense of these instruments often precludes
their use by most physicians. Rigid endoscopes are also available for similar
inspection of the nasal spaces (see Fig. 12-1). These endoscopes can be
coupled to delicate surgical instruments. This equipment can then be used
to perform procedures within the nose and paranasal sinuses with excellent
illumination and magnification under local anesthesia with minimal patient
morbidity.
CONGENITAL DISORDERS
Congenital disorders of the nose can range from isolated deformities to

abnormalities associated with multiple organ system defects. Furthermore,
these disorders can be inherited or acquired. The following discussion will
include some of the more common or significant diseases. Congenital nasal
deformities that are part of multiple organ system syndromes are discussed
in Chapter 15..
Whatever the etiology, it is important to remember that neonates are Neonates are obligate nose-
obligate nose-breathers; therefore, diseases such as choanal atresia can be breathers and may need an al¬
ternate airway established at
life-threatening, and intervention to establish an airway, such as a Mont¬ birth.
gomery nipple or intubation at the time of birth, can be life-saving.
Nasal Manifestations of Cleft Lip and Palate

The anatomic proximity of the nose and lip and the shared embryologic
precursors of the lip, premaxilla, maxilla, and nose dictate that the child
born with a cleft lip and/or palate will also have associated nasal deformities,
even if the cleft is incomplete. Although these nasal deformities may be less
obvious than the oral abnormalities, the functional and aesthetic changes
a. b.
FIGURE 12-3. Base of frontal views demonstrating the

typical nasal deformities associated with cleft lip and
palate. See text for details.
are always present, change with nasofacial growth, and may become more
troublesome as the child matures.
The nasal deformities include septal deflections that are often severe
enough to cause significant nasal obstruction. In addition, the lower lateral
cartilage and soft tissues of the nasal alae are asymmetric. This often results
in a nose with inadequate tip projection, an acute nasolabial angle, sagging
of the nasal ala on the cleft side, and irregularities in the position of the
nostril sills (Fig. 12-3). The tip deformities may also compromise the nasal
airway and compound the nasal obstruction due to septal deflection. Fistulas
may also persist through the palate or gingivobuccal sulcus, which will allow
the contents of the oral cavity to contaminate the nose, leading to mucosal
edema and further nasal obstruction. Reconstructive procedures can provide
major improvement of both the functional and aesthetic deformities.
Since it is inappropriate to discuss the oral problems in this section on
nasal disease, the interested student is referred to those chapters on oral
disease, embryology, and congenital syndromes.
Nasal Dermoid Cysts

Although usually present at birth, congenital nasal dermoid cysts or sinuses
may remain unrecognized until later childhood or adult life. They contain
all elements of skin: hair follicles, hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and
connective tissue. The sinus opening, when present, is usually at the
osteocartilaginous junction of the nasal dorsum (Fig. 12-4/1 and B). It has
been theorized that nasal dermoid cysts arise out of ectodermal elements of
the fetal trilaminar septum which fail to degenerate. They are noncompres-
sible and nonpulsatile and are evidenced by a pit on the nasal dorsum,
associated with which is a group of hairs and an occasional discharge of
purulent matter. A CT scan, especially for infants, is the diagnostic tool of
choice. The differential diagnosis includes gliomas, encephaloceles, muco¬
celes, osteomyelitis, hemangiomas, and neurofibromas. Complete excision
is the only effective therapy. Optimum age for surgery is between 5 and 6
years, although the risk of infection with its concomitant risk of deformity
must be weighed against the inhibition of normal growth that may result
from extensive dissection.
Nasal Glioma and Encephalocele

Nasal gliomas and encephaloceles are rare lesions that are quite similar in
their embryogenesis and on a histological level, both being composed of
extradural glial tissue. However, encephaloceles are connected to the central
12 —DISEASES OF THE NOSE 211
a. Dermoid d. Glioma with or

sinus without stalk
FIGURE 12—4. Congenital nasal deformities. See text Encephalocele

for details.
nervous system, whereas gliomas are not (Fig. 12-4C and D). Treatment is
always excision; depending upon its location, a neurosurgical approach may
be necessary.
A glioma is usually a solid, noncompressible, nonpulsatile gray or purple
mass that does not transilluminate and does not produce a positive Fursten-
berg sign, i.e., no enlargement on compression of the jugular. Gliomas are
usually noticed at, or shortly after, birth. Approximately 60 per cent are
extranasal, usually occurring along the nasomaxillary suture or near the
midline, infrequently in the midline; 30 per cent are intranasal; and 10 per
cent have both components. The differential diagnosis most commonly
includes dermoid cysts and encephaloceles. CT scanning, NMR, and plain
film in three planes are recommended for diagnosis.
Encephaloceles are frequently associated with other midline fusion defects
such as cleft lip or palate as well as a high incidence of other central nervous
system anomalies. Because an encephalocele is by definition the extracranial
herniation of meninges and brain, a cranial defect is always present.
Encephaloceles are usually bluish, compressible, pulsatile, may be transil-
luminated, and produce a positive Furstenberg sign. The differential diag¬
nosis should include dermoid cysts, neurofibromas, and hemangiomas. They
are best delineated by CT, NMR scanning, and plain film in three planes.
Neurosurgical intervention is necessary.
Choanal Atresia
Choanal atresia will be discussed in the chapter dealing with diseases of
the nasopharynx (Chapter 17).
Uncommon Nasal Anomalies

Uncommon nasal anomalies may be associated with genetic syndromes or
may result from teratogenic influences. They all share a developmental
failure or delay. These conditions include median and lateral nasal clefts.
The appearance of median clefts may range from a mild furrow on the nasal
dorsum to one approximating polyrhinia. The incidence of associated defects
such as coloboma of the lower lid, iris or retina, encephalocele, facial cleft,
choanal atresia, and hypertelorism increases with the severity of the median
cleft. A CT scan is recommended to rule out any associated dermoid cyst or
encephalocele. Surgery is necessary when the deformity is severe.
The appearance of a lateral nasal cleft can range from a simple notch of
the lateral nasal ala to a cleft reaching to the eye. Flaps and grafts are used
to treat the simple defect. Severe defects frequently are associated with
other problems, usually craniofacial and cardiac. Treatment is through a
craniofacial approach.
INFLAMMATORY DISEASES—RHINITIS
The Common Cold

Clinical Features. The term “common cold’’ describes a symptom complex
rather than a specific disease. To both physicians and laymen, it has the
clearly understood meaning of a short, mild illness in which the main local
symptoms are found in the upper respiratory tract and in which nasal
symptoms predominate. As long as the illness remains uncomplicated, the
diagnosis of a “common cold” is made by the layman and most often does
not come to the attention of the physician. To make the differential diagnosis
and elucidate a specific etiology of this great variety of acute respiratory
disorders with similar initial manifestations may prove to be very difficult or
impractical at times. Synonyms for the common cold used by the physician
are URI or acute coryza; patients may even call it “sinus.”
The student of infectious diseases may think of the common cold as being
Nearly 200 viruses are respon¬ caused by a “cold” virus, or a specific group of filterable viruses, only to
sible for the common cold.
discover that so far nearly 200 different viruses, both of the RNA and DNA
types, have been associated with this illness. Moreover, there are many
inciting factors other than virus infections that cause symptoms interpreted
by the patient as a “cold.” The symptoms themselves vary greatly in onset,
severity, and associated groups of symptoms, so as to have a variety of
disease processes which confuses the etiology.
Most people expect a “cold” to start with nasal airway obstruction,
excessive nasal discharge, sneezing, some coughing, and general malaise
with or without headache. The body temperature may be normal or slightly
elevated. This first stage is usually limited to three to five days. The nasal
secretions are at first watery and profuse, then become mucoid, more viscid,
and scantier. The illness may terminate at this point. In many patients,
however, the illness progresses to a stage of secondary bacterial invasion,

characterized by a purulent rhinorrhea, fever, and often a sore throat. The
red and swollen secretion-coated mucosa may easily be observed intranasally.
The senses of taste and smell are diminished. Sniffling and repeated nose
blowing cause reddening of the nostrils and upper lip. This stage may last
as long as two weeks, after which the patient recovers without having seen
a doctor. The physician is usually consulted only when there are further
complications such as pneumonia, laryngitis, middle ear infections, or
purulent sinusitis. By that time the inciting illness is clinically unrecognizable
as a cold. Interpretation of culture results must take into consideration the
fact that the normal flora of the nasopharynx and anterior nose often include
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and
beta-streptococci.
Etiology. When we limit the definition of the “common cold” to only
those cases caused by the well over 100 different rhinoviruses, the “common
cold” becomes much less common than the literature leads us to believe.
The same complex of symptoms of rhinorrhea, nasal obstruction, sneezing,
and coughing may characterize the onset of inhalant or ingestant allergy
episodes, the so-called physical allergies, various vasomotor disturbances of
the nose brought on by physical or emotional stress, or hormonal or drug-
induced body changes, in addition to direct chemical, mechanical, or thermal
irritation of the mucous membranes, and last, but not least, a host of other
viral and bacterial disorders.
The classifications of respiratory viruses keep changing. Earlier
classifications, based on host and tissue affinity and the clinical symptoms of
disease, have been gradually replaced by those based on the biochemical
composition of the viruses. Thus, we recognize viruses made up primarily of
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and those composed mainly of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). The RNA viruses include such groups as the rhinoviruses,
echoviruses, and influenza, parainfluenza, mumps, measles, and respiratory
syncytial viruses. The DNA viruses include the adenovirus group and the
herpesviruses that elicit respiratory diseases in animals.
Measles, mumps, and influenza at their onset cause catarrhal upper
respiratory symptoms and may be confused with the common cold. The
more severe symptoms usually appear later.
Incidence. Frequently occurring illnesses can have a tremendous impact
on the world economy. Insurance companies and governmental health
agencies the world over provide us with impressive figures. The statistics of
several hundred million attacks of the common cold each year in the United
States and similar reports in other countries are arrived at by extrapolating
absentee figures from schools, the armed forces, and huge industrial firms.
In the large majority of instances leading to these statistics, the diagnoses of
“common cold” were made by the patients themselves and not by physicians.
Control. The spread of colds caused by various viruses most likely occurs
by droplet infection and not by ingestion. Thus, respiratory infections can
theoretically be controlled by isolation. Quarantine measures, practiced since
the Middle Ages, can be very effective. The general public, however, is not
impressed by a “cold,” and it is impossible to keep cold sufferers from going
to school, going to work, or generally mixing in crowds of people. The
conflicting reports throughout the literature on the periods of immunity
following an attack are probably best explained on the basis of the great
variety of etiologic agents. Susceptibility to colds varies greatly among
individuals. There is some indication that children up to age five are more
susceptible. The commonly cited experience that chilling, exposure to
moisture and cold winds, and fatigue enhance the development of cold
symptoms has not been corroborated in well-controlled laboratory studies'
on known virus-infected volunteers. Exposure to the outdoor elements alone
may increase the chances of allergic episodes. It has been postulated that
vasomotor changes brought about by hormonal influences similarly enhance
the incidence of colds. Conclusions that colds may be aborted by the
administration of vasodilators have not been shown to be justified.
Prophylaxis and Therapy. Many useful virus vaccines have been developed
since Jenner’s fight against smallpox in 1798. Because of the very large
number of different viruses involved, it has so far been impossible to develop
vaccines to cover even most possibilities of infection. Antibiotics have value
only in treating secondary bacterial infections. Chemotherapeutic agents
have, to this date, played a very minor role because none has a broad-
spectum effect.
Antihistamines, desensitization, and general antiallergic measures are
useful in treating the allergic disorders. Antihistamines used to treat colds,
coughs, and allergies are Hrblocking agents. Little evidence exists that
patients with colds experience clinical benefit from their administration.
While topical vasoconstrictors such as phenylephrine or oxymetazoline may
provide relief of watery rhinitic discharge, they must be used with caution
in infants and young children. Oral decongestants decrease some of the
profuse nasal discharge, making the patient more comfortable, but they will
not effect a cure.
Although cough suppressants are widely used, the Committee of Drugs of
the American Academy of Pediatrics has voiced this warning: “Symptomatic
treatment may mask serious underlying disease and may be hazardous,
particularly in infants whose small airways can be easily plugged with
tenacious mucus. ... When a valid indication exists for antitussive therapy,
such as a nonproductive cough that seriously disturbs sleep or school
attendance, either codeine or dextromethorphan, which appear to be
equiactive, should be recommended.” Because of the danger of Reye’s
syndrome, aspirin should be avoided. Analgesic-antipyretic preparations may
provide symptomatic relief, with acetaminophen being the antipyretic of
choice.
The best treatment of the uncomplicated viral cold is probably still bed
rest and isolation for approximately two days. Adequate hydration can be
ensured through the use of a cool mist humidifier, increased fluid intake,
and administration of saline nose drops. During the phase of secondary
bacterial infection, specific antibiotics may be administered.
In spite of all the advances in virology and tremendous efforts by clinicians
everywhere to prevent, control, and treat the common cold, little has been
accomplished and much needs to be done in the future.
In addition to the common cold, other viral illnesses encountered, some
of which may result in permanent anosmia, include:
Influenzal Rhinitis. Influenzal rhinitis is caused by viruses A, B, and C of
the orthomyxoviruses. The sneezing, watery nasal discharge, and stuffy nose
are comparable in severity to the common cold; however, secondary bacterial
infections and necrosis of the ciliated epithelium occur more frequently with
influenza. Vaccination is recommended for high-risk groups. Antibiotics are
effective only for secondary bacterial infections.
Rhinitis of Viral Exanthemas. Rhinitis is frequently a prodromal symptom Rhinitis is 2 frequent prodromal
syndrome ot measles, rubella,
of measles, rubella, and chickenpox, often preceding the exanthema by two
and chickenpox.
to three days. Secondary bacterial infections and complications are more
common than with a cold. Although chickenpox will be most frequently
encountered, measles and rubella are still a consideration for the clinician,
particularly in areas with a high noncompliance with MMR vaccinations.
Acute Bacterial Infections

Suppurative Rhinitis. Suppurative rhinitis usually follows a viral rhinitis
as a secondary bacterial infection in adults, frequently in association with Viral rhinitis is a frequent pre¬
cursor to suppurative rhinitis.
bacterial sinusitis, and is often associated with adenoiditis in children. Young
children, however, will occasionally develop a primary bacterial rhinitis,
presenting identically to the common cold. A gray membrane may adhere
to the submucosa, with bleeding resulting from attempted removal.
Pneumococcus, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus are frequently involved
in these infections, which, if not treated, can become chronic.
Furunculosis and Vestibulitis. An extensive and invasive infection of
sebaceous glands or hair follicles with some involvement of subcutaneous
tissues, a furuncle, or boil, is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus (Fig.
12-5). Analgesics and warm compresses may provide relief from the
discomfort. Systemic and topical antibiotics directed against this organism
are necessary, as are incision and drainage if an abscess is present.
Staphylococcus aureus is also the causative organism for nasal vestibulitis,
a mild inflammation with recurrent crusting and pain. Topical antibiotic
ointments two to three times per day will usually suffice.
Septal Abscess. This bacterial infection is usually secondary to a traumatic
or surgical hematoma. Treatment is incision and drainage with appropriate Aggressive early intervention is
necessary to avoid disfiguring
systemic antibiotic therapy. Saddling of the nasal dorsum and columellar
sequelae.
retraction may result from delayed therapy or a severe infection (Fig. 12-
6).
Toxic Shock Syndrome. Although primarily associated with the use of
vaginal tampons during menstruation, toxic shock syndrome has also been
reported after nasal packing. Caused by Staphylococcus aureus, the patient
presents with headache, lethargy, myalgia, nausea and vomiting associated
with fever, hypotension, tachycardia, generalized erythema of the skin and
mucous membranes, and a delayed desquamation of the epithelium of the
hands. Packing must be removed immediately and appropriate systemic
antibiotics administered.
FIGURE 12-5. Nasal furuncle. This infectious process typi¬

cally involves that portion of the lateral nasal vestibule
containing vibrissae.
FIGURE 12-6. Septal hematoma and

septal abscess. A septal hematoma most
frequently develops following nasal
trauma with or without associated frac¬
ture of the nasal bones. The hematoma
dissects the mucoperichondrium from
the cartilage. The devascularized carti¬
lage and adjacent hematoma often be¬
come contaminated through tears in the
mucosa, and an abscess may develop.
Cartilage resorption may occur, with loss
of nasal support and the development
of a saddle deformity.
Chronic Nasal Infections

The differential diagnosis for chronic rhinitis includes both bacterial and
fungal diseases.
Fungal
Aspergillosis. An infection caused by any of six Aspergillus species,

aspergillosis most commonly occurs as a chronic pulmonary disease. It may,
however, also occur as a chronic granulomatous infection of the paranasal
Aggressive nasal fungal infec¬ sinuses, nose, middle ear, and external auditory canal. In patients who are
tions are usually seen in immu¬
debilitated or immunosuppressed, an acute nasal or sinus infection may
nocompromised patients.
result. The mucopurulent discharge is characteristically green-brown.
Because this organism may be part of the normal oropharyngeal flora, tissues
must be sampled under strictly sterile precautions for the culture to have
any diagnostic value. Chronic, noninvasive aspergillosis is treated with
debridement and topical antifungal drugs. For the acute, life-threatening
form, debridement and systemic antifungal drugs, including amphotericin B,
are the therapy of choice.
Mucormycosis. Mucormycosis is a malignant, opportunistic infection
caused by members of the order Mucorales, principally Rhizopus oryzae,
found in soil, manure, fruits, and starchy food. The rare occasions when
these organisms become pathogenic for man occur in patients with diabetic
acidosis or, even more rarely, other debilitated or immunosuppressed
conditions. Inhalation of the microorganism inoculates the nasal turbinates
and/or ethmoid sinuses, where it spreads along the blood vessels to the
retro-orbital areas and cerebrum. The patient presents with headache, fever,
internal and external ophthalmoplegia, paranasal sinusitis, and a thick, dark,
bloody nasal discharge. This syndrome is identified by a characteristic black
or brick-red nasal turbinate. Nonseptate hyphae can be demonstrated
microscopically. Treatment consists of immediate intravenous or even
intrathecal administration of amphotericin B, debridement of necrotic tissue,
and management of the underlying condition.
Candida. Candida, along with histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis,
sporotrichosis, cerocosporamycosis, and blastomycosis, is rarely associated
with the nose.
Bacterial
Nasal involvement in the following diseases is often just part of the
systemic disease.
Tuberculosis. While primary tuberculosis of the nose is rare in the United
States, involvement of the nose is occasionally seen among patients with
active pulmonary tuberculosis. Diagnosis begins with a chest radiograph. If
this is negative, smears and cultures of sputum and nasal discharge followed
by biopsy may be carried out. If these are positive for Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, an appropriate course of antituberculosis medication must be
carried out.
Leprosy. More common in tropical countries, leprosy is also found in the
United States, chiefly in Texas, Hawaii, California, Louisiana, Florida, and
New York. With a progression very similar to rhinoscleroma, the nose may
be the site of the primary infection or it may be part of the systemic disease.
Early symptoms include obstruction, crust formation, and bleeding. The
upper respiratory tract is more frequently involved in the lepromatous form
of leprosy than in the tuberculoid or dimorphous form of leprosy.
Mycobacterium leprae always involves the nose before spreading to the
pharynx and larynx.
Rhinoscleroma. Rhinoscleroma is a granulomatous disease of the nose
endemic to Central and Southern Europe and some areas of Asia. Previously
rarely seen in the United States, the incidence has been rising in the West
and Southwest. Caused by Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis, this disorder involves
the nose primarily but may later extend to involve any area of the upper
respiratory regions, including the larynx. A slowly progressing disease, it
begins with an early acute inflammatory reaction with a purulent, foul¬
smelling rhinorrhea. This is followed by nasal crusting and slow-growing,
hard, insensitive nodules that may eventually obstruct the nose. The lower
nose and upper lio become prominent if left untreated, causing extensive
disfigurement.
Diagnosis is based on the clinical course and pathological examination of
the specimen showing characteristic Mikulicz cells and rod-shaped bacteria
within the cytoplasm. Granuloma and fibrosis are present. Antibiotic therapy
is required. Surgical treatment may be indicated to correct the severe scarring
that results.
ALLERGIC RHINOSINUSITIS
Allergic disorders involving the nose occur much more frequently than
the lay person or the average physician suspects, affecting approximately 10 Allergic rhinitis affects 10 per
cent of the population.
per cent of the general population. The nose, as one of the prominent shock
organs of allergic disease, is plagued by primary allergic manifestations,
chronic rhinitis and sinusitis superimposed on allergic changes, complications
of relatively mild anatomic obstructions by edema, and, finally, the late
after-effects of chronic allergenic insults, such as mucosal hypertrophy and
polyposis. Nasal air flow may be compromised by the nasal congestion and
rhinorrhea that occur in allergic rhinitis, directly or indirectly. When con¬
fronted by nasal disease, the clinician needs a high index of suspicion and
the ability to diagnose and treat allergic disorders.
Nasal allergy may be seasonal, such as hay fever, or perennial if caused

by house dust, animal dander, commonly worn fabrics, or ingestants in the
daily diet. Almost all airborne and innumerable ingested substances have
Most allergic patients are sensi¬ been shown to have allergenic properties. Frequently, a patient will be
tive to multiple antigens rather
than to a single inhalant.
allergic to a number of agents rather than just one inhalant. A cigarette
smoker may be allergic to tobacco as well as being chemically irritated by
the fumes.
Allergic rhinitis has been demonstrated to be associated with the occur¬
rence of asthma and atopic eczema. A study of college students with allergic
rhinitis demonstrated that 17 to 19 per cent were also asthmatic; however,
56 to 74 per cent of the asthmatic patients had allergic rhinitis. There appears
to be an inherited predisposition to these conditions.
Allergy is the altered tissue response to a specific antigen or allergen.
Hypersensitivity of the host depends upon antigen dose, frequency of
exposure, genetic make-up of the individual, and the relative sensitivity of
the host’s body.
Allergic reactions are basically considered to be immunoglobulin-me¬
diated, such as rhinitis, asthma, anaphylaxis, and urticaria, or cell-mediated,
such as contact dermatitis. These mechanisms are discussed more fully in
Chapter 11.
Allergic rhinitis occurs when an antigen to which the patient has been
sensitized stimulates one of six nasal neurochemical receptors: the H,
histamine receptor, the alpha-adrenoceptor, the beta2-adrenoceptor, the
cholinoceptor, the H2 histamine receptor, and the irritant receptor. Of these,
the most important is the H, histamine receptor, which, when stimulated by
histamine, leads to increased nasal airway resistance, causing sneezing,
itching, and rhinorrhea.
Diagnosis
This section is concerned specifically with allergy in relation to the tissues
of the nose and paranasal sinuses. The differential diagnosis of nasal allergy
includes nonallergic rhinitis, infectious rhinitis, and the common cold.
The symptoms of nasal allergy differ from those of infectious rhinitis. The
allergic response is usually characterized by sneezing, nasal congestion, and
profuse, watery rhinorrhea. No fever is present and the secretion does not
progress from thin to thick and purulent, as it does in infectious rhinitis.
There is a rapid onset of symptoms after allergen exposure, including watery,
itchy eyes or palate. A seasonal pattern or association with animal dander,
dust, smoke, or other inhalants can usually be elicited. Associated symptoms
such as nausea, belching, bloating, diarrhea, somnolence, or insomnia may
also suggest an ingested allergen and differentiate these patients from those
with viral rhinitis. Another important difference is that the duration of
allergic rhinitis is generally considerably longer than that of viral rhinitis. In
patients with allergic diatheses, a positive family history of allergy or asthma
is frequently present. As with viral rhinitis, acute bacterial sinusitis may
occur secondary to ostial compromise and pooling of the secretions.
The diagnosis of nasal allergy should be established by a systematic
investigation that will include a careful history and some or all of the
following: nasal examination, skin tests, and elimination regimens. An
elimination regimen may also be used as a treatment.
History
Inquiries begin with a history of any allergic diseases in the family. The
patient should also be questioned about allergic disorders other than those
of nasal origin, such as asthma, eczema, urticaria, or drug sensitivities. The
time of year in which the symptoms are prevalent is helpful in determining
seasonal allergies. Correlating onset of symptoms with environmental
changes at work or about the home is important. Are the living quarters in
a dusty or damp area? Do symptoms start with outdoor activities? Pets in
the household often are the cause of difficulties. It is important to obtain a
history of previous treatment, especially if hyposensitization was utilized.
What medications have been used in the past? Which drugs have been
helpful without causing side effects?
Symptoms of food allergy are less obvious and require a very detailed
history. The time of day of the onset of the symptoms is important, e.g.,
relationship to meals. Because the patient may be allergic to some of his
favorite foods, it may be difficult for him to associate the fact that symptoms
could be related to a frequently ingested substance. Cravings for food can
represent allergic symptoms. Specific food idiosyncrasies, on the other hand,
may point to allergy-producing ingestants.
Nasal Examination
The nasal mucosa in patients with allergy is generally moist, pale, and
grayish pink in color. The turbinates appear swollen (Fig. 12-7). If there is
an associated infection, the secretions range from thin and mucoid to thick
and purulent; at the same time the mucosa may become red and inflamed,
congested, or even dry. Polyps may develop in the maxillary antral and
ethmoid region and extend into the middle and superior meatus. In addition,
polypoid degenerative changes can occur throughout the nasal mucosa,
covering the lateral nasal walls; this classic appearance of the nasal mucosa
is not always seen, however. Radiography of the paranasal sinuses is
nonspecific but may show a thickened mucosal lining and occasional pooling
of secretions (Fig. 12-8). When the natural ostia become obstructed from
excessive swelling, an air-fluid level within the sinus cavities or even total
opacification may become apparent (Fig. 12-9).
FIGURE 12—7. A comparison of the anterior rhinoscopic views in the normal nose with
one in which the turbinates are swollen as in acute allergic rhinitis.
FIGURE 12-8. Waters' view x-ray.

Mucosal thickening in maxillary
sinuses is often seen in allergic
rhinitis.
Nasal Smear
Although some researchers have demonstrated specific diagnoses by cy¬

tologic evaluation of a nasal smear, other physicians question their value
and feel that smears offer limited additional information. Several smears
from beneath the inferior turbinate are obtained at the same time and
carefully fixed.
FIGURE 12—9. A Waters' x-ray view.

There is a fluid level visible in the in¬
volved maxillary sinus.
Clinical "Tests for Allergy

Dietary Tests. There are two main categories: the provocative food tests
and the various elimination diets. The former essentially consists of
abstinence from the suspected food for four to ten days, after which large
quantities of the food are ingested. The patient reports subjective changes
and is observed for objective data. Elimination diets have been developed
for cereals, milk, eggs, and fruit, with the examiner arbitrarily selecting a
diet for the patient. It is difficult for the patient to be involved with more
than one of these diets at a time.
In Vitro Tests. The cytotoxic food test is used as a screening test. When
leukocytes from the buffy coat of the patient’s plasma are destroyed in the
presence of the food antigen, sensitivity is suspected.
Radioallergosorbency Test. This test requires incubation of the patient’s
antibodies with specific concentrations of antigen coupled to radioactive
paper. It measures the concentration of IgE antibodies and has been found
to be a valuable test for the immediate type hypersensitivity.
A more detailed discussion of allergy testing is presented in Chapter 11.
Treatment
Elimination of Allergens
Treatment of nasal allergy is dependent upon several factors. First, if
possible, the offending allergenic agent should be eliminated. In the case of
pollen allergy, the patient should make proper alterations in his/her environ¬
ment, such as preventing unnecessary exposure to ragweed pollen. Air-
conditioning of the car and home as well as utilization of electronic air filters
may be helpful. The patient sensitive to dust should live in as clean an
environment as possible, with every effort made to keep the rooms free of
dust-collecting items such as shag carpeting and draperies. A patient sensitive
to mold should avoid sleeping in damp areas, such as basement bedrooms.
Windows should be kept closed at night, as the cold night air frequently
contains molds. Patients sensitive to smoke should avoid smoke-filled rooms
and association with persons smoking in an enclosed area, such as an
automobile. Patients who are known to be sensitive to specific foods will
have to make every effort to eliminate those foods from their diet. This may
not be easy because processed foods frequently contain substances, infor¬
mation about which may not be immediately available to the consumer.
Medical Management
Local nasal treatment is directed at reducing swelling and formation of
secretions and increasing the airway. Temporary relief can be obtained from
local application of 0.5 per cent ephedrine sulfate, but this becomes less
effective with repeated use. Although 0.25 per cent Neo-Synephrine is an
effective topical vasoconstrictor, it may affect the nasal pH and reduce ciliary
activity. Another effective medication is 0.05 per cent oxymetazoline. Topical
application to the nasal mucosa generally provides progressively shorter
periods of temporary relief, becoming less and less effective with use, and
may lead to rhinitis medicamentosa.
Local injection of steroids, usually in the form of triamcinolone, into the
inferior turbinate has been utilized. Topical steroid therapy with beclome-
thasone or flunisolide can be very effective without causing adrenal suppres¬

sion or the dangers of intranasal injections. Topical application of cromolyn
has also been shown to relieve many nasal complaints by blocking mast cell
degranulation.
Surgical Treatment
Benign mucoid polyps of the nose are commonly associated with nasal
allergy. They can occur in children but are seen much more often in adults.
Because of nasal airway obstruction, polyps become annoying to the patient.
After an obstructing lesion is properly identified as a benign polyp, it may
be removed. The patient must be warned that, in the presence of allergies,
polyps recur, resulting in repeated polyp removal throughout life. However,
proper attention to the underlying allergic disorder tends to delay the rate
Most polyps originate in the of recurrence. Most polyps originate as an outpouching of the mucosa
sinuses. covering the maxillary or ethmoid sinuses. The ever-growing mucosal en¬
largement forms a rounded, soft, moist, often gelatinous, sometimes fleshy
mass or at times a serum-filled sac, fixed onto a gradually elongating narrow
pedicle that reaches from the sinus, through the ostium, into the nasal cavity.
Most polyps are amber or grayish blue but may at times become reddened
from local irritation or secondary infection. But what looks like a polyp is
not always a polyp! When all the polyps are on one side and none is on the
other, one should consider a unilateral, localized infection of the nose or
sinuses or even a foreign body in the nose. In the toddler and grade schooler,
mucoviscidosis and its nasal changes enter the differential diagnosis. The
nasal polyp, a pseudotumor, must be differentiated from a host of true
benign and malignant neoplasms; these are indeed rare but must not be
missed. The unsuspecting surgeon who uses a nasal snare to remove a
juvenile angiofibroma of the nasopharynx which looks like a polyp may set
off an exsanguinating hemorrhage. The most difficult lesions to distinguish
from the true benign nasal polyps are areas of mucosal polypoid degenera¬
tion, most frequently encountered in the anterior portion of the swollen
inferior and middle turbinates. Differentiation and identification are made
easier by using a decongestant spray in the nose, such as 1 per cent ephedrine
or a 0.25 per cent Neo-Synephrine solution. Even better is a 4 per cent
cocaine solution, which provides some anesthesia in addition to decongestant
action. A nasal suction tip may then be utilized, not only to aspirate
secretions for easier inspection but to palpate the soft tissue lesion. Although
somewhat movable, the polypoid mucosa has a sessile attachment to the
turbinate with the relatively firm bone in its center, while the true polyp
moves freely on its pedicle.
Prior to nasal polypectomy, adequate premedication and topical anesthesia
are applied. The snare wire is then looped around the stalk of the polyp
without complete tightening of the wire, and the polyp, its stalk, and the
Polypoid obstruction of sinus base of the pedicle are avulsed all in one piece (Fig. 12-10). Sinus infections,
ostia contributes to the develop¬
caused by the obstructive presence of the polyp stalk in the ostium, usually
ment of sinus infections.
clear up more readily after the polypectomy. If polyps recur and are related
to recurrent sinusitis, surgical correction of the sinus disease may be
indicated.
Hypertrophic turbinates may require cauterization, cryosurgery, or partial
resection to create an adequate airway. Such surgery should be conservative
to prevent atrophic rhinitis (Fig. 12-11).
FIGURE 12-10. Nasal polypec-

tomy. A snare is used to grasp
and avulse the polyp.
Systemic Treatment
Methods of systemic treatment include medication and allergic desensiti¬
zation. Allergic rhinitis, whether perennial or seasonal, is most frequently
treated with combinations of decongestants and antihistamines. Many such
combination drugs are available. Patients with hypertension and those who
are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors should not be given any drug
containing an ephedrine-like substance. Such patients can be treated with
antihistamine alone.
FIGURE 12—11. Turbinate cautery. Bi¬

polar cautery applied to the inferior
turbinate is one of several methods
to reduce a hypertrophic turbinate
and improve the nasal airway.
TABLE 12-1. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIHISTAMINES

Class 1 Ethanolamines are very potent and effective H, antagonists. The major side effect
is sedation. Gastrointestinal side effects are infrequent.
Class 2 Ethlenediamines are highly effective H, antagonists. The main side effect is
gastrointestinal upset.
Class 3 Alkylamines are among the most active H, antagonists. Sedation is less frequent.
Three out of every four prescription and OTC products contain a Class 3
antihistamine.
Class 4 Piperazines are H, antagonists with prolonged action.
Class 5 Phenothiazines are H, antagonists with heavy sedative effects.
Miscellaneous compounds that are not members of one of these categories are also available
but are limited in number.
Five classes of antihistamines exist, and it may be necessary to use a trial

and error approach to determine the most effective drug with the fewest
side effects. Antihistamines of the Hj class are the drugs of choice in the
management of allergic rhinitis. They interfere with histamine action by
blocking H, histamine receptor sites; although nasal airway resistance re¬
mains increased, other allergic effects are reduced. Premedication, therefore,
is the preferred mode of administration, since this effectively “ties up” the
H, receptor sites, thus blocking histamine’s effects. Over time a change of
drug may be required as tolerance develops to an antihistamine (Table 12-
1).
Oral pseudoephedrine and phenylpropanolamine can be used when the
primary symptom of allergic rhinitis is congestion. Because of the side effects
of excessive stimulation and insomnia, however, they are most effective
when paired with an antihistaminic. In certain circumstances, a short course
of systemic steroids may be utilized. Prolonged use of cortisone-type drugs
for allergic rhinitis generally is not indicated. In seasonal allergic rhinitis
prednisone may be administered for five days, after which the dosage is
rapidly tapered. A combination of drugs, topical and systemic, may be
necessary to achieve the greatest control.
A second method of systemic treatment involves hyposensitization. This
topic is discussed in Chapter 11.
Aggravation of asthma has been linked to both chronic and acute sinusitis;
treatment of sinusitis and rhinitis is an important step in reducing asthmatic
episodes.
Associated Allergic Conditions

There has been an effort to establish a relationship between persistent
serous otitis media and chronic allergic rhinitis. Although hyposensitization
and medication are frequently effective in treating the allergic rhinitis, the
serous otitis media may not resolve. It has been stated that approximately
35 per cent of children with chronic serous otitis media have an underlying
allergy problem.
Hyperplastic sinusitis is frequently associated with an underlying allergic
rhinitis. In such patients, treatment directed at the rhinitis frequently will
relieve the symptoms of headache and sinusitis. However, in certain patients,
the changes in the sinuses become so great and are so frequently associated
with secondary infection that sinus surgery becomes necessary. Generally,
conservative procedures, such as a Caldwell-Luc operation or the creation
of a nasal antral window, are performed. Normal mucosa is not removed

and generally a drainage procedure is performed. In more severe cases, it
may be necessary to perform an ethmoidectomy for removal of irreversibly
damaged sinus mucosa and polypoid tissue.
Aspirin Intolerance and Nasal Polyposis

The existence of the triad of aspirin sensitivity, nasal polyposis, and asthma
has been well documented. One of the first manifestations of this problem
may be a chronic allergic rhinitis. The patient may develop polyps; their
removal may precipitate the symptoms of asthma or may worsen the rhinitis.
Frequently the patient is middle-aged at the onset of asthma, often becoming
steroid dependent. Approximately 2 to 4 per cent of asthmatic patients have 2 to 4 per cent of patients with
aspirin intolerance. The complex is related not to aspirin alone but to other asthma have aspirin intoler¬
ance.
compounds, including aminopyrine, analgesics, and certain dyes. The mech¬
anism is believed to be an alteration in the arachidonic pathway. Surgery
should be undertaken only after thorough medical evaluation and perioper¬
ative steroid therapy. Administration of a perioperative bronchodilator may
also be necessary. Total abstinence from aspirin-containing drugs will not
influence the development of polyps, but ingestion of aspirin has been shown
to precipitate a definite asthmatic attack. The hallmark of management of
such patients is conservative therapy. Proper pre- and postoperative medical
care allows the necessary surgery to be performed safely. Treatment revolves
around the use of systemic steroids and antihistamines and the avoidance of
topical decongestants. Topical corticosteroids may be required. Nasal polyps
are removed when they begin to cause complete nasal obstruction. Chronic
'sinusitis may become part of the clinical picture of required medical and/or
surgical care.
NONALLERGIC, NONINFECTIOUS RHINOSINUSITIS
Rather than a single disorder of the nose, this term refers to a group of
conditions. Even though the presenting symptoms may be similar, careful
history and proper examination are necessary to fully define the given
condition so that proper treatment can be instituted. Beginning students in
this area of rhinology may be confused by the variety of terms with which
they are confronted by both patients and other physicians. Table 12-2 thus
outlines some of these terms and their recommended usage.
Vasomotor Rhinitis
This condition of the nasal mucosa results from two opposing forces:
Activity of the parasympathetic nerves causes engorgement of the vascular
bed with resultant congestion and increased mucous production, while
activity of the sympathetic nerves causes vasoconstriction with its resultant
nasal patency and decreased mucous production. Factors affecting this
balance will be the main subject of the following discussion.
The term vasomotor rhinitis has been applied rather widely; however, it
may be considered a misnomer. Vasomotor rhinitis, as it is currently
understood, is neither an allergic nor an inflammatory disorder, although,
in the strictest sense of the word, the latter implies an inflammatory state of
TABLE 12-2. FORMS OF CHRONIC NONALLERGIC RHINITIS

TERM COMMENT
Chronic hypertrophic rhinitis This type of rhinitis is characterized by soft-tissue

swelling, excessive secretion, and, in long-standing
cases, actual hypertrophy of the mucosa, thickening of
the periosteum, and new bone formation. It results
from repeated acute nasal infections, from recurrent
attacks of suppurative sinusitis, or from vasomotor
states independent of local disease.
Vasomotor rhinitis A form of hypertrophic rhinitis. The etiology is
unknown, although psychosomatic factors have been
suggested. It may be confused with allergic rhinitis.
Rhinitis medicamentosa Also generally considered a form of hypertrophic rhinitis
related to overuse of topical nasal medication.
Chronic hyperplastic rhinitis This condition may include elements of hypertrophic
rhinitis but generally is associated with nasal polyposis.
Rhinitis sicca Most commonly considered to be a disorder of altered
nasal physiology related to environmental changes,
particularly dry inspired air.
Atrophic rhinitis (ozena) This condition is characterized by a true atrophy of
intranasal structures with secondary crusting.
Generally idiopathic.
Nasal “catarrh” An old term referring to chronic nasal symptoms from a
variety of causes.
the involved anatomic structures. Factors responsible for the rhinopathia are
classified broadly as drug-induced, endocrine, vegetative, and psychoemo-
tional.
Drug-Induced Rhinitis
Antihypertensive drugs, sympathetic blocking agents, may cause nasal
congestion.
Rebound vasodilation, called rhinitis medicamentosa, can result from the
Rebound vasodilation and abuse of sympathomimetic decongestant nose drops and nasal spray. The
congestion are frequent conse- average individual suffering from nasal congestion can obtain immediate
quences ot prolonged use of .... 0
topical decongestants. mitial relief for a period of several hours by utilizing these topical nasal
preparations. However, prolonged use results in a chronic congestive state
wherein the nasal membrane is sensitive to any irritant, especially when
intermittently applied (Fig. 12-12). After an initial vasoconstriction, a
secondary vasodilatation occurs which can make the nasal obstruction even
worse than before. Moreover, the mucous cells may be unduly stimulated
and may increase nasal blockage by excess secretion. The application of
these topical drugs may also alter the ciliary action and interrupt the
protective mucous blanket present in the nasal cavity. Prolonged use of such
medication may result in a hypertrophic rhinitis, treatment of which requires
immediate discontinuation of topical nasal medication and a long discussion
with the patient about the cause of the problem, careful history-taking, and
physical examination to determine and treat the underlying problems that
led the patient to initiate the use of topical nasal medications. If the
underlying problem is allergy, topical steroids such as flunisolide, beclome-
thasone, or, rarely, an intraturbinal injection of a corticosteroid may be
used. Also recommended is the use of systemic sympathomimetics, e.g.,
pseudoephedrine.
Other drugs that have been implicated in vasomotor rhinitis include
rauwolfia serpentina, alcohol, tobacco, and hashish.
impaired movement
nf mucous debris
Injured cilia
✓ Cilia
Engorged goblet cells
Goblet cells
Basement membrane
Thickened basement
membrane
Blood vessel
Dilated and engorged
blood vessel
SUPERFICIAL LAYER
OF SUBMUCOSA J
Edema of stroma -
Mucous gland
Hypersecretion of
mucous gland
DEEP LAYER
OF
SUBMUCOSA <
Thickened deep loyer
'''■ Periosteum
Slightly thickened _
periosteum
Normal Overly medicated

FIGURE 12-12. Pathologic changes in the nasal mucous membrane
due to misused medication.
Hormonal
Estrogens stimulate vascular congestion of the nasal membranes as well
as engorgement in the uterus, generally peaking in the immediate premen¬
strual phase when pelvic congestion is at its maximum, causing some women
to note nasal congestion at this time. During pregnancy, as the levels of
estrogen rise, symptoms of nasal congestion usually begin during the fourth
to fifth month and progress to term, paralleling the increased production of
estrogen. Symptoms disappear spontaneously at delivery in most patients.
In a similar manner, birth control medication may produce nasal engorge¬
ment.
Another endocrine cause of nasal engorgement is hypothyroidism, or
myxedema. Relief is obtained only with the use of thyroid extract. Con¬
versely, antithyroid drugs may produce congestion.
Temperature
In general, cold air causes vasoconstriction and warm air causes engorge¬
ment due to vasodilation. Sudden environmental temperature changes may
stimulate nasal congestion and/or rhinorrhea.
Emotional Causes
Studies have shown that the recollection of humiliating and frustrating
experiences results in nasal responses identical to those that occurred in
response to noxious stimuli. Generally speaking, fear and dejection result in
shrinkage and pallor of the nasal mucosa, while anxiety, conflict, frustration,
and resentment result in hyperemia, swelling, and hypersecretion.
Nonairflow Rhinitis
If, because of a laryngectomy or tracheostomy, the nose is no longer
exposed to the regular movements of air associated with breathing, the
mucous membranes become engorged and violaceous.
Hypertrophic Rhinitis
Vascular Atony
Chronic allergy and sinusitis causing stimulation of the vessels of the nose
over a long period of time may lead to permanent vascular atony with
continued nasal congestion, regardless of appropriate medical therapy.
Surgical resection of grossly obstructive tissue may be required to establish
an adequate airway. However, resection should be conservative to avoid
creating the equivalent of atrophic rhinitis.
Compensatory Hypertrophic Rhinitis

Observed in patients with a deviated septum, rms condition is the result
of overgrowth of the nasal turbinates on the contralateral side, involving
bone, mucosa, and/or vascular tissue. Any surgery to correct the septum
must include correction of the turbinate overgrowth, or postoperative nasal
congestion will result.
Paradoxical Nasal Obstruction

In the majority of the adult population each side of the nose normally
goes through cycles of congestion and decongestion, alternating with the
contralateral side, each cycle averaging about 2Vi hours. Because total
airway pressure remains constant, most individuals are unaware of this
phenomenon. However, when a deviated septum leads to diminished airflow
on one side, the patient will become aware of the congestive part of the
cycle on the normal side because the contralateral side is unable to compen¬
sate and increase airflow.
Atrophic Rhinitis, Nasal Atrophy, and Ozena

The continuum ot changes in this chronic degenerative disease complex
has an insidious onset with early nasal atrophy. The nasal mucosa is usually
first affected, showing a few thin and dry areas of metaplasia where the
respiratory epithelium has lost its cilia, and small crusts and viscid secretions
accumulate. Slight ulcerations and bleeding may occur. So-called rhinitis
sicca observed in those who work in hot, dry and dusty surroundings fits
into this early category. Patients with debilitating disorders—such as uncon¬
trolled diabetes, uremia, and even mild endocrine or metabolic disturbances
as seen in some postmenopausal women—show similar changes.
Moderate atrophy not only affects larger areas of the nasal mucosa but
most prominently involves the blood supply of the nasal lining, gradually
increasing the nasal space in all directions as the lining becomes thinner.
Mucous glands atrophy and disappear, while fibrosis of the subepithelial
tissues becomes gradually more generalized. Tissues surrounding the nasal
mucosa become affected, including cartilage, muscle, and bone of the nasal
skeleton. Eventually the dryness and crusting and irritation of the nasal
mucosa extend to the lining of the nasopharynx, hypopharynx, and larynx.
This can affect the patency of the eustachian tube, resulting in chronic
middle ear effusion, and can cause adverse changes in the lacrimal apparatus,
including keratitis sicca.
In the late changes of atrophic rhinitis, also referred to as ozena, extensive
crusting may be accompanied by a loathsome fetor. While others around
him cannot stand the odor, the patient is usually protected by anosmia. He
complains of loss of taste and inability to sleep well or tolerate cold air.
With his markedly widened airway he experiences progressively increased Sensory disturbance and air How
obstruction to his nasal breathing, mainly because the air baffles that regulate changes may cause symptoms
of obstruction in atrophic
nasal pressure changes and convey sensory messages from the nasal mucosa rhinitis.
to the central nervous system have moved farther and farther out of the
picture.
Multiple theories exist for the cause of atrophic rhinitis and related
degenerative disorders. Some authors emphasize hereditary factors. A causal
relationship between the direct and indirect effects of trauma and tissue
atrophy is almost universally recognized. The trauma may be accidental or
iatrogenic, namely, the late effect of surgery. Radiation therapy to the nose
most readily damages blood vessels and mucus-producing glands and almost
always leads to atrophic rhinitis. Neurovascular changes, such as blood vessel
deterioration mediated by insults to the autonomic nervous system, have
been documented. Various infections, such as acute exanthemas, scarlet
fever, diphtheria, and chronic infections, have been implicated as the cause
of injury to the submucosal blood vessels. Environmental causes have also
been suggested because of the increased incidence in lower socioeconomic
populations.
Ozena is much more common in the countries around the Mediterranean
Sea than in the United States. A drop in the incidence of measles, scarlet
fever, and diphtheria in southern Europe since World War II appears to
coincide with a similar sharp decline in the incidence of ozena.
To date, medical treatment of atrophic rhinitis has, at best, been palliative. Medical therapy in atrophic rhi¬
It includes irrigations and cleansing of crust formation; local and systemic nitis is palliative.
endocrine, steroid, and antibiotic therapy; vasodilators; the use of mild local
tissue irritants such as alcohol; and lubricating ointments. The major treat¬
ment emphasis is surgical, all efforts being directed at narrowing the nasal
passages again and by so doing improving the mucosal blood supply. Surgical
techniques are divided into two major categories: (1) implants, through
either an intra- or an extranasal approach and (2) operations, such as
narrowing of the nasal lobule or infracture of the nasal bones.
NASAL MANIFESTATIONS OF SYSTEMIC DISEASE

Wegener’s Granulomatosis
Wegener’s granulomatosis is a potentially fatal, specific vasculitis of
unknown etiology characterized by (1) focal necrotizing, granulomatous
lesions in the upper and/or lower respiratory tracts, (2) systemic vascular
focal necrosis, and (3) focal necrotizing glomerulitis. Affecting men and
women equally, it is seen primarily in adults.
The patient will often present with a long-standing cold, recurrent sinusitis;
epistaxis, progressive nasal obstruction, chronic otitis media, and hearing
loss that are unresponsive to treatment. Although lesions may involve any
area of the respiratory tract, nasal crusting and friable nasal mucosa are the
norm, with eventual saddling a common sequela.
No specific laboratory test is diagnostic. A mild anemia is usually present,
with an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and urinary abnormalities
Multiple biopsies may be neces¬ if there is kidney involvement. Diagnosis is dependent upon biopsy of the
sary to identify this potentially involved tissues for demonstration of necrotizing granulomas and extensive
lethal disease.
vasculitis. Multiple samples may be necessary to demonstrate the diagnostic
lesion.
Differential diagnosis includes polymorphic reticulosis, infectious granu¬
lomas, fungal and tuberculous infections, sarcoidosis, and other vasculitides.
Therapy in acute patients involves treatment with corticosteroids and
cyclophosphamide. Some authors believe, however, that the addition of
steroids to the cytotoxic medications provides symptomatic improvement
without altering the course of the disease as when treated with cytotoxic
medications alone.
Polymorphic Reticulosis
Polymorphic reticulosis is a rare disease characterized by local inflamma¬
tion and destruction of the tissues of the midface. Fatal if untreated, it was
originally called lethal midline granuloma, a term no longer considered
appropriate.
The symptoms and clinical findings are very similar to those of Wegener’s
granulomatosis. Diagnosis is dependent upon a biopsy, with tissues charac¬
terized by a dense, mixed lymphoid infiltration. The absence of giant cells,
vasculitis, and systemic involvement differentiates it from Wegener’s granu¬
lomatosis, and the mixed population of cells differentiates it from lymphoma.
This differential diagnosis is critical, since the only therapy shown to be
effective is radiation therapy.
Relapsing Polychondritis
Relapsing polychondritis is a rare connective tissue disease of unknown
etiology causing episodic inflammation and subsequent destruction of the
cartilaginous structures of the body. Nasal involvement results in saddle-
nose deformity with no involvement of the mucosa. No specific laboratory
test is diagnostic; a biopsy helps provide the diagnosis. Corticosteroids have
been found useful in severe cases, but in the majority of symptomatic cases,
therapy with salicylates and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications is
indicated.
Sarcoidosis
Nasal sarcoidosis is usually as¬ Nasal sarcoidosis is generally associated with the more common pulmonary
sociated with pulmonary mani¬ manifestations of this disease with world-wide distribution and unknown
festations.
etiology. A generalized granulomatous disorder primarily affecting young
adults, in the United States blacks are 10 times more likely to be affected
than are Caucasians. Nasal findings include crusting and thickened mucosa
on the inferior turbinate and septum.
A biopsy demonstrating noncaseating granulomas is characteristic, al¬
though not diagnostic. Other, systemic signs often include hypergammaglob¬
ulinemia and a reduction of serum albumin. Treatment Of the symptomatic
patient involves steroids, either systemically or in a topical nasal spray,
aimed at reducing both nasal stuffiness and crusting. Local treatment with
irrigation and moisturizing medication may also be helpful.
Osler-Weber-Rendu Syndrome
Also called hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, this autosomally domi¬
nant syndrome is characterized by the formation of vascular lesions around
the lips, oral cavity, and nose. One of the most common presenting
manifestations is recurring epistaxis that requires multiple transfusions. Recurring epistaxis occurs fre¬
quently in Osler-Weber-Rendu
Septal dermoplasty is one method designed to control the repeated epistaxis. syndrome.
The operative procedure involves careful removal of the mucosa of the
anterior nasal septum, floor of the nose, and anterior portion of the inferior
turbinate and replacement of this mucosa with a split-thickness skin graft
(Fig. 12-13). The procedure is usually performed on one side only but may
be repeated later on the opposite side. While it creates crust formation in
the nose, it may be necessary in patients who have required multiple
transfusions. Hormonal therapy has provided improvement for some pa¬
tients, allowing them to avoid surgical intervention.
Sjogren’s Syndrome
This disorder, consisting of dry eyes, dry mouth and nasopharynx, and a
chronic arthritis, may also have some nasal manifestations. It is covered
more fully in Chapter 17.
EPISTAXIS
Nasal hemorrhage is such a common problem that every physician should Every physician should be able
to control most episodes of epi¬
be prepared to handle the majority of such episodes. The keystone to proper staxis.
treatment is the application of pressure to the bleeding vessel. Probably 90
FIGURE 12-13. Septal dermoplasty. Na¬

sal mucosa with numerous telangiecta-
sias in Osler-Weber-Rendu disease can
be replaced through (a) a lateral rhino-
tomy and (b) intranasal skin grafts when
medical management fails.
per cent of episodes of anterior epistaxis are easily treated by firm, continuous
pressure applied to both sides of the nose just superior to the nasal alar
cartilages, with the patient sitting in an upright position. This position
reduces the vascular pressure, and the patient can more easily expectorate
any blood in the pharynx. However, when it becomes apparent that control
is not adequate, the patient’s physician needs immediately to try another
method. Only those methods available to the physician which can be applied
to the majority of persistent cases of epistaxis will be dealt with here in
detail. Other methods will be mentioned briefly.
Epistaxis—A Sign, Not a Disease

A brief, concise history and physical examination are obtained at the same
time preparations are being made to control the epistaxis. Once the bleeding
is stopped, an orderly evaluation is begun to determine the cause. A more
complete history and physical examination, laboratory evaluations, routine
x-ray examinations, and even angiography may be necessary at this time.
Blood Supply of the Nose

A detailed explanation of the vascular and nerve supply of the nose has
been given in Chapter 10. Vessels are mentioned in this chapter only as they
affect the site and control of active bleeding. Initially, one must note whether
The ethmoid arteries are the bleeding source is on the right or the left side, in the front or the
branches of the internal carotid.
posterior part of the nose, and above or below the middle meatus, which
roughly divides the blood supply from the two major contributors, the
internal and external carotid arteries. The ophthalmic artery, deriving from
the internal carotid artery, gives rise to the anterior and posterior ethmoid
vessels. Together they supply the superior portion of the nose. The rest of
the nasal vascular supply comes from the external carotid artery and its
major divisions. The sphenopalatine artery brings blood to the lower half of
the lateral nasal wall and the posterior part of the septum.
All nasal vessels are connected by multiple anastomoses. A vascular plexus
along the anterior portion of the cartilaginous septum incorporates many of
these anastomoses and is referred to as Little’s areajjr Kiesselhaclils plexus
(Fig. 12-14). Because of its vascular features”andlhe fact that this area is
subject to repeated physical and environmental trauma, it is the most
frequent site for epistaxis.
FIGURE 12—14. Blood supply of the nasal septum.

Epistaxis originating superiorly in the nose usually
originates from the ethmoid artery system, while
posterior and inferior bleeding is from the internal
maxillary artery and its branches. Kiesselbach’s plexus
is the most common site of bleeding and is fed from
several vascular sources.
Management
History
Proper management of epistaxis will depend on a careful history. Impor¬
tant items include the following:
1. Previous bleeding episodes

2. Side of bleeding
3. Whether the flow of bleeding is primarily down the throat (posterior)
or out the front of the nose (anterior) when the patient is sitting
4. Duration and frequency
5. Bleeding tendency
6. Familial history of bleeding disorders
7. Hypertension
8. Diabetes mellitus
9. Liver disease
10. Use of anticoagulants
11. Recent nasal trauma
12. Drugs, e.g., aspirin, phenylbutazone (Butazolidin)
Recurrent Minor Epistaxis

When first seen, the patient may not be actively bleeding but may give a
history of recurrent epistaxis over the past few weeks. There have usually
been several small episodes, but the last episode may have been frightening,
causing the patient to seek help.
Nasal examination in this situation may reveal prominent vessels traversing
the anterior septum, with small amounts of clotted blood noted in this area.
Such vessels may be treated by chemical cauterization or electrocautery.
The application of a topical anesthetic and vasoconstricting agent, such as 4
per cent cocaine solution or Xylocaine with epinephrine, is followed by
cauterizing, for example, with a 50 per cent solution of trichloroacetic acid
on the vessel (Fig. 12-15). If the vessels are prominent on both sides of the
FIGURE 12-15. Nasal cautery. Superfi¬

cial vessels can be chemically or electri¬
cally cauterized alter a topical anesthetic
has been applied.
234 PART THREE^THE NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES
Avoid cauterizing both sides of septum, an effort should be made not to cauterize the same area on both
the septum.
sides. Even with very shallow penetration of the cauterizing agent, the
surface area covered by cautery must be limited. Otherwise, as cilia are
destroyed and squamous epithelium overlying scar tissue replaces normal
respiratory mucosa, stowage points in the flow of the mucous blanket
develop. As the flow of mucus slows or stops in those areas of previous
cautery, crusts form on the septum. The patient then picks his nose to
remove the crusts, injuring the lining, setting off a new nosebleed, and
completing the vicious circle by returning to the doctor for another attempt
at cautery.
Shallow penetration is also obtained with silver nitrate, which is fairly
useful in children. Deeper penetration may be obtained with beads of
chromic acid and even electrocautery. During very active bleeding, no
method of cauterization of the nose is effective or safe. Repeated bleeding
from a blood vessel over the septum may be resolved by locally elevating
the mucosa and letting the tissues realign themselves or by reconstructing
the underlying septal deformity to relieve the localized atrophy and mucosal
tension spots.
With recurrent minor nosebleeds of unidentified nasal origin, the physician
must rule out nasopharyngeal or paranasal sinus tumors that erode blood
vessels. Chronic sinusitis is another possible cause. Finally, one should look
for distant pathologic disturbances such as renal disease and uremia or
systemic illness such as a coagulation disorder.
Active Anterior Hemorrhage—Minor

The patient who is actively bleeding from the front of the nose should be
sitting upright and wearing a plastic apron and holding a kidney basin to
protect clothing. Cotton pledgets moistened with 4 per cent cocaine are
gently inserted into the nose. The physician, with head mirror on and a
nasal speculum in one hand, holds a suction tip in the other for aspirating
excess blood. Once the bleeding source is located, cautery may be tried if
An anterior nasal pack should the vessel is small; otherwise, an anterior nasal pack is applied—unilateral
fill the entire nasal fossa.
if possible, bilateral in the face of severe bleeding or a poorly defined source
of bleeding. The problem of localization of the bleeding source may be
compounded in a patient with a marked septal deviation or a septal
perforation. Packing is most easily made from sterile 72 x ‘/2-inch Vaseline-
impregnated gauze strips, layered from the nasal floor toward the nasal roof
and extending throughout most of the length of the nasal cavity (Fig. 12-
lb). Prophylactic antibiotics are recommended by some physicians because
the sinus ostia are obstructed by the packing, and a foreign body is present
(the packing) along with the old blood, which provides an environment for
bacterial growth. In addition, some physicians also impregnate the packing
material with antibiotic cream or ointment to minimize bacterial growth and
reduce odor formation. Nasal balloons of several different designs are now
available and can be substituted for the nasal pack (Fig. 12-17). Similarly,
nasal tampons that expand when placed in the nose can be substituted for a
traditional nasal pack (Fig. 12-18). Both the balloons and nasal tampons are
easier to place than are traditional packing materials and are better tolerated
by most patients; however, they may not be as effective in controlling the
bleeding and may need to be replaced by a traditional pack. With only an
anterior nasal pack and no other underlying medical problem, the patient
FIGURE 12-16. Anterior nasal pack¬

ing. Layers of Vaseline-impregnated
gauze are placed in the nose. It is
important that the ends of the gauze
be retained at the nares and that the
packing be carefully layered and ex¬
tend to the posterior choanae.
can be treated on an outpatient basis, being told to sit siill most of the day
and to slightly elevate the head at night. The pack may then be removed in
the office after two to three days. Elderly or debilitated patients should be
hospitalized.
FIGURE 12—17. Intranasal balloon to control epistaxis.

FIGURE 12—18. Intranasal tampons. A, Compressed tampon in nose. B, Tampon expanded to control hemorrhage.
Active Posterior Hemorrhage
Posterior epistaxis is believed to exist when (1) the majority of the blood
loss is occurring into the pharynx, (2) an anterior pack fails to control the
hemorrhage, or (3) it is evident from nasal examination that the hemorrhage
is posterior and superior. This situation occurs commonly in elderly individ¬
uals who may have arteriosclerosis but may also occur in anyone after severe
nasal trauma.
Sphenopalatine Ganglion Block. In the presence of posterior epistaxis
some physicians recommend that a sphenopalatine block be given, which
can be both diagnostic and therapeutic. Careful injection of 0.5 ml of
Xylocaine. 1 per cent, with epinephrine, 1:100,000, into the greater palatine
canal will cause vasoconstriction of the sphenopalatine artery. In addition to
vasoconstriction, this injection provides anesthesia for the placement of a
posterior nasal pack. Should the blood loss be from a division of the
sphenopalatine artery, a decrease in the epistaxis will be noted within a few
minutes. This decrease in bleeding may last only a short time until the
Xylocaine is absorbed. Glycerin (2 per cent USP) and Xylocaine (2 per cent)
can be injected for a more prolonged effect. When no effect is obtained
from injection, the blood loss may be from the anterior or posterior ethmoid
arteries. Because of possible ocular complications, this method is better
reserved for the specialist.
Posterior Nasal Pack. A posterior pack placed through the mouth (Fig.
12-19) can be pulled by a catheter through the nose into the posterior
choana. A 4- x 4-inch sponge rolled tightly and tied with No. 1 silk sutures
makes an excellent pack. A topical antibiotic ointment is applied to reduce
the incidence of infection. Tamponade by various commercially available
preshaped nasal balloons passed anteriorly and then inflated is also possible.
FIGURE 12—19. Posterior

choanal packing combined
with an anterior nasal pack. A,
Rubber catheter directed pos¬
teriorly through the nose and
drawn into the mouth; two of
the three strings attached to
the pack are tied to the cath¬
eter, which is drawn back
through the nose, pulling the
pack securely into the post¬
nasal position, 6, Bilateral an¬
terior pack of one-half inch
Vaseline gauze impregnated
with an antibiotic ointment is
layered into position. C, Two
strings attached to the pos¬
terior pack are tied firmly over
a large 4- x 4-inch sponge.
To facilitate the removal of the
pack, a third string left at¬
tached to the postchoanal
pack is brought out of the
mouth or a short length is
allowed to hang down into the
pharynx.
Some manufacturers make balloons with two separate chambers; one

functions as an anterior pack, the other as a posterior pack. If a balloon is
placed either anteriorly or posteriorly, it should be filled with saline, not air,
because air will leak out and the tamponade will be lost. The common No.
14 Foley catheter with a 15-cc bag can also be inserted transnasally, inflated,
and pulled firmly into the posterior choana. It can be secured in position
with a padded umbilical clamp.
Most commonly, a catheter is passed all the way through the nose, grasped
in the pharynx, and pulled out through the mouth. Two strings attached to
a pack are tied to the catheter, which now protrudes through the mouth. A
third string also attached to the pack will be allowed to lie in the pharynx
to be utilized as a pullout string. The catheters are pulled out the anterior
nose to position the pack in the choana. If necessary, the pack can be
assisted into position above the soft palate by the physician’s finger. The
pack should be pulled firmly into position and should not depress the soft
palate. While tension is held on the strings protruding from the anterior
nose, the physician places the usual anterior pack between them and ties the
The strings of a posterior pack two strings snugly in a bow over a roll of gauze. Both strings should be
should not be tied across the brought out through the same nostril and not tied over the columella—this
columella.
can cause pressure necrosis of the soft tissues, a very unsightly deformity
that is difficult to correct.
Patients requiring a posterior pack are admitted to the hospital, with
Patients with a posterior pack elderly patients or patients with underlying medical diseases placed in the
are admitted to the hospital intensive care unit. Consideration should include the following items when
the patient is admitted:
1. Frequent monitoring of vital signs, including blood pressure, pulse,
and respiration
2. Electrocardiogram (in a patient with significant medical illness,
continuous monitoring with a cardiac monitor)
3. Use of oxygen as necessary (with caution in chronic obstructive lung
disease) because of the possibility of complications secondary to
sedation, acute blood loss, and a fall in arterial Po2 associated with
the pack
4. Monitoring of blood arterial gases
5. Hemoglobin and hematocrit at least every 12 hours
6. Studies (PT, PTT, platelet count) for any bleeding abnormality
7. All tests necessary to perform a sufficient medical evaluation of any
possible underlying cause of the occurrence of the epistaxis, such as
FBS, BUN, or creatinine
8. Intravenous fluids should be administered, as these patients will have
a poor oral intake.
9. Pain medication, usually meperidine hydrochloride (Demerol) or
codeine. (It is important to provide significant sedation and analgesia
without causing respiratory depression.)
10. Clear liquid diet
11. Examination of the pharynx for active bleeding
12. Head elevated 45 degrees
13. Prophylactic broad-spectrum antibiotics because of interrupted
drainage patterns from nose and sinuses
14. Type and cross-match for blood if significant blood loss has occurred
The posterior pack is generally kept in place for three to five days. During
this period of time, the patient will be uncomfortable and will require
sedatives and analgesics. Studies have shown that complete obstruction of
the nasal airway in certain individuals may lead to an elevation of the Pco2
Hypoxia and hypercapnia are and reduction of the Po2. This combination of events in a patient with a
common when a posterior pack history of significant cardiac or pulmonary disease can lead to significant
is present.
complications, e.g., myocardial infarction or cerebrovascular accident. It is
often advisable to loosen a traditional pack or deflate a balloon prior to
complete removal. If bleeding redevelops the tamponade can be re-estab¬
lished with less discomfort than if the packing needs to be replaced.
Specific Vessel Ligation

When posterior and anterior packs fail to control epistaxis, ligation of
specific arteries is required. These include the external carotid artery, the
internal maxillary artery with the terminal branch, the sphenopalatine artery,
and the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries.
Ligation of the External Carotid Artery. Because of the numerous

anastomoses present, ligation of the external carotid artery does not always Ligation of the external carotid
control epistaxis. It is, however, a method that can be employed when artery is less effective than
necessary in almost all patients by physicians skilled in head and neck 0ther tecl,nil,ues‘
surgery. A transverse or longitudinal incision is made along the anterior
border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle at the level of the hyoid bone.
After elevation of the platysma muscle, the anterior border of the
sternocleidomastoid muscle is identified. By gentle dissection, the carotid
sheath, jugular vein, and vagus nerve can be identified. Further dissection
will permit visualization of the carotid bulb. The internal and external carotid
arteries must be specifically identified. Although named the external carotid
artery, in the neck it actually lies medial to the internal carotid artery.
Ligation is then performed by a single silk ligature above the level of the
take-off of the lingual artery. The disappearance of temporal pulse should
be verified as a double check before firming up the ligature. The wound may
be closed in layers and a drain left in place for 24 hours.
Ligation of the Internal Maxillary Artery. Ligation of the internal maxillary
artery is generally performed by those skilled in the anatomical and surgical
technique required to gain access to the pterygomaxillary fossa. This
procedure may be performed under local or general anesthesia. Radiographs
of the paranasal sinuses are obtained prior to the procedure. A Caldwell
incision is made in the upper buccal gingival mucosa, extending from the
midline to the area of the second maxillary molar. The mucoperiosteum is
elevated from the anterior wall of the maxillary sinus, the maxillary sinus is
entered, and the remaining anterior wall is removed while care is taken to
preserve the infraorbital nerve. The bony posterior sinus wall is then carefully
removed and the opening enlarged into the pterygomaxillary fossa. When
the opening is sufficiently large, the operating microscope is employed for
FIGURE 12—20. Internal max¬

illary artery ligation. The inter¬
nal maxillary artery is located
in the pterygomaxillary fossa,
which can be approached
through the maxillary sinus
(A). The anterior wall of the
sinus is removed (B) and the
vessels are visualized through
a similar opening in the pos¬
terior wall of the sinus (C).
further dissection. Vessels are identified and metal clips placed on the
internal maxillary, sphenopalatine, and descending palatine arteries (Fig.
12-20). The wound is closed and the posterior nasal pack removed. A lesser
anterior nasal pack may still be required. If there is any evidence of an
infection or fear that infection may develop, a nasal antral window is created
embolization is an alternative to during the procedure. Selective catheterization with embolization of branches
ligation. of the externai carotid artery is another approach that achieves the same
objective as ligation.
Ligation of the Anterior Ethmoid Artery. Flemorrhage from terminal
branches of the ophthalmic artery occasionally requires ligation of the
anterior ethmoid artery. The vessel is approached through a curved incision
extending along the nose, midway between the dorsum and the medial
canthal area. This incision is carried directly down to the bone, with the
periosteum carefully elevated and the medial canthal ligament identified.
The anterior ethmoidal artery always lies in the suture line between the
ethmoid and frontal bone. A single ligature or hemostatic clip is applied to
the vessel (Fig. 12-21). Because of the close approximation to the optic
nerve, the ethmoid vessels are approached with care and gentle retraction
on the globe.
Epistaxis Associated with Nasal Trauma

Epistaxis routinely occurs after any nasal and/or septal nasal fracture, is
usually of short duration, and stops spontaneously. Occasionally such epi-
FIGURE 12—21. Ligation of the anterior eth¬

moid artery. A, The anterior ethmoid artery,
a branch of the ophthalmic artery, is shown
exiting the orbit at the level of the suture
line between the ethmoid and frontal bones.
B. The artery is exposed through an incision
line beneath the brow and over the nasal
bone. C, After the orbital contents are re¬
tracted, the artery is ligated with metallic
clips. Occasionally ligation of both the an¬
terior and posterior ethmoid arteries is nec¬
essary.
staxis begins again several hours later. It may, in fact, develop several days
later in a nonreduced fracture when the swelling begins to subside. The best
treatment in such circumstances is an immediate reduction of the nasal
fracture. Failure to control the hemorrhage after fracture reduction may
require any one of the various vessel ligation procedures previously de¬
scribed. If the septum has been fractured, the treating physician should
investigate the area to rule out a septal hematoma.
Epistaxis Associated with Specific Bleeding Disorders

Epistaxis is frequently encountered in patients with hereditary hemorrhagic
telangiectasia, a dominant syndrome characterized by the formation of
vascular lesions around the lips, oral cavity, and nose. One of the most
common presenting manifestations is recurring nasal epistaxis requiring
multiple transfusions. Septal dermoplasty is one method designed to control
the repeated epistaxis. The operative procedure involves careful removal of
the mucosa of the anterior nasal septum, floor of the nose, and anterior
portion of the inferior turbinate and replacement of this mucosa with a split¬
thickness skin graft. The procedure is usually performed on one side only
but may be repeated later on the opposite side. While it creates crust
formation in the nose, it may be necessary in patients who have required
multiple transfusions.
When epistaxis occurs in patients with hemophilia, von Willebrand’s
disease, or other coagulopathies, it is generally best treated as conservatively
as possible. This will involve placement of an anterior nasal pack when
necessary with the concurrent transfusions of cryoprecipitated plasma, Factor
VIII, or other clotting factors.
Epistaxis in Patients with Leukemia

Patients with acute or chronic leukemia or multiple myeloma, especially
in the advanced stages, have repeated bouts of epistaxis due either to the
basic disease process or to the treatment. Because severe infections develop
more readily in these patients, the prolonged use of anterior and posterior
nasal packing should be avoided. Although less dependable, topical thrombin
on hemostatic substances such as Oxycel cotton or Gelfoam might be tried
first. Even with only anterior packing of gauze, systemic antibiotics should
be given. Correction of any underlying clotting defect, such as administration
of platelet packs, should be performed simultaneously.
TRAUMA
Nasal fractures, along with other maxillofacial injuries, are discussed fully
in Chapter 26. However, it is important to note here that nasal trauma is a
frequent cause of nasal obstruction.
Although the patient may recall the incident leading to current obstructive Post-traumatic septal deformi¬
ties are common sources of na¬
symptoms, childhood injuries that are not remembered may have previously
sal obstruction.
created significant anatomic alteration and obstruction. Moreover, what may
have appeared to the patient or treating physician to be a “minor” injury
can create enough deformity to be functionally significant.
The most common structural disturbance causing airway obstruction is a
deflected or deviated nasal septum (Fig. 12-22). The normally straight
FIGURE 12-22. Septal deformity and septo¬

plasty. A, A typical septal deformity is shown
with deflection of the septum compromising
both nasal fossae. B, Surgical correction is
achieved by elevating the mucoperichondrium
and excising deformed septal bone and carti¬
lage, followed by replacing the septum in the
midline. C, An adequate airway is re-created.
flap elevated
midline structure has, in almost all instances, been affected by trauma with
its direct and indirect sequelae. Injuries to an individual during growth and
development have more of an impact than similar insults suffered by an
Minor trauma can cause signifi- adult. The physiologic effect of the deformity depends not only on its relative
cant septal deformities, structural complexity but also on its location. Moreover, other nasal pathol¬
ogy such as allergies, infections, neoplasm, or metabolic disorders can
temporarily, recurrently, or permanently add to the severity of the obstruc¬
tive symptoms. The injury may create a septal hematoma due to the
collection of blood beneath the mucoperichondrium. The patient usually
complains of severe obstruction, and intranasal inspection reveals boggy
septal mucosa that does not shrink following application of topical decon¬
gestants. Immediate drainage is necessary, often followed by nasal packing
to avoid the development of a septal abscess, as mentioned earlier in this
chapter.
The structure of the external nose, both cartilaginous and bony portions,
may be likened to a “pyramid” or a “tent” with a central support, the
septum. Injuries may cause obstruction through one or more of the following
mechanisms:
1. Collapse of the side wall medially, thus narrowing one nasal fossa (Fig.
12-23A and B). The fracture of a nasal bone often carries the attached
upper lateral cartilage medially, resulting in obstruction.
2. Displacement of the septum. Unilateral displacement narrows one
passage and enlarges the other, causing unilateral obstruction. Bilateral
obstruction results if the septal fracture causes fragments to be displaced
into each nasal fossa.
3. Fracture and displacement of both the nasal vault and septum, deviating
the “pyramid.” The fractures apparent on magnitude of the obstruction
is dependent upon the degree of obstruction resulting from each
component of the injury (Fig. 12-23C).
b. c. FIGURE 12-23. A nasal rracture is usually a

comminuted and compound fracture that in¬
volves the nasal bones and ascending process
of the maxilla. Often the upper lateral cartilage
is displaced as well owing to its attachment to
the nasal bone. B, Typically one nasal wall is
displaced medially, narrowing the nasal airway,
while the opposite wall is displaced laterally. C,
Frequently the nasal septum is fractured as well
as the nasal bones, further compromising the
airway.
Because the cosmetic component, or external deformity, associated with

a septal fracture is usually minor, the fracture often goes unnoticed. Because Septal fractures are rarely ap-
radiographs are of little use in detecting an injury of this sort, a thorough parent on radiographs.
evaluation must include intranasal inspection and palpation before and after
application of topical decongestants.
It is better, after acute injuries involving the septum, to perform an “open
reduction”—namely, to explore the intraseptal space and return the frag¬
ments to their normal anatomic position—than to let the septum heal with
any of the above-mentioned deformities and plan on a delayed septal
reconstruction.
The results of closed nasal reduction are considered inadequate if any
concomitant septal fracture is not addressed, because the septal deformity
will cause persistent obstruction and result in redeviation of the external
“tent” as the tissues heal. In essence, the “tent pole,” the septum, will cause
the “tent” to shift back to the preoperative position. The surgical procedure
is reconstructive, not just aesthetic, and the cosmetic improvement is
necessary if function is to be restored.
Deformity of the septum to one side of the midline often evokes a
compensatory hypertrophy of the middle and inferior turbinates in the
opposite nasal space (the wide side). After the septum is surgically straight¬
ened the hypertrophied soft tissues recede, and, in most instances, no further
attention is needed for the turbinate. Gross or persistent hypertrophy may
require reducing the size of the turbinate with electrocautery, cryosurgery,
or partial resection (see Fig. 12-11). Aggressive reduction should be avoided
to prevent iatrogenic atrophic rhinitis.
Surgery to correct obstructive septal injuries in children warrants gentle
handling and conservative techniques. However, because of the potential
for greater damage as changes occur with growth, children should not be
denied needed surgical corrections on the basis of age.
Septal and nasal reconstruction are usually performed on an outpatient
basis via incisions inside the nose. The adult is normally sedated and a local
anesthetic applied to the area, although general anesthesia is preferred by
some surgeons. When general anesthesia is used, as in small children, the
patient is also given a local anesthetic to minimize the total amount of
anesthetic agent needed and for the decongestant effect, which markedly
reduces bleeding and therefore provides better operative visualization.
Postoperative swelling normally resolves after several weeks, thus restoring
the nasal airway.
NEOPLASMS
Neoplasms involving the nose and paranasal sinuses are discussed together
owing to the intimate relationship of these structures. As a result of the
diverse histologic make-up of the nose and paranasal sinuses, the variety of
neoplasms that may occur is great. However, because most are found very Nasal neoplasms occur infre-
infrequently, only those that are encountered with any regularity or are of deently.
special interest will be presented here. Malignant tumors are covered in
Chapter 23.
It is important for the physician to remember that the symptoms due to
neoplasms of the nose and paranasal sinuses are not striking, the most
common including nasal obstruction, epistaxis, and blood-tinged mucus. A
nasal speculum is used to provide adequate examination of the nasal cavity,
Symptoms of nasal neoplasms both before and after administration of either phenylephrine or a dilute
are nonspecific. cocaine solution. A mirror or other optical instrument is necessary to
visualize the posterior choanae and nasopharynx.
While these steps will provide the physician with the location of abnormal
tissue, imaging techniques such as radiographs, tomograms, computed to¬
mographic (CT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) help deter¬
mine the extent of the disease, whether surgery is a viable option, and, if
so, the appropriate surgical approach.
Squamous Papilloma
Possibly of viral etiology, epithelial changes in squamous papilloma may
range through various degrees of dyskeratosis. Lesions are often noted at
the mucocutaneous junction in the anterior nose, especially on the anterior
caudal margin of the septum. For both diagnosis and treatment the lesions
are excised under local anesthesia. As most of them are small, no sutures
are needed. Before closure of the larger ones, it is well to undermine skin
and mucosa for a short distance.
Inverted Papilloma
A separate disorder from squamous papilloma, inverted papilloma inverts

into the surface epithelium. Peculiar to the nose and paranasal sinuses, most
Inverted papilloma may resem¬ originate on the lateral nasal wall and appear to be grossly similar to a
ble a common nasal polyp but
typical nasal polyp. Although histologically benign, this neoplasm is aggres¬
may contain areas of
carcinoma. sively treated like a premalignant tumor for two reasons: (1) locally invasive,
at times it involves extensive bone erosion, and, if conservatively removed,
shows a high incidence of local recurrence; and (2) focal areas of squamous
cell carcinoma are found within the papilloma in approximately 10 per cent
of the cases. It is therefore essential that the pathologist section the entire
surgical specimen and look for islands of malignancy.
Treatment consists of wide surgical excision, with the selected approach
having the capability of further extension to provide wide exposure to the
paranasal sinuses when required. The most often chosen route is a lateral
rhinotomy approach, which starts with an incision in the nasal-alar fold and
can be carried upward along the nasal-facial groove.
Extramedullary Plasmacytoma
As its name implies, extramedullary plasmacytoma is a primary tumor of

lymphoid tissue histologically similar to plasma cell myeloma. It may,
Evaluation for systemic disease however, present a solitary mass confined to soft tissues. A patient with this
is important.
tumor should be evaluated for possible systemic disease. Tests include serum
protein electrophoresis and urinalysis for Bence Jones protein. A hemato¬
logic consultation is necessary and will generally involve a bone marrow
biopsy. Solitary lesions can be treated surgically and/or with radiation
therapy. Regardless of treatment, recurrences are common; therefore, all
patients must be followed carefully, especially for the possible development

of a multiple myeloma.
Fibrous Dysplasia
Fibrous dysplasia refers to nonencapsulated fibro-osseous tumors involving
the facial bones with frequent impingement on the paranasal sinuses of the
nose (Fig. 12-24). The etiology is unknown.
A slow-growing tumor, it is rarely associated with pain and tends to
appear around the time of puberty, with the patient presenting for cosmetic
reasons due to facial asymmetry. Because growth of this tumor again slows
with age, the need for treatment is dependent upon the degree of deformity
or the presence of pain. Although complete resection is desirable owing to
the slow growth of the tumor, in the majority of patients only sufficient
tumor is removed to restore normal facial contours and function.
In a small proportion of patients malignant degeneration of the tumor has
been reported. The majority of these reports involved patients treated with
radiation for the fibrous dysplasia. It is imperative, therefore, that radiation
therapy be avoided unless there are no other alternatives and that patients
with fibrous dysplasia be followed closely to detect any changes.
Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma

Covered more fully in Chapter 17, juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma
is a benign tumor that often originates in the nasal chambers near the
sphenopalatine foramen. This diagnosis should be considered when the
patient is a young boy with a long history of epistaxis and nasal obstruction.
FIGURE 12—24. Fibrous dysplasia.

Irregular calcification in ethmoid
air cells characteristic of fibrous
dysplasia.
MISCELLANEOUS
Septal Perforation
Until the advent of penicillin, tertiary lues was the most common cause
of perforations of the nasal septum. As the incidence of syphilis decreased,
the most common cause shifted to the large number of patients who had
had excessive septal injury. Other causes include acute as well as chronic
trauma like nose-picking; infected septal hematomas, tuberculosis, leprosy,
and other infections; and the illicit use of cocaine, with accompanying
frequent intranasal manipulation, mucous alterations, ischemia, and septal
necrosis.
The symptoms of nasal perforations can be annoying to the patient. There
may be a whistling sensation through the nose during speech. Small perfo¬
Nasal crusting and whistling are rations frequently tend to have more of a whistling sensation than very large
frequent symptoms of septal perforations. The edges of the perforations tend to crust, resulting in
perforations.
obstruction. As the crusts break off, bleeding occurs (Fig. 12-25). The
resultant epistaxis may be difficult to control and will require packing of
both sides to apply adequate pressure.
Repair of anything other than small perforation of the nose is difficult.
Surgical repair is difficult. Both homogeneous and autogenous tissues of various types have been
utilized to replace the absent cartilaginous support. The mainstay of the
repair requires development of mucoperichondrial flaps, which are then
swung to close the defect. A flap is developed on each side in such a manner
as not to expose cartilage in the same place on the opposite side. These flaps
are then sutured into position and held there by stents. Silastic prostheses
that obturate the defect are an alternative to surgery and are preferred by
some patients.
Foreign Bodies
Foreign bodies as a cause of nasal obstruction are practically always
encountered in children. Children at play tend to place small objects in the
FIGURE 12-25. Septal perfo

ration. Perforation most often
occurs in the cartilaginous
nasal passages. Common foreign bodies found in children are beads, buttons,
erasers, marbles, peas, beans, stones, and nuts. Recently inserted objects
give little or no discomfort unless they are sharp or very large. The usual Foreign bodies often present as
unilateral obstruction and rhi-
symptoms are unilateral obstruction and discharge with odor. The majority
norrhea.
of foreign objects are found either in the anterior part of the vestibule or in
the inferior meatus along the floor of the nose. None should be allowed to
remain in the nasal passages because of the danger of producing necrosis
and secondary infection and the potential for aspiration into the lower
respiratory tract. Removal can be accomplished in the cooperative child in
the clinic after applying a topical anesthetic and vasoconstrictor, such as
cocaine. A blunt, bent hook inserted behind the object or a small alligator
forceps is helpful (Fig. 12-26). Occasionally, general anesthesia will be
needed.
Rhinoliths
Rhinoliths are considered to be a special type of foreign body usually
observed in adults. Insoluble salts of the nasal secretions form a calcareous
mass about any long-retained foreign body or blood clot. A chronic sinus
discharge may initiate such a mass to form in the nasal passages.
Rhinophyma
Rhinophyma is a red thickening of the nasal tip with hypertrophy of the
sebaceous glands associated with acne rosacea. Occurring most commonly
in men, its exact etiology has not yet been determined. Treatment becomes
necessary when the rhinophymatous tissue causes an obvious cosmetic
deformity or when the bulk of tissue compromises the airway. Surgical
correction can be performed under local anesthesia. One of the more
frequently used procedures is to carefully carve down the excessive tissue
with a sharp blade. Reduction via dermabrasion and laser excision are also
treatment options. Care is taken not to expose the underlying cartilage and
to leave sufficient epithelium to permit re-epithelialization and healing. In
severe cases relining with full-thickness or split-thickness skin grafts is
necessary.
References
Anderson TW, et al: The effect on winter illness of large doses of vitamin C. Can Med Assoc
J 111:31, 1974.
Andrewes CH: Rhinoviruses and common colds. Ann Rev Med 17:361-370, 1966.
Barton RPE: Clinical manifestations of leprous rhinitis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 85:74-82,
1976.
Bernstein L, et al: The nasal cavities. Otol Clin North Am 6:609-874, 1973.
Dykes, MH, Meier P: Ascorbic acid and the common cold. JAMA 231:1073, 1975.
Karlowski TR, et al: Ascorbic acid for the common cold. JAMA 231:1038, 1975.
Luke M, Mehrize A, Folger F, Rowe R: Chronic nasopharyngeal obstruction causing cor
pulmonale. Pediatrics 37:762-768, 1966.
McDonald TJ, DeRemee RA, Kern EB, Flarrison EG: Nasal manifestations of Wegener’s
granulomatosis. Laryngoscope 84:2101-2112, 1974.
Meyer HM: The control of viral diseases. J Pediatr 73:653, 1968.
Ogura J, Togawa K, Dammkeohler D, et al: Nasal obstruction and the mechanics of breathing.
Arch Otolaryngol 83:135-150, 1966.
Pauling L: Ascorbic acid and the common cold. Scott Med J 18:1-2, 1973.
Riggs RH: Some congenital nasal anomalies including dermoid cysts. J Louisiana State Med
Soc 118:1-4, 1966.
Schaeffer JP: The Nose, Paranasal Sinuses, Nasolacrimal Passageways and Olfactory Organ in
Man. New York, Blakiston, 1920.
Settipane GA: Allergic rhinitis—update. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 94:470-475, 1986.
Sooknundun M, Deka RC, Kacker SK, Kapila K: Congenital mid-line sinus of the dorsum of
the nose. Two case reports with a literature survey. J Laryngol Otol 100:1319-1322, 1986.
Stahl RH: Allergic disorders of the nose and paranasal sinuses. Otolaryngol Clin North Am
7:703-718, 1974.
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Laryngol 66:187-197, 1957.
13
DISEASES OF
THE PARANASAL SINUSES
For a physician one of the most common daily occurrences is the visit by
a patient who declares that he or she has “sinus problems.” The lay public
blames the paranasal sinuses for more symptoms than almost any other
single anatomic structure in the body. However, it is an undeniable fact that
sinus infection, as we know it today, is much less frequent than in the
preantibiotic era. Patients still attribute to dysfunction of the sinuses such
symptoms as headache, nasal obstruction, postnasal drainage, fatigue, hali¬
tosis, and dyspepsia. Sinus disease, however, produces a set of rather
characteristic symptoms which varies only with the severity of the disease
and its location. It is the purpose of this chapter to describe the usual clinical
picture of various acute and chronic diseases of the paranasal sinuses. The
information in this chapter and in the chapters on tumors of the nose and
sinuses and on diseases of the nose should clarify diagnosis of true sinus
disorders and indicate the appropriate management for each.
INFLAMMATORY SINUS DISEASE
Infectious Sinusitis
General Considerations
The most important concept in dealing with sinus infection is to realize
that the nose and paranasal sinuses are only a part of the total respiratory
system. Diseases that can affect the bronchi and lung can also affect the
nose and paranasal sinuses. In relation to the infective process, therefore,
the whole of the respiratory tree with its anatomic extensions should be
considered as one entity. The infection may initially affect the entire
respiratory system, but in varying degrees, and the subsequent pathologic The sinobronchial syndrome re¬
fers to concurrent exacerbation
change or clinical condition is determined by the predominance of the of sinus and pulmonary disease.
infection in a particular area, leading to sinusitis, laryngitis, pneumonitis,
and so on. This relationship between the upper and lower respiratory tracts
is responsible for the so-called sinobronchial syndrome.
The anatomy of the sinuses is described in Chapter 10; however, it is
important to remember when the different sinuses develop during childhood
and adolescence and, therefore, when they become susceptible to infection.
The maxillary and ethmoid sinuses are present at birth and are usually the The maxillary and ethmoid si¬
nuses are the only sinuses pres¬
only sinuses that are involved in childhood sinusitis. The frontal sinuses start
ent at birth.
to develop from the anterior ethmoid sinuses at about 8 years of age and
249
1 3 —DISEASES OF THE PARANASAL SINUSES 251
are among the most common predisposing local factors. Maxillofacial defor¬
mity, particularly cleft palate, can cause considerable problems in children.
These children tend to suffer from chronic nasopharyngeal and sinus infec¬
tions at a much higher rate. Dental conditions account for approximately 10
per cent of all acute maxillary sinus infections.
The symptoms of acute maxillary sinus infection consist of fever, malaise,
and a vague headache that is usually relieved with simple analgesics such as
aspirin. There is a feeling of fullness in the face, and pain in the teeth may
be felt during sudden movements of the head, such as when going up and
down stairs. Often there is some degree of characteristic dull, throbbing
cheek pain with tenderness to pressure and percussion. Mucopurulent
secretions may emanate from the nose and are sometimes malodorous.
Frequently, an irritative, nonproductive cough is present. During acute
maxillary sinusitis, physical examination may reveal pus in the nose, usually
from the middle meatus, or pus or mucopurulent secretions in the naso¬
pharynx. There is tenderness upon palpation and percussion of the maxillary
sinuses. Transillumination is decreased if the sinus is full of fluid. The
radiologic appearance of acute maxillary sinusitis may be that of mucosal
thickening initially, followed by complete opacification of the sinus due to
severe mucosal swelling or to an accumulation of fluid filling the sinus (Fig.
13-L4). Finally, the characteristic air-fluid level due to accumulation of pus
is seen in the upright views of the maxillary sinus (Fig. 13-15). Therefore,
sinus radiographs should include the supine and upright views, the most
advantageous for detecting maxillary sinusitis. A-mode ultrasound screening
has also been mentioned as a safe, noninvasive diagnostic method. Further
investigations might require a complete blood count and nasal culture. A
strong word of caution must be issued with regard to interpretation of nasal
cultures. Cultures from the maxillary sinus would be valid; however, this
pus is loculated within a bony cavity. An anterior nasal culture, on the other
FIGURE 13—1. A, X-ray (Waters’ view) of maxillary sinus showing an opaque sinus and a grossly deviated bony
nasal septum. 6, An x-ray view (Waters-Waldron position) of a pansinusitis involving the right maxillary,
ethmoid, and frontal sinuses. There is a fluid level visible in the involved maxillary sinus.
Anterior nasal cultures are un¬ hand, will reveal all the organisms within the nasal vestibule, including the
reliable in sinusitis.
normal inhabitants, such as Staphylococcus and several other gram-positive
cocci, which bear no relationship to the bacteria that may be causing the
sinusitis. Therefore, the bacterial nasal culture taken from the anterior part
of the nose is of little value in interpreting the bacteria within the maxillary
sinus and may even give false information.
A culture from the posterior aspect of the nose or the nasopharynx would
be much more accurate but, technically, this is extremely difficult to obtain.
Specific cultures of the bacteria concerned with sinusitis are obtained using
maxillary irrigation. Most frequently, an appropriate antibiotic is given to
cover the more common organisms involved in this disease (Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, anaerobes, Branhamella catarrhalis).
Acute maxillary sinusitis is generally treated with a broad-spectrum anti¬
biotic such as amoxicillin, ampicillin or erythromycin plus sulfonimide, with
other alternatives being amoxicillin/clavulanate, cefaclor, cefuroxime, and
trimethoprim plus sulfonamide. Decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are
useful, and potent nose drops such as phenylephrine (Neo-Synephrine) or
oxymetazoline may be used during the first few days of the infection but
then should be discontinued. Hot packs to the face and analgesics such as
Radiologic changes lag oehind aspirin and acetaminophen are useful for symptomatic relief. The patient
clinical improvement.
usually shows some signs of improvement within two days, and the disease
process is often completely resolved within 10 days, although radiologic
confirmation of complete resolution may take two or more weeks. Failure
to resolve on active therapy would indicate either that the organisms are not
sensitive to the antibiotics or that the antibiotics are failing to reach the
loculated infection. In this instance, the sinus ostium may be so edematous
that the sinus cannot drain freely and a true abscess is formed. In this
instance, prompt antral irrigation is indicated. The route of insertion of the
trocar for maxillary antral irrigation is usually beneath the inferior turbinate
after initial cocainization of the mucous membrane (Fig. 13-2). An alternate
route is the sublabial approach, in which a needle is passed through the
gingival buccal sulcus through the incisive fossa (Fig. 13-3). Warm saline is
irrigated into the maxillary antrum via this route, and the pus is flushed out
through the natural ostium. Either method is acceptable, provided that the
clinician has the skill and experience necessary to perform the procedure.
FIGURE 13—2. Antral irrigation. Purulent secre¬

tions in the maxillary sinus can be irrigated by
passing a needle through the inferior meatus.
FIGURE 13—3. Antral irrigation. An alternate

method is shown utilizing a needle placed through
the canine fossa.
Maxillary Sinusitis of Dental Origin. This particular form of maxillary Dental disease is responsible
dental disease is responsible for 10% of cases of sinusitis occurs following for 10 per cent of sinusitis
cases.
dental problems. The most common cause is the extraction of a molar tooth,
usually the first molar, during which a small piece of bone lying between the
apex of the tooth and the maxillary sinus is removed (Fig. 13-4). It was
Nathaniel Highmore in 1651 who described the thin membrane of bone that
separates the teeth from the sinus. He stated, “The bone which encloses the
maxillary antrum and which separates it from the socket of the teeth does
not much exceed a piece of wrapping paper in thickness.” The maxillary
antrum is frequently called the antrum of Highmore. Other dental infections
such as apical abscess or periodontal disease may cause a similar condition.
The bacteriologic picture of sinusitis of dental origin is predominantly that
of the gram-negative infection. This leads to a particularly foul-smelling pus
and, consequently, foul odor from the nose. Antibiotics, irrigation of the
sinus, and correction of the dental problem are the mainstays of therapy.
Predisposing Local Factors. Other local predisposing causes of acute
maxillary sinusitis are a foreign body in the nose and a deviated nasal
septum. Surgical removal of the foreign body is obviously mandatory, and
surgical correction of the deviated nasal septum is usually performed after
the acute phase has resolved completely. Since sinusitis may also follow
packing of the nose for epistaxis, it is common practice to prescribe a
prophylactic antibiotic in any nasal packing. Facial fractures can disturb the
normal physiologic drainage of the sinus and lead to infection. Barotrauma
causes mucosal edema and occlusion of the sinus ostium, leading to an
accumulation of sinus secretions and subsequent infection.
b.
FIGURE 13—4. Oroantral fistula

suppurative maxillary sinusitis. Infe
maxillary sinus must be resolved be
of the fistula is feasible. Note the f
of the maxillary ostium.
Oroantral
fistula
FIGURE 13—5. Complicated

ethmoid sinusitis. A, Appear¬
ance on admission. There is a
tense swelling of the left half of
the face and mucopus in the left
nostril. B, Appearance of the
same child on the fifth hospital
day. Swelling has almost sub¬
sided, and the catheter into the
maxillary antrum is shown.
(From Quick CA, Payne E: Com¬
plicated acute sinusitis. Laryn¬
goscope 82:1253, 1972.)
Ethmoid Sinusitis
Isolated acute ethmoid sinusitis is more common in children, frequently
presenting as orbital cellulitis. In adults it often accompanies maxillary
sinusitis and must be regarded as an inevitable accompaniment of frontal
sinusitis. Symptoms include pain and tenderness between the eyes and over
the bridge of the nose, nasal drainage, and nasal obstruction. In children
the lateral wall of the ethmoid labyrinth, the lamina papyracea, is often
dehiscent, and orbital cellulitis is therefore more likely to occur (Fig. 13-5)
Treatment of ethmoid sinusitis involves the use of systemic antibiotics, nasal
decongestants, and topical vasoconstrictor sprays and drops. Development
o impending complications and inadequate improvement are indications for
an ethmoidectomy (Fig. 13-6).
Frontal Sinusitis
Acute frontal sinusitis is almost always associated with anterior ethmoid
infection. The frontal sinus develops from the anterior ethmoid air cells, and
the tortuous frontal nasal duct runs in close relationship to these cells.'The
predisposing factors of acute frontal sinus infection are similar to those for
other sinus infections. The disease is seen predominantly in adults and
apart from the usual general symptoms of any infection, frontal sinusitis is
b.
FIGURE 13—6. Intranasal ethmoid¬

ectomy. A, Biting forceps remove
the partition between the anterior
ethmoid air cells, converting them
into one large cell that opens into
the middle meatus. B, A curette
can be used to accomplish the
same objective.
13—DISEASES OF THE PARANASAL SINUSES 255
FIGURE 13-7. Frontal sinus tre¬

phination. A, A small drill is used
to create a hole in the thin bone
of the floor of the frontal sinus. 6,
A catheter placed into the sinus
allows drainage of pus and irri¬
gation of the sinus. The catheter
can be removed when the irrigant
flows into the nose, demonstrat¬
ing patency of the nasofrontal
duct. //,.
associated with a characteristic head pain. The pain is situated above the
eyebrows, is present usually in the morning, becomes worse by midday, and
then gradually lessens during the remainder of the waking hours. The patient
will usually state that the forehead is tender to the touch, and there may be
supraorbital swelling. The pathognomonic sign is excruciating tenderness to
pressure and percussion over the infected sinus. Transillumination may be
impaired, and sinus radiographs will confirm either periosteal thickening,
generalized opacity of the sinus, or an air-fluid level. The treatment consists
of appropriate antibiotics as described previously, decongestants, and vaso¬
constrictor nasal drops. Failure to resolve quickly or the onset of complica¬
tions would require drainage by frontal sinus trephine technique (Fig. 13-
7).
Sphenoid Sinusitis
Acute isolated sphenoid sinusitis is exceptionally rare. It is supposed to
be characterized by headache directed to the vertex of the skull. Much more
commonly, it forms part of a pansinusitis, and, therefore, its symptoms are
intermingled with those of other sinus infections. Sphenoid sinus trephination
was performed with some frequency in the preantibiotic era but now has
become almost an extinct procedure.
Chronic Sinusitis
By definition, chronic sinusitis lasts .several months or years. In acute
sinusitis, pathologic changes of the mucous membrane consist of polymor¬
phonuclear infiltrates, vascular congestion, and desquamation of the surface
epithelium, all reversible changes. The pathologic picture of chronic sinusitis
is complex and irreversible. The mucosa is generally thicker, thrown into
folds or pseudopolyps. The surface epithelium may show areas of desqua¬
mation, regeneration, metaplasia, or simple epithelium in varying amounts
on the same histologic section. Microabscess formation, granulation tissue,
and healing by scar tissue are intermingled. Overall, there is a round cell
and polymorphonuclear infiltrate in the submucosal layers.
The etiology and predisposing factors of chronic sinusitis are quite varied.
Pollution,
Chemicals
Allergy,
Immunologic
Deficiencies
FIGURE 13-8. Cycle of events leading to chronic sinusitis.

Residual Sepsis
I
Inadequate Treatment
In the preantibiotic era, chronic hyperplastic sinusitis was a result of repeated

acute sinusitis with incomplete resolution. In the pathophysiology of chronic
sinusitis, several factors may contribute to the recurring cycle of events (Fig
13-8).
The mucoperiosteal lining of the paranasal sinus has a tremendous resis¬
tance to disease as well as ability to heal itself. Fundamentally, the local
factors that allow healing of infected mucosa in the sinus are drainage and
good ventilation. If anatomic and physiologic factors cause failure of para¬
nasal sinus ventilation and drainage, a favorable medium exists for further
infection by microaerophilic or anaerobic cocci, and a vicious circle of
edema, obstruction, and infection results.
Failure to adequately treat acute or recurrent sinusitis will lead to an
incomplete regeneration of the surface ciliated epithelium, resulting in a
failure to remove sinus secretions and, therefore, predisposing to further
infection. Drainage obstruction may also be caused by structural changes of
the sinus ostium or by lesions in the nasal passages, such as adenoid
hypertrophy, tumors of the nose and nasopharynx, and a deviated septum.
The most common predisposing factor, however, is nasal polyposis resulting
from allergic rhinitis; polyps can fill the nasal cavity and completely occlude
the sinus ostium.
A peculiar form of nasal polyp is the antrochoanal polyp, which arises
from the mucosa near the maxillary sinus ostium (Fig. 13-9). This polyp
occludes the ostium and grows by proliferation and edema into a “bilobed
structure. One lobe remains in the sinus and the other enters the nose and
passes into the nasopharynx. Complete removal of the antrochoanal polyp
usually fully resolves the problem, and recurrence is rare.
Nasal allergies predispose to Allergies, by causing edematous mucosa and hypersecretion, may also
sinus infection, predispose to infection. The swollen sinus mucosa may occlude the sinus
ostium and impair drainage, leading to further infection, which, in turn,
destroys the surface epithelium, and hence the cycle of events continues.
The symptoms of chronic sinusitis are vague. During an acute exacerbation
FIGURE 13—9. Antrochoanal polyp. A bilobed

polyp is shown with one lobe in the maxillary Ostium of
sinus and the other in the nose and nasophar¬ Maxillary
ynx. sinus
Polyp
extension
in Nasal
fossa
of chronic sinusitis the symptoms are similar to those of acute sinusitis;

however, for the remainder of the time, the symptoms include a feeling of
fullness in the face and nose and hypersecretion that is often mucopurulent.
Headache is sometimes present, but this has been greatly overrated as a
symptom of sinus disease. There is usually some nasal obstruction, and, of
course, the symptoms of the predisposing factors, such as perennial allergic
rhinitis, are prominent components of the complaints. A chronic cough with
chronic mild laryngitis or pharyngitis often accompanies chronic sinusitis,
and these may be the particular symptoms that bring the patient to the
physician.
Treatment must consist of simultaneously treating the infection and the
factors that led to the infection. In addition to adequate medical therapy
with decongestants and antibiotics, attention must be paid to the predisposing
obstructive abnormalities and to any allergies that may be present. Allergies
may be treated by methods discussed in the chapter on nasal diseases
(Chapter 12) and the chapter on allergy (Chapter 11). For chronic maxillary
sinusitis the simplest surgical intervention consists of creating an adequate
drainage opening. The most common procedure is termed nasoantrostomy,
or the formation of a nasoantral window (Fig. 13-10).
FIGURE 13—10. Nasoantral window. An opening is

made into the maxillary sinus, usually through the
inferior meatus as shown.
A large piece of the medial wall of the inferior meatus is removed to allow
gravitational drainage and ventilation, and possibly, therefore, to allow
regeneration of healthy mucous membrane within the maxillary sinus. A
more radical procedure bears the name of two surgeons who popularized
it—the Caldwell-Luc operation (Fig. 13-11). In this surgical procedure, the
epithelium of the maxillary sinus cavity is removed completely and a drainage
antrostomy is performed at the termination of the procedure in a manner
similar to that described previously. The end result is satisfactory, since the
active diseased mucous membrane has been either replaced with normal
mucosa or filled with inert scar tissue.
FIGURE 13—11. Caldwell-Luc procedure. Irreversible maxillary sinus disease can be treated surgically by (A)
an incision in the canine fossa and (B) removing a portion of the bone of the anterior wall of the sinus. The
opening can be enlarged (C) with a biting forceps. An opening (D) into the inferior meatus similar to a
nasoantral window is made to replace the compromised natural ostium. Ventilation and drainage of the
sinus can then occur through (£) the inferior meatus or the natural ostium if resolution of the sinus disease
opens the natural ostium. The operation is completed by (F) closure of the oral incision.
13 —DISEASES OF THE PARANASAL SINUSES 259
FIGURE 13—12. Endoscopic sinus

surgery instruments.
Endoscopic sinus surgery, a technique that allows the surgeon excellent

visualization and magnification of the nasal anatomy and normal sinus ostia,
has been popularized in the recent past (Fig. 13-12).
Sinusitis is primarily rhinogenic. In chronic sinusitis the source of the
recurrent infection tends to be a stenotic area, usually the ethmoid infundib¬
ulum and the frontal recess. Because inflammation causes the apposing
mucosae in these narrowed spaces to press together, interference with normal
mucociliary transport is the result, causing mucous retention and enhanced
viral or bacterial growth. The infection then spreads to the adjacent sinuses.
Since the cilia of the maxillary sinus sweep toward the natural ostium even
if an opening in the inferior meatus has been created, enlarging the natural
ostium and removing persistently inflamed or anatomically defective tissue
on the limited basis permitted by this technique has the advantage of re¬
establishing normal mucociliary clearance. Other advantages include im¬
proved diagnosis, a clearer operative visualization, and less surgical alteration
to normal anatomy. The improved diagnostic ability provided by functional Functional endoscopy has en-
endoscopy is enhanced by the complementary use of computed tomography hanced both the diagnosis and
(CT) scans, which have proven to be a real asset in evaluating chronic sinus ,reatmentof sinns disease.
diseases. Chronic ethmoiditis is almost always associated with chronic max¬
illary or chronic frontal disease and may require surgical treatment along
with these other diseases. Chronic ethmoiditis can accompany chronic nasal
polyposis, and, of course, the treatment will include removal of the nasal
polyps. Removal of the tissues from which the polyps originate reduces the
rate of recurrent diseases. This procedure, known as an ethmoidectomy,
may be done by the intranasal, transantral, or external route (Fig. 13-13).
Endoscopic sinus surgery is an asset in this situation, too. The directed
surgery with excellent visualization allowed by this technique permits the
surgeon to remove more diseased tissue and less of the normal tissue.
Preoperative CT scans are an invaluable study before endoscopic surgery
(Fig. 13-14).
The etiologic factors of chronic frontal sinusitis are similar to those of all
forms of chronic sinusitis. The clinical features consist of frontal head pain
of a constant nature and puffiness and tenderness of the skin over the sinus.
FIGURE 13—13. Ethmoidectomy. Two methods to remove diseased ethmoid air cells are demon¬
strated. An external ethmoidectomy is performed through [A) an incision on the lateral side of the
nose. The soft tissues and periosteum, including the lacrimal sac and medial canthus, are elevated.
Biting forceps and curettes are used to (B) remove the diseased air cells. At the completion of the
procedure, the ethmoid air cells have been replaced by one large cell that opens into the nose
(C). An intranasal ethmoidectomy accomplishes the same objective but is performed with instru¬
ments that reach the ethmoid cells through the nares and middle meatus (D and £).
FIGURE 13-14. Computed to¬

mography demonstrating sinus
mucosal thickening characteristic
of chronic sinusitis.
Complications such as subperiosteal abscess, osteitis, and osteomyelitis occur

more readily in frontal sinusitis and will be discussed subsequently. Treat¬
ment of chronic frontal sinusitis often requires surgical intervention after the
acute infection and other factors have been treated. The frontonasal duct is
usually irreparably obstructed, and surgical techniques have been devised to
create new frontonasal ducts or obliterate the sinuses.
An external frontoethmoidectomy provides access to the frontal sinus for
removal of diseased mucosa and excision of ethmoid air cells and permits
the creation of a new frontonasal duct, which is allowed to form around a
plastic drainage tube left in place about two months (Fig. 13-15). A more
radical surgical procedure is the obliteration procedure. In this operation,
all of the mucous membrane, including the remnant of the frontonasal duct,
is excised from the sinus, which is then filled with an inert fatty tissue graft
(Fig. 13-16). The surgical incision procedure can be made through both
FIGURE 13-15. Frontoethmoidectomy. Chronic frontal sinus disease is usually accompanied by

ethmoid sinusitis and a compromised nasofrontal duct. A frontoethmoidectomy addresses disease
in both areas. The procedure is accomplished through (A) an incision on the lateral aspect of the
nose. The soft tissues are elevated and the ethmoid air cells are removed in an external
ethmoidectomy (B and C). The nasofrontal duct is enlarged (D) and a tube stent is placed from
the nose into the frontal sinus. The tube helps maintain the patency of the newly created duct
and may be left in place for several weeks.
FIGURE 13-16. Frontal sinus obliteration. Chronic frontal sinus disease can be treated by
eliminating the sinuses altogether. The procedure can be performed through a brow incision or
a coronal incision. The anterior wall of the sinus is incised (A). The sinus mucosa is removed (8),
the nasofrontal ducts are plugged, and the sinus is filled with fat.
eyebrows or coronally, through the scalp. A template of the sinus, patterned

from the radiographs, is then placed on the skull, and the anterior wall of
the sinus is outlined. The anterior wall may be incised and reflected forward
but is hinged at the inferior edge by its attachment to the periosteum.
Chronic sphenoid sinusitis is usually part of chronic ethmoid and frontal
infections, and the surgical procedures used to alleviate these diseases can
easily include a sphenoid exploration.
Sinusitis in Children
The ethmoid and maxillary sinuses are present at birth, with the remaining
sinuses developing during late childhood and adolescence. Until the second
decade of life the ethmoid and maxillary sinuses are the only clinically
important sinuses.
Children of all ages are particularly prone to upper respiratory tract viral
infections as well as allergies. Common sequelae of these conditions include
mucosal edema and loss of cilia with viral infections, resulting in occlusion
of the sinus ostia. Once the ostium is closed, the air within the sinus is
absorbed and replaced by an effusion that easily becomes infected secondarily
by bacteria.
Mechanical factors such as adenoid hypertrophy, foreign bodies, choanal
atresia, and stenosis may contribute significantly to poor airway physiology
and stasis of secretions.
Congenital immunologic defects, Kartagener’s syndrome, Down’s syn¬
drome, Hurler’s syndrome, and the various dysglobulinemias are associated
with sinusitis in children, as are the acquired immunodeficiencies of leukemia
and immunosuppression by drugs. Nasal polyps occur in approximately 50
per cent of children with cystic fibrosis. Sinusitis in these children is common.
Bacteriology. As stated in the preceding paragraphs, although the

preliminary infection may be viral and transitory, the resulting physical
circumstances provide a means whereby bacteria can flourish. The
bacteriology of sinusitis in children differs only slightly from that in adults,
the main difference being that H. influenzae is more frequent in sinusitis of
children of all ages.
Symptoms. All symptoms of sinusitis described previously occur in
children, but children seem less concerned with pain and tenderness than do
their adult counterparts. The symptoms of persistent mucopurulent nasal
drainage should alert the physician to the possibility of sinusitis. Recurrent
or persistent laryngitis and chronic cough, particularly a nocturnal cough, Facial cellulitis of sinus origin
occurs more frequently in chil¬
are common presenting symptoms of sinusitis in children. The complications
dren than adults.
of sinusitis, particularly cellulitis of the face and orbit, occur more frequently
in children than in adults and may develop with surprising rapidity. Because
of the anatomic proximity, similar histologic make-up, and sinus drainage
into the nasopharynx, otitis media may also be seen with childhood sinus
disease. Therefore, both the sinuses and middle ears should be assessed in
a child with symptoms in either area.
Treatment. The mainstay of treatment of acute childhood sinusitis is
antibiotics—amoxicillin, ampicillin or erythromycin plus sulfonamide, with
other alternatives being amoxicillin/clav, cefaclor, cefuroxime, and
trimethoprim plus sulfonamide. Surgical drainage is reserved for
complications or unresolved infections. The importance of adequate
treatment for sinusitis in children cannot be overemphasized. Failure to treat
the infection adequately can result in chronic sinusitis and complications in
the lower respiratory tract.
COMPLICATIONS OF SINUSITIS
Computed tomography (CT) scans are a great asset in defining the extent
of the sinus disease and the extent of infection outside the sinuses—into the
orbit, soft tissues, and cranium. This type of investigation should be routine
in refractory, chronic, or complicated sinusitis.
Orbital Complications
The ethmoid sinuses are predominantly responsible for orbital complica¬
tions. Orbital swelling may also be the presenting sign of acute ethmoiditis;
however, both the frontal sinuses and the maxillary sinuses lie in close
proximity to the orbit and may also cause infection of the orbital contents.
There are five stages:
1. Mild inflammatory or reactionary edema (Fig. 13-17A). This can occur
in the orbital contents as a result of the proximity of infection in the
ethmoid sinuses. As stated previously, this is particularly seen in
children because the lamina papyracea that separates the orbit from
the ethmoid sinuses is frequently dehiscent in this group.
2. Orbital cellulitis. Edema is diffuse and bacteria have actively invaded
the orbital contents, but pus formation does not occur (Fig. 13-175).
3. Subperiosteal abscess. Pus collected between periorbital and bony

orbital wall causes proptosis and chemosis (Fig. 13-17C).
4. Orbital abscess. At this stage pus has broken through the periosteum
and has intermingled with the orbital contents (Fig. 13-17D). This
stage is associated with the more serious unilateral sequelae of optic
neuritis and blindness. Diminished extraocular movements of the in¬
volved eye(s) and chemosis of the conjunctiva are characteristic signs
of orbital abscess along with increased proptosis.
5. Cavernous sinus thrombosis (Fig. 13-17E). This complication is due to
the spread of bacteria through the venous channels to the cavernous
sinus, where a septic thrombophlebitis develops. Pathognomonically,
cavernous sinus thrombosis consists of total ophthalmoplegia, chemosis
of the conjunctiva, severe impairment of vision, patient prostration,
and signs of meningitis due to the proximity of the cavernous sinus to
cranial nerves II, III, IV, and VI as well as to the brain (Fig. 13-18
and 13-19).
Treatment of the orbital complications of sinusitis consists of large doses

of intravenous antibiotics and specialist surgical approaches to release the
pus from the abscess cavities. The question of anticoagulant therapy in
cavernous sinus thrombosis has not yet been resolved. In cases of septic
thrombophlebitis, it seems logical that anticoagulant therapy would only
disseminate the infected thrombus. It must be remembered that the mortality
FIGURE 13-18. A coronal section through the

sphenoid sinuses, demonstrating how cavernous
sinus thrombosis can affect multiple cranial nerves.
rate following cavernous sinus thrombosis may be as high as 80 per cent. In

the survivors, the morbidity is usually in the range of 60 to 80 per cent, and
the most common sequela from cavernous sinus thrombosis is optic atrophy.
Mucocele
A mucocele is a mucus-containing cyst found in the sinuses. These cysts
are most frequently seen in the maxillary sinus, are often referred to as
mucous retention cysts, and are quite innocuous. In the frontal, sphenoid,
and ethmoid sinuses these cysts may enlarge and, by pressure atrophy, erode
the surrounding structures. They may, therefore, present as swelling of the
forehead or nasal bridge or may displace the eye laterally. In the sphenoid
sinus they may cause diplopia and impairment of vision by pressure on the
neighboring nerves.
A pyocele is an infected mucocele. The symptoms of a pyocele are quite
similar to those of a mucocele, although more acute and more severe.
FIGURE 13-19. Cavernous sinus thrombosis. Appearance on admission. Swollen con¬

junctiva is protruding through swollen eyelids. Mucopus is present in the left nostril.
(From Quick CA, Payne E: Complicated acute sinusitis. Laryngoscope 82:1257, 1972.)
Surgical exploration of the sinus for removal of all diseased and infected
mucosa and re-establishment of good drainage or obliteration of the sinus
are the mainstays of treatment.
Intracranial Complications
Acute Meningitis. Apart from cavernous sinus thrombosis, which has
previously been described, one of the most severe complications of sinusitis
is acute meningitis. Infection from the paranasal sinuses may spread along
the preformed venous channels or directly from the neighboring sinuses,
such as through the posterior wall of the frontal sinus or through the
cribriform plate near the ethmoid air cell system (Fig. 13-20).
Contamination
throuqh vein wall
Diploic front, bone

Epidural space
Subdural space
—- Subarachnoid, space
" Pia mater
j>Cerebral cortex
Front, sinus-
Periosteum
Periorbital space fi J
Lamina papijracea--
1 w T C- >
exSonn72^Dia^mriC ruepre5entati°n °f the venous system « "highway” of
which brain H , °mu S'nUS mUCOSa to adioininS structures. Note the depth at
which brain abscess develops because of the venous anatomy of the cerebral cortex.
13 —DISEASES OF THE PARANASAL SINUSES 267
Dural Abscess. An extradural abscess is a collection of pus between the

dura and internal table of the skull; it most commonly follows frontal sinusitis
(Fig. 13-20). The process may be so insidious in nature that the patient will
present only with headache, and, until the collection of pus is sufficient to
cause a rise of intracranial pressure, other neurologic symptoms may be
absent. A subdural abscess is the collection of pus between the dura mater
and arachnoid or the surface of the brain (Fig. 13-20). Similarly, the
symptoms of this condition are intractable headache and spiking fevers, with
some signs of meningeal irritation. The major symptoms may not present
until intracranial pressure has increased or the abscess ruptures into the
subarachnoid space.
Brain Abscess. Once the venous system in the mucoperiosteum of a sinus
is infected, it is conceivable that hematogenous metastatic extension may
occur anywhere in the brain. However, brain abscess usually develops by
directly extending thrombophlebitis. Hence, the usual site of formation is at
the termination of the involved perforating veins which extend through the
dura and arachnoid mesh to the juncture between the gray and white
substance of the cerebral cortex (Fig. 13-20). It is at this point that the
terminals of the venous drainage to the surface of the brain approximate the
terminals draining centrally into the cerebral veins.
The contamination of the brain substance may occur at the peak of a
severe suppurative sinusitis, and the process of brain abscess formation may
continue as the sinus involvement progresses satisfactorily through the stages
of normal resolution. The possibility of brain abscess, therefore, must be
considered in all cases of severe acute suppurative frontal, ethmoidal, or
sphenoidal sinusitis attended in the acute phase by the sharp rise in
temperature and chill characteristic of intravenous infection. A case of this
type must be observed for several months. Lack of appetite, loss in weight,
moderate cachexia, low-grade afternoon fever, recurring headache, and
occasional unexplained nausea and vomiting may be the only signs of
infection that is localizing in the cerebral hemisphere.
In no way must it be construed that these intracranial complications usually
follow a logical sequence from meningitis to frontal lobe abscess. Any one
of the complications may occur at any time with little or no involvement of
the other varieties. Treatment of a severe intracranial suppurative infection
is, again, intensive antibiotic therapy, surgical drainage of abscessed cavities,
and prevention of spread of the infection.
Osteomyelitis and Subperiosteal Abscess

The most common source of osteomyelitis and subperiosteal abscess of
the frontal bone is frontal sinus infection. Localized forehead pain and
tenderness are extreme. Systemic symptoms of malaise, fever, and chills are
usual. Swelling over the eyebrows is usual but becomes more extensive if a
subperiosteal abscess occurs, in which case supraorbital edema develops and
the eye may close. Fluctuation is seen, and the bone is extremely tender.
Radiographs may show an erosion of the bony margins and loss of the
intrasinus septa in an opacified sinus. In the advanced stages radiographs
will show a “moth-eaten” appearance of the margins of the sinus, indicating
that the infection has spread beyond the sinus. Bony destruction and soft
tissue swelling as well as fluid or swollen sinus mucosa can best be seen on
a CT scan. Prior to antibiotic use, this spread of infection into the calvarium
would elevate the pericranium and lead to the classic description of Pott’s
puffy tumor. Treatment of this complication includes large doses of anti¬
biotics given intravenously, followed by prompt incision of the periosteal
abscess and trephination of the frontal sinus to provide drainage. A drainage
tube or catheter is sutured into the sinus until the acute infection has
completely subsided and the frontonasal duct is functioning well. If the
frontonasal duct has been irreparably damaged by the process, a subsequent
procedure will be necessary to re-create a new frontonasal duct. In spreading
osteomyelitis of the calvarium, wide debridement and massive antibiotic
therapy are mandatory. Fortunately, this complication is now rare.
Other Sinus Problems

Fungal infections of the sinus, sinus manifestations of systemic disease,
and other infections that may also involve the sinuses as well as the nose,
e.g., sarcoidosis, leprosy, etc., are covered in Chapter 12.
NONINFECTIOUS SINUSITIS
Barosinusitis
Paranasal sinus homeostasis is dependent upon ostial integrity. Any
pathologic condition that causes edema of the mucosa near a sinus ostium
Ostial compromise is a precur¬ predisposes a patient to the development of barosinusitis. As the environ¬
sor of barosinusitis. mental atmospheric pressure changes, the compromised ostium prevents
pressure equilibration in the adjacent sinus. When environmental alteration
produces significant negative intrasinus pressure, as noted in scuba diving or
the descent from altitude in an airplane, fluid transudation or hemorrhage
occurs in the sinus. Pain and pressure usually accompany the change and
occasionally mild epistaxis occurs. A sinus with an incompetent ostium and
fluid is an ideal environment for the development of acute suppurative
sinusitis. Radiography may reveal complete opacification or an air-fluid level.
Treatment includes the use of topical and systemic decongestants, antibiotics
in many cases, and the avoidance of environmental pressure changes until
sinus ostial function is re-established.
Allergic Sinusitis
The changes occurring in the sinuses are the same as those observed in
the nose. Polyps presenting in the nose usually originate in the sinuses and
may also fill the sinuses. Polypoid changes alter the normal homeostatic
mechanism of the sinuses and predispose the sinuses to acute and chronic
sinusitis, e.g., osteal obstruction, loss of normal ciliary epithelium. Acute
and chronic infections are treated as noted earlier in this chapter. Polypoid
changes may require medical therapy, as noted in the section on allergic
rhinitis, with steroids (topical and systemic), decongestants, and antihista¬
mines. Polyps need resection if they obstruct the nasal airway or sinus ostia.
Extensive or recurrent polypoid diseases are an indication for additional
sinus surgery, such as a nasal-antral window and, occasionally, frontal sinus
surgery. If the polypoid disease involves the turbinates, partial turbinectomy,
the paranasal sinuses and are, therefore, compound fractures. Post-traumatic

mucosal swelling can compromise the sinus ostia, and this, in combination
with blood in the sinuses, predisposes the patient to acute infection. Many
surgeons advocate the use of antibiotics in these fractures to prevent such
infections.
Chronic sinus disease in the form of chronic sinusitis or mucocele can
occur as a result of fractures that alter the normal sinus ostial architecture.
These conditions should be treated as discussed in the section on inflamma¬
tory diseases.
NEOPLASTIC SINUS DISEASE
Benign tumors that are seen in the sinuses are the same as those noted in
the nose. They are discussed in Chapter 12.
One additional tumor that deserves mention is the osteoma, a benign
tumor that can develop within the sinuses—most frequently the frontal sinus.
Its clinical significance lies in the potential for the tumor to obstruct the
sinus ostium as it enlarges. This can then set the stage for the development
of sinusitis. When an osteoma encroaches upon the sinus ostium it should
be resected or the sinus obliterated if a frontal sinus is involved.
Malignant tumors are covered in Chapter 23.
References
Chandler JD, Langenbrunner DJ, Stevens ER: The pathogenesis of orbital complications in
acute sinusitis. Laryngoscope 80:1414-1428, 1970.
Dawes JDK: The management of frontal sinusitis and its complications. J Laryngol Otol 75:297-
344, 1961.
Eavey RD, Nadol JB, Holmes LB, et al: Kartagener’s syndrome. A blinded, controlled study
of cilia ultrastructure. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 112:646-650, 1986.
Eliasson R, Mossberg B, Cammer P, et al: The immotile-cilia syndrome: A congenital ciliary
abnormality as an etiologic factor in chronic airway infections and male sterility. N Engl J
Med 297:1-6, 1977.
Fairbanks DNF: Antimicrobial Therapy in Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery. American
Academy of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery Foundation, 1987.
Fearon B, Edmonds B, Bird R: Orbital facial complications of sinusitis in children. Laryngoscope
89:947-953, 1979.
Hawkins DB, Clark RW: Orbital involvement in acute sinusitis. Clin Pediatr 16:464-471, 1977.
Imbrie JD: Kartagener’s syndrome: A genetic defect affecting the function of cilia. Am J
Otolaryngol 2:215-222, 1981.
Jarsdoerfer R, Feldman P, Rubel E, et al: Otitis media and the immotile cilia syndrome.
Laryngoscope 89:769-777, 1979.
Kennedy DW, Zimreich SJ, Rosenbaum AE, Johns ME: Functional endoscopic sinus surgery.
Theory and diagnostic evaluation. Arch Otolaryngol 111:576-582, 1985.
Kennedy DW: Functional endoscopic sinus surgery: Technique. Arch Otolaryngol 111:643-649,
1985.
Quick CA, Payne E: Complicated acute sinusitis. Laryngoscope 82:1248-1263, 1972.
Schramm VL, Meyers EN, Kennerdell JS: Orbital complications of acute sinusitis: Evaluation,
management and outcome. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 86:221-230, 1978.
Shahin J, Gullane PJ, Dayal VS: Orbital complications of acute sinusitis. J Otolaryngol 16:23-
27, 1987.
Shapiro ED, Wald ER, Brozanski BS: Periorbital cellulitis and paranasal sinusitis: A reappraisal.
Pediatr Infect Dis 1:91-94, 1982.
Stammberger H: Endoscopic endonasal surgery—Concepts in treatment of recurring rhinosi-
nusitis. Part I. Anatomic and pathophysiologic considerations. Head Neck Surg 94:143-147,
1986.
Stammberger H: Endoscopic endonasal surgery—Concepts in treatment of recurring rhinosi-
nusitis. Part II. Surgical technique. Head Neck Surg 94:147-156, 1986.
PART FOUR
THE ORAL
CAVITY AND
PHARYNX
14
EMBRYOLOGY, ANATOMY,
AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX,
ESOPHAGUS, AND NECK
by Stephen L. Liston, M.D.
An understanding of the embryologic development of the oral cavity and

pharynx permits the clinician to appreciate the pathophysiology of many of
the congenital anomalies that occur in the region. Some anomalies, like
branchial cleft cysts, thyroglossal duct cysts, or cleft palate, are fairly
common. Others, such as Treacher Collins syndrome or congenital conduc¬
tive hearing loss, occur infrequently. If not recognized early, some congenital
anomalies, such as Pierre Robin syndrome, can lead to intermittent attacks
of airway obstruction with possible episodes of anoxia and brain damage.
This chapter will provide basic embryologic information that will help with
the management of these deformities when they occur.
EMBRYOLOGY
The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus are derived from the embryonic
foregut. The foregut also gives rise to the nasal cavity, teeth, salivary glands,
anterior pituitary, thyroid and larynx, trachea, bronchi, and alveoli of the
lungs. The mouth forms when the primitive stomodeum, a fusion of the
ectoderm and endoderm, breaks down. The upper lips are formed by
elements of the medial and lateral nasal processes and the maxillary proc¬
esses. Cleft lips are usually not midline but lateral to the medial nasal
process, which forms the premaxilla. The lower lip develops from elements
of the mandibular processes. The muscles of the lip are derived from the
second branchial region and supplied by the facial nerve. The vermilion
border of the lips has a characteristic bowed appearance; a notch in this bow
is a very noticeable cosmetic defect.
The teeth are derived from the dental lamina, which gives rise to the
cementum and enamel of the definitive teeth. The development of the human
dentition through the milk teeth to the final eruption of the adult third molar
corresponds to the age of the patient, and charts are available to follow the
normal eruption of the dentition. There are a variety of benign and malignant
cysts and tumors that derive from remnants of the dental lamina. The teeth
273
274 PART FOUR—THE ORAL CAVITY AND PHARYNX
are supplied by branches from the maxillary and mandibular branches of the
trigeminal nerve. In the upper jaw, there is some variation and overlap in
the regions of supply of the branches of the maxillary nerve.
The palate is formed in two parts: the premaxilla, containing the incisor
teeth and derived from the medial nasal process, and the posterior palate,
both hard and soft palate, formed by fusion of the palatal shelves. A cleft
palate, therefore, will be midline posteriorly but will swing to the side of the
premaxilla anteriorly. At one stage, the palatal plates are lateral to the
tongue and if the tongue does not descend, the palatal plates cannot fuse.
This is the basis of the cleft palate associated with the micrognathia of the
Pierre Robin syndrome.
The tongue is formed from several epithelial eminences in the floor of the
The lingual nerve provides gen¬ mouth. The anterior tongue is derived mainly from the first branchial region
eral sensation to the tongue;
and supplied by the lingual nerve, with the chorda tympani branch of the
the mental nerve, which trans-
verses the mandible and exits facial nerve supplying the taste buds and the secretomotor supply of the
through the mental foramen, submandibular gland. The glossopharyngeal nerve supplies all the sensation
provides sensation to the lower
to the posterior third of the tongue. The muscles of the tongue are derived
lip region.
from postbranchial myotomes that migrate forward, bringing with them the
hypoglossal nerve. This migration of the hypoglossal nerve is responsible for
its having a predictable relationship to branchial fistulas. The thyroid arises
from the foramen cecum in the posterior part of the tongue and migrates
along the thyroglossal duct into the neck. If this migration does not occur,
the result is a lingual thyroid. Remnants of the thyroglossal duct may persist,
and these may be tucked up behind the body of the hyoid bone.
The salivary glands grow as outpouchings of the epithelium of the mouth
and come to lie in close proximity to important nerves. The submandibular
duct is crossed by the lingual nerve. The facial nerve comes to be embedded
in the parotid gland.
ANATOMY
The oral cavity and the pharynx are somewhat arbitrarily divided into
regions. The oral cavity is anterior to the free margin of the soft palate, the
anterior tonsillar pillar, and the base of the tongue. The nasopharynx extends
Laryngo-or
Larynx hypopharynx
14—EMBRYOLOGY, ANATOMY, AND PHYSIOLOGY 275
from the base of the skull to the level of the soft palate. The oropharynx
extends from this level to the level of the epiglottis, while below this line is
the laryngopharynx, or hypopharynx (Fig. 14-1).
The Oral Cavity

The lips and cheeks are composed mainly of the bulk of the orbicularis
oris muscle supplied by the facial nerve. The vermilion is red due to a thin
squamous epithelial covering. The region between the internal mucosa of
the cheek and the teeth is the vestibule of the mouth. The parotid duct
opens opposite the upper second molar.
The teeth are supported by the mandibular alveolar ridge interiorly and
the maxillary alveolar ridge superiorly. The infant dentition consists of two
incisors, one canine tooth, and two molar teeth. The adult dentition consists
of two incisors and one canine, two premolar, and three molar teeth. The
occlusal areas of the incisor teeth are chisel-like and the canine teeth are
pointed, while the premolars and molars have flattened occlusal areas. The
area between the upper and lower posterior molars is known as the
retromolar trigone.
The palate is made up of the bone of the hard palate anteriorly and the
highly muscular soft palate posteriorly. The soft palate can be raised to seal
the nasal pharynx from the oral cavity and oropharynx. The inability to
make such a seal results in abnormal speech (rhinolalia aperta) and difficulty
in swallowing. The floor of the mouth between the tongue and the teeth
contains the sublingual and part of the submandibular salivary glands. The
submandibular ducts open anteriorly on either side of the lingual frenulum.
Failure of the salivary glands to secrete saliva causes a dry mouth, or
xerostomia. This is a very distressing complaint to any patient.
The tongue is a mobile muscular organ. The anterior two thirds can be
moved, while the base is fixed. The muscles of the tongue are supplied by
the hypoglossal nerve. Common sensation is supplied by the lingual nerve
on the anterior two thirds and the glossopharyngeal nerve on the posterior
one third of the tongue.
The chorda tympani supplies taste to the anterior two thirds of the tongue, The chorda tympani nerve,
while the glossopharyngeal nerve supplies the posterior one third. Tastes are which passes through the mid¬
dle ear, provides taste sensa¬
distributed somewhat in specific regions of the tongue. For example, bitter¬ tion to the anterior two thirds of
ness is appreciated on the posterior part of the tongue. The superior surface the tongue. It also carries para¬
of the tongue is separated into the anterior two thirds and posterior one sympathetic libers to the sub¬
mandibular gland.
third by a V-shaped line of circumvallate papillae. The foramen cecum at
the apex of the V is the site of origin of the thyroglossal duct. The tongue
functions in speech and it moves the food bolus in chewing and swallowing.
The Pharynx
Behind the mucosa of the posterior wall of the pharynx is the basisphenoid
and basiocciput superiorly, then the anterior portion of the atlas and the
bodies of the axis, and then the other cervical vertebrae. The nasopharynx
opens anteriorly into the nose via the posterior choanae. Superiorly, the
adenoid lies on the mucosa of the roof of the nasopharynx. Laterally, the
opening of the cartilaginous eustachian tube occupies a region anterior to a
recess called the fossa of Rosenmuller. Both these structures pass above the
FIGURE 14-2. The nasophaiynx as viewed through a naso¬

pharyngeal mirror inserted into the throat through the mouth.
The amount of the nasophaiynx seen in the mirror at one time
is indicated in the small inset. By moving the mirror, the entire
nasopharynx can be examined, and information on all parts of
the nasopharynx shown in the larger figure can be obtained.
free border of the superior constrictor. The tensor veli palatini, the muscle
that tenses the palate and opens the eustachian tube, enters the pharynx via
this space. This muscle forms a tendon that hooks around the bony hamulus
to enter the soft palate. The tensor veli palatini is supplied by the mandibular
nerve via the otic ganglion (Fig. 14-2).
The oropharynx communicates anteriorly with the oral cavity. rfhe pha¬
ryngeal tonsil within its capsule lies on the mucosa on the lateral wall of the
oral cavity. Anterior to the tonsil, the anterior tonsillar pillar is composed
of palatoglossus muscle, and posteriorly the posterior tonsillar pillar is
composed of the palatopharyngeus. These muscles help close the posterior
oropharynx. They are innervated by the pharyngeal plexus of nerves.
The tonsil is composed of lymphoid tissue covered by squamous epithelium
containing many crypts (Fig. 14-3). There appears to be no documentable
Pharyngeal
tonsil
- Soft palate
Palatine
tonsil
Lingual tonsil
FIGURE 14-3. A view of the lateral phaiyngeal

wall. The inset details the structures surrounding
the tonsil.
14—EMBRYOLOGY, ANATOM>VAND PHYSIOLOGY 277
immune deficit caused by removing the tonsils (o,r adenoids). The cleft above
the tonsil represents the remnant of the endodermal opening of the second
branchial arch; this is where a second branchial fistula or internal sinus will
open. Infection may collect between the capsule of the tonsil and the loose
surrounding tissues and may track up toward the base of the soft palate as
a peritonsillar abscess.
The hypopharynx opens anteriorly into the introitus of the larynx (Fig.
14-4). The epiglottis is attached to the base of the tongue by two lateral and
one midline frenulum. These produce two valleculae on either side. Below
the valleculae is the laryngeal surface of the epiglottis. Below this is the
opening of the glottis medially, and laterally there is a space called the
piriform sinus between the aryepiglottic folds and the thyroid cartilage. More
inferiorly are the muscles of the cricoid lamina, and below this the opening
of the esophagus.
The cervical esophagus runs more or less in the midline of the neck behind
the trachea and anterior to the vertebral bodies. The recurrent laryngeal
nerves lie in the groove between the esophagus and trachea. The common
carotid artery and the contents of the carotid sheath lie lateral to the
esophagus. There is a triangular weakness in the muscular coat of the A Zenker's diverticulum devel¬
pharynx above the cricopharyngeus muscle which arises from the cricoid and ops through the posterior pha¬
ryngeal wall below the inferior
encircles the upper esophagus. A diverticulum, called Zenker’s diverticulum, constrictor and above the crico¬
can project through this weak area and interfere with swallowing. pharyngeus.
The pharynx is an area in which the air passages from the nose to the
larynx cross the food passages from the mouth to the esophagus. Hence,
any dysfunction of the pharyngeal musculature, mainly composed of the
three pharyngeal constrictors, will cause difficulty in swallowing and usually
also aspiration of saliva or food into the tracheobronchial tree.
FIGURE 14—4. The relative size, position,

and attachments of the three constrictor
muscles of the pharynx. (Adapted from
Grant.)
The Neck
In the early embryo there is no well-defined neck separating the thorax
from the head. The neck is formed as the heart, which is originally below
the foregut, migrates into the thorax and the branchial apparatus develops
its final form. The migration of the heart is the reason why many of the
structures of the neck migrate caudally. In the early embryo there are ridges
along the side of the foregut which are also visible externally. These ridges
are the branchial apparatus.
Although there are phylogenetically six branchial arches, the fifth arch
never develops in man, and its only derivative is the ligamentum arteriosum.
Each of the four branchial Only four arches are ever visible externally. Each branchial arch has a
arches contains a cartilaginous
bar, an artery, a nerve, and
cartilaginous bar; associated with this bar is an arterial arch, a nerve, and
some mesenchyma that will some mesenchyma that will form muscle. Behind each arc is an external
form muscle. groove consisting of ectoderm and an internal pouch consisting of endoderm.
The area between the ectoderm and endoderm is known as the closing plate.
Parts of these structures named above develop into definitive adult
structures. Other parts that normally disappear may persist and form
abnormal structures in the adult. The normal derivatives of the branchial
apparatus are listed in Table 14—1. It should be noted that the ectodermal
cleft and endodermal pouch are located posterior to the cartilaginous arch,
artery, and nerve.
Abnormal persistence of parts of the branchial apparatus can lead to a
variety of cysts, sinuses, and fistulas. Persistence of the ectoderm of the first
branchial arch may result in a cyst or sinus lying parallel to and even
Excision of a first branchial cleft reduplicating the external ear canal. A different type of persistence may
cyst requires identification and lead to cysts, sinuses, or fistulas running in a line from deep in the external
dissection of the facial nerve. ear canal through the parotid gland to the angle of the mandible anterior to
TABLE 14-1. DERIVATIVES OF THE BRANCHIAL APPARATUS

1 II III IV V
Cartilage Malleus Stapes Greater cornu Thyroid Cricoid
Incus Styloid, Lower body
Sphenomandibular Stylohyoid ligament hyoid
ligament Body of the hyoid
Mandible (in membrane,
around cartilage)
Artery Middle meningeal Stylomastoid branch Common and Aortic arch Pulmonary arteries
of postauricular internal Ligamentum
Persistent stapedial carotid arteriosum
Right subclavian
Nerve Mandibular Facial Glosso- Superior laryngeal Recurrent laryngeal
pharyngeal
Muscle Mastication Facial expression Stylopharyngeus Cricothyroid Intrinsic muscles of
Tensor tympani Stapedius the larynx
Tensor veli palatim Auricular
Mylohyoid Stylohyoid
Anterior digastric Posterior belly digastric
Ectoderm Exterior canal
— — —
External tympanic
membrane
Endoderm Eustachian tube Cleft above tonsil — — —
Middle ear
Mastoid air cells
the sternocleidomastoid. Such first-arch remnants may pass anterior to,

posterior to, or even through the branches of the facial nerve.
The bony derivatives of the first arch may be abnormal in the Treacher
Collins syndrome. The artery of the second arch may form a persistent
stapedial artery that passes through the crura of the stapes. In the presence
of such an artery, it is not possible to perform a stapedectomy.
The ectoderm and endoderm of the second and third arches may also
form cysts, sinuses, and fistulas. Normally the external openings of the
second, third, and fourth arches are covered over by growth of an area
called the epipericardial ridge. The nerve of this region is the spinal accessory
nerve, and its mesenchyma forms the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.
The epicardial ridge fuses with the second branchial arch, burying the
opening of the second, third, and fourth branchial grooves as an ectodermal
cyst, the cervical sinus of His, which normally degenerates. Also, the tongue
muscles, which are derived from postbranchial myotomes, migrate to the
floor of the mouth, passing behind the branchial derivatives. Therefore any The tract of a branchial cleft
cyst must pass superior to the
external opening of a persistent branchial derivative must open anterior to
hypoglossal nerve.
the sternocleidomastoid and the tract must pass superior to the hypoglossal
nerve. It is therefore possible to accurately predict the line of second and
third branchial cysts, sinuses, and fistulas.
A second branchial fistula will open anterior to the sternocleidomastoid,
pass into the neck anterior to the common and the internal carotid artery,
usually between the internal and external carotid arteries,, and then above
the glossopharyngeal and hypoglossal nerves to reach the tonsil. A third
branchial fistula will open anterior to the sternocleidomastoid, pass posterior
to the common and the internal carotid artery and above the hypoglossal
nerve but below the glossopharyngeal nerve and stylopharyngeus, to enter
the pharynx above the region supplied by the superior laryngeal nerve.
There is some evidence that a remnant of the fourth branchial pouch may
persist as a tract from the inferior pharynx to the region of the thyroid and
may occasionally be a cause of suppurative thyroiditis.
Another interesting anomaly of the branchial apparatus occurs when the
right subclavian artery has an anomalous origin and the right recurrent
laryngeal nerve runs straight from the skull base to the larynx. The thyroid
gland may not migrate from the foramen cecum, forming a lingual thyroid.
Remnants or all of the thyroglossal duct may persist. Total removal of this
duct involves also excising the body of the hyoid. The parathyroid glands
are quite variable in their positions, and parathyroid tissue may even migrate
with the thymus into the anterior mediastinum.
Blood Supply, Innervation, and Lymphatic Drainage

The pharyngeal blood supply derives from various branches of the external
carotid system. Many anastomoses exist not only on each side but between
vessels from opposite sides. Terminal branches of the internal maxillary
artery, the tonsillar branch of the facial artery, the dorsal lingual branch of
the lingual artery, a branch of the superior thyroid artery, and the ascending
pharyngeal artery all contribute to a vast anastomotic network. The motor
nerve supply has been discussed. The sensory supply to the nasopharynx
and oropharynx, as well as to the base of the tongue, is essentially via the
pharyngeal plexus of the glossopharyngeal nerve. Lower in the pharynx
there is an increasing sensory involvement of the vagus via the superior
laryngeal nerve. The pharyngeal lymphatic drainage may involve the retro¬
pharyngeal and lateral pharyngeal chains with subsequent passage into the
deep cervical nodes. Nasopharyngeal malignancies often metastasize into the
posterior cervical chain.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE PHARYNX
The pharynx functions chiefly in respiration, deglutition, voice resonance,

and articulation. Three of these functions are obvious. The function of
deglutition merits detailed description.
Deglutition
Disorders of swallowing are best Deglutition may be divided into three stages. The first is the voluntary
demonstrated on a modified movement of food from the mouth into the pharynx. The second stage, the
video esophagram.
transport of the food through the pharynx, and the third stage, the passage
of the bolus through the esophagus, are both involuntary. The actual steps
of deglutition are as follows: Following mastication food is positioned on the
middle third of the tongue. Elevation of both the tongue and soft palate
forces the bolus into the oropharynx. The suprahyoid muscles contract,
elevating the hyoid bone and larynx and thus opening the hypopharynx and
the piriform sinuses. Simultaneously the intrinsic laryngeal muscles contract
in a sphincter-like fashion to prevent aspiration. A strong motion of the
tongue posteriorly plunges the food interiorly through the oropharynx, a
movement aided by the contraction of the superior and middle pharyngeal
constrictors. The bolus is guided through the esophageal introitus when the
inferior pharyngeal constrictor contracts and the cricopharyngeus muscle
relaxes. Peristalsis, assisted by gravity, moves the food down the esophagus
and into the stomach.
THE FASCIAL SPACES
Initially, abscesses are confined The fascial spaces of the head and neck are areas of loose connective
to potential spaces formed by
tissue that may be the sites of abscess formation as well as pathways by
cervical fascia.
which infection may spread. These spaces are surrounded by fascial sheaths,
which are layers of thickened connective tissue enclosing the muscles and
organs. The function of these sheaths is to offer some protection as well as
to allow the movement of the structures against one another.
The superficial cervical fascia encircles the scalp, face, and neck subcuta¬
neously to enclose the muscles of facial expression and the platysma. The
deep cervical fascia has been described as having two or three components,
and the nomenclature is often confusing. For practical purposes, there is a
superficial, a middle, and a deep component to the deep cervical fascia (Fig.
14-5). The superficial component is also called the investing layer; the
middle component is termed the pretracheal (or visceral) layer; and the deep
component is referred to as the vertebral (or prevertebral) layer. The
Fascial spaces are not com¬ superficial (investing) component of the deep fascia encircles the neck,
pletely closed spaces, and ab¬
scess can extend from one
attaching only to the nuchal ligament of the vertebrae posteriorly. It splits
space to the other and even to to enclose the trapezius and sternomastoid muscles but lies anterior to the
the opposite side of the neck. strap muscles. The pretracheal layer is limited to the anterior neck below
Sternohyoid and sternothyroid
Pretracheal layer Thyroid gland

Prevertebra I (and alar) layei ' Sternocleidomastoid
Carotid sheath. Common carotid a.

Internal jugular v.
jiVagus n.
Cervical sympathetic trunk
Superficial layer Phrenic n. on ant. scalene
Omohyoid
y-Nn of brachial plexus
-A— -Supraclavicular nn.
-Middle and
post, scalenes
Prevertebral layer Superficial layer
FIGURE 14-5. Chief layers of the cervical fascia below the hyoid bone. Note the relations
of the various nerves. The fascias and fascial spaces are, of course, schematically shown
and exaggerated. (From Hollinshead WH: Anatomy for Surgeons. Vol. 1: The Head and
Neck. New York, Hoeber Medical Division, Harper 6. Row, 1982, p 271.)
the hyoid bone. It attaches to the superficial layer at the lateral border of
the strap muscles on each side, extends posterior to these muscles in front
of the larynx and trachea, and encircles the thyroid gland. From it arises a
thin fascial tissue that encircles the hypopharynx and esophagus and is
sometimes considered part of the pretracheal layer. Below, this layer is
continuous with the pericardium. The vertebral layer of the deep cervical
fascia, like the superficial layer, also attaches to the nuchal ligament and
encircles the neck, but at a deeper level. It covers the vertebral bodies and
the scalene muscles anteriorly and the paraspinous and deep neck muscles
laterally. Over the front of the vertebral bodies it splits to form two layers,
an alar part anteriorly and a true prevertebral part posteriorly. The space
between these two parts is considered a “danger space,” through which an
infection may spread downward to the chest. Between the prevertebral layer
and the pretracheal layer on each side is a tube of fascia encircling the
carotid artery, vagus nerve, and jugular vein called the carotid sheth. Above
the hyoid bone, the superficial and pretracheal layers change. The superficial
layer of the deep cervical fascia becomes external to the suprahyoid muscu¬
lature but then splits to enclose the mandible and muscles of mastication
and also forms the capsules of the submandibular and parotid glands. The
pretracheal layer extends above the hyoid bone posteriorly only as the layer
encircling the pharyngeal muscles. The vertebral layer is unchanged above
the level of the hyoid, but the carotid sheath at this level is less easily
identified.
Infections that can involve these potential spaces are discussed in Chap¬
ter 17.
References
Davies J: Embryology and anatomy of the head, neck, face, palate, nose, and paranasal sinuses.
In Paparella MM, Shumrick DA (eds): Otolaryngology, Ed 2, Vol 1. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1980, pp 63-123.
Hollinshead JW: Anatomy for Surgeons, Vol I: The Head and Neck. New York, Harper &
Row, 1968.
15
DISEASES OF THE ORAL CAVITY
by Robert J. Gorlin, DDS, MS, DSc
Diseases of the oral cavity are of interest to both physicians and dentists.
These diseases may represent a localized disease entity or a manifestation
of a systemic illness. Diagnosis and treatment of oral lesions can be puzzling
to the medical student and primary care physician, who may have had
limited experience in this area. While it is not the intention of the authors
to catalogue the many and varied conditions that may present in the oral
cavity, it is believed that an overview of these conditions, including some
common dental disorders, will provide a framework for differential diagnosis
and management.
DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES OF THE FACE, IAWS,

AND MOUTH
Oral Tori
Torus palatinus (Fig. 15-1) is characterized by a nodular or lobular bony
growth in the midline of the hard palate. Like its mandibular counterpart,
it is rare in infants and is usually not manifest until puberty. In the adult
population, it is noted in 25 per cent of females and 15 per cent of males.
Surgical removal may be indicated for maxillary denture construction.
FIGURE 15—1. Torus palatinus. This devel¬

opmental anomaly occurs approximately
twice as frequently in females. Rarely does
it arise prior to puberty.
1 5—DISEASES OF THE ORAL CAVITY 283
FIGURE 15-2. Torus mandibularis. Note

multiple tori located in the region of the
canine and premolar tooth. This is seen in
about 7 per cent of the population. (Cour¬
tesy of I. Scopp, Chicago, 1L.)
Torus mandibularis (Fig. 15-2) is represented by single or multiple,

unilateral or bilateral bony growths on the lingual aspect of the mandible in
the region of the premolars. It usually becomes evident at puberty or later.
By adulthood, as much as 10 per cent of the population manifests this
condition. The growth is of no significance unless it interferes with a dental
prosthesis. Treatment, if indicated, consists of surgical removal.
Micrognathia
Micrognathia may be congenital or acquired (e.g., as a sequel to trauma,
infection, or juvenile rheumatoid arthritis). Although the term is rather
nonspecific in that it may refer to diminution in size of either jaw. common
usage has essentially limited it to the mandible.
Whatever the association, the ultimate diminution in size of the mandible
is due to a failure at the growth center in the condyle. Trauma or infection
of the area of the condyle, almost always unilateral, will produce unilateral
reduction of the mandible.
Mandibular micrognathia is usually an isolated polygenic trait but has
been noted in association with a plethora of syndromes. Maxillary micro¬
gnathia is seen in craniofacial dysostosis, in acrocephalosyndactyly, and in
trisomy 21. Mild occlusal deformities may be corrected by the orthodontist.
Surgical correction of severe maxillary or mandibular hypoplasia is usually
carried out by the maxillofacial or oral surgeon after growth of the jaws is
complete.
Robin Anomaly
The combination of cleft palate, micrognathia, and glossoptosis is nonspe- Pierre Robin: (1) micrognathia
cific, being seen as an isolated finding or in association with several syn- (mandibblar hypoplasia), (2)
dromes glossoptosis, (3) posterior cleft
T, . ' , , . palate.
ihis anomaly appears to represent arrested intrauterine development.
During the tenth to twelfth week in utero, the maxilla grows rapidly, and
by the fourth to fifth month the disparity between the upper and lower jaws
is quite apparent.
The “Andy Gump” facies is quite distinctive. Dyspnea and periodic
cyanotic attacks associated with recession of the sternum and ribs are in
evidence during the inspiratory phase of respiration, especially when the
infant is in the supine position. The difficulty is usually noted at birth. If the
infant survives the initial period, mandibular growth subsequently catches
up so that a normal profile is achieved by four to six years of age.
The exact physiologic mechanism by which the syndrome is produced is
Airway is maintained by forward not known, but most investigators have suggested that the symmetric lack
traction on the tongue. of mandibular growth (micrognathia) prevents adequate support of lingual
musculature, allowing the tongue to fall downward and backward (glossop-
tosis). This obstructs the epiglottis, permitting egress of air but preventing
Patient is kept in prone position inhalation, much like a ball valve.
to keep tongue from falling back Treatment, in the mild case, consists of keeping the infant in a prone
and causing airway obstruction.
Tracheostomy is required in the position, at times suspending the head by means of a stocking cap. In the
more severe cases. severe case, the tongue tip is sutured to the anterior mandible or lower lip.
Prognathism
Enlargement or anterior placement of the lower jaw may be absolute or
relative and is a multifactorial hereditary trait. After the jaws have ceased
to grow (usually by 16 to 17 years), the patient is referred to an orthodontist
and oral or maxillofacial surgeon for correction. Many successful surgical
techniques are available.
Malocclusion
Various types of disturbed development of the face and jaws may result
in malocclusion. Underdevelopment of the maxilla or mandible or overde¬
velopment of the mandible may require special surgical procedures after
puberty. Incompatibility of tooth size and jaw size may result in spacing,
crowding, or irregularity of teeth. Prolonged retention of primary teeth may
result in delayed eruption of permanent teeth. Neglected primary or per¬
manent teeth may be lost prematurely. Early consultation with an orthodon¬
tist is indicated to resolve problems associated with malocclusion.
Macroglossia
An enlarged tongue may be relative or absolute and may result in abnormal
C02 and Yas laser surgery can speech. Most congenital cases are due to lymphangioma or hemangiolym-
be effective in removal of phangioma. Cystic hygroma may also be present. The tongue surface is most
limited lesions. often irregular or papillary, with 1- to 3-mm blister-type nodules. The most
successful treatment is a combination of sclerosing agents and corrective
surgery.
The tongue may also be enlarged in the macroglossia-omphalocele syn¬
drome. In the adult, macroglossia may be seen with primary amyloidosis.
15—DISEASES OF THE ORAL CAVITY 285
FIGURE 15—3. Median rhomboid glossitis.

Note the bald, lozenge-shaped area on the
mid-dorsum of tongue, just in front of the
circumvallate papillae.
Median Rhomboid Glossitis (Fig. 15-3)

This entity is not truly a glossitis. Some have considered it to be caused
by embryonal failure of the tuberculum impar to submerge, that is, to be
covered by the lateral lingual tubercles. Others have suggested that it is a
form of candidosis and is associated with diabetes. Nevertheless, it is
innocuous. Its incidence is about 1 in 400 persons with a 3:1 male predilec¬
tion. Classically, it is characterized by a smooth to nodular, elevated or
depressed area void of papillae, located just anterior to the circumvallate
papillae on the dorsum of the tongue. No treatment is required.
Lingual Thyroid (Fig. 15-4)

This condition is due to partial or complete embryologic failure of the
thyroid gland to descend from the foramen cecum to its normal position in
FIGURE 15-4. Lingual thyroid. Arrow points

to a mass rising above the dorsum of the
tongue in the region of the foramen cecum.
FIGURE 15—5. Ankyloglossia. Note attachment of the tongue

tip to the floor of the mouth and gingiva.
the neck. It is characterized by multiple nodules of thyroid tissue on the

dorsum of the tongue in the area of the foramen cecum and within the body
of the tongue. In rare cases all the thyroid tissue remains in the tongue.
Some ectopic thyroid tissue is seen post mortem in approximately 10 per
cent of the population, the amount varying from a few acini to nodules 1.0
cm in diameter. No treatment is required for small discrete lesions. Larger
Before considering surgical re¬
moval, make certain that this is
lesions that may by position become traumatized should be removed sur¬
not the only thyroid tissue gically. However, no lingual thyroid tissue should be removed until the
present. presence of thyroid tissue elsewhere is ascertained.
Ankyloglossia (Fig. 15-5)

This condition has been arbitrarily defined as the inability to elevate the
tongue tip above a line extending through the commissures of a congenitally
short lingual frenum. From a speech standpoint, no treatment is generally
required if the tongue tip can be elevated, independently of the mandible,
to the alveolar ridge during the production of the speech sounds a, Idl, and
Ini. In extremely severe forms, the frenulum should be clipped in infancy.
A preferred treatment may be a Z-plasty performed in such a manner as to
produce more freedom of tongue mobility.
CLEFT LIP AND CLEFT PALATE
Clefts of the primary and secondary palates are among the more common
congenital anomalies. A vast amount of data has been gathered about facial
clefts, only a small portion of which can be presented here.
Clinically, there is great variability in the degree of cleft formation (Fig.
15-6). The minimal degrees of involvement include such anomalies as bifid
uvula, linear lip indentations, so-called intrauterine healed clefts, and sub¬
mucous cleft of the soft palate. A cleft may involve only the vermilion border
of the upper lip or may extend to involve the nostril and the hard and soft
palates. Isolated palatal clefts may be limited to the uvula (bifid uvula), or
they may be more extensive, cleaving the soft palate or both the soft and
hard palates.
287
FIGURE 15-6. Facial defting. A, Incomplete cleft of lip. B, Unilateral complete

cleft of lip. C, Bilateral complete cleft of lip. D, Esthetic closure of bilateral
lip cleft. £, Cleft palate involving the soft palate and a small portion of the
hard palate. F, Submucous palatal deft.
Of all maxillofacial clefts, the combination of cleft lip and cleft palate
comprises about 50 per cent of the cases, with isolated cleft lip and isolated
cleft palate each accounting for about 25 per cent, irrespective of race.
Cleft lip, with or without cleft palate, occurs in about 1 (range, 0.6 to 1.3)
per 1000 white births. The incidence appears to be increasing, probably as
a result of declining postnatal mortality, decreasing operative mortality,
steadily improving operative results, and attendant increases in marriage and
childbearing. The prevalence is higher in Orientals (about 1.7 per 1000
births) and lower among blacks (approximately 1 per 2500 births).
Isolated cleft lip may be unilateral or bilateral (approximately 20 per cent).
When unilateral, the cleft is more common on the left side (about 70 per
cent of cases), although no more extensive. Lips are somewhat more
frequently cleft bilaterally (approximately 25 per cent) when combined with
cleft palate. Cleft lip-cleft palate is more common in males. About 85 per
cent of bilateral cleft lips and 70 per cent of unilateral cleft lips are associated
with cleft palate.
The development of isolated cleft palate appears to De quite separate from
that of cleft lip with or without cleft palate. It has been demonstrated that
siblings of patients with cleft lip, with or without cleft palate, have an
increased frequency of the same anomaly but not of isolated cleft palate,
and vice versa. Children with isolated cleft palate not uncommonly (about
30 per cent) have associated congenital anomalies.
The incidence of isolated cleft palate among whites and blacks appears to
be 1 per 2000 and 1 per 2500 births, respectively, and may be somewhat
Complete clefts are more com¬ more frequent among Orientals. It is more common in females. Breakdown
mon in females. of cleft palate according to extent clearly indicates that whereas a 2:1 female
predilection exists for complete clefts of the hard and soft palates, the
male:female ratio approaches 1:1 for clefts of the soft palate or uvula only.
The recurrence risk for cleft lip with or without cleft palate, if both parents
are normal, is 3 to 4 per cent. The corresponding figure for cleft palate is
about 2 per cent. Essentially the same risk data can be applied to the
offspring of an affected person.
A cleft uvula can be a sign of a Cleft uvula appears to be an incomplete form of cleft palate. The incidence
submucosal cleft of the palate.
of cleft uvula is about 1 per 80 whites. The frequency of cleft uvula among
Adenoidectomy is contraindi¬
cated in the presence of a sub¬ various American Indian groups is quite high, ranging from 1 per 9 to 1 per
mucosal cleft. 14 individuals. In blacks it is comparatively rare (1 per 300 births).
Treatment
Treatment of cleft lip-cleft palate is complex and involves several disci¬
plines. The best treatment is provided by a “team approach.” The team
comprises a maxillofacial surgeon, otolaryngologist, pedodontist, orthodon¬
tist, prosthodontist, speech pathologist, human geneticist, psychologist, and
social worker. A considerable overlap of interest and concern for this clinical
problem related to structure, function, and well-being of the patient demands
the diagnostic and treatment skills of all these specialists for an extended
period of time.
The development of adequate speech and language skills is an important
Otitis media is almost universal concern. Speech and language are learned primarily through audition. Since
in infants under age two with
there is a relatively high incidence of ear disorders and consequent hearing
unrepaired clefts.
loss (primarily conductive) in the child with cleft palate, early identification
and treatment are important to ensure optimal hearing function during
speech and language developmental years.
Surgical closure of the lip is usually performed within the first few months
of life, whenever body weight exceeds 10 pqunds. The ideal time for surgical
closure of the palate has been debated, but in the United States at least 80
per cent of the surgeons prefer some time between the first and second years
of life. Various techniques have been used in lip closure, but those employing
angular rather than linear incision lines are preferred because of late
postoperative shortening of the upper lip on the operated side following the
linear techniques. In the case of bilateral clefts, lip closure is much more
difficult owing to anterior displacement of the primary palate and is often
accomplished in two stages.
Early closure of the palatal cleft provides a better mechanism with which
to produce speech. Surgical closure of the secondary palate can be performed
with a variety of techniques, most notably the bridge flap technique of von
Langenbeck and the pedicle flap technique of Veau. The primary goal of
surgery is to achieve complete closure of the hard and soft palates and to
provide a soft palate that has sufficient length and mobility. Lengthening of
the soft palate is ordinarily accomplished by a so-called push-back procedure.
Attainment of adequate length and mobility of the soft palate becomes

important in the processes of deglutition and speech. Both these functions
require velopharyngeal closure, that is, the ability to seal off the nasal cavity
from the oral cavity. Although velopharyngeal closure for speech and certain
nonspeech activities, such as deglutition and blowing, is sphincteric in nature,
involving movements of palatal and pharyngeal structures, the soft palate is
considered the prime mover in accomplishing closure.
If velopharyngeal closure is not achieved following the initial surgical
procedures, foods and liquids may be directed into the nasopharynx during
deglutition. Similarly, speech may be characterized by excessive air escape
through the nose during pronunciation of consonants that require intraoral
pressure for their production and by excessive nasal resonance perceived as
hypernasality.
Although the primary evidence of the adequacy of the velopharyngeal
closure mechanism for speech is the speech product itself, other evaluation
techniques involve direct oral-pharyngeal-nasal observations, radiography,
and air pressure-air flow instrumentation.
Secondary procedures to correct the velopharyngeal inadequacy for speech
may be indicated. Such procedures may include a surgical pharyngeal flap,
prosthodontic speech appliances (speech bulb or palatal lift), or a pharyngeal
implant. Because treatment choice depends upon a number of surgical-
dental-speech considerations and because the inadequacy of velopharyngeal
mechanisms for speech may be due to several anatomic and physiologic
variations, complete diagnosis and evaluation are required by all members
of the cleft palate team.
In some persons with cleft lip-cleft palate, velopharyngeal closure may be
achieved with the aid of tonsillar or adenoidal tissue. Decision as to the
complete removal of such tissues in these patients should be made with caution,
since persistent hypernasality and audible nasal air emission may result.
It should be pointed out that velopharyngeal inadequacy for speech is not
limited to persons with cleft lip-cleft palate but may occur with a number of
other congenital anomalies and syndromes involving the craniofacial com¬
plex.
Dental observation and treatment for the patient with clefts are important,
since they relate to occlusion, appearance, adequate oral functions (masti¬
cation, deglutition, speech), and good oral hygiene. The status of the
dentition can make an important difference in treatment choice.
Cleft palate teams are currently broadening their interest to include
diagnostic and treatment services for a variety of developmental anomalies
of the face, jaws, and mouth, some of which are presented in the following
section.
Associated Developmental Anomalies

Facial Clefts. Lateral facial cleft (macrostomia, transverse or horizontal
facial cleft) is caused by failure of penetration of ectomesenchyme between
the embryonic maxillary and mandibular processes. The cleft may be
unilateral or bilateral, partial or complete (rare), extending from the angle
of the mouth toward the ear. In many cases, the cleft extends above or
below the tragus.
It appears to be more common in males and, when unilateral, more often

involves the left side. It may be an isolated phenomenon but more frequently
is associated with other malformations. There does not appear to be a
genetic basis for this anomaly.
Lateral facial cleft may be found with the first and second branchial arch
syndrome (hemifacial microsomia, that is, hypoplasia of the ascending ramus
and condyle of the mandible, ear tags, and microtia), oculoauriculovertebral
dysplasia (essential hemifacial microsomia with epibulbar dermoids and
hemivertebra), and rarely, mandibulofacial dysostosis.
Oblique facial cleft is extremely rare and is variable in appearance. Most
commonly it is associated with cleft lip and extends to the inner canthus of
the eye. In some cases, the cleft runs lateral to and does not involve the ala
of the nose, passing near the outer canthus into the temporal region. It may
be superficial but more often separates the underlying bone. If the cleft
reaches the orbital margin, the eyelid may be involved. It is thought that
the cleft is due to failure of ectomesenchymal penetrance between the
maxillary, median nasal, and lateral nasal processes or failure of coverage
of the nasolacrimal groove. The oblique facial cleft often fails to follow the
epithelial grooves especially with amniotic disruption sequence.
The oblique cleft may be unilateral or bilateral and is nearly always
associated with cleft lip, cleft palate, or lateral facial cleft. There does not
appear to be any evidence of a genetic role.
Apert syndrome: (1) craniosyn- Acrocephalosyndactyly (Apert Syndrome). This syndrome is characterized
ostosis leading to turribrachy-
cephaly and syndactyly; (2) pro¬ by turribrachycephalv associated with syndactyly of the hands and feet.
gressive synostoses of hands, Often the anterior fontanel fails to close, whereas other cranial sutures,
feet, spine; 13) some mental re¬ especially the coronal, tend to close prematurely. On radiographic
tardation; (4) case reports of
conductive deafness. examination of the skull, increased digital markings are seen. Since the
mental retardation and physical appearance of these patients discourage
marriage and procreation, nearly all cases are sporadic, although the
disorder, in fact, has autosomal dominant inheritance.
Usually there is midfacial hypoplasia with resultant distorted nose.
Proptosis of the eyeballs, downward slanting of the palpebral fissures, and
ocular hypertelorism occur in most cases.
A mid-digital hand mass is present, consisting of osseous and soft tissue
syndactyly of the second, third, and fourth digits. In some cases the first and
fifth digits may be fused to the second and fourth, respectively. Fingernails
of the mid-digital hand mass are continuous or partially continuous with
some degree of segmentation. Soft-tissue fusion of the toes is also a feature.
The hard palate is Byzantine arch—shaped. Cleft soft palate is present in
over 30 per cent of patients.
Mild conduction hearing loss due to fixation of the footplate of the stapes
has been demonstrated.
Major maxillofacial surgery is required to correct acrocephalosyndactyly.
Craniofacial Dysostosis (Crouzon Syndrome). In craniofacial dysostosis
Crouzon syndrome: (1) cranio- the skull tends to be high, domelike, and thin, with obliterated coronal,
synostosis, (2) hypoplasia of
midface, (3) relative mandibular sagittal, and lambdoid sutures. The anterior fontanel remains open and
prognathism, (4) ocular propto¬ wide. A crest of bone may be present along the sagittal suture.
sis, (5) hypertelorism, (6) con¬ Typically, the facies is characterized by underdevelopment or flattening of
ductive hearing loss.
the middle of the face associated with relative mandibular prognathism and
a beaklike nose. The maxillary teeth are crowded, and the arch is V-shaped.
Exophthalmos is a constant feature. Optic atrophy and divergent strabismus
are present in some patients. Intelligence is usually normal. The disorder

has an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern.
About one third of patients with this syndrome have hearing loss, mostly
conductive. Occasionally there is atresia of the external auditory canals.
Deformity of the ossicles or fixation of the footplate of the stapes has been
found on postmortem examination. Craniofacial dysostosis may be corrected
by major maxillofacial surgery.
Mandibulofacial Dysostosis (Treacher Collins Syndrome). This autosomal
dominantly inherited syndrome is characterized by (1) anomalies of the eye,
such as antimongoloid obliquity of the lids and coloboma of the lower lids
with lack of cilia, (2) abnormalities of the external and middle ears, and (3)
hypoplasia of the mandible and malar bones.
The facies is remarkably striking. The palpebral fissures slope laterally Conductive hearing loss is sec¬
ondary to ossicular malforma¬
downward, and often there is a coloboma in the outer third of the lower lid
tion.
with a deficiency of cilia medial to the coloboma. The pinna is often
deformed, and there may be absence of the external auditory canal and
abnormalities within the middle ear cleft, such as agenesis or malformation
of the ossicles with resultant conduction deafness. Ear tags and blind fistulas
may occur anywhere between the tragus and the angle of the mouth.
The mandible is always hypoplastic. The angle is more obtuse than normal, Connective tissue may till mid¬
dle ear cleft. Deafness is not
and the undersurface of its body is markedly concave. The palate is high or
progressive.
cleft in over 40 per cent of reported patients. Dental malocclusion is frequent.
CYSTS OF THE JAWS AND ORAL FLOOR
A true cyst is defined as a cavity lined by epithelium. It may be situated

entirely within soft tissues or deep within bone or may lie on the bony
surface, producing a saucerization (Table 15-1). Within the jaws, the
epithelium may have its origin in odontogenic epithelium (i.e., from the
remnants of the dental lamina or from the enamel organs of the teeth).
Proliferation and cystic degeneration of this epithelium would give rise to
odontogenic cysts. Considered within this category are the dentigerous cyst,
radicular cyst, and odontogenic keratocyst. Nonodontogenic cysts are derived
from epithelial remnants of the tissue covering the embryonal processes that
participate in the formation of the face and jaws. These so-called fissural
cysts include the nasoalveolar cyst, dermoid and epidermoid cyst, and palatal
cyst of newborn infants. Nonodontogenic cysts may arise also from the
TABLE 15-1. CYSTS OF THE JAWS AND ORAL CAVITY

Odontogenic cysts
Dentigerous cyst
Eruption cyst
Gingival cyst of newborn infants
Radicular cyst
Keratocyst
Nonodontogenic and fissural cysts
Nasoalveolar cyst
Nasopalatine or incisive canal cyst
Palatal cyst of newborn infants
Dermoid and epidermoid cyst
Submental or geniohyoid dermoid cyst
Retention cyst
remains of the nasopalatine duct, which gives rise to the nasopalatine cyst.
Grouped as pseudocysts of the jaws are the aneurysmal bone cyst, static
bone cyst, and solitary bone cyst. None of these is epithelium-lined. The
static bone cyst appears to be a congenital bone defect; trauma has been
suggested as the etiologic agent in both the aneurysmal bone cyst and the
solitary bone cyst. Some of the more common cysts are considered separately.
Odontogenic Cysts
Dentigerous Cyst (Fig. 15-7). The dentigerous cyst surrounds the crown
of an unerupted tooth of either the regular (in approximately 95 per cent of
all cases) or the supernumerary dentition. It probably arises through
alteration of the reduced enamel epithelium after the crown has been
completely formed. Fluid accumulates either between layers of the enamel
epithelium or between the epithelium and the tooth crown. The cyst may
arise, however, from cystic degeneration of remnants of the dental lamina.
The teeth usually involved are the mandibular third molar, maxillary
canine, maxillary third molar, and second mandibular premolar, although
the cyst may occur about any unerupted tooth. The crown of the tooth
projects into the lumen of the cystic cavity. The cyst may be of any size,
ranging from a subtle dilatation of the pericoronal sac to a space occupying
the entire body and ramus of half the jaw. Possibly because of the anatomy
of the upper and lower jaws, the larger cysts involve the mandible. Although
the cyst develops in relationship to a single tooth, it may include the crowns
of several adjacent teeth as it enlarges. Furthermore, it may displace teeth
to positions remote from their normal sites, especially in the maxilla.
Dentigerous cysts are usually solitary. When multiple, however, possible
association with nevoid basal cell carcinoma.syndrome should be ruled out.
Eruption Cyst. The eruption cyst is an uncommon type of dentigerous
cyst associated with erupting deciduous or rarely permanent teeth. It
represents the accumulation of tissue fluid or blood in a dilated follicular
space about the crown of an erupting tooth. It may be unilateral or bilateral,
single or multiple, and may be present at birth.
Gingival and Palatal Cysts of Newborn Infants. Nearly all human fetuses
after their fourth month in utero and at least 80 per cent of newborn infants
have small nodules or cysts (Epstein's pearls, Bohn's nodules) at the junction
of the hard and soft palates near the median raphe. The nodules, usually
several, are white to yellowish white small epithelial inclusion cysts, probably
FIGURE 15—7. Dentigerous cyst. Note the radiolucency sur¬

rounding the crown of the unerupted molar.
resulting from incorporation of epithelium during the embryonic process of

palatal fusion. These cysts become superficial and rupture, usually within
the first few weeks of life. Gingival cysts represent degeneration of dental
lamina remnants.
Radicular Cyst (Fig. 15-8). Certainly the most common of oral cysts, the
radicular (periapical) periodontal cyst is inflammatory in origin. It occurs as
a sequela of dental caries.
With the spread of the inflammatory process from the pulp to the periapical
area of the tooth, a mass of chronic inflammatory tissue is formed, called an
FIGURE 15-8. Radicular cyst. A, Caries involved the pulp, which caused a periapical abscess
surrounding the root of the maxillary lateral incisor. 6, Clinical appearance. Note swelling
extending to the palate. C, Observe extensive destruction of the crown.
apical granuloma. Within this mass, epithelial rests of Malassez normally

present in the periodontal ligament proliferate extensively. These epithelial
islands coalesce and become cystic, giving rise to the radicular cyst.
The cyst is often symptomless and is diagnosed on routine dental
radiographs. The associated tooth is nonvital and usually manifests dental
caries. However, in some cases, a history of trauma to the area is obtained.
The radicular cyst tends to remain small and does not produce jaw expansion.
One cannot differentiate radiographically between an apical granuloma and
a radicular cyst. The cyst that remains in place after the extraction of the
responsible tooth is known as a residual cyst. Rarely does a radicular cyst
exceed 0.6 cm in diameter.
(I) basal cell carcinoma Nevoid Basal Cell Carcinoma Syndrome. The association of multiple
12) multiple keratocysts keratocysts with multiple cutaneous nevoid basal cell carcinomas and
(3) skeletal abnormalities
numerous skeletal and other abnormalities is a well-recognized syndrome.
The syndrome probably occurs in 1 in 200 individuals with cutaneous basal
cell carcinoma. It has autosomal dominant inheritance with complete
penetrance and extremely variable expressivity.
The skin is involved with numerous basal cell carcinomas, some of which
become aggressive. They usually appear early in life and often are in areas
not exposed to sunlight.
Bifurcated and splayed ribs, kyphoscoliosis, fusion of vertebrae, and
cervicothoracic spina bifida occulta are common. Lamellar calcification of
the falx cerebri, bilateral calcified fibromas of the ovary, and medul¬
loblastoma and meningioma are seen.
Scattered throughout the jaws are numerous cysts that vary in size from
microscopic to several centimeters in diameter. These odontogenic
keratocysts are lined by epithelium that ranges from a simple to a thinly
keratinized stratified squamous variety. They may appear for the first time
as early as the age of seven or eight years or as late as the thirties. There is
a marked tendency for these cysts to recur, possibly from adjacent microcysts,
in spite of thorough curettement.
Nonodontogenic and Fissural Cysts

Nasopalatine or Incisive Canal Cyst (Fig. 15-9). The incisive canal cyst is
a closed, epithelium-lined intrabony sac. When it is located below the incisive
foramen, it is called a cyst of the palatine papilla.
Embryologically, the incisive canal joining the nasal and oral cavities is
formed when the maxillary palatine processes fuse with the primary palate,
leaving two passageways, one on each side of the nasal septum. Within each
canal is an epithelial nasopalatine duct or cord of epithelial cell remnants.
The type of epithelium composing the nasopalatine duct or its remnants
depends upon location: respiratory epithelium is formed nearest the nasal
cavity, then the cuboidal type is seen, and finally stratified squamous
epithelium appears as the oral cavity is approached.
Most patients in whom the cyst becomes clinically evident are in the fourth
to sixth decades of life. Generally, nasopalatine cysts are painless unless
they become infected.
Clinically there is often enlargement at the anterior midline of the palate.
Swelling occurs in about half the patients with incisive canal cysts and in
those with cysts of the palatine papilla. Drainage is a common sequela.
FIGURE 15-9. Nasopalatine cyst. Note extensive radio-

lucency in the area of the nasopalatine duct.
Nasoalveolar Cyst. The nasoalveolar (nasolabial) cyst has also been called
Klestadt’s cyst. It probably arises from epithelial rests located at the junction
of the globular, lateral nasal, and maxillary processes.
The cyst is situated at the attachment of the ala of the naris, i.e., near the
base of the nostril. It is not located within bone. The nasoalveolar cyst may
cause enough facial swelling to obliterate the nasolabial fold on the involved
side. Bilateral involvement is noted in about 10 per cent of the patients.
Ordinarily the cyst swells into the floor of the nasal vestibule, projecting
beneath the anterior end of the inferior turbinate. At times, this causes nasal
obstruction. Intermittent pain is experienced by about one third of the
patients. Blunt dissection of the cyst has indicated that it is attached to the
nasal mucosa. It can be clearly demonstrated with the use of a radiopaque
material.
The nasoalveolar cyst occurs predominantly (about 75 per cent of all
cases) in women and appears to occur more often in blacks.
Dermoid and Epidermoid Cysts. The term “dermoid cyst” will be used
here to denote a developmental cyst lined by epidermis and cutaneous
appendages. It probably results from incorporation of ectoderm at the time
of closure of embryonic fissures during the third and fourth weeks in utero.
Oral dermoid cysts most commonly arise in the floor of the mouth and
have been classified into median (midline) and lateral dermoid cysts. They
probably always originate above the mylohyoid muscle, although they may
penetrate through a developmental hiatus. They usually become evident
between 12 and 25 years of age.
The cyst, if located above the geniohyoid muscle (sublingual or
genioglossal dermoid cyst), causes elevation and displacement of the tongue,
producing difficulty in speaking, eating, and even breathing due to pressure
exerted upon the epiglottis. If the cyst is deeper (between the geniohyoid
and mylohyoid muscles), it may bulge into the submental area.
The submental or geniohyoid dermoid cyst is manifested by a slow painless
swelling in the submental region. It extends from the mandible to the hyoid
bone, giving the appearance of a double chin. As it enlarges, it may push
the larynx down and by upward growth causes a bulge in the oral floor. The
cyst varies in size but may approach several centimeters in diameter. It

usually feels doughy but may be more fluctuant.
Microscopically, the lining of the cyst is a keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium. One or more skin appendages such as hair follicles, sweat glands,
or sebaceous glands are present. In the absence of skin appendages, it is not
considered a dermoid cyst; the term epidermoid cyst is used to describe such
lesions.
Retention “Cysts” (Mucocele). Mucous retention “cysts” result from
rupture of a duct of a minor salivary gland, allowing the mucus to spill into
the connective tissue where it is treated as a foreign substance by the body.
The mucocele occurs most often on the mucosal surface of the lower lip. It
may also appear on the buccal mucosa, oral floor, or ventral surface of the
tip of the tongue (cyst of Blandin-Nuhn). If it is large and involves the
sublingual salivary gland, it is called a ranula. Treatment consists of complete
excision of the mucocele and the offending group of minor salivary glands
and duct. Incision and drainage yield temporary improvement only.
DENTAL AND PERIODONTAL DISORDERS
Dental Caries and Sequelae

Dental caries is a disease of the enamel, dentin, and cementum that
produces progressive demineralization of the calcified component and de¬
struction of the organic component with the formation of a cavity in the
tooth. Microorganisms are present at all stages of the disease and from the
results of animal experiments appear to be essential etiologic factors.
Tooth decay commonly is stated to be the most frequent disease of
civilized man. Once a carious cavity has formed, the defect is permanent.
After the introduction of fluoride to the drinking water (1 ppm), the
DMF5 rate has generally decreased over a period of years by more than 60
per cent. An optimal amount of fluoride built into the apatite crystal during
tooth formation decreases the acid solubility of enamel. Topical applications
of fluoride solutions to recently erupted tooth surfaces and brushing the
teeth with dentifrices containing fluoride appear to be effective in reducing
susceptibility to dental caries. Bonding agents applied prophylactically to
pits and fissures are also efficacious.
Caries occurs in areas on tooth surfaces where saliva, food debris, and
bacterial plaque accumulate. These areas are chiefly the cervical portion of
the tooth, interproximal surfaces, and pits and fissures. Surfaces that are
self-cleansing by the excursion of food and the action of the tongue and
cheeks are usually free of caries.
The formation of bacterial plaques in areas of stagnation precedes cavity
formation. Acidogenic and aciduric bacteria, together with filamentous
forms, are present in such plaques. Once a cavity has been produced in the
enamel with exposure of the underlying dentin, proteolytic microorganisms
complete the destruction of the decalcified tooth structure. Caries spreads
laterally at the dentinoenamel junction, weakening and undermining the
*DMF = decayed, missing, filled teeth.

enamel. It also progresses along dentinal tubules and especially in the young
may rapidly lead to exposure of the underlying pulp tissue.
Inflammatory processes in the tooth pulp may be infected or nonmfected.
Trauma to the tooth from a blow (which may or may not fracture the tooth),
from dental operations, or from excessive thermal changes may induce
inflammation. Since the rigid walls of the tooth do not permit expansion of
the inflamed pulp, the circulation may be cut off and the pulp may become
an infarct that is later replaced by fibrous connective tissue. Bacterial
infection is the common sequel to dental caries or to mechanical exposure
of the tooth pulp.
Pulpitis may be acute or chronic. In acute pulpitis pain is usually severe
and is increased by heat or cold. It is often aggravated by lying down
(increased vascular pressure) and may be accompanied by a mild fever and
leukocytosis. Characteristically, the purulent process spreads to involve the
entire pulp and, unless the tooth is opened to establish drainage, the
periapical tissues become involved in an acute alveolar abscess. Once the
tissues about the root apex become involved, the tooth becomes sensitive to
percussion.
Acute alveolar abscess is usually the result of suppurative infection
spreading from the tooth pulp through the root canals to the periodontal
ligament about the tooth root ends. The inflammation characteristically
follows the blood vessels into the bone marrow spaces. Suppuration follows
pathways determined by the location of the tooth roots and the characteristics
of adjacent structures. Usually the periosteum overlying the tooth root end
is destroyed, and eventually pus is drained through a fistula (gum boil). In
maxillary teeth, drainage may occur into the antrum or into the palate.
Occasionally the soft tissues are extensively involved, and, if they are not
treated, drainage to the surface of the skin of the face or neck may occur.
Osteomyelitis, cavernous sinus thrombosis, and Ludwig’s angina are serious
complications.
A much more common sequel to dental pulp infection is the dental
granuloma. Clinically this may be completely symptomless. Radiographic
examination frequently discloses an area of bone rarefaction about a tooth
root apex, with a chronically infected or partially obliterated root canal.
This area is usually spherical and well demarcated.
A granuloma represents a balance between the defense forces of the body
and a chronic area of necrotic tissue in the tooth root that is acting as an
infected sequestrum. If the tooth is extracted, the granulation tissue usually
disappears during the healing process. Occasionally a granuloma may persist
as an area of “residual infection” after the tooth is extracted. Common oral
organisms, chiefly Streptococcus and Staphylococcus, have been demon¬
strated in many dental granulomas, although some lesions appear to be
sterile.
Gingivitis and Periodontitis (Fig. 15—10)

Inflammatory and degenerative processes that develop at the gingival
margin and progress until the tooth-supporting structures are lost have much
in common with periapical periodontal disease. In both instances, chronic
asymptomatic infection by the common oral pathogens is usual, although
episodes of acute suppuration may occur. The reactions in both cases consist
of a walling-off process with a marked chronic inflammatory cell infiltration.
In periodontal disease this represents an attempt to cover the surface of the
chronic ulcer that develops about the involved tooth root area.
The disease commonly begins as gingivitis. Plaque and calculus deposited
upon the tooth surfaces, impaction of food, decayed teeth, overhanging
margins of dental restorations, and ill-fitting dental appliances are among
the local causes. Once a “pocket” has been established below the gingival
margin, calcified deposits form on the tooth root surfaces and act as infected
foreign bodies, thus prolonging and promoting the inflammatory process
with progressive resorption of the fibrous and bony tooth-supporting struc¬
tures. Proliferation of epithelium that lines the pocket occurs concomitantly
with the loss of tissue. Periodontal disease is more common in older
individuals, and after middle age, it becomes the chief cause of tooth loss.
Patients with diabetes mellitus are especially susceptible to periodontal
disease, and an alert clinician should suspect this condition if there are oral
signs and symptoms.
Pregnancy, with its change in endocrine balance, frequently is accompanied
by gingivitis and hyperplastic inflammatory responses. Gingivitis may be
somewhat more frequent during puberty.
Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis (Vincent’s Infection) (Fig. 15-11). This
condition is extremely rare in children, occurring far more commonly in
FIGURE 15—11. Necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. Note de¬

struction of the interdental papillae.
young adults. It is infectious but not contagious. (Most cases of so-called

Vincent’s infection in children are actually acute herpetic gingivostomatitis.)
The condition seems to be associated with lowered resistance and invasion
of the oral tissues by organisms normally present in the mouth, principally
Borrelia vincentii and fusiform bacilli. The interproximal gingival papillae
are destroyed, and a pseudomembrane covers the marginal gingiva. The
gingiva bleeds easily and is painful, and not uncommonly, associated
symptoms include malaise, fever, loss of appetite, and a fetid odor in the
mouth.
The disease is treated by debridement, subgingival curettage, and dilute
(3 per cent) hydrogen peroxide mouthwashes. In addition, if the process is
accompanied by systemic symptoms such as fever, oral administration of
penicillin V is indicated, 25,000 to 50,000 units per kilogram of body weight
per 24 hours divided into four doses. Ordinarily the process, if treated,
subsides within 48 hours. It is important that dental consultation be
recommended for a thorough cleaning of the teeth to prevent recurrence or
for correction of damage to the periodontium.
Gingival Fibromatosis (Fig. 15—12)

Generalized enlargement of the gingiva is often inherited as an autosomal
dominant characteristic. The gingiva seems to enlarge until the permanent
teeth are covered by a hard, firm, painless gingiva that may displace the
teeth. Therapy consists of surgical removal of the hyperplastic tissue.
Recurrence within a year is not uncommon, and repeated gingivectomies
may be required.
Dilantin Gingival Enlargement (Fig. 15-13)

A generalized, painless hyperplasia of the gingiva is associated with
prolonged therapeutic use of Dilantin sodium. In some patients, the gingiva
may actually cover the teeth. The degree of hyperplasia appears to be most
closely related to oral hygiene: the poorer the hygiene, the more pronounced
the enlargement. Gingival surgery may be indicated for severe hyperplasia.
Vigorous tooth brushing and gingival massage, either manual or preferably
with an electric toothbrush, are indicated. Similar enlargement may occur
with cyclosporine A and nifedipine therapy.
FIGURE 15-12. Gingival fibromatosis. This disorder is

frequently inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. In
some patients, the teeth are completely covered by
extremely hard fibrous tissue.
Tetracycline Side Effects

Yellow-gray, bright yellow, gray-brown, or darker discoloration of teeth
which may or may not be accompanied by hypoplasia of the enamel has
been traced to tetracycline therapy during the period of tooth formation.
Tetracyclines have caused tooth defects in children when administered to
mothers in the last trimester of pregnancy, as well as when administered to
the child. The effects are dosage-dependent. Although individual suscepti¬
bility varies, tetracyclines used during periods of tooth formation at levels
exceeding 75 mg/kg of body weight nearly always cause enamel hypoplasia.
As many as 35 per cent of children in a pediatric medical practice have
been noted to demonstrate such changes. Diagnostically, a yellow to yellow-
brown fluorescence is noted under ultraviolet light, peaking at 340 to 370
nm. Although no treatment is usually necessary, severe hypoplasia may
require dental restoration of teeth. Jacket crowns may be desirable in cases
of severe staining. Acid etching of the enamel and resin application may be
employed to esthetically restore the teeth.
In addition to the previously mentioned causes, many systemic conditions
may interfere with matrix formation and calcification. These include rickets,
hypoparathyroidism, and various disorders accompanied by high fever.
Disorders in Tooth Eruption

Primary teeth erupt prematurely about once in 3000 live births. They may
be present at birth (natal teeth) or may erupt within the first month (neonatal
teeth). This disorder may be associated with syndromes such as pachyonychia
congenita, Ellis-van Creveld syndrome, or oculomandibulodyscephaly. If
the teeth are loose or interfere with nursing, they should be gently extracted.
The most common disturbance in the eruption of teeth is caused by
premature loss or extraction of neglected permanent or primary teeth. Loss
of a first permanent molar without subsequent space maintenance may result
in serious malocclusion. Early, premature loss of a primary tooth impairs
mastication and may result in improper eruption or impaction of the
permanent tooth.
Premature Periodontal Destruction

Inflammation of supporting tissues and structures of the teeth such as
gingiva, bone, and periodontal ligament is so rare in children that the
clinician should be alert to its frequently systemic implications. It is seen in
more than 90 per cent of children with Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21). Not
uncommonly in these children there is loss of mandibular incisors because
of alveolar bone loss. Meticulous oral care must be given to children with
this condition. Early loss of anterior deciduous teeth—the permanent den¬
tition is almost always spared—is seen in hypophosphatasia due to lack of
cementum.
Severe periodontal destruction occurs about both deciduous and perma¬
nent teeth in the Papillon-Lefevre syndrome. This is a rare autosomal
recessive condition associated with infantile palmar and plantar hyperkera¬
tosis. Histiocytosis X is frequently associated with periodontal destruction
and early individual tooth loss, especially in the molar areas of the primary
teeth. Most important, children with leukemia or agranulocytosis frequently
present with oral signs resembling periodontitis. This may take the form of
engorged, edematous gingival tissue or periodontitis. The gingiva rapidly
becomes necrotic, with associated exfoliation of teeth.
DISORDERS OF THE ORAL MUCOSA
Geographic Tongue (Fig. 15—14)

This condition is noted in 1 to 6 per cent of the population and, in most
cases, is asymptomatic. The dorsum of the tongue shows characteristic
smooth, shiny, erythematous areas that are slightly depressed below the
surrounding normal papillae. These patches disappear and reappear in
different areas and at different times throughout the person’s life. There
appears to be no treatment for this condition except to reassure the parent
or patient that the disorder is not serious.
Scrotal Tongue (Fig. 15—15)

This condition is characterized by tongue papillae divided into groups and
clumps by small fissures that may not be apparent until the tongue is folded.
There seems to be a linear progression in the prevalence of this entity with
age, being seen in 1 per cent of infants and approximately 2.5 per cent of
children and in 4 per cent of young adults. Scrotal tongue may also be part
of the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome and is also found frequently in
trisomy 21. The condition does not adversely affect the patient, and no
treatment is recommended.
Black Hairy Tongue (Fig. 15—16)

This entity is cnaracterized by an elongation of the filiform papillae and
concurrent growth of a black pigment-producing fungus. The development
15—DiSEASES OF THE ORAL CAVITY 303
of black hairy tongue is often associated with antibiotic therapy. The

condition is harmless and usually disappears spontaneously. Although treat¬
ment is not necessary, frequent application of 20 per cent aqueous caprylate
or 0.25 per cent triamcinolone acetonide in an adhesive base is effective. In
addition, the patient should brush the dorsum of the tongue two or three
times daily.
Herpes Simplex (Fig. 15-17)

Distinction should be made between primary and secondary (recurrent)
disease usually due to herpes simplex, type 1 virus. The type 2 virus is
occasionally the agent in primary oral disease in adults. In the former,
herpetic gingivostomatitis and inoculation herpes simplex are the most
common manifestations. Recurrent herpetic lesions occur in various loca¬
tions, there being a predilection for transitional zones from skin to mucosa
(herpes simplex labialis) and on the fixed gingiva or hard palate.
Primary Herpes Simplex. Primary herpetic gingivostomatitis usually occurs
between one and five years of age and has been estimated to occur in less
than 1 per cent of the population. The incubation period is variable (2 to 20
days) but averages about 6 days. It is rarely observed in adults. As with
primary inoculation herpes, the acute vesicular lesions last from 5 to 7 days
and are accompanied by high fever, dehydration, malaise, nausea, and even
somnolence and convulsions. Initially, the gingiva becomes swollen, with
associated salivation, fetor oris, dysphagia, and painful lymphadenopathy.
FIGURE 15-17. Herpes simplex. A, Acute

herpetic gingivostomatitis. B, Inoculation
herpes simplex on the finger of a dental
hygienist. C, Recurrent herpes simplex.
The oral mucous membranes, especially those of the gingiva and tongue,
are sites of round to oval, sharply demarcated, disseminated vesicles or
erosions. The individual lesions are 2 to 4 mm in diameter, painful, covered
by a yellowish pseudomembrane, and surrounded by a red margin. The
intact vesicle rarely lasts for more than 24 hours.
After about 10 to 14 days, the primary infection subsides without scar
formation. Following a latent period of varying length, often not until after
puberty, secondary or recurrent herpes simplex may develop. Immuno¬
compromised patients may suffer a severe primary infection.
Treatment consists largely of supportive therapy, topical anesthetics such
as 5 per cent Xylocaine (lidocaine) ointment, and enriched liquid diet.
Topical acyclovir (Zovirax) is of limited efficacy.
Inoculation herpes simplex is not uncommon among physicians, dentists,
and dental hygienists, the virus in the saliva of a patient penetrating through
an abrasion of the skin.
Regardless of whether the primary infection is clinical or subclinical,
recurrent herpetic lesions develop later in many persons, being precipitated
by many different factors. Not all individuals suffer from recurrent herpes
simplex. It has been estimated that from 70 to 90 per cent of the population
are carriers of the virus after 14 years of age.
Secondary (Recurrent) Herpes Simplex. The most common form of
herpetic infection, secondary herpes simplex, possibly affects 25 to 50 per
cent of the adult population. After a prodromal period of 24 to 48 hours,
marked by a burning, itching, or tingling sensation in the region of the
forming lesions, the eruption appears. This consists of groups of small clear
vesicles that soon become transformed into pustules or crusted confluent
erosions located most often on the vermilion or mucocutaneous junction of
the upper or lower lip. The infection generally recurs at the same sites.
Secondary herpes simplex may very rarely involve the oral cavity proper
where, in contrast to primary gingivostomatitis, it affects only circumscribed
areas such as the hard palate and fixed gingiva. They appear as grouped
small (1 to 2 mm) ulcers.
A variety of stimuli may precipitate recurrent herpes simplex. These
include fever, sunlight, food allergy, colds, menstruation, mechanical trauma,
and possibly even psychosomatic factors.
Subjective complaints extend from mild itching or burning to severe pain
in addition to the cosmetic inconveniences involved. After four to ten days,
the crusted lesions heal without scarring.
Identification of the herpes simplex virus in either the primary or recurrent
form can be done by viral isolation, fluorescent antibody examination, or
cytologic study (Giemsa smears).
Treatment is largely ineffective. The immunosuppressed patient should be
treated with oral or intravenous acyclovir.
Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis

Aphthous stomatitis is a non- Recurrent aphthous stomatitis (aphthae, canker sores) is a disorder that
viral recurrent ulceration of the affects about 20 per cent of the population. It appears to be at least twice
oral cavity and lips.
as prevalent among professional school student personnel as among the
general population. The disorder is of unknown etiology, although a host of
causes has been blamed, most recently the pleomorphic transitional L form
of alpha-hemolytic streptococci. It is definitely not of viral origin.
Trauma may play some role, since typical aphthae may arise at the site of
injury (needle puncture, “cotton roll” stomatitis). It has been recently
suggested that recurrent aphthous stomatitis represents a form of autoim¬
munity, since autoantibodies to oral mucosal homogenates are found in 70
to 80 per cent of those with recurrent aphthous stomatitis as opposed to 10
per cent of controls. After a burning sensation in the affected mucosa during
the prodromal stage, the mucosa becomes focally erythematous and necrotic,
with formation of single or multiple, round to oval ulcerations usually 2 to
10 mm in diameter, with about 10 per cent being larger than 1 cm. The
ulcer is covered by a grayish white fibrinous exudate and surrounded by a
bright red halo. It usually persists for one or two weeks and heals without
scarring. Xylocaine ointment (5 per cent) is effective in reducing discomfort.
Tetracycline swish and swallow suspensions (250 mg/5 ml q.i.d) also offer
some relief.
Major Aphthae
Major aphthae (periadenitis mucosa necrotica recurrens, Sutton’s disease)
is a disease of unknown cause affecting the oral mucosa; it is characterized
by large (1 to 2 cm) single or multiple necrotic ulcerations of the lips, cheeks,
tongue, soft and hard palates, and anterior tonsillar pillars. Apparently, the
gingiva is rarely, if ever, involved. Ulceration also may occur on the
pharyngeal and laryngeal walls. The condition is recurrent, with multiple
episodes spaced over several years—in some cases, up to 15. After healing,
the ulcer leaves a fibrous retractile scar. Pain and systemic manifestations
are present during the acute state of the disease.
Females are slightly more frequently affected than males. The onset can
take place at any age but is more common around puberty.
Treatment is generally ineffective, but some relief is provided by the use
of 5 per cent Xylocaine ointment. Topically applied 0.05 per cent triamcin¬
olone acetonide or fluocinonide ointment, four to five times per day, is also
helpful.
Herpes Zoster
Herpes zoster is a recurrent neurotrophic manifestation of reactivated
chickenpox virus. Presumably, the virus persists in ganglion cells, becoming
reactivated when immunity has decreased through injuries such as local
trauma, stress, neoplasia, or massive new infection with chickenpox-zoster
virus.
After an incubation period of 4 to 20 days, the disorder appears with a
neuralgic prodromal phase. Within two to three days, grouped vesicles form
in the area innervated by the involved nerve. When the face is affected, as
in zoster ophthalmicus or zoster oticus (Ramsay Hunt syndrome), the pain
is especially severe, and general prodromal symptoms such as fever and
nausea are marked. With the appearance of the vesicles, rarely before, a
painful regional lymphadenitis develops. Herpes zoster occurs more com¬
monly in males than in females and principally affects individuals over 45
years of age.
In herpes zoster of the cranial nerves, several types can be distinguished:
(1) trigeminal type (attack of the gasserian ganglion with involvement of one
or more branches), (2) zoster oticus (attack on the geniculate ganglion), (3)
zoster of the glossopharyngeal nerve, (4) zoster of the vagus nerve, and
other segmental types. Ophthalmic zoster is especially dangerous, since the
conjunctiva and cornea are often involved, and iritis, glaucoma, and even
panophthalmitis may occur.
On the oral mucosa, the lesions are more diffuse. The unilocular zoster
vesicle is especially short-lived. It rapidly changes into a painful aphtha
surrounded by a red halo. When the second trigeminal division is involved,
unilateral vesicles appear on the palate, uvula, maxillary gingiva, and upper
buccal and labial mucosa. Involvement of the lower lip, mandibular gingiva,
and oral floor is seen in third division zoster.
Postzoster neuralgias are extremely painful for months or even years,
especially in elderly persons. A combination of anesthesia or hypesthesia of
the affected segment, often with very severe neuralgia, is especially distress¬
ing. In addition, herpes zoster may simulate lancinating trigeminal neuralgia.
In the immunocompromised patient, intravenous acyclovir or vidarabine
affords help. However, in the immunocompetent patient, the disorder will
run its course and help is largely supportive.
Pemphigus
A bullous disease of autoimmune etiology, pemphigus can be subdivided
into many clinical types, all of which are histologically characterized by
intraepithelial vesicles or bullae. Immunofluorescent studies have demon¬
strated autoantibodies to the intercellular cement substance of the stratified
squamous epithelium of the oral mucosa and skin of patients with pemphigus.
Areas involved by pemphigus, The most severe type, pemphigus vulgaris, often resulted in rapid death
especially the larynx, can heal prior to the use of corticosteroids. It occurs almost exclusively in middle-
with cicatricial formation.
aged and elderly persons and has no sex predilection. Lesions start in the
mouth in 50 per cent of the patients, and there is oral involvement at some
stage in the disease in all patients. The pharynx, larynx, and nasal, anal,
and vaginal mucosae are also involved. Vesicles and bullae tend to arise on
relatively normal-appearing skin and may be precipitated by pressure or
friction (Nikolsky’s sign). They are ordinarily tense and round but do not
last long on a mucosal surface. They rupture, leaving peripheral epithelial
tags.
Microscopically, the vesicle is usually suprabasilar and contains acantho-
lytic cells as well as variable numbers of nonspecific inflammatory cells,
among which there is a moderate number of eosinophils.
Various immunosuppressive agents, alone or in combination, are successful
(prednisone, methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, azathioprine). A soft diet
and topical Xylocaine can be used until control is achieved.
Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid

This disorder, also known as cicatricial pemphigoid, is a chronic vesicu-
lobullous disease of autoimmune etiology. It involves primarily oral and
ocular mucous membranes. It is characterized by bullae or erosions, or both,
the ocular lesions tending to heal with scarring, which, if unattended, may
lead to blindness.
The oral lesions are present in 90 to 100 per cent of the patients. They
occur most commonly during the seventh decade. There may be some female
predilection. The oral lesions frequently present as a desquamative gingivitis.
Minor trauma wipes away the epithelium, leaving a raw hemorrhagic surface.
The vesicles that occur on the buccal mucosa, tongue, or soft palate are
more stable than those of pemphigus, the split taking place at the basal
lamina. In contrast to pemphigus, there is no acantholysis and frequently
there is a moderate, chronic, inflammatory infiltrate in the subepithelial
connective tissue. Immunofluorescent studies show linear deposition of
complement and immunoglobulins in the basement membrane zone.
Ocular lesions appear late in the disease process. There is redness,
swelling, burning, tearing, and photophobia. The patient often complains of
a foreign body sensation. Fibrous adhesions develop between the palpebral
and bulbar conjunctivae. Scarring produces trichiasis, entropion, and corneal
damage with resultant blindness.
As in the case of pemphigus, various immunosuppressive agents such as
prednisone or azathioprine may be employed.
Erythema Multiforme (Fig. 15—18)

Erythema multiforme is an acute, recurrent, self-limited eruption of skin
and mucous membranes. The disorder is probably a hypersensitivity reaction.
It is characterized by various clinical types of lesions, including bullae,
vesicles, papules, macules, and wheals. When vesicles and bullae predomi¬
nate, the disease is known as erythema multiforme bullosum. The mucous
membranes (oral, ocular, vulvovaginal, and urethral), as well as joints, may
be involved in more severe disease. In some patients, the lesions are
FIGURE 15-18. Erythema multiforme. A, Note generalized involve¬

ment of skin, a well as lips, tongue, and other areas. B, Oral mucosa
is extremely fragile and looks scalded.
restricted to the mucous membranes. Stevens-Johnson syndrome is a severe

form of bullous erythema multiforme characterized by a toxic, acute, febrile
course. Precipitating factors include viral disorders, especially herpes simplex
and Mycoplasma infections, and many drugs but especially long-acting
sulfonamides. In our experience a short tapering course of systemic corti¬
costeroids with an initial dose of 40 to 60 mg/day is helpful.
White Lesions of the Oral Mucosa

A change in color of the normally reddish oral mucosa to white constitutes
one of the most frequently encountered oral abnormalities. The term
leukoplakia has been used so differently by so many that it has come to
signify only a “white patch” that does not rub away.
Increased retention and production of keratin by mucosal stratified squa¬
mous epithelium constitute the most frequent cause of white patches of the
oral cavity. This is termed hyperkeratosis and may be associated with chronic
mechanical irritation and other factors. Biopsies of oral white patches may
demonstrate cytologic alterations of such a degree as to warrant consideration
as “premalignant these changes include those of dyskeratosis—abnormal
nuclear shapes and size and increased numbers of mitotic figures.
Lichen Planus (Fig. 15—19)

The oral lesions that are present in 30 to 40 per cent of the patients with
cutaneous lichen planus appear on the buccal mucosa, tongue, gingiva, and
lips. In approximately 25 per cent of the cases only oral lesions are present.
They may precede the appearance of cutaneous lesions by several years.
The typical buccal and labial mucosal lesions present as a fine lacework
of white reticular hyperkeratotic papules (Wickham’s striae) and gray plaque¬
like or annular lesions on the dorsum of the tongue. On the buccal mucosa,
dorsum of £|a"USVA Note ^ lace"like striae on the buccal mucosa. B, Whitish plaques on th
dorsum of the tongue. Note striae on the lateral borders.
the lesions originate in the posterior area and spread anteriorly. Generally,
they are asymptomatic, although a metallic taste or mild discomfort is
common. Superficial erosions, bullous lesions, and deep, chronic, painful
ulcerations occasionally occur.
Candidiasis (Fig. 15-20)

Candida albicans is universal and can be found in about 35 per cent of
oral smears taken routinely from patients. Newborns may be infected by
mothers with candidiasis of the vaginal tract. Neonatal monilial stomatitis
usually becomes evident on the fifth to sixth postpartum day. Candida
albicans has been identified in the mouths of up to 40 per cent of newborn
infants.
The presence of Candida albicans, however, does not necessarily signify
clinical candidiasis. To become virulent, the infection must be promoted by
various factors such as age (infants, elderly persons), hormonal status
(diabetes, pregnancy), and heredity. Moreover, local factors are important
such as edentulousness, ill-fitting dentures, and in general, lowered body
resistance due to such conditions as malabsorption, systemic malignancy,
uremia, and various chronic infections. In recent years, the extensive
therapeutic use of antibiotics has led to an increase in Candida infections of
the mouth, respiratory and digestive tracts, and skin, especially in the
anogenital area. Oral candidiasis may be diffuse or localized as angular
cheilosis, superficial monilial stomatitis, denture stomatitis, and deep granu¬
lomatous candidiasis.
In superficial monilial stomatitis, the clinical picture ranges from mild
erythema with fine, whitish deposits to diffuse, inflamed “white mouth.” In
infants, the first changes appear on the anterior dorsal third, edges, and
ventral surfaces of the tongue and later in the oral vestibule. The lesions,
resembling snow-white, curdled milk, can present as strips, plaques, and
diffuse pseudomembranes and usually can be removed more easily than a
FIGURE 15—20. Candidiasis. Note exten¬

sive white plaques involving the buccal
mucosa and the ventral surface of the
tongue.
diphtheritic membrane. Generally, the easier the mechanical removal, the

more superficial and less harmful the epithelial invasion. The white spots
are composed of a dense matting of Candida albicans together with cell
detritus, residual food particles, and bacteria. The surface of the lesions has
a velvety appearance, whereas the adjacent mucous membrane appears dark
red and moderately swollen.
In denture stomatitis, the patient complains of swelling, sensitivity, and
pain of the oral mucous membrane at points of denture contact.
The treatment of oral candidal stomatitis consists of improved oral hygiene
and nutritional status (especially serum iron), correction of the irritating
factor, correction of the underlying disorder where possible, and the use of
oral nystatin suspension, ointment, or tablets. Clotrimazole troches (10 mg
q.i.d.) may also be used.
Halitosis
Halitosis (fetor oris), or bad breath, is a common complaint. Offensive
mouth odor depends upon many factors such as decreased salivary flow rate
resulting in mucosal dryness (due to antihistamines, Sjogren’s syndrome,
astringent mouthwashes, radiation sialoadenitis); poor oral hygiene (food
remnants, unclean dentures); odoriferous foods (garlic, onion, fatty diet);
periodontal disorders, especially if there is marked tissue destruction (per¬
iodontitis, necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis); necrotic soft tissue lesions; and
heavy smoking.
Rarely a systemic cause can be implicated, such as the fetid odor of a
disorder of the respiratory system, the acetone breath of uncontrolled
diabetes mellitus, or the ammoniacal odor of uremia.
The efficacy of a mouthwash is only transient. The cause of the halitosis
must be eliminated.
ORAL TUMORS
Odontogenic Tumors
The more common odontogenic tumors will be discussed in this section
(Table 15-2).
__TABLE 15-2. ODONTOGENIC TUMORS

Benign tumors
Ameloblastoma
Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor
Calcifying epithelial odontogenic tumor
Ameloblastic fibroma
Odontomas
Cementomas
Myxoma
Malignant tumors
Ameloblastic carcinoma (malignant ameloblastoma)
Ameloblastic fibrosarcoma
From Gorlin RJ: In Anderson’s Pathology (JM Kissane, ed): Vol 2. 8th ed. St Louis, The CV Mosbv Co
FIGURE 15-21. Ameloblastoma. A, Multilocular radiolucency of the mandible. B, Follicular ameloblastoma.

Note that the pattern simulates that of tooth formation.
Ameloblastoma (Fig. 1 5-21)

Ameloblastoma has a relatively low incidence, comprising only about 1
per cent of the tumors and cysts of the jaws. Several origins have been
suggested, including the epithelial lining of a dentigerous cyst, the remnants
of the dental lamina of the enamel organ, and the basal layer of the oral
mucous membrane.
The ameloblastoma most commonly occurs in the age group of 20 to 49
years, with the average age of initial diagnosis being about 39 years. Although
at least one third of the tumors have a duration of two years or less prior to
diagnosis, some have been present for more than 50 years.
The tumor arises in the mandible in more than 90 per cent of the cases,
and 70 per cent of these have been in the molar-ramus area. About 10 to 15
per cent are associated with an unerupted tooth. In the maxilla, the canine
and antral areas seem especially susceptible. Tumors encountered in this
location may extend into the maxillary sinus, nose, orbit, or even the cranial
base.
Because of the tumor’s relative insensitivity to radiation therapy, surgical
resection or even hemisection remains the treatment of choice. Rarely has
the tumor metastasized.
Adenomatoid Odontogenic Tumor

Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor has been reported under a variety of
names: adenoameloblastoma, ameloblastic adenomatoid tumor, and odon¬
togenic adenomatoid tumor. This tumor is somewhat more common in
females and usually occurs in the second decade of life. More than 90 per
cent of affected individuals have been between ages 12 and 30. It arises
somewhat more frequently in the maxilla and predominantly (over 90 per
cent) in the anterior region of both jaws. In about three fourths of the
patients, it is associated with an unerupted tooth, most often a canine and
far less frequently a maxillary lateral incisor or mandibular first premolar.
Radiographically, it is most frequently radiolucent, resembling a dentig¬
erous cyst or lateral periodontal cyst. The tumor expands the cortical plate
but is not invasive and surgically “shells out” easily.
Calcifying Epithelial Odontogenic Tumor

The calcifying epithelial odontogenic tumor may be invasive and locally
recurrent, behaving similarly to the ameloblastoma. As the tumor grows, it
expands the surrounding bony structures and produces noticeable swelling.
It occurs in the same age group (20 to 49 years) as the ameloblastoma.
About 75 per cent of these tumors have arisen in the mandible, with the
majority in the premolar-molar area. The radiographic appearance has
usually been a combination of radiolucency and radiopacity, with numerous
dense islands of various sizes scattered throughout.
Ameloblastic Fibroma
The vast majority of patients with this tumor nave been between ages 5
and 20 years.
This tumor usually produces painless, asymptomatic, slow expansion of
the cortical plates of the premolar-molar area of the maxilla or, far more
frequently, the mandible. Radiographically, it is a smooth, outlined, cystlike
lesion that cannot be differentiated from the unilocular ameloblastoma.
Ameloblastic Odontoma
Ameloblastic odontoma is characterized by the simultaneous occurrence
of ameloblastoma and a complex or compound odontoma within the same
tumor.
With few exceptions, the tumor is found in children, over 90 per cent of
the patients being under age 15. It is more common in males and is found
somewhat more frequently in the maxilla.
Growth is slow and often is associated with swelling of the alveolar
process. Radiographs reveal areas of cystlike destruction.
Complex Odontoma
Complex odontoma differs from ameloblastic odontoma by the virtual
absence of ameloblastic tissue. In normal tooth development, degeneration
of the dental lamina occurs soon after hard tissue formation, and the complex
odontoma corresponds to this more complete stage of induction. At least 70
per cent occur in the second and third molar area and are somewhat more
common in the mandible. Usually they are asymptomatic and are found on
routine dental radiographic examination. They appear as irregular radiopac-
ities surrounded by a narrow radiolucent band.
Compound Odontoma (Fig. 1 5-22)

The compound odontoma differs from the complex odontoma in having a
high degree of morphologic and histologic differentiation. However, the
morphologic appearance may differ considerably from case to case, and it
may be difficult to decide whether one is dealing with a complex or. a
compound odontoma. When the calcified structures exhibit sufficient ana¬
tomic similarity to normal teeth, although the teeth be small and deformed,
the tumor is called compound.
At least 60 per cent of these tumors are diagnosed in the second and third
decades. In contrast to the complex type, the vast majority of compound
odontomas occur in the incisor-canine region of the upper jaw. The tumor
is small and nonaggressive. It is usually diagnosed on routine dental x-ray
examination.
I 5—DISEASES OF THE ORAL CAVITY 313
FIGURE 15—22. Compound odontoma. Several small teeth can be

seen in the area between the lower lateral incisor and the canine
tooth.
Myxoma
The myxoma (myxofibroma) of the jaw is a locally aggressive, nonmetas¬
tasizing tumor of odontogenic origin, probably arising from the connective
tissue of the dental papilla.
Only rarely does the myxoma occur before the age of 10 years or after
age 50. Approximately 60 per cent arise within the second and third decades.
The tumor is slow-growing, and, on the average, it has been present for
about five years prior to therapy.
Radiographically, differentiation from other jaw radiolucencies is difficult,
if not impossible, and this lesion cannot easily be distinguished from fibrous
dysplasia, central giant cell granuloma, or ameloblastoma. The tumor is not
well defined but tends to be honeycombed, perforating the cortex of the jaw
only if it reaches great size. In the mandible, it involves the ramus and body
with equal frequency. Those tumors that arise in the maxilla may perforate
and invade the antrum, filling it completely and producing exophthalmos.
The antral walls are expanded but seldom are destroyed. The teeth are often
displaced.
Cementoma
Cementoma most commonly involves the periapical regions of the man¬
dibular anterior teeth. The frequency is roughly 2 to 3 per 1000 patients,
with 70 to 90 per cent occurring in females.
The average age at which the lesion is discovered is about 40 years. Only
rarely is it seen in persons under 25 years of age and almost never below
the age of 20 years. It is more common in blacks than in whites.
The teeth involved are nearly always mandibular. The lesions are often
multiple, and some individuals have as many as eight mandibular teeth
involved. Because of a lack of symptoms, diagnosis is usually made during
routine dental radiographic examination.
Nonodontogenic Tumors
Numerous types of benign and malignant neoplasms may occur in the oral
regions. Two of the more fascinating benign tumors seen in infancy are the
melanotic neuroectodermal tumor of neural crest origin and the congenital
epulis, which is a granular cell myoblastoma.
Congenital Epulis
This benign tumor is present at birth; it is usually pedunculated and
located on the maxillary or mandibular gingiva, generally in the anterior
region. It is limited almost exclusively to females. Histologically, it is similar
to a granular cell myoblastoma (schwannoma) but without associated pseu-
doepitheliomatous hyperplasia. Treatment consists of simple surgical exci¬
sion.
Pigmented Neuroectodermal Tumor of

Neural Crest Origin
This benign tumor usually occurs in the anterior maxillary gingiva of
infants less than six months of age. It may grow rapidly and is usually deeply
pigmented. Surgical excision is necessary. Even though it is benign, postsur-
gical recurrence has been noted in about 10 per cent of cases.
BONE DISORDERS AFFECTING THE JAWS
Only the more frequently occurring disorders will be reviewed here.
Fibrous Dysplasia (Fig. 15-23)

Fibrous dysplasia may involve only a single bone (monostotic) or several
bones (polyostotic). The monostotic type is by far the more frequent and
more often affects females in childhood or in early adolescence. In about 10
to 15 per cent of cases of monostotic fibrous dysplasia the skull or jaw is
involved. Rarely, the polyostotic form may be associated with precocious
puberty and cafe au lait pigmentation (McCune-Albright syndrome).
With polyostotic involvement, more often bilateral, the bones most fre¬
quently involved are the femur, tibia, fibula, and pelvic bones. Less often,
the bones of the upper extremity are involved. In general, about 15 per cent
of patients with the polyostotic form have jaw involvement. With severe
polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, the skull or facial bones are almost always
involved.
The process, which usually begins in childhood, tends to “burn out” during
late adolescence, and surgical intervention is best delayed until that time. In
no case should radiation be employed, since it predisposes to malignant
development.
The maxilla is more frequently involved than the mandible, and the lesion
is usually monostotic. The mass is hard and rounded, producing a painless,
nontender facial asymmetry and, at times, exophthalmos or nasal obstruc¬
tion.
Radiographically, the jaw lesion is dense, resembling ground glass with
poor demarcation from normal bone. Microscopically, the lesion is composed
of bone trabeculae in a fibrous connective tissue stroma.
FIGURE 15-23. Fibrous dysplasia. A, Asymmetry of the face with swelling beneath the left eye. B, Ground
glass appearance of the lesion in the patient shown in A.
Infantile Cortical Hyperostosis

This relatively rare disorder is probably inherited as an autosomal domi¬
nant trait. Typically, an affected child two to four months of age manifests
bilateral, tender soft-tissue swelling over the mandibular rami. Other bones
may be affected. Pain, fever, and irritability are common and may precede
the swelling and bone involvement. Anemia, leukocytosis, and an elevated
sedimentation rate are frequent findings. Radiographic examination shows
thickening of the periosteum and new bone formation. The disorder is self-
limiting. and surgical intervention is not warranted.
ACUTE TRAUMA OF DENTAL AND ORAL TISSUES
Hemorrhage
Oral hemorrhage usually results from acute trauma. Rarely, unusual
bleeding may follow minor oral surgical procedures, such as tooth extraction.
All wounds are managed by examination and debridement of necrotic tissue
and foreign material. Primary closure or application of folded sterile gauze
pressure dressings for 15 to 45 minutes is usually sufficient. The mouth
should not be rinsed, since clots are easily dislodged from their moist
environment. The application of warm, moistened tea bags or absorbable
gelatin sponge cut to size and saturated with thrombin has also been used
for persistent bleeding.
Tooth Fracture
If a tooth receives a severe, sharp blow, fracture often occurs. This fracture
may be visible and involve the clinical crown of the tooth, or it may not be
clinically demonstrable if it involves the invested or root portion. In either
instance, dental consultation should be immediate. It should be emphasized
that the physician should recommend that the child see the family dentist or
pedodontist within the shortest time possible.
Fractures of the crowns of teeth are treated by covering surfaces with a
protective, crown-shaped plastic or metallic cap. The cap is secured in
position by a mixture, such as zinc oxide and eugenol, which minimizes pulp
hyperemia and protects against irritation by thermal and chemical factors. If
fracture of the tooth crown involves the pulp portion, treatment consists of
pulp removal with sealing (ideally), pulpotomy (slightly less successful), or
extraction.
Root fractures, although rare in primary teeth, are immobilized in situ by
supportive wire ligation of affected and neighboring teeth.
It is worth emphasizing that early dentition performs a valuable space-
maintaining function for the subsequent permanent dentition. Early loss of
primary teeth adversely affects the development of a properly aligned
permanent dentition.
Tooth Displacement or Loss: Replantation

Intrusion or forceful impaction of primary maxillary incisors is common
during the first three years of life. The entire clinical crown may become
embedded in bone and soft tissue. Primary attention should be given to
treatment of the soft tissues. No attempt should be made to reposition the
teeth after the accident. A dental radiogram should be made to detect
fracture of the root or alveolar process. It is almost never possible to predict
with accuracy whether injury has occurred to the underlying permanent
successor. Intruded teeth usually re-erupt within one month after injury.
Over half of the teeth will be retained; the rest undergo either pulpal necrosis
or inflammatory resorption.
Displaced, but not intruded, permanent (not deciduous) teeth are reposi¬
tioned. If the teeth are severely loosened, prognosis is poor, especially if the
roots are completely formed, and the teeth are permanent.
Replantation of an avulsed permanent tooth is usually unsuccessful, since
it will probably undergo subsequent resorption. However, replantation is
still recommended, since the tooth is occasionally retained and will serve as
a space maintainer. The tooth is gently cleansed, care being taken not to
remove adherent periodontal ligament. The tooth is then placed in mild
antiseptic solution, and the child is referred to a dentist for root canal filling
of the tooth, replantation and splint construction for immobilization.
References
Gorlin RJ, Goldman HM: Thoma’s Oral Pathology. 6th ed. St Louis, The CV Mosby Co, 1970.
Gorlin RJ, Cohen MM Jr, Levin S: Syndromes of the Head and Neck. 3rd ed. New York,
Oxford University Press, 1989.
Shafer W, Hine M, Levy BM: Textbook of Oral Pathology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders
Co, 1983.
16
DISORDERS OF
THE SALIVARY GLANDS
by George L. Adams, M.D.
ANATOMY
The parotid gland is the largest of the major salivary glands and occupies
the space just anterior to the mastoid process and external auditory meatus.
Anteriorly, it lies lateral to the ascending ramus of the mandible and masseter
muscle. Inferiorly, it abuts on the sternocleidomastoid muscle and covers The facial nerve artificially di¬
the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. It is separated from the subman¬ vides the parotid gland into su¬
perficial and deep portions.
dibular gland by the stylomandibular ligament. The deep portion of the
parotid gland extends posteriorly and medial to the ascending ramus of the
mandible and is known as the retromandibular extension. It is this portion
of the gland which is in close contact with the parapharyngeal space.
The facial nerve leaves the skull through the stylomastoid foramen and
passes anteriorly just lateral to the styloid process. The nerve then enters
the substance of the parotid gland and divides into two major trunks, the
cervicofacial and the temporofacial. The temporofacial division then sepa¬
rates into the temporal and zygomatic branches, while the cervicofacial gives
off the cervical branches, marginal mandibular division, and buccal division,
which passes anteriorly just below the parotid duct. Passage of the facial
nerve through the substance of the parotid gland divides the gland, for
clinical purposes, into a superficial lobe and that portion medial to the facial The deep lobe of the parotid is
nerve known as the deep lobe. It is the deep lobe that lies in close contact in close proximity to both the
internal and external carotid
with the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth cranial nerves and the division
arteries.
of the external carotid artery into the superficial temporal and internal
maxillary arteries.
The parotid duct is approximately 6 cm long and arises from the anterior
portion of the gland. It crosses the masseter muscle and turns sharply over
the anterior border of the muscle to pierce the buccinator muscle. It then
continues for a short distance in the submucosal tissues of the mouth and
enters the oral cavity through a small papilla just opposite the crown of the
second upper molar tooth.
The submandibular (submaxillary) gland lies beneath the horizontal ramus
of the mandible and is enclosed by a thin layer of connective tissue. It lies
entirely within the digastric triangle formed by the anterior and posterior
bellies of the digastric muscle. Medially it is bordered by the styloglossus
and hyoglossus muscles, and anteriorly it is limited by the mylohyoid muscle.
317
The more medial portion of the gland is closely associated with the floor of
the mouth. The submandibular duct (Wharton’s duct) is also 6 cm in length.
It passes between the mylohyoid and hyoglossus muscles just medial to the
sublingual gland and enters the mouth just lateral to the lingular frenulum.
The paired sublingual glands lie just beneath the anterior floor of the
mouth and are actually large collections of minor salivary glands. Secreted
saliva enters the floor of the mouth through multiple short ducts.
The sublingual and submandibular glands are mixed glands in that they
contain both serous and mucous glandular elements. The parotid gland
contains almost entirely serous elements. In the resting state the submandib¬
ular gland produces approximately two thirds of the saliva, and the parotid
glands supply approximately one third of the saliva.
Salivary response to stimulation is dependent upon neural reflexes carried
along the parasympathetic nervous system. The parasympathetic supply of
Jacobson’s nerve, a division of the parotid gland begins in the inferior salivatory nucleus. The fibers leave
the ninth cranial nerve, passes
across the promontory of the
the brain through the glossopharyngeal nerve and pass through the middle
middle ear. ear, crossing the promontory in Jacobson’s nerve. In the tympanic plexus,
they enter the lesser petrosal nerve and thereby reach the otic ganglion.
Postganglionic fibers from the otic ganglion reach the parotid gland through
the auricular temporal division of the fifth nerve. The parasympathetic
supply of the submandibular gland arises in the superior salivatory nucleus.
The fibers enter the nervus intermedius (nerve of Wrisberg) and follow the
facial nerve into its vertical portion in the mastoid. The fibers then leave the
seventh nerve in the chorda tympani, pass through the middle ear, and join
the lingual nerve. The fibers follow the lingual nerve to a small ganglion
closely associated with the submandibular gland. Postganglionic fibers leave
the submandibular ganglion to pass to the substance of the gland. Because
sectioning of the chorda tympani nerve and Jacobson’s nerve does not always
reduce salivary secretion, other pathways of parasympathetic nerve supply
to the glands must exist. It is suggested that these pathways involve the
hypoglossal and glossopharyngeal nerves. The sympathetic nerve supply to
the major salivary glands is from the superior cervical ganglion by way of
the arterial plexus. Sympathetic stimulation of the major salivary glands is
reported to cause an increased flow followed by a compensatory decrease in
flow. Since there are no muscle elements within the glands themselves, it is
believed that this increase in flow may be due to contraction of the
myoepithelial, or basket, cells associated with the striated ducts.
INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS
Acute Parotitis
The most common form of acute parotid swelling is mumps. Without a
history of exposure, the diagnosis may not be easy. The white blood cell
Mumps can cause sensorineural count may be low, and there may be a relative lymphocytosis. Serum amylase
hearing loss.
may be elevated. The mumps vaccine should reduce the incidence of this
disorder and its possible complications of orchitis, oophoritis, pancreatitis,
sensorineural hearing loss, and encephalitis. Another form of parotid swelling
which occurs in children is recurrent sialadenitis. This disorder may occur at
any time from the age of one month through late childhood and is charac-
16—DISORDERS OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS 319
terized by inflammation of one or both glands. Pus can be expressed from

Stensen’s duct, and pneumococci have been present on culture. Sialographic
studies will reveal dilatation of the peripheral ducts.
Acute suppurative parotitis is characterized by a sudden onset of pain,
redness, and swelling of the parotid region. It may occur postoperatively
and usually is seen in debilitated or elderly persons who may be partially
dehydrated. Poor oral hygiene may also be associated with this entity, and
it is probable that there is a retrograde infection from the oral cavity to the
parotid gland. Almost always the responsible organism is coagulase-positive
Staphylococcus aureus. Because of the urgency of the situation, immediate
treatment with intravenous antibiotics is necessary. Cultures are prepared
from the purulent secretions expressed from the parotid duct, but until
culture results are available, treatment with a penicillinase-resistant antibiotic
is initiated. Correction of the dehydration is instituted, warm packs and
analgesics are given for symptomatic relief, and proper oral hygiene is
provided. Generally the inflammation shows evidence of subsidence over
the next 48 hours. If there is evidence of progression of the infection, in
spite of adequate medical management, surgical drainage may be necessary.
An incision similar to that utilized for parotidectomy is made, and the skin
and subcutaneous tissue are elevated from the capsule of the gland. Several Because a parotid abscess is
incisions through the capsule of the gland are then made parallel to the often loculated, a series of inci¬
sions into the glandular tissue
major divisions of the facial nerve in order to drain all loculated areas of parallel to the pathways of the
pus. Drains are inserted in the wound, and it is approximated but not closed. facial nerve may be required.
Radiation therapy in the range of 400 to 600 rads total dosage at the rate of
200 rads per day has been utilized to diminish the parotid secretions and
thereby reduce the inflammation. This additional treatment is most helpful
when initiated within the first 48 hours of the inflammation.
Acute Submandibular Gland Sialadenitis
Suppurative sialadenitis is less common in the submandibular gland unless

there is an obstructive component secondary to either a salivary calculus or
trauma to the gland or its duct. Whenever there is suppuration involving the
submandibular space, dental evaluation is also necessary. The acute infection Excision of the submandibular
is managed by obtaining a culture of the purulent secretions expressed from gland in the presence of acute
inflammation is difficult.
Wharton’s duct. Appropriate antibiotics are utilized, and heat is applied to
the submandibular area for relief of discomfort.
Chronic Sialadenitis
Chronic sialadenitis is a general term applied to long-standing, frequently

recurring episodes of glandular swelling and discomfort of the major salivary
glands. The etiology of such chronic inflammation can be in the gland
parenchyma or in the ductal system, such as a stone. The terms given to
describe these disorders reflect either their underlying cause, radiographic
appearance demonstrated by sialography, which is injection of a dye into
the major salivary duct, or pathologic appearance.
Chronic sialadenitis of the parotid gland, associated with recurrent calculi,
mucous plugs, or strictures, is known as sialodochiectasis (Fig. 16-1). Chronic
nonobstructive sialodochiectasis or sialectasis may involve one or all of the
major salivary glands. The parotid gland is most frequently involved, and
in ct Tttanss sup upfes er* ie-7-sz
FIGURE 16-1. A, Right parotid area mass, not obviously

in parotid gland. B, Ultrasonogram demonstrating cystic
appearance of mass. C, Axial CT scan with intravenous
contrast shows a large mass in the parotid region. D,
Sialogram demonstrates chronic sialadenitis and sialo¬
dochitis (destruction and inflammation of parotid ducts).
E, CT scan combined with sialogram shows that the mass
has displaced the parotid gland laterally and actually lies
deeper in the neck.
the symptoms include recurrent swelling and pain over the parotid region.
A very viscous salivary secretion can be expressed from the duct by applying
pressure over the gland. Calculi are not present. Sialography performed in
the quiescent phase shows a characteristic picture with degenerative changes
in the tubular ducts suggestive of the bronchogram findings seen in bron¬
chiectasis. Symptoms and pathologic characteristics may vary from mild
initial changes to severe chronic changes, by which time the gland has
become firm and enlarged as a result of numerous repeated infections.
In certain situations when there are repeated episodes and the cause of
obstruction of the salivary gland is not evident, dilatation of the duct is
performed. After application of a local anesthetic, such as 4 per cent topical
cocaine or lidocaine (Xylocaine), lacrimal duct probes of increasing size are
introduced into the duct throught the papillae. The stricture in the duct may
be found and can be dilated. Occasionally there will be a sudden flow of
saliva from the gland when the obstruction is released. The procedure can
then be followed by a sialogram, introducing a small polyethylene tube into
the dilated duct orifice. A sialogram may help to further elicit the cause of
the recurrent obstruction.
When there is advanced chronic sialadenitis that no longer responds to Surgical treatment of chronic
medical management, it may become necessary to perform a parotidectomy. parotitis may include tympanic
neurectomy, parotid duct liga¬
Parotidectomy under such circumstances may be difficult, and the possibility tion, and parotidectomy.
of injury to the facial nerve is increased. Because of these risks, other
procedures have been developed in an effort to avoid parotidectomy. These
methods include ligation of the parotid duct (which is expected to cause
atrophy of the gland) and sectioning of Jacobson’s nerve on the promontory
of the middle ear through an endaural approach, thereby interrupting the
parasympathetic supply to the parotid gland.
Salivary gland calculi (sialolithiasis) occur far more commonly in the
submandibular gland than in the parotid gland. Ninety per cent of subman¬
dibular gland stones are radiopaque, while in the parotid gland, only 10 per
cent are identifiable on a scout film. There may be either a single large stone
or multiple small pieces of gravel. Symptoms include the sudden onset of
swelling and pain over the submandibular region, usually shortly after a
meal. Fever occurs when infection develops behind the obstruction. Treat¬
ment in the acute phase may require surgical removal of the salivary calculus
from the duct as it passes along the floor of the mouth. Occasionally the
stone may be milked out of the duct until it appears at the lingual papillae
adjacent to the frenulum. At other times, following administration of a local
anesthetic, an incision is made directly onto the stone for its removal.
Initially it may be necessary to obtain a culture, treat with antibiotics, and
wait until the acute phase subsides before any manipulation of the duct can
be attempted.
Recurrent sialadenitis of the submandibular gland is more frequently Surgical treatment of chronic
treated by surgical resection of the gland, and this is a less hazardous submandibular gland sialadeni¬
tis requires submandibular
procedure than parotidectomy under similar circumstances. Here, care is
gland resection including the
taken to preserve the marginal mandibular division of the facial nerve, the duct.
hypoglossal nerve, and the lingual nerve, all of which lie in close proximity
to the enlarged, chronically infected gland.
SYSTEMIC DISEASE
The parotid glands are the salivary glands most often involved in systemic
illnesses. The following are notable examples of systemic disease involving
salivary glands.
Sarcoidosis involving the parotid glands is referred to as Heerfordt’s
syndrome, or uveoparotid fever. The gland becomes diffusely swollen with
slight tenderness. Facial nerve paralysis can occur. The term uveoparotid
fever is used because of the possible coexistence of uveitis. Other systemic
manifestations of sarcoidosis such as hypercalcemia, enlarged liver and
spleen, enlarged cervical nodes, and enlarged hilar nodes as demonstrated
by chest radiographs may be present. Definitive diagnosis is made by biopsy.
The only treatment available at the present time consists of administration
of systemic steroids.
Benign lymphoepithelial disease of the salivary glands is a specific type of

chronic punctate parotitis. It occurs almost exclusively in women and is
believed to represent an autoimmune disease process. It is often associated
with rheumatoid disorders. Clinically it presents with recurrent episodes of
noncalculous chronic parotitis. The sialogram presents an almost pathogno¬
monic picture of the punctate parotitis, or little dots of contrast material
distributed through the parenchyma of the gland. The pathologic appearance
is that of dilated ducts with lymphocyte infiltration and eventual acinar
atrophy. With the progressive destruction of the glandular substance, oral
dryness develops.
Sjogren’s syndrome includes the chronic parotitis associated with at least
two or three additional entities. Patients must have xerophthalmia or
xerostomia or an associated rheumatoid disorder, most often rheumatoid
arthritis. While the disease process involves primarily the parotid gland, the
minor salivary glands also are involved. Thus a lip biopsy may demonstrate
the same pathologic findings in the minor salivary glands as are seen in the
parotid. These pathologic findings are similar to those seen in biliary cirrhosis
and graft-versus-host disease. Treatment is almost always nonsurgical unless
the chronic parotitis cannot be resolved medically, or there is a suspicion of
There is a significant increased an additional parotid neoplasm. Sjogren’s disease is associated with a 44
rate of lymphoma development times higher incidence of developing lymphoma than in the general popula¬
in patients with Sjogren’s syn¬
drome. tion. The associated lymphoma is in extraparotid nodal sites, however.
Other causes of salivary gland enlargement include such systemic disorders
as diabetes mellitus. Enlargement has been associated with certain drugs,
particularly iodine compounds. Enlargement of the parotid gland should be
distinguished from benign hypertrophy of the masseter muscle.
SIALORRHEA
Sialorrhea, or drooling, occurs in certain advanced neurologic disorders

such as cerebral palsy, demyelinating disorders, and Parkinson’s disease. It
is also seen after certain major operations for head and neck cancer. There
is not an increase in the actual amount of saliva formed, but there is an
inability of the patient to handle the saliva that builds up in the anterior
mouth and eventually flows over the lip. Nonsurgical treatment once con¬
sisted of the use of anticholinergic drugs, such as atropine, or radiation
therapy in an effort to decrease the amount of saliva formed. Because of
the side effects, these methods are not commonly employed. Surgical
procedures have been designed to divert the flow of the saliva so that it
enters the pharynx posterior to the anterior tonsillar pillar. This includes
The most effective surgical pro¬ rerouting the parotid and submandibular ducts through a submucosal tunnel
cedure to control drooling is bi¬ to the region posterior to the tonsillar pillar. In severe cases the submandib¬
lateral submandibular gland re¬
section and parotid duct ular glands are actually excised. Reports of successful control of sialorrhea
ligations. by tympanic neurectomy combined with chorda tympani resection have been
described. This procedure decreases the amount of saliva formed without
producing any harmful side effects or causing an excessively dry mouth. Its
major disadvantage is that it has not proven to have long-term effectiveness,
and frequently within two years the excess saliva recurs. Prior to performing
any of these surgical procedures, it should be determined that the patient
has no disability in swallowing but only in handling secretions in the anterior
mouth.
TABLE 16-1. INDICATIONS FOR SIALOGRAPHY

Indications
Chronic nonobstructive sialectasis
Chronic obstructive diseases
Trauma
Extraglandular masses
Tumors (sialography and CT scan)
Contraindications
Presence of acute inflammation or
suppuration
Allergy to contrast material
RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MAJOR

SALIVARY GLANDS
Radiosialographic Scanning
This technique depends on the increased concentration of iodine in saliva
compared to plasma. Radioactive technetium-99, like iodine, is secreted by
the intralobular ductal epithelium of major salivary glands. Both the parotid
and submandibular gland can be demonstrated using this nuclear medicine
technique. A normal gland appears symmetric and smooth, but a tumor
mass will show an area of decreased uptake, or in the case of Warthin’s
tumor, an area of increased concentration. Since it was later established that
increased uptake was not limited to Warthin’s tumor, but could occur in
pleomorphic adenoma and oncocytoma, the technique has become less
helpful.
Sialography
This technique requires injection of water- or oil-soluble contrast material
directly into the submandibular or parotid duct. After application of a topical
FIGURE 16-2. Instruments used for dilatation of Stensen’s duct or Wharton’s duct consist of
the set of lacrimal duct dilators, a catheter for insertion into the duct, and a syringe for instilling
contrast medium.
anesthetic to the area of the duct, pressure is gently applied to the gland,
and the very fine orifice of the duct is identified by the saliva flow. The duct
orifice is dilated with lacrimal probes (Fig. 16-2 and 16-3). An 18-gauge
catheter, similar to the type used for administering intravenous fluids, or
polyethylene tubing is gently inserted about 2 cm into the duct. The catheter
is secured to the corner of the mouth. The technique is similar for both the
parotid gland and submandibular gland. Cannulating the submandibular
gland duct, however, may require more patience than dilation of the parotid
Always obtain a scout film be- duct. A scout x-ray film is obtained to make certain that there are no
fore injection of contrast, radiopaque substances, such as stones, in the gland. Between 1.5 and 2 ml
FIGURE 16-3. After dilatation of the submandibular gland

duct, a small catheter is inserted, followed by slow injection
of contrast medium. Appropriate x-rays are then obtained.
of contrast medium is injected gently through the catheter into the gland
until the patient feels pressure but never beyond the point when the patient
complains of pain. Appropriate lateral, oblique lateral, oblique, and antero¬
posterior films are obtained. When the catheter is removed, the patient may
be given a small amount of lemon juice. In 5 to 10 minutes a repeat film is
taken. Normally all contrast medium should have been expressed within that
time. Persistence of contrast medium within the gland 24 hours after this
test is definitely abnormal.
There are advantages and disadvantages to water-soluble and to lipid-
soluble contrast materials. Currently, Pantopaque and Lipiodol are the most
popular contrast materials.
Sialography is most useful in chronic disorders of the parotid gland such
as recurrent sialadenitis, Sjogren’s syndrome, or ductal obstruction such as
stricture. It is of no value in differentiating a benign from a malignant mass. Never inject contrast during an
It is contraindicated in the presence of a recent, acute inflammation of the acute exacerbation of inflamma¬
gland (Fig. 16-4). tion.
Computed Tomography
This is the single most useful radiologic diagnostic test of salivary gland
masses. It requires the intravenous injection of a contrast material, first as
a bolus and then with a continuous drip. Initially, this technique was
combined with standard sialography, but with newer, high-resolution scan¬
ners this is seldom necessary. The parotid gland will appear less dense than
surrounding structures and can be delineated from the masseter muscle. The
most common tumor mass, pleomorphic adenoma, may appear as a well-
defined, slightly enhancing mass. By this technique, it can be determined if
the mass extends into the deep lobe or parapharyngeal space. Since the CT
scan is not useful in differentiating benign from malignant lesions, biopsy
remains imperative. It is helpful, however, to have a preoperative assessment
of the size and location of any unusual mass or large mass, especially when
it is not certain if the mass actually began within the substance of the parotid
gland or is encroaching upon the parotid from adjacent areas.
MRI scanning will most likely replace the need for CT scan combined
with sialography in most incidences.
BENIGN TUMORS OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS
In Children
The most common benign gland tumor of children is the parotid gland
hemangioma. The skin overlying the mass may have a bluish discoloration,
and there may be fluctuation in the size of the mass when the child cries.
This tumor will show a gradual increase in size during the first four to six
months of life but should begin to show evidence of resolution by age two.
Similar to the hemangioma is the lymphangioma, which also arises in the
parotid gland region. Pleomorphic adenoma is the third most common
tumor, and the most common solid tumor, found in children. Other benign
tumors include neurofibroma and lipoma. Salivary gland tumors in children
most frequently involve the parotid gland, while the submandibular and
minor salivary gland areas are uncommon sites.
FIGURE 16-4. A, Normal submandibular duct (Wharton's duct) and gland. B, Normal
parotid duct (Stensen’s duct) and gland.
In Adults
The pleomorphic adenoma (benign mixed tumor) accounts for 75 per cent Benign tumors of the parotid
gland outnumber malignant tu¬
of parotid gland tumors, both benign and malignant, in the adult. It is most mors 4:1. There is no method
common in the parotid region, where it appears as a painless swelling of short of excision to be certain a
long duration in the preauricular area or the region of the tail of the parotid lesion is benign. Skinny needle
biopsy is of benefit if positive
gland. There should be no pain or evidence of facial nerve weakness. In the but does not obviate the need
parotid area, although classified as benign, the tumor may continue to for surgery. Even diagnosis by
increase in size and become locally destructive. Complete surgical resection frozen section at surgery can be
difficult.
is the only treatment. Care should be taken to prevent injury to the facial
nerve, and the nerve is preserved even when immediately adjacent to the
tumor. The tumor may develop primarily in the deep lobe and extend into
the retromandibular region. In these circumstances the facial nerve is
carefully preserved and gently retracted so that the tumor can be removed
from its deep location extending into the parapharyngeal space.
Occasionally a deep lobe pleomorphic adenoma may present primarily
intraorally. It can be recognized by the deviation of the soft palate and
anterior tonsillar pillar toward the midline by a mass lateral to the tonsillar
area. Resection should be performed through the neck rather than intraor¬
ally.
When removing parotid tumors, the entire superficial lobe, or that portion
of the gland lateral to the facial nerve, is removed en bloc for biopsy
purposes, dissecting out and preserving the facial nerve. Pathologic exami¬
nation of the frozen section may not reveal the true nature of the tumor,
and more radical surgery may be required when permanent section results
are received. “Shelling out” a pleomorphic adenoma in the superficial lobe
of the parotid gland is not recommended because of the high likelihood of
recurrence. At the time of surgery the tumor mass appears encapsulated,
but pathologic examination will show extracapsular extension. The incidence
of recurrence when the entire tumor with a sufficient cuff of normal parotid
gland is resected is less than 8 per cent. Should a pleomorphic adenoma
recur, there is a high likelihood of injury to at least one of the divisions of
the facial nerve when the tumor is re-resected. Although this tumor is
considered benign, there have been cases of multiple recurrences with
relentless growth in which the tumor expands to involve the region of the
external canal and may actually extend into the oral cavity and paraphar¬
yngeal space. Recurrent tumors may undergo malignant degeneration, but
the incidence of this is less than 6 per cent. Irradiation therapy to a tumor
that has recurred and has become unresectable provides significant palliation.
Pleomorphic adenoma is also the most common tumor of the submandib¬
ular gland. Total surgical resection of the submandibular gland should
provide an adequate margin for removal of this tumor. Pleomorphic tumor
is also the most common benign tumor of the minor salivary glands. It
occurs most frequently on the palate near the midline at the junction of the
hard and soft palates. This location is also the most common for malignant
salivary gland tumors of the palate. A wide local resection of the tumor in
this location should be adequate.
Papillary adenocystoma lymphomatosum (Warthin’s tumor) is another Wartbin's tumor is the most
common tumor to occur
relatively common benign salivary gland tumor. It is most common in 50- to bilaterally.
60-year-old males. It is also the most common tumor to occur bilaterally.
Treatment consists of surgical resection with facial nerve preservation. The
tumor is encapsulated, and recurrence is unlikely.
Other benign salivary gland tumors include the oxyphil adenoma (acido¬
philic cell), serous cell adenoma, and oncocytoma. Treatment is similar to
that for pleomorphic adenoma.
The parapharyngeal space may be the primary site of origin for benign
tumors. Most commonly these are salivary gland tumors that may have
arisen from the deep lobe of the parotid gland and extended into the
parapharyngeal space. Tumors of neurogenic origin such as schwannomas
may originate in this area from the vagus nerve or cervical sympathetic
chain. These tumors present as a smooth mass pressing the lateral pharyngeal
wall medially. These tumors should be approached through the neck rather
than intraorally because of the presence of major vessels and important
cranial nerves in this space. A preliminary arteriogram not only may
demonstrate the effect of the tumor on the location of the internal carotid
artery but also may be useful in detecting a chemodectoma or neurogenic
tumor within this space.
The most common tumor of the parapharyngeal space is a pleomorphic
adenoma. The second most common is a malignant adenocystic carcinoma.
The largest group of other tumors are of neurogenic origin, such as
schwannomas and neuromas. Any tumor of the parapharyngeal space should
be treated via an external, transcervical approach. This allows better control
of the major vessels in the area. It also prevents seeding of the tumor, which
can occur through a transoral approach. Because of the extensive postoper¬
ative edema that can occur, tracheostomy is often required.
MALIGNANT TUMORS Of THE SALIVARY GLANDS
Malignant Salivary Gland Tumors in Children

Malignant parotid tumors in children are fortunately rare. The most
common tumor in children is mucoepidermoid carcinoma, usually of the
low-grade type. The survival statistics for children are definitely better than
for adults with the same pathologic appearance. However, the high-grade
form of this malignancy is known to metastasize and cause death. In select
situations, even after adequate resection, if there is evidence of metastatic
disease, postoperative radiation therapy is advised. Careful consideration is
always given to irradiating a child in view of the future potential complica¬
tions, but it is still considered necessary in certain select situations, such as
when evidence of neural or vascular invasion or metastatic disease is present.
Adenocarcinoma is the second most common childhood parotid malignancy.
TABLE 16-2. DIFFERENTIATING MASSES IN THE SALIVARY GLANDS

Increasing Likelihood
Benign of Malignancy Malignant
Parotid Submandibular Minor salivary gland

Younger age Older
Female Male
Facial nerve function intact Paresis Paralysis
Cystic Firm Rock hard
Long duration (>2 yr) Rapid growth Recent onset (<1 yr)
Asymptomatic Discomfort Pain
No adenopathy Cervical adenopathy
16— DISORDERS OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS 329
While much rarer than mucoepidermoid carcinoma, the undifferentiated

type of this malignancy has a poor overall survival rate. Acinic cell cancer
and adenocystic carcinoma initially have an almost benign course, with long¬
term survival, only to demonstrate ultimate recurrence at the primary site
or evidence of distal or pulmonary metastases. Treatment remains adequate,
complete, regional resection.
Malignant Salivary Gland Tumors In Adults

The possibility that a mass in the salivary gland is malignant increases
with age. A frequently quoted rule of thumb applied to persons over 40
years of age is that 25 per cent of parotid tumors, 50 per cent of submandib¬
ular tumors, and one half to two thirds of all tumors of the minor salivary
glands are malignant.
Further, major salivary gland tumors have been divided into those with
high-, intermediate-, and low-grade malignant potential. Mucoepidermoid
carcinoma, squamous Cell carcinoma, and undifferentiated adenocarcinoma
comprise the high-grade malignant tumors. Adenocystic carcinoma (cylin- Adenocystic carcinoma has a
droma) is a specific salivary gland tumor that could easily be included in predilection for neural invasion.
tumors with high-grade malignant potential. It differs from the preceding
tumors by its prolonged course characterized by frequent local recurrence,
and recurrences up to 15 years later. Patients with adenocystic carcinoma
have a high five-year survival rate; the overall ten-year survival rate is less
than 20 per cent. Carcinoma arising in a pleomorphic adenoma must be
included in this group. Treatment of these highly malignant tumors involves
radical surgical'resection of the primary tumor including, when necessary,
adjacent vital structures such as the mandible, the maxilla, and even a
portion of the temporal bone. In order to completely excise these malignant
tumors, divisions of the facial nerve adjacent to the tumor have to be excised.
When feasible, and when there is a sufficient distal segment, it is worthwhile
to utilize a nerve graft to restore nerve continuity. When there is already
evidence of facial nerve paralysis the prognosis is poor, and no effort is
made to preserve facial nerve continuity.
Malignant tumors of intermediate and low grade include mucoepidermoid
carcinoma and acinic cell carcinoma. When these tumors occur in the parotid
TABLE 16-3. MALIGNANT TUMORS OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS

Children (under age 20)
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma (low grade)
Adenocarcinoma
Acinic cell cancer
Adenocystic carcinoma
Adults
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma
low grade
high grade
Adenocystic carcinoma
Acinic cell cancer
Adenocarcinoma
mucus-producing
undifferentiated
Carcinoma arising in a pleomorphic
adenoma
Clear cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
TABLE 16-4. TNM CLASSIFICATION OF SALIVARY GLAND TUMORS

Primary Tumor (T)
T1 Tumor 2.0 cm or less in greatest diameter without significant local extension*
T2 Tumor more than 2.0 cm but not more than 4.0 cm in greatest diameter without
significant local extension
T3 Tumor more than 4.0 cm but not more than 6.0 cm in greatest diameter without
significant local extension
T4a Tumor over 6.0 cm in greatest diameter without significant local extension
T4b Tumor of any size with significant local extension*
•Significant local extension is defined as evidence of tumor involvement of skin, soft tissues, bone, or
the lingual or facial nerves.
From Beahrs OH, Myers MH (eds): Manual for Staging of Cancer. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott
Co, 1983, p 50.
gland, a total parotidectomy is performed and the facial nerve preserved if

its preservation does not compromise the total resection of the malignancy.
Acinic cell carcinoma is the A direct invasion of the nerve precludes preservation of that division of the
most common malignant parotid
nerve. Frozen section must be performed to rule out neural invasion, as this
tumor to occur bilaterally. It oc¬
curs almost exclusively in the invasion is always cephalad. When possible, a nerve graft is performed at
parotid gland. the time of the surgical resection. Tumors in the submandibular gland are
treated by a total resection of the gland and adjacent tissues and a radical
or modified radical neck dissection.
One of the greatest difficulties in dealing with tumors of the major salivary
glands is determination of the tumor type on frozen section. When there is
some doubt as to the interpretation it is preferable to wait until permanent
sections are prepared and evaluated before proceeding with one of the
radical operative procedures. Difficulty can be encountered in determining
the type of mucoepidermoid carcinoma or in differentiating between benign
and malignant mixed tumors or between adenocystic carcinoma and pleo¬
morphic adenoma.
Radical neck dissection is not routinely part of the initial resection for
parotid malignancies but is required when palpable cervical metastases are
present or when there is a recurrence of a malignant tumor in the parotid
region. Radical neck dissection is then combined with the extended radical
parotid resection. When it is established at the time of surgery that one is
dealing with a malignant parotid tumor, the preferred procedure is total
parotidectomy with removal of surrounding, adjacent soft tissues. The facial
nerve is preserved when it does not compromise the resection of the tumor.
Facial nerve grafting is performed when feasible, particularly if the trunk
has to be resected. If possible, the division to the eye is preserved, as this
causes the largest number of postoperative problems. The upper digastric
nodes and those nodes in the region of the parotid gland are removed at the
time of the initial operative procedure. If these nodes show evidence of
malignancy, either a complete radical neck dissection or postoperative
radiation therapy is advised.
High-grade mucoepidermoid carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are
the tumors most likely to develop cervical metastases. There is a 40 per cent
incidence of occult metastases for squamous cell carcinoma and 16 per cent
for high-grade mucoepidermoid carcinoma. Adenocystic carcinoma, adeno¬
carcinoma, and acinic cell carcinoma can metastasize directly to the neck
but are more likely to spread there by direct extension. These tumors are
also more likely to develop hematogenous metastases to the lung. For these
tumors resection of the parotid and subdigastric nodes is performed. If there
is evidence of metastases at that time, a complete neck dissection can be

performed. As facial nerve paralysis is a sign of poor prognosis, it is also an
indication of a greater likelihood of cervical metastatic disease and can
therefore be considered an indication to perform a radical neck dissection.
Currently, postoperative radiation therapy is advised for most malignant
parotid tumors. Comparing current studies with historical controls, the data
are highly suggestive that the addition of radiation therapy reduces the local
recurrence rate. It should be recognized that radiation therapy is not a
substitute for adequate surgical resection and does not decrease the recur¬
rence rate when tumor margins are positive. Prognosis for adults with
malignant parotid tumors depends on the stage and size of the tumor at
presentation, presence or absence of facial nerve paralysis, and evidence of
cervical metastatic disease. Additionally, the specific pathologic type of
tumor is important in determining survival and the extensiveness of the
operative procedure required. It is interesting that an initial complaint of
pain has been shown in several studies to be a poor prognostic sign.
Malignant tumors of the submandibular gland are equal in frequency to
benign tumors. The most common malignant lesion is adenocystic carcinoma.
Surgery includes a wide regional resection and radical neck dissection.
Postoperative radiation therapy is advised. Because of earlier extension and
metastases, tumors of similar pathologic appearance have a poorer prognosis
when they occur in the submandibular or minor salivary glands than in the
parotid gland.
References
Batsakis JG: The pathology of head and neck tumors: The lymphoepithelial lesion of Sjogren’s
syndrome. Head Neck Surg 5:150-163, 1982.
Bernstein L, Nelson R: Surgical anatomy of the extraparotid: Distribution of the facial nerve.
Arch Otol 110:177-183, 1984.
Gates GA: Radiosialographic aspects of salivary gland disorders. Laryngoscope 82:115-130,
1972.
Goode RL, Smith RA: The surgical management of sialorrhea. Laryngoscope 80:1078-1089,
1970.
Hemenway W: Chronic punctate parotitis. Laryngoscope 81:485-509, 1971.
Johns M: Parotid cancer: A rational basis for treatment. Head Neck Surg 3:132-141, 1980.
Swartz JD, Saluk PH, Lansman A, et al: High resolution computerized tomography, part 2:
The salivary glands and oral cavity. Head Neck Surg 7:150-161, 1984.
Parotid Tumors
Conley JJ: Problems with reoperation of the parotid gland and facial nerve. Otolaryngol Head
Neck Surg 99:480-488, 1988.
Guillamondegui OM, et al: Aggressive surgery in the treatment for parotid cancer: The role of
adjunctive postoperative radiotherapy. AJR 123(1):49—54, 1975.
Matsuba HM, et al: High-grade malignancies of the parotid gland: Effective use of planned
combined surgery and irradiation. Laryngoscope 95:1059-1063, 1985.
Spiro RH, Armstrong J, Harrison L, et al: Carcinoma of major salivary glands. Arch Otolaryngol
115:316-321, 1989.
Radiological Assessment
Blatt IM, Rubin P, French AJ, et al: Secretory sialography in diseases of the major salivary
glands. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 65:295-317, 1956.
Byrne MN, Spector JG, Garvin CF, Gado MH: Preoperative assessment of parotid masses: A
comparative evaluation of radiologic techniques to histopathologic diagnosis. Laryngoscope
90:284-292, 1989.
O’Hara AE: Sialography: Past, present and future. CRC Crit Rev Clin Radiol, Vol 4, 1973.
17
DISEASES OF THE
NASOPHARYNX AND
OROPHARYNX
mTSSSmUSS^ ,, F°r clinical PUTeS ,he Pharynx ™ be d™dad major regions:

nasopharynx, oropharynx, and e nasoPharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx, or hypopharynx.
hypopharynx. The upper third, or nasopharynx, is the respiratory portion of. the pharynx
and is immobile except for the lower soft palate. The middle portion of the
pharynx, termed the oropharynx, extends from the inferior border of the
soft palate to the lingual surface of the epiglottis. It includes the palatine
tonsils with their pillars and the lingual tonsils located on the base of the
tongue. The lower portion of the pharynx, known as the hypopharynx or
laryngopharynx, represents the region of the separation of the upper airway
from the upper digestive pathway.
Anatomy of the Nasopharynx

The relatively small nasopharyngeal space contains or is in close relation¬
ship to a number of structures that have clinical importance.
1. On the posterior wall extending toward the vault is the adenoid tissue.
2. There is lymphoid tissue on the lateral pharyngeal wall and in the
recessus pharyngeus, known as Rosenmuller’s fossa.
3. Torus tubarius—this reflection of pharyngeal mucosa over the rounded
protrusions of the cartilaginous portion of the eustachian tubes projects
as a thumblike intrusion into the lateral wall of the nasopharynx just
above the attachment of the soft palate.
4. The posterior choanae of the nasal cavity.
5. The cranial foramina, which are in close proximity and can be involved
by extension of nasopharyngeal disease, include the jugular foramina
through which pass the glossopharyngeal, vagal, and spinal accessory
cranial nerves.
6. Important vascular structures in the immediate proximity include the
inferior petrosal sinus, the internal jugular vein, the meningeal branches
from the occipital and ascending pharyngeal arteries, and the hypo¬
glossal foramen, through which passes the hypoglossal nerve.
7. The petrous portion of the temporal bone and foramen lacerum is in
proximity to the lateral portion of the roof of the nasopharynx.
8. The ostium of the sphenoid sinuses.
332
1 7—DISEASES OF THE NASOPHARYNX AND OROPHARYNX 333
FIGURE 17-1. Nasopharynx as viewed through a nasopharyngeal

mirror inserted into the throat through the mouth, inset shows
the amount of the nasopharynx seen with the mirror at each
position. By moving the mirror, the entire nasopharynx can be
examined, and information on all parts of nasopharynx, shown in
the larger figure, can be obtained.
The nasopharynx can be examined in one of three ways. With the patient
breathing through the mouth and with gentle downward pressure on the
middle one third of the tongue with tongue blades, a mirror is introduced
into the oropharynx. This examination differs from the laryngeal examination
because of the small size of the mirror used and because the mirror must be
rotated slightly from side to side to see the entire nasopharynx. Reflection
in an upward direction permits visualization of the torus tubari on each side,
the posterior choanae of the nasal cavity (Fig. 17-1), the posterior ends of
the inferior turbinates, and the vault and posterior wall of the nasopharynx.
Often patients require a topical anesthetic to decrease the “gag reflex” which
prevents adequate visualization. Gagging does not justify inadequate visu¬
alization of the nasopharynx in any patient suspected of having a problem
related to this area. If topical anesthesia alone does not permit adequate
examination, it is possible to pass a small catheter through the nasal cavity,
grasp it in the oropharynx, and direct it out through the mouth. This permits
retraction of the soft palate (Fig. 17-2). Of course, anesthesia to both the
nasal cavity and oropharynx is required.
An even better technique to visualize the nasopharynx is to pass a flexible A flexible nasopharyngoscope
nasopharyngoscope or a straight nonflexible nasopharyngoscope (Fig. 17-3) passed through the nasal cavity
directly through the nose into the nasopharynx. This provides not only the divides the best visualization
best visualization but also magnification.
In cases in which it is strongly suspected that there is an underlying
abnormality in the nasopharynx, general anesthesia in the operating room
with bilateral retraction of the soft palate provides an opportunity to palpate
the structures mentioned and obtain biopsies.
FIGURE 17-2. Adenoid mass as seen at operation and drawn directly Adenoid
from life. A retractor is shown pulling the soft palate and uvula upward tissue
to expose the lower portion of the adenoid vegetations. Note the
sharp inferior margin of the adenoid mass.
FIGURE 17-3. The nasopharyngoscope

permits direct visualization of the naso¬
pharynx and torus tubarius.
Radiographic and CT examination of the nasopharynx is helpful, but

because of edema, normal asymmetry, or persistent adenoids, direct exam¬
ination is still required.
Anatomy of the Oropharynx

The oropharynx includes a circumferential ring of lymphoid tissue referred
to. as Waldeyer’s ring. The first component, or adenoid tissue, has been
discussed as it relates to the nasopharynx. The other parts of the ring include
the lymphoid tissue and the palatine or the faucial tonsils, the lingual tonsils,
and the lymphoid follicles on the posterior pharyngeal wall. These all have
the same basic structure: a lymphoid mass supported by a framework of
connective tissue retinaculum. The adenoid (pharyngeal tonsil) has its
lymphoid structures arranged in folds; the palatine tonsil has its lymphoid
arrangement around cryptlike formations. The complex system of crypts in
the palatine tonsil probably accounts for the fact that it becomes diseased
more frequently than, any of the other components of the ring. These crypts
are more tortuous in the upper pole of the tonsil, become plugged with food
particles, mucus, desquamated epithelial cells, leukocytes, and bacteria, and
are an excellent place for the growth of pathogenic bacteria. During an acute
inflammation, the crypts may fill with a coagulum that produces a character¬
istic follicular appearance on the surface of the tonsil.
The lingual tonsils have small crypts that are not particularly tortuous or
branched as compared with the palatine tonsil. The same is true of the
adenoids, and there is less marked crypt or crevice formation in other
lymphoid collections in Rosenmuller’s fossa and on the pharyngeal wall.
Anatomy of the Hypopharynx

The epiglottis serves as the divider between the oropharynx and the
hypopharynx. The hypopharynx, which includes the pyriform sinuses, pos¬
terior pharyngeal wall, and postcricoid cartilage, is funnel-shaped. Food and
liquids are directed downward into the esophagus. As the tongue thrusts the
17—DISEASES OF THE NASOPHARYNX AND OROPHARYNX 335
food into the hypopharynx, the cricopharyngeal muscle relaxes to permit

passage of the food bolus.
The hypopharynx is discussed further in Chapters 19 and 20. It is
mentioned here because inflammatory processes and abscesses involving the
oropharynx can extend to include the hypopharynx.
DISORDERS OF THE NASOPHARYNX
Congenital Choanal Atresia

Some theorize that choanal atresia results from the embryologic failure of
the bucconasal membrane to rupture prior to birth. This results in the
persistence of a bony plate (90 per cent) or membrane (10 per cent)
obstructing the posterior nares. A unilateral obstruction may not be symp¬
tomatic at birth but later will cause chronic unilateral nasal drainage in
childhood. Bilateral choanal atresia presents an emergency situation at birth. Bilateral choanal atresia pre¬
The newborn depends totally on the nasal airway for breathing. Unless the sents as an airway emergency
at birth. Newborns are obligate
infant cries, the nasal obstruction will produce pallor and cyanosis. The nasal breathers.
diagnosis should be suspected immediately and an attempt made to pass a
small catheter transnasally to determine whether there is obstruction. Inability to pass a soft catheter
Emergency treatment consists of inserting a plastic oral airway into the through the nose into the phar¬
ynx is diagnostic.
infant’s mouth. Another alternative is to tape a rubber baby bottle nipple
(McGovern nipple) with a large opening on the tip into position in the
infant’s mouth. This has the advantage of permitting both breathing and
feeding. Blindly perforating the bony plate or membrane is prohibited
because of the narrow nasopharynx. When the infant’s condition is stable, a
transnasal airway can be established. Under general anesthesia and using
the operating microscope, mucosal flaps are elevated and the bony plate is
carefully curetted away. Silastic tubing is inserted for four weeks to maintain
the opening while the area heals.
A transpalatal approach to the atresia plate provides more definitive The atresia plate can be ap¬
correction. It is preferred by many surgeons, particularly when the atresia is proached surgically by (1)
transnasal, (2) transeptal, (3)
unilateral or if the transnasal opening created shortly after birth has later transpalatal approaches.
closed. The infant soon learns to breathe through the mouth, and the
transpalatal approach can be delayed until the child reaches at least one
year of age. The direct access provided by this approach allows for resection
of a portion of the palatine bone and vomer. Preservation of the palatine
vessels permits closure of the incision on the palate with excellent healing.
Unilateral choanal atresia is corrected at an older age.
Nasopharyngeal Bursitis
Naopharyngeal bursitis, or Thornwaldt’s disease, is a form of postnasal
discharge that is produced by mucoid drainage from a pocket in the
uppermost part of the posterior pharyngeal wall. The pocket is called the
pharyngeal bursa. This is an unusual cause of postnasal drainage, and it is
corrected by excision (Fig. 17-4).
Tumors of the Nasopharynx

A mass in the nasopharynx is frequently silent until it reaches sufficient
size to interfere with surrounding structures. Symptoms may include posterior
FIGURE 17-4. Diagrammatic representation of a nasopharyn¬

geal bursa exposed by retraction of the soft palate. The inset
indicates the site of the opening, which is rather high on the
pharyngeal wall. Inflammation of this cystlike formation is known
as Tornwaldt’s disease or nasopharyngeal bursitis
epistaxis, postnasal discharge, nasal obstruction, and hearing loss. Paralysis

of cranial nerves III, VI, IX, X, and XI may occur but is usually a late sign.
Serous otitis media develops because of eustachian tube obstruction. In
every adult who develops a unilateral serous otitis media, a nasopharyngeal
mass should be suspected and the nasopharynx examined.
Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma

Nasal obstruction and epistaxis This uncommon tumor occurs almost exclusively in adolescent boys. Initial
in an adolescent boy suggest
symptoms are epistaxis and nasal obstruction. Although histologically benign,
juvenile nasopharyngeal
angiofibroma. these vascular tumors can invade the surrounding vital structures with
eventual invasion of the base of the skull. Treatment modalities have included
radiation, surgery, and hormonal therapy. Currently the preferred treatment,
when feasible, is surgical resection. While radiation may be effective in
certain cases, it is preferable to use radiation for residual disease or when
surgery is not possible. There is always concern about irradiating a benign
tumor in a young individual. Evaluation includes CT scanning and arteriog¬
raphy to determine the major vascular source of the tumor (Fig. 17-5).
These highly vascular tumors obtain their blood supply from the ascending
pharyngeal artery or internal maxillary artery. When the tumor transcends
into the anterior or middle cranial fossa, an additional major blood supply
may come from a branch of the internal carotid artery. It is essential to
identify this vascular supply prior to surgical manipulation. Preoperative
CT scan may reveal the tumor
to be larger than suggested by embolization to decrease vascularity and aid surgery has been used success¬
the arteriogram. fully but carries with it significant risk. CT scanning helps to determine the
FIGURE 17-5. A, CT scan with contrast shows a large mass

filling the posterior aspect of the nasal cavity and nasophar¬
ynx with extension to the left side in the region of the
nasopharynx. 8. The carotid arteriogram demonstrates the
high vascularity of this juvenile nasopharyngeoangiofibroma.
The internal maxillary artery is the main feeding vessel.
full extent of such tumors; as they rarely remain limited to the nasopharynx,
but extend into the pterygomaxillary fossa, skull base, or sinuses. The Diagnosis is made by history,
diagnosis is so apparent by the very vascular appearance of the tumor and exam, CT, and arteriogram. A
biopsy is not necessary and is
the history of epistaxis in an adolescent male that a preoperative biopsy is hazardous.
not obtained, for it may lead to uncontrollable hemorrhage. The arteriogram
is sufficient to make the diagnosis.
Malignant Tumors
Management of malignant tumors is discusssed in Chapter 23. It is
important only to mention the presenting symptoms of unilateral serous
otitis media, cranial nerve paralysis (particularly the sixth nerve), and nasal
obstruction. The most common presenting sign of nasopharyngeal carcinoma A high posterior cervical lymph
is a posterior high cervical lymph node. Nasopharyngeal cancers are not node suggests a nasopharyn¬
geal source.
associated with smoking and can occur in young individuals. A particularly
high incidence in Chinese has been noted. Research is being conducted on There is an association between
the association of the Epstein-Barr virus and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Ebstein-Barr virus and nasopha¬
ryngeal carcinoma.
Individuals with nasopharyngeal carcinoma have an elevated EB viral titer,
and elevation of the titer after initial treatment often heralds recurrence.
Adenoid Hypertrophy
The adenoids are an accumulation of lymphoid tissue along the posterior
wall of the nasopharynx above the level of the soft palate. They normally
hypertrophy during childhood, reaching their greatest size in the preschool
and early school-age years. Spontaneous resolution is expected, so that by
age 18 to 20 adenoid tissue will not usually be apparent on indirect
nasopharyngeal examination. The adenoids often transiently enlarge with
URI’s, and spontaneous regression obviates the need for aggressive treat¬
ment. Adenoid tissue is seldom mentioned unless it interferes with normal
function of one of the surrounding important structures. Hypertrophied
adenoids have been related to eustachian tube obstruction and resultant

serous otitis media as well as recurrent and repeated episodes of acute otitis
media. The obstruction can interfere with nasal breathing. This may lead to
a difference in voice quality. Adenoid hypertrophy may lead to some changes
in dental structure and malocclusion.
Finally, and most importantly, adenoid hypertrophy can interfere with the
normal respiratory process. In fact, children under age two with hypertro¬
phied adenoids may have such interference with normal breathing that they
may develop cor pulmonale or sleep apnea-type syndromes. This is discussed
in more detail later in this chapter. Such children often have loud, sonorous
breathing. Parents and physicians suspicious of the possibility of adenoid
hypertrophy should request further evaluation of nasopharyngeal obstruc¬
tion. Long periods of apnea suggest airway obstruction and sleep apnea.
More elaborate testing can be performed in the hospital setting, including
the sleep EEG and special sleep somnography studies. With a highly
suggestive history, soft tissue lateral radiograph (Fig. 17-6) confirming the
nasopharyngeal obstruction, and tape recording of the sleep, these more
sophisticated studies may not be necessary. A more impressive form of
upper airway obstruction related to adenoid hypertrophy can result in cor
FIGURE 17-6. Adenoid hypertrophy in this four-year-old child obstructs the nasopharynx.
The child presented with hyponasality to his voice, sleep disorders, and bilateral serous otitis
media.
pulmonale. This form of right heart failure is refractory to management with

diuretics but responds rapidly to adenoidectomy.
Indications for Adenoidectomy. Indications for adenoidectomy are based
on one or more of the following conditions:
1. Chronic upper airway obstruction with resultant sleep disturbances, cor

pulmonale, or sleep apnea syndrome
2. Chronic purulent nasopharyngitis despite adequate medical manage¬
ment
3. Chronic adenoiditis or adenoid hypertrophy associated with production
and persistence of middle ear effusions (serous otitis media or mucoid
otitis media)
4. Recurrent acute suppurative otitis media that has not responded to
medical management with prophylactic antibiotics
5. Certain cases of chronic suppurative otitis media in children with
associated adenoid hypertrophy
6. Suspicion of a nasopharyngeal malignancy (biopsy only)
The most common and preferred treatment for chronic serous otitis media
that is refractory to medical management with antibiotics and other forms
of conservative treatment is the insertion of ventilation tubes through the
tympanic membrane. In children this is the most direct approach to alleviate
the fluid accumulation and improve hearing. However, the tubes may remain
in place only 6 to 12 months and the underlying problem is not always
corrected. It is appropriate to look at the opposite end of the eustach'an
tube to determine whether the enlarged adenoids play a direct or indirect Adenoidectomy is beneficial in
role in obstruction of this portion of the tube. Studies by Bluestone and some individuals with recurrent
serous otitis media.
others demonstrate that removal of enlarged adenoids can, in at least 50 per
cent of cases, be effective in alleviating repeated episodes of otitis media
and perhaps the need for ventilation tube insertion. These studies have not
been effective in determining which group of patients would most benefit
from adenoidectomy.
Adenoidectomy for speech problems should be undertaken with great
care. Speech pathologists should be consulted beforehand, for if a short
palate, submucous cleft, or velopharyngeal insufficiency should result from
the adenoidectomy, the voice may become hypernasal. In these situations
full radiologic evaluation as well as a flexible nasopharyngoscopic exam is
necessary.
Adenoidectomy should be avoided in cases of incipient velopharyngeal
insufficiency, which might be created by removal of the adenoids in a patient A bifid uvula serves as a "Hag"
with a very short soft palate or submucous cleft of the short or hard palate. to warn of possible submucous
palatal cleft.
It should certainly be avoided in patients with an obvious cleft palate. There
may, however, be unusual cases in which a limited adenoidectomy is
indicated for a patient with airway obstruction and a submucous cleft. In
this case the parents must be warned of the possibility of further deterioration
of voice quality if such an operative procedure is performed. There is no
evidence to suggest that adenoidectomy will reverse dental changes that
have already occurred, but removal can help prevent recurrence of maloc¬
clusion after orthodontia.
Because the adenoid tissue is not encompassed by a capsule like the
tonsils, complete removal of all adenoid tissue is nearly impossible and
recurrent hypertrophy or infection is possible.
DISEASES OF THE OROPHARYNX
The throat is considered to be the portal of entry of organisms that cause

many diseases, and in some cases the organisms enter the body through this
portal without causing any noticeable local symptoms. Oropharyngeal dis¬
eases can be divided into those that cause acute sore throat and those
associated with chronic sore throat.
Diseases Associated with Acute Sore Throat

The following table lists the acute throat infections that originate in the
nasopharynx or oropharynx:
DISEASE FREQUENCY
Acute pharyngitis without membrane formation Very common at all ages
Acute tonsillitis Very common in children
Lingual tonsillitis Moderately common in adults
Peritonsillar abscess More common at ages 13-20
Acute pharyngitis with membrane formation or ulceration:
Vincent’s (Plaut’s) angina Common in young adults
Diphtheria Uncommon
Pharyngitis associated with hematologic disorders:
Infectious mononucleosis Common
Acute leukemia Uncommon
Acute Pharyngitis
Acute viral and bacterial pharyngitis are very common disorders. Numer¬
ous attempts have been made at classifications of an acute inflammation
involving the pharyngeal wall. It probably is most logical to group a number
of these infections under the relatively simple title of “acute pharyngitis.”
This includes acute pharyngitis occurring in the ordinary head cold, as a
result of acute infectious disorders such as the exanthemas or influenza, and
from the uncommon miscellaneous causes, such as herpetic manifestations
and thrush (Fig. 17-7).
Etiology and Pathology. The cause of acute pharyngitis may vary from an
organism producing a simple exudative or catarrhal change to one that
produces edema and even ulceration. The organisms found include various
streptococci, pneumococci, and the influenza bacillus, among others. In the
FIGURE 17—7. A, Acute follicular tonsillitis. B, Membranous involvement of the tonsils

and pharynx.
FIGURE 17-8. Chronic pharyngitis characterized by marked hy¬

pertrophy of lateral pharyngeal bands. This is also referred to as
a “lateral pharyngitis."
early stages, there is hyperemia, then edema and increased secretion. The
exudate is at first serous but becomes thicker or mucoid, and then tends to
become dry and may adhere to the pharyngeal wall. With the hyperemia,
the blood vessels of the pharyngeal wall become dilated. Small white, yellow,
or gray plugs form in the follicles or lymphoid tissue. In the absence of
tonsils, attention is usually focused on the pharynx, and it is observed that
lymphoid follicles or plaques on the posterior pharyngeal wall, or localized
more laterally, are inflamed and swollen. This lateral wall involvement,
when isolated, has been referred to as “lateral pharyngitis” (Fig. 17-8). It
is possible, of course, even in the presence of tonsils, for only the pharynx
to be involved.
In recent years, with progress in the identification of viruses, reports ot
clinical problems related to a viral causative agent have become numerous.
It is important to be aware of the probability of a viral etiology in acute
pharyngitis associated with adenopathy in the absence of follicular pharyngitis
membrane formation. Vesicle formation on the mucous membrane, as in
herpes, strongly suggests a viral etiology.
A number of viruses have been identified in adenoid tissue during
epidemics of acute pharyngitis (Table 17-1).
Symptoms and Signs. At the onset, the patient often complains of a
dryness or “scratchiness of the throat. Malaise and headache are common.
There is usually slight elevation of temperature. The exudate in the pharynx
invariably thickens. It may be dislodged with some difficulty, with a rasping,
hawking effort and cough. A certain amount of hoarseness is present if the
inflammatory process involves the larynx. In some cases, there may be
dysphagia chiefly as the result of pain, referred pain to the ear, cervical
adenopathy, and tenderness. The pharyngeal wall is reddened and may have
a dry, glazed appearance and a coating of mucoid secretion. The lymphoid
tissue usually appears red and swollen.
TABLE 17-1. CAUSES OF VIRAL PHARYNGITIS

Adenovirus Respiratory syncytial virus
Epstein-Barr virus Influenza virus (A and B)
Herpes simplex Enteroviruses
Parainfluenza virus (types 1-4)
Diagnosis. The diagnosis is usually made without difficulty, particularly in

the presence of the symptoms and signs just described. Throat culture is
helpful in determining the organism.
Treatment. The use of antimicrobials has changed the routine treatment
of acute bacterial pharyngitis in recent years. As a result, the course of the
disease has been shortened and the incidence of complications has decreased.
An antibiotic should be given in therapeutic doses.
The use of warm throat irrigations, supportive care in the matter of an
adequate fluid intake, a light diet, and aspirin when indicated may still be
important in hastening the recovery, in spite of the fact that improvement
follows the administration of an antibiotic.
Acute Tonsillitis
Etiology. Acute suppurative bacterial tonsillitis is most often caused by
beta-hemolytic Streptococcus Group A, although pneumococci, staphy¬
lococci, and Haemophilus influenzae as well as viral pathogens can be
involved. Occasionally nonhemolytic streptococci or Streptococcus viridans
are cultured, usually in less severe cases. Nonhemolytic streptococci and
Streptococcus viridans may be cultured from the throats of healthy persons,
particularly in the winter months, and during epidemics of acute respiratory
infections, hemolytic streptococci can be found in the throats of apparently
healthy persons.
Pathology. There is a general inflammation and swelling of the tonsil
tissue with an accumulation of leukocytes, dead epithelial cells, and
pathologenic bacteria in the crypts. It is probable that differences in the
strains or the virulence of the organisms may account for the following
variations of pathologic phases:
1. A simple inflammation of the tonsil area

2. Formation of exudate
3. Cellulitis of the tonsil and its surrounding area
4. Formation of a peritonsillar abscess
5. Tissue necrosis
Symptoms. The patient complains of a sore throat and various degrees
of dysphagia and, in the severe cases, refuses to take fluid or food by mouth.
The patient may appear to be acutely ill and certainly experiences general
malaise. The temperature is usually high, sometimes reaching 104°F. The
breath is fetid. There may be otalgia in the form of referred pain.
Occasionally otitis media is a complication of the inflammation in the throat.
There is often tender cervical adenopathy.
The tonsils become enlarged and inflamed. They are usually spotted and
sometimes covered with an exudate. This exudate may be grayish or yellow.
It may become confluent and form a membrane, and in some cases an
evident localized tissue necrosis occurs.
Treatment. In general, the patient with an acute tonsillitis and fever should
have bed rest, an adequate fluid intake, and a light diet. Local applications,
such as throat paints, are considered to have relatively little value. Oral
analgesics are effective in controlling the discomfort.
Gargles. The effectiveness of gargles has been questioned. It is true that
the act of gargling does not bring much of the solution in contact with the
pharyngeal wall, since in most instances it does not go beyond the fauces.
However, clinical experience indicates that gargling performed with a certain

routine adds to the patient’s comfort and probably influences to some extent
the course of the disease.
Unless specifically instructed otherwise, the patient will probably feel that
the treatment is finished when one glassful of lukewarm gargling solution
has been used. This is inadequate. The patient should be instructed to use
three glassfuls of the gargling solution each time. The first glassful should
be warm as the patient can comfortably stand it. The second and the third
glassfuls can be even warmer. It is advisable to specifically instruct the
patient to use the gargling solution every two hours. It is practical to provide
a list of the times for each treatment so that the patient can cross off each
treatment as it is completed. This will ensure to a great extent that the
instructions are carried out properly.
It is probable that the heat of the gargling solution is more effective than
its medicinal content.
The following solutions, as well as available “over-the-counter” prepara¬
tions, are useful:
1. Isotonic saline solution (Vi teaspoon table salt in 8 ounces warm water).
2. Sodium perborate powder (1 teaspoon powder in 8 ounces warm water).
This is especially useful in “Vincent’s infections” or “trench mouth.”
Antibiotics. Antibiotic therapy associated with appropriate cultures and
sensitivities, when indicated, is the treatment of choice for acute bacterial
pharyngitis. Penicillin is still the drug of choice, unless the organism is
resistant or the patient is sensitive. In that case, erythromycin or a specific
antibiotic that is effective against the organism should be used. Treatment
should be continued for a full clinical course—between five and ten days. If
group A beta-hemolytic streptococci are cultured, it is important to maintain
adequate antibiotic therapy for ten days to reduce the possibility of nonsup¬
purative complications such as rheumatic heart disease and nephritis. A
single intramuscular injection of 1.2 million units of benzathine penicillin is
also effective and is preferred when there is doubt that the patient will
complete the full course of antibiotic therapy by mouth.
Certain patients maintain a positive culture after adequate treatment with B. catarrhalis present in the
tonsil is capable of producing
penicillin. The mechanism for this is most likely production of (3-lactamase p-lactamase. This may explain
by coexisting organisms such as Branhamella catarrhalis, which is often persistent positive cultures after
present in mixed oral flora. A trial of clindamycin is advised to eradicate appropriate treatment.
these resistant organisms.
Ungual Tonsillitis
The lingual tonsils do not have the complex crypt arrangement of the
faucial tonsils, nor are they as large. For these reasons, lingual tonsil
infections are much less common. Rarely are the lingual tonsils acutely
inflamed along with the faucial tonsils. Lingual tonsillitis is more common
in tonsillectomized patients and in adults.
The etiology and pathology are much the same as those of an acute
inflammation of the faucial tonsils. The symptoms usually are soreness on
swallowing, a sense of a lump in the throat, malaise, slight fever, and in
some cases cervical adenopathy with tenderness. Inspection of the lingual
tonsils with the aid of a laryngeal mirror and reflected light reveals a
reddened, swollen lingual mass with whitish spots dotting the surface of the
tonsil, similar to those seen in an acute tonsillitis involving the faucial tonsils.
Culture followed by appropriate antibiotic therapy is required. Lingual

tonsillectomy by C02 laser has been performed in instances when medical
management has not been effective.
Membranous Pharyngitis
Membranous pharyngitis has been described by some as a clinical entity,
but membrane formation accompanies several forms of acute pharyngitis
which are distinct entities but which resemble one another clinically. These
diseases are Vincent’s infection, diphtheria, the throat involvement accom¬
panying certain blood disturbances, and the pseudomembranous character
of a variety of throat disorders.
Vincent’s (or Plaut’s) Angina. This infection of the pharynx and mouth is
often referred to as “Vincent’s infection” or “trench mouth.” It is caused
by fusiform bacilli and spirochetes normally present in the oral cavity. It is
more often encountered in a limited form without systemic reaction than in
the more severe form, and it may be associated with other throat
inflammations.
This form of membranous pharyngitis is commonly seen in young adults.
Besides sore throat there are generally a low-grade fever, tender cervical
adenopathy, and foul breath. Diagnosis is confirmed by the presence of
numerous fusiform bacteria seen with Fontana stain. Treatment consists of
supportive measures, sodium perborate or hydrogen peroxide mouthwash,
and specific penicillin therapy.
Diphtheria. While the overall incidence of diphtheria is steadily declining
in the United States, there is still an associated 10 per cent mortality rate.
The pharynx remains the most common site for this infection. The disease
occurs more frequently in unimmunized or inadequately immunized
individuals. Individuals who are adequately immunized have a protective
level of antitoxin for ten years or more. The most common initial complaint
is a sore throat. In addition, patients may complain of nausea, vomiting,
and dysphagia. The status of immunization has no effect on the presenting
complaint. Examination reveals a characteristic membrane present over the
tonsillar area with spread to adjacent structures. The membrane appears
dirty and dark green and may even obstruct the view of the tonsils. Bleeding
occurs with elevation of the membrane which is unlike other causes of
membranous pharyngitis. The diagnosis is usually made earlier and treatment
initiated sooner when it is known that an epidemic of diphtheria is present.
There is often a delay in diagnosis of sporadic cases and in small epidemics.
The causative organisms are toxigenic strains of Cory neb acterium
diphtheriae. Smears of the nasopharynx and tonsil are obtained and placed
in transport medium to be later cultured on MacConkey agar or Loeffler
medium. Suspicious strains are then tested for toxigenicity.
Treatment of the disease consists of two phases: (1) use of a specific
antitoxin and (2) elimination of the organism from the oropharynx. Before
the antitoxin is administered, the patient should be tested for sensitivity to
the serum. Patients should receive 40,000 to 80,000 units of antitoxin diluted
in normal saline and administered slowly intravenously. Antibiotic therapy
in the form of penicillin or erythromycin is initiated to eliminate the carrier
state. Repeat culture should be performed to make certain the patient is not
harboring the organism in the pharynx. Persistence of the organism requires
long-term treatment with erythromycin.
Complications from diphtheria are common, and the patient who develops
an airway obstruction may require tracheostomy. Cardiac failure and muscle
paralysis may occur, and the inflammatory process may spread to the ears,
causing an otitis media, or to the lungs, causing pneumonia.
Pharyngeal Manifestations of Blood Disorders

Infectious Mononucleosis. Intectious mononucleosis (“mono,” “kiss¬
ing disease”) is an acute infectious disease characterized by fever, malaise,
somnolence, lymph node enlargement (particularly in the posterior cervical Mononucleosis presents with
persistent sore throat, lever,
region), and a peripheral smear revealing lymphocytosis with appearance of
malaise, and tiredness.
abnormal lymphocytes. The etiologic agent is thought to be a virus, most
probably either Epstein-Barr (EB) virus or cytomegalovirus. Some physicians
prefer to specifically divide the mononucleosis-type syndrome according to
the suspected viral agent. The clinical pictures, however, are similar. Initially
symptoms include a sore throat similar to that of acute pharyngitis or
tonsillitis, fever, chills, and malaise. The patient complains of feeling tired.
The lymphoid tissue of the pharynx becomes enlarged and often ulcerates.
Often this tissue in the nasopharynx becomes so enlarged that it blocks the Initial "Mono spot" test early in
the disorder can be negative.
postnasal space, obstructing the nose and eustachian tubes. Splenomegaly
occurs in 30 per cent of patients. Jaundice may develop in 5 per cent of
patients. Approximately 40 per cent of patients develop a macular rash. The
incidence of this rash, which is diffuse and of short duration, appears to be
increased in patients receiving ampicillin. An exanthem can occur on the A chronic or persistent form of
mononucleosis caused by £8
palate, also having a short duration of usually less than 48 hours and
viral infection has been
commonly occurring at the junction of the hard and soft palates. described.
Laboratory tests include a complete blood count and smear with exami¬
nation for atypical lymphocytes. Initially there may be an elevated white
blood cell count with neutrophils predominating, but this is later followed
by a lymphocytic leukocytosis. A “Mono-spot” slide test is positive, and
when the heterophil antibody test is performed the titer exceeds 1:60.
Treatment of the patient with infectious mononucleosis is primarily symp¬ Biopsy of a cervical lymph node
during an acute episode of in¬
tomatic. Throat culture should be obtained because of the possibility of a
fectious mononucleosis can
coexisting beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis. When severe obstructive lead to an erroneous diagnosis
disease is present, steroids in the form of prednisone are administered in an of lymphoma.
effort to reduce the ancillary inflammatory process. The patient’s activities
should be substantially reduced during the acute phase, with a gradual return
to normal activities.
Severe but unusual complications include a ruptured spleen, Guillain-
Barre ascending paralysis, and cranial nerve paralyses.
Acute Leukemia. The first manifestations of an acute leukemia may be
oral lesions. These findings may include enlarged tonsils with ulcerative
lesions, petechiae within the oral cavity, and bleeding associated with these
areas. Gingival ulceration may occur. A low-grade fever and cervical
adenopathy may be present. Positive diagnosis requires bone marrow aspi¬
ration and peripheral blood examination.
Peritonsillar Cellulitis and Abscess (Quinsy)

Etiology. Occasionally, infections of the tonsil proceed to a diffuse cellulitis
of the tonsillar area extending onto the soft palate. A continuation of this
process leads to a peritonsillar abscess. This may occur rapidly, with.an early
onset of tonsillitis, or late in the course of an acute tonsillitis. It can develop
in spite of administration of penicillin. It is usually unilateral and is more

common in older children and young adults.
Symptoms. In a moderately severe case, there is usually marked dysphagia,
Peritonsillar abscess: fever, pain referred to the ear on the involved side, increased salivation, and-,
sore throat, trismus, cervical
particularly, trismus. The swelling interferes with articulation and, if marked,
adenopathy.
speech is difficult. The fever hovers around 100°F, although occasionally it
may be higher. A thorough inspection of the swollen area may be difficult
because of the patient’s inability to open the mouth. The examination causes
Trismus: muscle spasm and the patient considerable discomfort. The diagnosis is seldom in doubt when
pain which make it difficult to
the examiner sees the extensive peritonsillar swelling, pushing the uvula
open the jaw.
across the midline, with edema of the soft palate and bulging of these tissues
toward the midline. The tonsil itself may appear normal as it is pushed
medially, and the swelling develops lateral to the tonsil. Palpation, when
possible, can help distinguish an abscess from cellulitis.
Pathology. A suppurative infiltration of the peritonsillar tissue occurs most
often in the supratonsillar fossa (70 per cent). It causes edema of the soft
palate on the involved side and displacement of the uvula across the midline.
The swelling extends to adjacent soft tissues, causing painful swallowing and
trismus.
Throat cultures may be negative Bacteriology. Throat cultures are taken but are often not helpful in
in presence of an abscess.
identifying the responsible organism. The patient has invariably been treated
with previous antibiotic therapy. Culture of the actual abscess drainage
may reveal primarily Streptococcus pyogenes and, much less commonly,
Staphylococcus aureus (Table 17-2). Sprinkle and others have identified a
high incidence of anaerobic bacteria, which impart the foul odor to the
drainage. Those organisms commonly found in the oral cavity include
members of the Bacteroidaceae family.
Treatment. When an abscess forms it requires surgical drainage (Fig. 17-
9), either by needle aspiration technique or by the incision and drainage
technique. Difficulty can arise in determining whether one is dealing with
an acute cellulitis or an actual abscess formation has occurred. When in
doubt, a 17-gauge needle can be inserted (after application of spray
anesthesia) into three locations most likely to yield aspiration of pus. When
pus is encountered, this method may be sufficient for drainage when followed
Regardless of method preferred, with antibiotics. If a large amount of pus is found and it is not adequately
all peritonsillar abscesses are
drained.
drained by this method, further incision and drainage can be performed.
When no pus is found, it is more likely that one is still dealing with a
cellulitis rather than a frank abscess. Those who object to this technique
point to the fact that 30 per cent of abscesses are in the inferior aspects of
the tonsillar fossa and are not reached by the needle technique.
The incision and drainage technique requires local anesthesia. First the
TABLE 17-2. LIKELY PATHOGENS WITH A SELECTION OF ANTIMICROBIALS

_IN PATIENTS WITH A PERITONSILLAR ABSCESS
__ETIOLOGY_ANTIBIOTIC
Streptococcus Penicillin
Bacteroides Cephalosporin
Haemophilus Clindamycin
Fusobacterium
Staphylococcus aureus
Peptococcus
FIGURE 17-9. Appearance of a large, left peritonsillar abscess

with a drainage site indicated. Incision should be through the
mucosa only, with blunt dissection utilized in the deeper tissues.
pharynx is sprayed with a topical anesthesia. Then 2 cc’s of Xylocaine with

Adrenalin 1/100,000 are injected. A No. 12 tonsil blade or a No. 11 with
tape to prevent deep penetration is used to make an incision through the
mucosa and submucosa near the superior pole of the tonsillar fossa. A blunt
hemostat is inserted through this incision and gently spread. Tonsil suction
should be immediately available to collect the pus that is released. In older
children and adults with severe trismus, surgical drainage for peritonsillar
abscess may be performed after the application of 4 per cent cocaine solution
to the site of the incision and to the area of the sphenopalatine ganglion in
the nasal fossa. This sometimes alleviates the pain and trismus. Younger
children require a general anesthetic. Advocates of immediate tonsillectomy
(quinsy tonsillectomy) feel that this is a safe procedure that supplies complete
drainage of the abscess when the tonsil is removed. It alleviates the need
for a planned tonsillectomy six weeks later, at which time there is frequently
scarring and fibrosis present and the tonsillar capsule is less easily identified.
Indications for immediate tonsillectomy are listed in Table 17-3.
In addition to surgical drainage, whether by needle aspiration or by
incision, the patient is treated with antibiotics and warm saline irrigations
(Fig. 17-10). Even though cultures may show no growth because of previous
antibiotic administration, antibiotics are administered which are effective
against Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and oral anaerobes. In individuals
with repeated peritonsillar abscess or a history of repeated episodes of
pharyngitis, a tonsillectomy is performed either immediately or as interval
tonsillectomy six weeks later.
Atrophic Pharyngitis
A condition that is just the opposite of hypertrophic pharyngitis may
occur. Varying degrees of atrophy of the mucosal elements of the pharynx
are frequently encountered. In the mild cases, the mucosa appears thin and
glistening or glazed, with an absence of all but a few of the lymphoid
collections that are seen in an average pharynx. On careful inspection, one
TABLE 17-3. INDICATIONS FOR IMMEDIATE TONSILLECTOMY

FOR PERITONSILLAR ABSCESS
Upper airway obstruction
Sepsis with cervical adenitis or deep neck abscess
History of previous peritonsillar abscess
History of recurrent exudative pharyngitis
Figure 17-10. Warm saline throat irri¬

gation provides symptomatic relief from
the pain of pharyngitis or peritonsillar
abscess.
can usually see that the blanket of mucus, which is normally transparent,
seems thicker and semitransparent. It may be raised off the surface in spots
In the advanced form of atrophic pharyngitis, the dryness is striking, the
mucous coating is gluelike in its consistency, and at times an actual crust is
seen. When this secretion is removed, the underlying mucous membrane has
a dry, furrowed appearance. This advanced stage of atrophic pharyngitis has
been termed “pharyngitis sicca” and is usually associated with an atrophic
rhinitis, or “rhinitis sicca.”
Etiology. The cause of atrophic pharyngitis is not definitely known. It has
been claimed that it is caused by the air not being sufficiently warmed and
humidified by the nasal mucosa, as would occur in chronic mouth breathing
and in the instances of atrophic rhinitis in which the air-conditioning role of
the nose is not functioning. There are apparently, however, trophic changes
in the mucosa which result in a hyposecretion of mucus and which are
influenced by some factor that is not understood.
Symptoms. The main symptom of atrophic pharyngitis is a sense of dryness
and thickness in the upper pharynx. The patient’s attempt to dislodge the
adherent secretion consists of frequent attempts to clear the throat, usually
by “hawking.” Varying degrees of soreness are not uncommon. Hoarseness
of a mild degree may accompany this disorder, owing to an extension of the
process to the larynx and the irritation from frequent attempts to clear or
cough out the sticky secretion. In some instances there is fetor.
Treatment. When an atrophic rhinitis is concurrently present, it should
also receive therapeutic attention. Local application of Mandl’s paint to the
pharynx is beneficial. The purpose of this medication is to stimulate secretion.
Potassium iodide may be given internally for the same effect. An average
dose is 10 drops of a saturated solution three times daily with meals. A
combination of the local application of a throat paint and the internal
administration of the iodide is desirable. The breathing of warm moist air,
such as can be accomplished by placing a hot, moist turkish towel across the
nose and mouth, helps to moisten the inspissated secretion. Twenty to 30
minutes of this once or twice a day is desirable. Attention should also be
given to matters of general health
Pharyngitis Associated with Tobacco

Smoking has been implicated as a very common offender in the production
of a dry, troublesome throat. These patients may begin by having symptoms
of mild soreness and may eventually have difficulty with marked pharyngitis
sicca. The throat of a heavy smoker is easily recognized by the dry, shiny,
and hyperemic pharyngeal mucosa. Complete avoidance of smoking is
needed to treat this chronic problem.
Chronic Tonsillitis
Diagnosis. Chronic tonsillitis is undoubtedly the most common of all
recurring throat diseases. The clinical picture varies, and diagnosis depends
largely upon inspection. In general, there are two rather widely differing
pictures that seem to fit into the category of chronic tonsillitis. In one type
the tonsil is enlarged, with evident hypertrophy and scarring (Fig. 17-11).
The crypts seem partially stenosed, but an exudate, often purulent, can be
expressed from them. In some cases one or two crypts are enlarged, and a The size of the tonsils in
considerable amount of “cheesy” or “putty-like” material can be expressed chronic tonsillitis does not nec¬
essarily correlate with severity
from them. A chronic infection, usually low-grade, is obvious. The other
of the problem.
common clinical picture is that of the small tonsil, usually recessed and often
referred to as “buried,” in which the margins are hyperemic, and a small
amount of thin, purulent secretion can often be expressed from the crypts.
FIGURE 17-11. Chronic tonsillitis with a unilat¬

erally enlarged obstructing left tonsil. In cases
of unilateral tonsillar hypertrophy the possibility
of underlying lymphoma must be considered.
Cultures from tonsils with chronic disease usually show several organisms of
relatively low virulence and, in fact, rarely demonstrate beta-hemolytic
streptococci.
Treatment. The one certain cure for chronic tonsillitis is surgical removal
of the tonsils. This is reserved for those cases in which medical or more
conservative management has failed to alleviate the symptoms. Medical
management includes prolonged courses of penicillin, daily throat irrigations,
and efforts to cleanse the tonsillar crypts with a dental or oral irrigating
device. The size of tonsil tissue does not correlate with chronic or recurrent
infection.
TONSILLECTOMY
Tonsillectomy constitutes one of the oldest surgical procedures still in

existence. In 1867, Wise stated that Asiatic Indians were skilled in tonsillec¬
tomy in 1000 B.c. The frequency of the operative procedure has been
drastically reduced since the advent of antibiotics. In addition, a better
understanding of the indications for this operative procedure has reduced its
frequency, from an estimated 1.5 million tonsillectomies in the United States
in 1970, to an incidence of 350,000 to 400,000 per year in 1985. Because
tonsil surgery is not free from morbidity and even mortality, it is prudent to
recognize that this procedure, like every other operation, optimally should
be performed by those skilled in the techniques.
Current Issues Regarding Tonsillectomy

Tonsillectomy with or without adenoidectomy has been performed fre¬
quently in an effort to control recurrent pharyngeal disease, upper airway
obstruction, and chronic otitis media. With the advent of antibiotics and a
better understanding of the immunologic function of the pharyngeal lym¬
phoid tissue, it has become necessary to carefully reconsider indications for
these procedures.
In an effort to determine the benefits of adenotonsillectomy and to better
select candidates requiring the operative procedure, prospective studies have
been conducted. In recent years the best-known controlled studies are those
Mawson and Roydhouse per¬ of McKee in England in 1963, Mawson in England in 1967, and Roydhouse
formed the first classic pro¬ iri New Zealand in 1970. These investigators compared children in various
spective studies on the value of
tonsillectomy and/or adenoidec- age groups with control groups with respect to episodes of tonsillitis, upper
tomy in children. respiratory infections, and other associated infections. These studies dem¬
onstrated that preschool children with a significant history of pharyngeal
disease received the greatest benefit from the operative procedure, and the
benefit was most evident for one to two years immediately after the surgery.
Thereafter, the beneficial effects between the two groups became less
significant. The difficulty in interpreting these studies results from the fact
that complete randomization could not be achieved, and patients who were
strongly believed to require the procedure were removed from the control
group and placed in the operative group. In addition, an exact definition of
what constitutes adenotonsillitis that can be agreed upon by all physicians is
still not available. Currently in the United States, adenotonsillectomy is
frequently done not only for episodes of recurrent pharyngitis but also for
episodes of middle ear disease. In particular, adenoidectomy is performed
most frequently for the control of chronic or recurrent episodes of otitis

media.
A prospective study was initiated in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1973
under the direction of Drs. Bluestone and Paradise in an effort to answer
the numerous questions that have arisen concerning the-efficacy of tonsillec¬
tomy and adenoidectomy. To enter their study the patient had to have had
a significant history of recurrent, documented tonsillitis, including seven
episodes during the preceding year or pharyngitis associated with fever or
positive culture for Streptococcus/âryngiUs,. Patients could also be entered
if they had had at least five episodes per year for the preceding two years.
It was essential that documentation of the frequency and severity of episodes
was available. This study showed that children with this extent of disease
did benefit from the operative procedure. However, the benefits were less
apparent after the operative and control groups reached age ten. Again in
this study, as in others, a certain number of children had to be removed
from the control group and placed in the operative group because of the
severity of their symptoms. The study raises the question of whether children
with less severe disease would show the same benefit from the operative
procedure, and the answer to this has yet to be established. This valuable
study is still active and is pursuing answers to the numerous questions that
arise regarding the efficacy of tonsillectomy and/or adenoidectomy.
In the past few years discussion has arisen concerning the role of the
tonsils in the development of the immunologic system in children. Prior to
the development of poliovirus vaccine, it was recognized that the incidence
of bulbar paralysis during poliomyelitis epidemics was greater in recently
tonsillectomized children. However, the overall incidence of poliomyelitis
was equal in control and previously. tonsillectomized individuals. More
recently, sophisticated studies have demonstrated the presence of all major
groups of antibody-producing immunoglobulins within the tonsils. In partic¬
ular, these immunoglobulins include IgG, IgA (secretory type), IgM, and
more recently IgE and IgD. The clinical significance of the presence of these
antibodies is still not established, but the location of the pharyngeal lymph
tissue places it in the anatomic position of the first line of defense against
microorganisms. The significance of the tonsil in development of immuno¬
logic competence is probably greatest during the early years of life. Children
with repeated episodes of pharyngitis and otitis media may have slightly
decreased ability to develop certain immunoglobulins (IgA).
In 1971, Vianna pointed out a possible relationship between tonsillectomy
and Hodgkin’s disease because of the decrease in this lymphoid tissue
barrier. Subsequent studies by Johnson and Johnson showed no correlation
between the incidence of tonsillectomy and Hodgkin’s disease. In addition,
Freeman and colleagues showed that there is no correlation between tonsil¬
lectomy and the incidence of acute leukemia in childhood.
Indications
While there may be a variance in opinion on the exact indications for
tonsillectomy in children, there is less disagreement on the indications for
this procedure in adults. Tonsillectomy is commonly performed in young
adults who have suffered repeated episodes of documented tonsillitis, peri¬
tonsillar cellulitis, or peritonsillar abscess. Chronic tonsillitis can result in
extensive loss of time from work.
Children seldom suffer from chronic tonsillitis or peritonsijlar abscess.

Most commonly, they develop recurrent episodes of acute tonsillitis and
associated hypertrophy. Such episodes may be of viral or bacterial origin.
Discussion may then develop regarding at what point or after how many
episodes surgical intervention is required.
The current commonly accepted guidelines are presented in this section.
Absolute Indications. Indications for tonsillectomy that have remained
nearly absblute include the following:
1. Development of cor pulmonale by chronic airway obstruction

2. Tonsil or adenoid hypertrophy with sleep apnea syndrome
-3. Hypertrophy to the extent of causing dysphagia with associated weight
loss
4. Excisional biopsy for suspected malignancy (lymphoma)
5. Recurrent peritonsillar abscess or abscess extending into adjacent tissue
spaces
Relative Indications. All other indications for tonsillectomy are

considered relative. The most common such indication is recurrent episodes
of documented group A>eta-hemolytic streptococcal infection. The standard
throat culture may not necessarily demonstrate the organism responsible for
the current episode of pharyngitis. Culture of the tonsil surfaice does not
always reflect flora in the depths of the tonsil. Likewise, culture alone cannot
always be relied upon in the decision to treat with antibiotics. Sprinkle points
out that while the majority of V)sore throats” are caused by aîral infection.
Streptococcus pyogenes was the responsible bacterial agent in 40 per cent of
patients with recurrent exudative tonsillitis. Streptococci groups B and C,
adenoviruses, EB virus, and even herpesviruses are also capable of producing
an exudative tonsillitis. He believes that certain cases of recurrent
adenotonsillitis may result from harboring such a virus in its dormant state
within tonsillar tissue. At present, tonsillectomy may be the only way to
establish a more normal oral flora in certain patients with recurrent
adenotonsillitis.
The final decision to perform tonsillectomy will depend upon the judgment
of the physicians who care for the patient. They should remain cognizant of
the fact that this is a major operative procedure that even today is not free
of serious complications.
Currently, in addition to the absolute indications, the most widely accepted
indications for tonsillectomy in children include the following:
1. Documented recurrent bouts of tonsillitis (despite adequate medical

management)
2. Tonsillitis associated with persistent and pathogenic streptococcal
cultures (carrier stare)
3. Tonsil hyperplasia with functional obstruction (e.g., deglutition)
4. Hyperplasia and obstruction remaining six months after infectious
mononucleosis (usually young adults)
5. Rheumatic fever history with heart damage associated with chronic
recurrent tonsillitis and poor antibiotic control
6. Persistent chronic tonsil inflammation that does not respond to medical
management (usually young adults)
7. Tonsil and adenoid hypertrophy associated with orofacial or dental
abnormalities that narrow the upper airway
8. Recurrent or chronic tonsillitis associated with persistent cervical

adenopathy
If there is recurrent streptococcal infection, there may be a carrier at
home, and family culture and treatment may interrupt the cycle of recurrent
infection.
Professional judgment and experience in evaluating the merits of these
indications for a given patient are, of course, equally important. Just as
there are indications for surgery, there are certain nonindications and
contraindications that must be mentioned, since it has been fashionable to
perform this type of surgery for these problems.
Contraindications. Nonindications and contraindications for tonsillectomy
include the following:
1. Repeated upper respiratory infections
2. Systemic or chronic infection
3. Fevers of unknown origin
4. Enlarged tonsils without obstructive symptoms
5. Allergic rhinitis
6. Asthma
7. Blood dyscrasia
8. General inability or failure to thrive
9. Poor muscular tone
10. Sinusitis
Tonsillectomy can be performed in individuals who have a cleft palate

deformity. However, there should be extenuating circumstances to indicate
this operative^ procedure, and the patient must be informed of the possible
effect on voice quality of the operative procedure.
Surgical Procedure
Preparation of the Patient
When the decision has been reached that tonsillectomy is to be performed,
it must be realized that this may be the young patient’s first surgical
procedure. A complete history and physical examination should be per¬ A history of a bleeding problem
formed with particular attention to existence of any familial or inherited is more accurate than any sin¬
gle preoperative screening test.
disorders and specifically any bleeding tendency. In addition, a history of
any relative who may have had difficulty with general anesthesia should be
sought in an effort to exclude the remote possibility of malignant hyperther¬
mia. The most commonly preferred screening tests for bleeding disorders
include partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, and platelet count.
The patient should not take any aspirin for two weeks before surgery. The
history remains the most valuable guideline for the possibility of a bleeding
tendency. Complete blood count and urinalysis are always required prior to
a general anesthetic. Chest radiograph and electrocardiogram are recom¬
mended in adults over age 40. There should be documentation on the chart
of the need and indication for the surgical procedure.
The physician should explain to the patient in terms the young child can
understand exactly what surgical procedure will be performed and that it is
being done in an effort to help the patient and to prevent repeated episodes
of infection or to improve hearing. It should be made clear that there may
be discomfort in the immediate postoperative period but that the physicians,

nurses, and parents will be available to help during this time. The family
should then be asked to reinforce this and answer the child’s questions
honestly. A preoperative visit to the hospital may help to eliminate any fears
the child may have. Instructions to the family on postoperative care in diet,
activity, return to school, expected symptoms such as ear pain during the
first postoperative week, and the possibility of delayed bleeding should be
explained. Postoperative activities are individualized to the child’s response
and desires. No absolute limit to activity is necessary. In addition, if
ventilating tubes were inserted at the time of the adenoidectomy and
tonsillectomy, care and prevention of water in the ear canal should be
explained.
Adults tend to have more postoperative discomfort than children. Persist¬
ent pharyngeal discomfort can be anticipated for seven to ten days. Adults
should be made aware of this and of the possibility of delayed bleeding
seven to eleven days after the operative procedure.
Technical Considerations
There is no substitute for proper training for the performance of these
procedures.
Important anatomical relationships must be appreciated by the surgeon
(Figure 17-12A) who performs tonsillectomy.
Surgical Anatomy
1. The structure of the two pillars—the palatoglossus muscle (anterior
pillar) and the palatopharyngeus muscle (posterior pillar)
2. The lateral boundary of the tonsillar fossa—the superior constrictor
muscle
3. The relationships of the plicae, particularly the plica triangularis
4. The blood supply, which is derived from five arteries—the dorsalis
linguae from the lingual artery; the ascending palatine and the tonsillar,
both from the external maxillary; the ascending pharyngeal from the
external carotid; and the descending palatine from the internal
maxillary.
Anomalous blood vessels in this area may offer certain difficulties in tonsil
surgery.
The main lymphatic drainage from the palatine tonsils leaves the fibrous
trabeculae of the tonsil to pass through the capsule to the superior constrictor
muscle of the pharynx. Several trunks form at this site, pierce the bucco¬
pharyngeal fascia, and enter glands of the deep cervical chain from which
drainage reaches the thoracic duct and then enters the general circulation.
There has been no proof that there are effective afferent lymphatic vessels
from the tonsils.
Such things as endotracheal anesthesia, nonexplosive anesthetics, intra¬
venous fluids, and suction cautery for hemostasis have aided the surgeon
technically. Local anesthesia for adults is safe and quite acceptable to the
patient (Figures 17-12B, 17-13, and 17-14).
Postoperative Bleeding. Postoperative bleeding is categorized into
immediate and delayed. Immediate persistent postoperative bleeding is
generally handled by reanesthetizing the patient and controlling by ligature
or suction electrocautery. Later bleeding of significance may be handled in
Pharejnqeal
Tonsil
Soft palate
Palatine
FIGURE 17-12. A, The relationships of tonsil
the structures included in the orophar¬
ynx. The details of the structures sur¬
rounding the tonsils. (Redrawn from Lincjual tonsil
Hirsch.). 6, The principle of adenoidec-
tomy with LaForce adenotome requires
insertion of the opened adenotome in
the midline followed by additional inser¬
tion of the adenotome in lateral posi¬
tions on either side of the midline. The
advantage of this instrument is that it is
less traumatic than the curet, the depth
of incision is better controlled, and the
adenoid removed is safely caught in the
basket of the adenotome. After the ad¬
enoid is removed, or during phases of
its removal, there is value in holding a
sponge in the nasopharynx to control
the bleeding so that the site of removal
can be repeatedly inspected to ensure
thorough removal of the adenoid mass
and to visualize bleeding points on
which to apply a hemostat. This tech¬
nique is suitable only for the removal of
an ordinary hypertrophic adenoid.
an outpatient situation, particularly if the youngster or adult is cooperative.

This may occur up to the tenth postoperative day. Removal of the clot in
the tonsillar fossa associated with silver nitrate cautery and pressure is
generally all that is needed to control delayed postoperative bleeding. On
occasion, because of uncooperativeness of the patient or profuse bleeding,
it may be necessary to reanesthetize the patient in order to adequately
control the bleeding.
FIGURE 17—13. Instruments com¬

monly used for tonsillectomy and
adenoidectomy under general anes¬
thesia.
Tonsillectomy can be performed as an outpatient operative procedure in

many patients. However, some patients have persistent nausea and dysphagia
and can develop dehydration if discharged prematurely. The decision as to
the appropriateness of early discharge should remain with the surgeon.
Patients undergoing tonsillectomy may require an overnight stay if oral
intake is inadequate, they do not live close to a medical facility, or there is
concern about bleeding.
DEEP NECK INFECTIONS
Deep neck infections develop in potential pharyngeal spaces. The source

of infection may be of dental, pharyngeal, or traumatic origin, in which
there is perforation of the protecting mucous membranes of the oral or
pharyngeal cavity (Fig. 17-15).
FIGURE 17-14. Preferred method of dissection tonsil¬

lectomy: a, Points of infiltration if local anesthesia (1 per
cent Xylocaine with epinephrine 1:100,000) is utilized.
b, Start of incision with tonsil knife at attachment of
anterior pillar to the tonsil superiorly, c. Separation by
scissors dissection of the superior pole of the tonsil, d,
Continuation of dissection of tonsil from its attachment
to pillars and bed of tonsillar fossa, e. Separation of the
tonsil by snare at the lower pole, including the plica
triangularis, f, Hemostasis by a suture technique. Bleed¬
ing is often controlled by careful suction eiectrocautery.
Ext"* carotid a. lot. juqular v.

Retropharyngeal space
i lor. carotid a.
FIGURE 17—15. Potential deep neck spaces.

Pharyngomaxillary (Parapharyngeal) Space Infection
Pharyngeal space infection: This potential space is funnel-shaped, with its base located at the base of
dental, oral cavity, tonsils, pa¬ the skull on each side close to the jugular foramen and its apex at the great
rotid gland, traumatic, mastoid.
horn of the hyoid bone. The inner boundary is the ascending ramus of the
mandible and its attached medial pterygoid muscle and the posterior portion
of the parotid gland. The dorsal boundary consists of the prevertebral
muscles. Each fossa is divided into two unequal compartments by the styloid
process and its attached muscles. The anterior (prestyloid) compartment is
the larger. It may become involved in a suppurative process as a result of
infected tonsils, some forms of mastoiditis or petrositis, dental caries, and
surgery. The smaller posterior compartment contains the internal carotid
artery, jugular vein, vagus, and sympathetic nerves. Only a thin layer of
fascia separates this compartment from the retropharyngeal space.
Infection can spread rapidly The fascial spaces of the neck have been previously described (Chapter
from one potential space to
14). Pharyngeal infections can extend into the potential spaces surrounded
another.
by these fascial planes. Because patients have generally been treated with
an antibiotic, the classic development of a fascial space deep neck infection
is less common today (Fig. 17-16). The physician should initially determine
which space is most likely involved as well as the probable causative
organism.
When infection extends from the pharynx into this space, the patient will
develop marked trismus. While the lateral pharyngeal wall may be pushed
medially, as in a peritonsillar abscess, this infection should always be drained
through a cervical incision. The neck becomes swollen near the angle of the
mandible. CT scan aids in delineating the abscess.
A transverse incision, two fingerbreadths below the mandible, gives access
to the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle (Fig. 17-17). The
submaxillary gland is identified as well as the posterior belly of the digastric
FIGURE t7-16. Parapharyngeal space abscess

in an infant which will require drainage through
a cervical incision.
I 7—DISEASES OF THE NASOPHARYNX AND OROPHARYNX 359
FIGURE 17-17. A transverse incision two to

three fingerbreadths below the level of the
mandible is made anterior to the anterior mar¬
gin of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The T
extension as described by Mosher is often
unnecessary. This extension is useful for iden¬
tification of the carotid artery.
muscle. Blunt dissection toward the styloid process opens this space. Alter
pus is collected for both culture and Gram’s stain, drains are inserted into
the abscess. The skin is approximated loosely.
The most serious complications of a pharyngomaxillary space infection
involve the surrounding vasculature. Septic thrombophlebitis of the jugular
vein can occur. There can be sudden massive hemorrhage from erosion of
the internal carotid artery. An initial small hemorrhage (sentinel bleed)
suggests this complication. Identification of the internal carotid arteries is
mandatory when this complication is suspected and plans are made for
drainage of the abscess. Thus, if hemorrhage occurs when the abscess is
drained, immediate ligation of the internal carotid artery or common carotid
artery can be performed.
Ludwig’s Angina
Ludwig’s angina is a cellulitis or phlegmonous inflammation of the superior
compartment of the suprahyoid space. This potential space exists between
the muscles attaching the tongue to the hyoid bone and the mylohyoid
muscle. Inflammation of this space causes extreme firmness in the tissue of Free pus is not encountered
when a Ludwig’s infection is
the floor of the mouth and forces the tongue upward and posteriorly and drained. Tissue edema is re¬
thus can potentially obstruct the airway. Ludwig’s angina develops most leased by decompressing the
frequently as a result of infection of dental origin, but it may develop from submaxillary space.
suppurative cervical lymph nodes in the submaxillary space. Treatment

consists of surgical incision through the midline, thus interrupting the
tightness that has formed in the floor of the mouth. Since this is a cellulitis,
actual pus is seldom obtained. Before the incision and drainage are under¬
taken, preparations should be made for a possible tracheostomy because of
inability to intubate the patient, as the tongue obstructs the view of the
larynx and cannot be compressed by the laryngoscope (Fig. 17—18).
PART FOUR—THE ORAL CAVITY AND PHARYNX
FIGURE 17—18. When there is no pos¬

sibility of safe intubation, a preoperative
tracheostomy is performed prior to in¬
cision of the geniohyoid muscle for re¬
lease of tension in the region of the floor
of the mouth.
Masticator Abscess
This potential space is in close proximity to the pharyngomaxillary space.
This space includes the internal pterygoid muscle, masseter muscle, and
ramus of the mandible. While infections in the adjacent pharyngomaxillary
space are primarily the result of infection in the pharynx, the masticator
space is most frequently involved secondary to infection of dental origin.
Swelling and tenderness occur over the ramus of the mandible as well as
firmness developing along the lateral floor of the mouth. It is not possible
to depress the tongue because of the swelling and edema in the floor of the
mouth. Infections in this space should be treated initially and vigorously
with appropriate antibiotics. If the infection fails to resolve after a week of
intensive antibiotic therapy, surgical drainage is required. A transverse
cervical incision is made two fingerbreadths below the mandible and carried
down to the mandibular periosteum. Blunt dissection is then used to drain
the abscess. It may also be necessary to make a separate incision intraorally,
thus draining the infection into the mouth.
Retropharyngeal Abscess
Etiology. This disease occurs primarily in infants or small children under
the age of two. In older children or adults it is almost always secondary to
spread from a parapharyngeal space abscess or traumatic interruption of the
posterior pharyngeal wall lining by trauma from a foreign object or during
instrumentation or intubation. In children there is an accumulation of pus

between the posterior pharyngeal wall and prevertebral fascia which results
from a suppuration and breaking down of lymph nodes in the retropharyngeal
tissue. These nodes are immediately anterior to the second cervical vertebra
and are no longer present in older children.
Symptoms. The disease should be suspected in an infant or young child
when unexplained fever follows an upper respiratory infection and there is
a loss of appetite, change in speech, and difficulty swallowing. Stridor occurs
when the abscess becomes larger or edema extends downward to involve the
larynx. Adults present with dysphagia, pain on swallowing, and symptoms
suggesting airway obstruction. In adults, as the abscess increases there is
pain and swelling in the neck, as the parapharyngeal spaces are usually
simultaneously involved.
General anesthesia is administered provided that intubation is feasible and Safe intubation is required to
will not cause rupture of the abscess. In small infants it has been possible to avoid rupture of the abscess.
drain the abscess under local anesthesia as an emergency procedure, but
safe intubation by an experienced anesthesiologist is preferable.
Diagnosis. In the small infant the swelling of the pharyngeal wall may not
be readily detected by inspection or palpation. In these cases, a lateral soft
tissue radiograph of the neck may reveal a marked increase in the soft tissue
shadow between the pharyngeal airway and the bodies of the cervical
vertebrae. The larynx and trachea are demonstrated in a forward position.
If there is question about the radiograph, it can be confirmed by a barium-
swallow radiograph.
Treatment. Because of early administration of antibiotics, the true abscess
stage may never develop, but there is extensive retropharyngeal adenitis,
which will respond to appropriate intravenous antibiotics. When a diagnosis
of an actual abscess is confirmed, the abscess should be drained. The airway
must be protected. The head is lowered so that escaping pus will not be
aspirated, and a small, pointed scalpel blade is used to make a short vertical
incision at the point of greatest swelling (Fig. 17-19). As a safety factor, the
knife may be guided by an index finger placed on the abscess. If pus does
not escape, a small closed hemostat may be inserted into the wound, gently
pushed to a deeper level, and spread.
FIGURE 17-19. Incision and drainage of retropha¬

ryngeal space abscess.
Cultures are obtained for aerobic and anaerobic organisms as well as

tuberculosis. A stat Gram’s stain is also obtained. Antibiotic treatment
should include Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and common oral anaerobes,
including penicillin-resistant strains of Bacteroides (B. fragilis).
More recently young infants have presented with an identical clinical
picture suggestive of a retropharyngeal space abscess. Soft tissue radiographs
confirm the edema present in the retropharyngeal space. A lateral cervical
approach has been used in older infants. The findings have been soft or
necrotic, massively enlarged and edematous lymph nodes. The tissue is sent
for pathologic evaluation to rule out leukemia and lymphoma as well as for
culture. The airway is improved as the tissue edema subsides, and a
tracheostomy is often avoided. This clinical picture most likely reflects a
change in the classic presentation due to the early intervention with antibiotic
therapy in patients with suspected retropharyngeal space abscess.
Complications. Asphyxia due to aspiration of septic debris and hemorrhage
are the feared complications of a retropharyngeal abscess. Asphyxia has
occurred when a mouth gag has been inserted for examination and drainage
or from sudden rupture of a large abscess, flooding the larynx with pus.
When hemorrhage occurs, the bleeding is usually profuse and may possibly
require ligation of the internal carotid artery on the involved side for control.
Infection in this space can extend into the mediastinum with resultant
mediastinitis.
OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA*
During the past ten years the effects of long-term upper airway obstruction
with development of sleep apnea syndrome or the cardiopulmonary syn¬
drome have received significant attention. The severity of these long-term
effects had not been previously appreciated. Sleep apnea and associated
snoring are no longer considered psychosocial problems. Their interrelation¬
ships with significant cardiac and pulmonary problems have been recognized.
Obstruction can occur anywhere The cardiopulmonary syndrome results from the efforts of the heart and
from the nasal cavity to the su-
praglottic larynx, or anyplace
lungs to compensate for long-term chronic obstruction (Table 17-4). Other
where the tissues are pliable findings associated with this syndrome include systemic hypertension (in 30
rather than fixed. to 50 per cent of individuals), polycythemia, and cardiac arrhythmias
(bradycardia and ventricular tachycardia).
Clinical Presentation:
Obstructive sleep-disordered breathing primarily affects adult males (95
per cent) and occurs in perhaps 1 to 3 per cent of the adult population. The
clinical syndrome is associated with snoring in all individuals, and the
‘Conrad Iber, M.D., and Robert Maisel, M.D., contributed to the section on Obstructive
Sleep Apnea.
TABLE 17-4. PROGRESSIVE COMPLICATIONS OF

LONG-TERM UPPER AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION
Upper airway -> Pa02 reduction, —> Increased pulmonary —► Right heart -> Cardiac
obstruction significantly with arterial pressure hypertrophy decompensation
PaC02 increase (cor
(usually less pulmonale)
than 15 mm Hg)
accompanying sleep fragmentation causes excessive daytime sleepiness in 80

per cent. Since excessive daytime sleepiness may be caused by other clinical
disorders (narcolepsy, sleep restriction, depression, idiopathic hypersomno¬
lence syndrome), and since snoring occurs in 50 per cent of the adult male
population, it is not surprising that the history of snoring and daytime
sleepiness alone are not pathognomonic of sleep apnea. Hypertension,
enuresis, nocturnal headaches, and daytime personality disturbances are less
common. Clinically evident right heart failure occurs in less than 10 per cent
and is due to pulmonary hypertension from chronic hypoxia and respiratory
acidosis. Right heart failure is more common in patients with associated
obstructive lung disease and daytime hypoxia. Cardiac dysrhythmias may
occur only during sleep apnea events and include vagally mediated brady¬
cardia and asystoles as well as ventricular dysrhythmias. Children typically
have noisy nocturnal respiration and daytime nasal discharge and are less
likely to have daytime sleepiness than adults. In severe cases, children may
present with reversible underdevelopment and heart failure.
Mechanisms
Obesity and increasing age are associated with an increased risk of sleep-
disordered breathing. Although prospective studies of adults with sleep
apnea demonstrate reduced pharyngeal size and increased compliance with
evidence of mild retrognathia, most adults do not have clinically evident
disease of the upper airway. Narrowing of any portion of the supraglottic
airway can contribute to pharyngeal collapse during sleep. Nasal obstruction
due to septal deviation, massive adenoidal hypertrophy, or other anatomic
or functional problems may produce sleep apnea. Most of the common
aerodigestive pathway (pharynx) is composed of soft tissues capable of
collapse and airway narrowing. Continuous muscle tone is required to
maintain patency at the level of the nasopharynx, tongue base, and supra¬
glottis. Sleeping in the supine position and relaxation of muscle tone, which
accompanies sleep, can create obstruction. Although loss of phasic pharyn¬
geal dilator activity was initially implicated in obstructive sleep apnea, recent
studies show phasic inspiratory activation of upper airway muscles more
commonly in patients than in normal subjects. Presumably the obstructive
sleep apnea patient requires greater upper airway muscle activation than
normal to maintain airway patency.
Coexisting anatomic obstruction of the upper airway combined with
functional relaxation of the muscle tone and the sphincters increase the
likelihood of pharyngeal collapse. Individuals with good daytime muscle
tone may demonstrate disturbances during sleep and frank obstructive sleep
apnea, with no apparent findings during waking hours. Obstruction may
result from redundant tissue in the superior hypopharynx, base of tongue,
or oropharyngeal areas. At night during both REM (rapid eye movement)
and non-REM sleep, there is loss of muscle tone, and obstructive apnea will
develop with continued inspiratory diaphragmatic and intercostal muscle
contraction.
Provocative factors in adults include anatomic derangements (lymphoma-
tous involvement of the nasopharynx, allergic rhinitis, and acquired retro¬
gnathia) as well as causes of pharyngeal collapse (alcohol, benzodiazepines,
androgens, hypothyroidism). Correction of congestive heart failure may
result in significant improvement or resolution of sleep apnea in some pa-
tients with biventricular failure. The provocative factors may precipitate

obstructive episodes during sleep in susceptible individuals and should be
corrected before considering surgical management of disease.
Obstructive hypopneas are more common than, apneas in children and are
more typically a result of identifiable anatomic abnormalities such as tonsillar
and adenoidal enlargement, choanal atresia, mucopolysaccharidoses, or
micrognathia.
Obstructive sleep-disordered breathing includes the related conditions of
Apnea: cessation of airflow for obstructive apnea and hypopnea. Obstructive apnea (cessation of airflow for
> 10 secs.
greater than 10 seconds) or hypopnea (transient reduction in tidal volume)
are due to occlusion or narrowing of the hypopharynx during sleep. Patients
with the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome average 60 to 80 obstructive
events per hour and may spend more than 50 per cent of their sleep time
apneic. Each apneic event is terminated by arousal; thus sleep fragmentation
and daytime sleepiness are a necessary complication of sleep apnea. The
frequency of arousals correlates with daytime sleepiness. The severity of
oxygen depuration is usually worse in REM sleep and is related to the
duration of the apnea as well as to the severity of the associated obesity and
obstructive lung disease. Patients may have severe sleep disruption and
daytime sleepiness without significant oxygen desaturation.
Diagnosis
For a patient suspected of having obstructive sleep apnea, a careful
interview is held preferably in the presence of another household member.
Daytime somnolence often is Many patients deny or do not realize the symptoms are a result *of the
associated with sleep apnea.
disease. Apnea causes arousal from sleep with disruption of the normal sleep
cycle and subsequent symptoms of sleep deprivation—most notably daytime
somnolence. These patients, or more usually their families, complain about
significant or even heroic snoring. This may be so bad that a spouse has to
move out of the room or work and travel partners are unable to stay in the
same hotel room with the patient. Patients complain of morning headaches
and impotence; families report that in severe cases the patient does not
participate in family activities or decisions. Many of the patients are able to
function in the workplace but immediately come home, eat dinner, and fall
asleep. They may partake of meals with the family but may not participate
in any other activities. Despite what appears to be an excess of sleep, these
people are chronically sleep deprived from the recurrent awakenings asso¬
ciated with sleep-disordered breathing.
Physical examination of the head and neck may be quite normal, although
the physician should always look for obstructive lesions in the nose, naso¬
pharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx. Specific lesions sought in the
examination include nasal-septal deformity, nasal polyps, hypertrophic tur¬
binates, and adenoid hypertrophy. In some apnea patients, the uvula is
edematous and wrinkled, looking much like an earthworm. The soft palate
may appear long, although no relationship of these anatomic landmarks to
the degree of sleep apnea has been confirmed. Many patients are obese,
some by 50 to 100 per cent over normal body weight.
Obstructive sleep apnea is a disease that causes two significant problems.
The fragmentation of sleep disturbs the psychosocial activities of the patient,
disenchants the family, and destroys emotional relationships. And because
of excessive daytime sleepiness, the patient may be a hazard in the workplace
C* ~ A,
°4 " *1
O, - O* --------
Airflow *. Vr
Ribcage ♦•r'' \ /\Y «/ \y
Abdomen y v Y
FIGURE 17—20. Obstructive sleep

apnea. Cessation of airflow with con¬
tinued respiratory attempts evident
as paradoxical rib cage and abdomi¬
nal movements lasting two minutes
and associated with severe progres¬
sive oxygen desaturation terminated aU4-
by arousal from REM sleep. (Seventy- •*—*-**■
two seconds of the continuous ob¬
struction were removed to facilitate
display.)
Airflow
Ribcage +
Abdomen
h- S 86c H
and while operating machinery, including automobiles. Cardiac complica¬

tions including dysrhythmias and right heart failure may also be clinically
apparent.
The diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea is confirmed by overnight sleep
and respiratory monitoring such as with nocturnal polysomnography (Fig.
17-20). The frequency of airway obstruction and associated sleep disruption
is tabulated before and after therapeutic intervention. The frequency of
apneas per hour (apnea index), apneas and hypopneas per hour (apnea-
hypopnea index), and arousals per hour (arousal index) are objective
measures of apnea and arousal frequencies. The frequency and grade of
cardiac dysrhythmias and the severity of oxygen desaturation can best be
determined during this testing. Home monitoring, such as oximetry and
continuous EKG recording, is insufficiently reliable and specific for sleep
apnea and is more useful for determining response to therapy or defining
worsening of disease.
Treatment
Treatments of sleep apnea include bypassing the upper airway (tracheos¬
tomy), correcting identifiable anatomic abnormalities (uvulopalatopharyn-
goplasty, genioplasty, nasal septoplasty, tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy, man¬

dibular or midface advancement), using devices to maintain airway patency
(continuous positive airway pressure or CPAP), tongue retaining devices,
jaw positioning devices, and weight loss. Tracheostomy cures obstructive
sleep apnea in virtually all cases as long as the tracheostomy tube is patent
and is positioned properly. It bypasses the site of obstruction and allows the
patient and those living with him or her a complete, restful night. However,
it is often not socially acceptable because of the open neck wound and can
be difficult to manage chronically for obese patients because of the need for
local wound care. Tracheostomy tube size may be difficult to match to the
patient’s stoma. Perhaps 30 per cent of patients will experience minor
complications of infection and obstructing granulation tissue in the first few
months after surgery as well as the need for humidification during the winter
months. Many of these problems have been reduced in frequency and
intensity by using new tracheostomy techniques, which include developing
skin-lined flaps as well as combining that procedure with a submental
lipectomy in the obese patients (Fig. 17-21). Tracheostomies planned around
the Montgomery straight cannula tracheostomy tube also offer distinct
advantages for patient tolerance compared with routine tracheostomy (see
Chapter 25).
The flaccidity of the muscular structures and redundancy of tissues noted
in the oral pharynx and hypopharynx in patients with obstructive sleep apnea
suggest the value of uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) (Fig. 17-22). This
operation was first described by Fujita and consists of excision of excess oral
pharyngeal tissue and tonsillectomy (if it had not been previously performed).
The excess soft palate, particularly the posterior pillar of the tonsillar fossa,
is carefully excised during this operation. Pharyngoplasty results in significant
improvements in nocturnal oxygen saturation and arousals from obstructive
events. Responders to pharyngoplasty have objective improvements in
daytime sleepiness. The published literature harbors large discrepancies in
FIGURE 17-21. A, Anterior cervical skin incisions. B. Stoma after tracheocutaneous flap
approximation. (From Sahni R, Blakley B, Maisel RH: Flap tracheostomy in sleep apnea
patients. Laryngoscope 95:221-223, 1985.)
FIGURE 17-22. Uyulopalatopharyngoplasty. a, Typical oropharynx in a patient with sleep apnea secondary
to oropharyngearobstruction. Note elongated, engorged uvula, and thick, redundant folds of tissue. The
tonsils are removed initially if this has not previously been done, b and c, Mucosal flaps based inferiorly,
extending to the midline, are elevated, d, Excessive redundant submucosal tissue is excised and the uvula
is partially amputated, e. Midline sutures are placed and reapproximated to the soft palate, f, Completion
of procedure. (Adapted from Fujita.)
the response rates and predictors of response to pharyngoplasty. These

discrepancies are due in large measure to differences in patient selection and
definitions of response. If “response” is defined as a reduction of apneas
and hypopneas to less than 20 per hour, only 30 to 40 per cent of patients
are “responders.” As yet, there is no consensus regarding the role of the
physical examination, weight reduction, use of cephalometries, or acoustic
reflectance measurements in predicting response to pharyngoplasty. The
response to other upper airway surgical procedures in sleep apnea remains
largely anecdotal. Patients with moderate or severe apnea will often have a
tracheostomy in conjunction with a UPPP. A repeat sleep study to demon¬
strate improvement to a more satisfactory level allows removal of the
tracheostomy in about one-third of these patients.
TABLE 17-5. MEDICAL MANAGEMENT OF SLEEP APNEA

Avoidance of CNS depressants, especially alcohol
Appropriate use of medications
a. Protriptyline (tricyclic antidepressant) reduces period of time in REM sleep
b. Acetazolamide.stimulates ventilation and reduces oxygen desaturation
c. Thyroid supplement corrects hypothyroidism when present
Weight loss
Continuous low oxygen (1.5 L/min): Beneficial and deleterious effects have been reported
Airway maintenance: Intubation, tongue retainers
Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)
TABLE 17-6. OPTIONS FOR SURGICAL CORRECTION OF

UPPER AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION IN SLEEP APNEA
SITES OF OBSTRUCTION TREATMENT
Nose Nasal septal deflection Septoplasty
Enlarged inferior nasal turbinate Submucous resection or cautery of
turbinate
Nasopharynx Adenoid hypertrophy, small slitlike Adenoidectomy
configuration
Oropharynx Redundant tonsillar folds, prominent Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP)
uvula, floppy soft palate
Tonsil hypertrophy, enlarged lingual Tonsillectomy
tonsil Limited laser tonsillectomy
Hypopharynx Collapse of pharyngeal constrictors, Tracheostomy, hyoid or mandibular
retrodisplacement of tongue advancement
Therapy with respiratory stimulants (progesterone, almitrine) or with other

drugs (protriptyline, nicotine, strychnine) results in marginal improvement
and is often complicated by intolerable side effects. In some cases where
excessive daytime sleepiness and cardiac dysrhythmias are not paramount,
oxygen alone may be sufficient to correct right heart failure. Although
placing some patients with mild sleep-disordered breathing in a semireclining
or lateral decubitus position results in marked improvement, this is often
difficult to accomplish at home. Gastric weight reduction surgery usually
results in dramatic improvement of sleep-disordered breathing in the mor¬
bidly obese, reduces health risks for other medical complications of obesity,
and has perhaps a 10-fold increased likelihood of achieving weight reduction
compared with dietary methods. In the moderately overweight, weight
reduction of 10 to 20 lb may result in significant improvement in the frequency
of sleep-disordered breathing (Table 17-5).
Continuous positive airway pressure by nasal mask (nCPAP) is now the
most commonly prescribed treatment for sleep apnea in certified sleep
disorders centers and has resulted in a dramatic reduction in the use of
tracheostomy. nCPAP provides pneumatic stenting of the upper airway
during sleep and corrects sleep apnea in over 80 per cent of patients who
are able to tolerate the mask. Intolerance to the equipment results in
significant attrition after initiation of nCPAP at home. Periodic follow-up by
a nurse-specialist clinic may result in more successful long-term use. The
tongue-retaining device results in marginal improvement in sleep-disordered
breathing. The experience with other devices is anecdotal. A list of possible
surgical options and their indications is given in Table 17-6.
References
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9(3):655—675, 1976.
Bierman CW, Furukawa CT: Medical management of serous otitis in children Pediatrics
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Blakley BW, Maisel RH, Mahowald M, Ettinger M: Sleep parameters after surgery for
obstructive sleep apnea. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 95:23-28, 1986.
Bluestone CD: Eustachian tube function and allergy in otitis media. Pediatrics 61(1):753—760,
Bluestone CD, Beery QC: Adenoidectomy in relationship to otitis media. Ann Otol Rhinol
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Christiansen TA, Duvall AJ, Rosenberg Z, Carley RB: Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma
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DeDio RM,-Tom LWC, McGowan KL, et al: Microbiology of the tonsils and adenoids in a
pediatric population. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 114:763-765, 1988.
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Fairbanks DNF: Snoring: Surgical vs. nonsurgical management. Laryngoscope 94:1188-1192
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Feinstein AR, Levitt M: The role of tonsils in predisposing to streptococcal infections and
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Freeman AJ, et al: Previous tonsillectomy and the incidence of acute leukemia of childhood
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89:923-934, 1981.
Guilleminault C, Simmons FB, Motta J, et al: Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and
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Otolaryngol 110(5): 104—105, 1984.
Holt GR, Tinsley PP Jr: Peritonsillar abscesses in children. Laryngoscope 91:1226-1230, 1981.
Iber C, Davies S, Chapman R, Mahowald M: A possible mechanism for mixed apnea in
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Johnson AK, Johnson RE: Tonsillectomy history in Hodgkin’s disease. N Engl J Med 287 1122—
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Kornblut AD: The tonsils and adenoids. Otol Clin North Am 20:2, 1987.
Levitt GW: Cervical fascia and deep neck infections. Otol Clin North Am 9(3):703-716, 1976.
Manford RS, Orey HW, Brooks GF, Feldman RA: Diphtheria deaths in the United States
JAMA 229:1890, 1974.
Mawson GR, Adlington P, Evans M: A controlled study evaluation of adenotonsillectomy in
children. J Laryngol Otol 81:777-790, 1967.
McCurdy JA Jr: Peritonsillar abscess: A comparison of treatment by immediate tonsillectomy
and interval tonsillectomy. Arch Otolaryngol 103:414-415, 1977.
McKee WJE: A controlled study of the effects of “tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy ” Br J
Prev Soc Med 17:49-69, 1963.
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534, 1952.
Olsen KD. Kern EB, Westbrook PR: Sleep and breathing disturbance secondary to nasal
obstruction. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 89:804-810, 1981.
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Chapters I, II, and III.
18
INFECTIONS IN THE
IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST
by Norman T. Berlinger, M.D., Ph.D.
Our knowledge of the operation of the immune system has advanced

remarkably in the last 20 years. Consequently, congenital and acquired
immune deficiency diseases are being diagnosed with increasing frequency.
Therapeutic manipulations of the immune system in the forms of bone
marrow transplantation, solid organ transplantation, and high-dose cytotoxic
chemotherapy are becoming commonplace and even preferred forms of
treatment. As a result, otolaryngologists are now encountering increasing
numbers of immunocompromised patients with head and neck infections
that present diagnostic and therapeutic challenges.
BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION
Bone marrow transplantation was once considered a desperate or heroic

form of therapy. However, improvements in conditioning regimens, in
medical and surgical support strategies to reduce the risk of fatal infections,
and in methods to treat and prevent graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) have
allowed marrow transplantation to emerge as a potentially curative form of
therapy. The largest number of bone marrow transplants has been performed
for hematologic malignancies such as acute leukemia, chronic myelogenous
leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Transplants
have also been performed for nonmalignant diseases such as thalassemia
major, aplastic anemia, congenital immunodeficiency diseases, and inborn
errors of metabolism such as the mucopolysaccharidoses.
Irradiation and chemotherapy Two major factors contribute to the inordinate incidence of infection
break down mucosal barms to among bone marrow transplant recipients. One is the breakdown of mucosal
barriers due to cytotoxic agents and total body irradiation. Proper functioning
of the mucosal cilia facilitates microbe clearance. The mucous membrane
secretions contain soluble factors such as IgA, lactoferrin, lysozyme, and
alpha-antitrypsin, all of which have some antimicrobial activity. The second
is, of course, the immune deficiency associated with the transplantation
process itself.
Immunologic Abnormalities with

Bone Marrow Transplantation
Soon after transplantation, the circulating white cell count drops to levels
of less than 50/cu mm and usually remains at that level for two to three
370
18—INFECTIONS IN THE IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST 371
weeks. Furthermore, the absolute neutrophil count may remain below 500/
cu mm for up to four or five weeks. It is during this neutropenic period of
profound immunosuppression that the marrow recipient is inordinately
susceptible to serious or fatal infections, often with unusual or unfamiliar
organisms. Even after recovery of normal or nearly normal numbers of
circulating neutrophils, neutrophil chemotaxis or intracellular killing of
organisms may remain abnormal.
Nonspecific immune mechanisms such as antibody-dependent cell-me¬
diated cytotoxicity and natural killing similarly recover rapidly with marrow
engraftment. Serum immunoglobulin levels can return to normal within
several months after engraftment. However, maturation of the humoral
immune system may be prolonged so that the production of antibody to
some antigens may be poor despite the ability to produce sufficient immu¬
noglobulin.
T cell and B cell levels may return to normal soon after engraftment, but
T cell subpopulations may remain abnormal for prolonged periods of time.
The occurrence of infection early during the course of marrow transplan¬
tation is directly related to the duration of the neutropenic period. The
occurrence of infection after engraftment is related to the rapidity of
maturation of the immune system and to the development of GVHD, which
itself is immunosuppressive and often must be treated with immunosuppres¬
sive drugs.
Early Infections
Confounding the prompt and accurate diagnosis of infectious complications
during this period of profound neutropenia is the fact that the usual signs Signs and symptoms of inflamma¬
and symptoms of inflammation are not likely to be evident. The clinical tion are less obvious with immu¬
nosuppression.
presentation of localized infection in neutropenic patients is often subtle.
Localized infections may elude diagnosis and be discovered only at autopsy.
In neutropenic patients, erythema and pain seem to be the only reliable
indicators of localized infection. The other classic signs of localized infections,
such as exudates, local warmth, edema and swelling, regional adenopathy,
cough, sputum production, sputum purulence, and radiographic air-fluid
levels, are all less prevalent. The degree of subtlety of these latter signs is
directly proportional to the degree of patient neutropenia, with a major
reduction of these signs and symptoms occurring with an absolute neutrophil
count of 0 to 100/cu mm.
Otitis Media
This is a relatively infrequent problem. Again, pain and erythema are the
only reliable clinical signs. Pain is sometimes misleading in patients who
have a concurrent oral or pharyngeal mucositis, which may cause referred
pain in the ear. Tympanic membrane retraction is minimal, and frank
effusion is seldom seen at the time of either otoscopy or myringotomy.
When otitis media is suspected in the presence of an otherwise unexplained
fever, the patient ought to undergo bilateral tympanocentesis with saline
lavage and aspiration of the middle ear clefts to obtain a Gram’s stain, a
KOH preparation, and cultures for aerobes, anaerobes, and fungi. A solution
of 90 per cent phenol can be applied to the myringotomy site for hemostasis
in these thrombocytopenic patients, as has been recommended for tympa¬

nostomy tube placement in children with hemophilia A. Tympanostomy
tubes should usually be inserted to allow aeration of the middle ear cleft
and to prevent the need for a myringotomy later in the course of the
transplantation process.
Otomycosis
A fungal infection of the external auditory canal in an immunologically
normal patient is called an otomycosis and usually represents a harmless
saprophytic growth that often resolves without treatment. In the bone
marrow recipient, however, fungal infection of the external auditory canal
can persist and spread to involve the middle ear and mastoid. The fungi
invade the vasculature of the infected part of the ear and cause tissue
destruction by infarction and secondary necrosis. The facial nerve can be
involved directly by fungal invasion or indirectly by infarction to yield a
facial nerve paralysis. Aspergillus species seem to be the most common
pathogenic organisms, although infections with Scopulariopsis and Coccidi-
oides have occurred.
The usual presentation of a complicated otomycosis in a bone marrow
recipient is a dry, gangrenous involvement of the external auditory canal.
Some granulation tissue may be present, and there is often anesthesia of the
uninvolved portions of the ear canal. Middle ear or mastoid involvement
should be suspected in the presence of a tympanic membrane perforation.
In the presence of an intact tympanic membrane, hearing loss, facial nerve
paresis, or pain out of proportion to the physical findings should similarly
raise the suspicion of middle ear or mastoid involvement.
Prompt and aggressive surgical debridement of the external auditory canal
should be performed. When indicated, middle ear exploration or a mastoid-
otomy should be performed to obtain mucosal specimens for fungal cultures
and fungal stains. When mastoid involvement is proved, a radical or modified
radical mastoidectomy should be performed to allow aeration and inspection
of the entire mastoid cavity. Systemic antifungal agents and granulocyte
infusions are the usual medical adjuncts, as for any fungal infection in a
bone marrow recipient.
Sinusitis
The majority of cases are bacterial in origin, and the causative bacteria
usually are the ones encountered in a routine practice. The presentation of
Mucosal thickening is the usual sinusitis is almost always the radiographic detection of maxillary sinus
presentation of maxillary sinusi¬ mucosal thickening in a patient with an unexplained fever. Air-fluid levels
tis in the immunocompromised
host. are rarely seen. The clinical examination is usually unremarkable. If the
fever persists, surgical intervention is the treatment of choice when the
patient is expected to remain profoundly neutropenic for at least several
more days, surgical intervention in the form of nasoantral windows allows
representative cultures, prompt and effective treatment of the sinusitis, and
a biopsy of diseased mucosa for detection of any possible invasive fungal
elements. Thus, sinus lavage or aspiration is an insufficient treatment.
Aspergillus is the most common Fungal sinusitis is relatively infrequent but not rare. It is the most lethal
fungus causing sinusitis.
sinus infection, with the mortality rate for fulminant necrotizing aspergillosis
being estimated as high as 80 per cent. Fusarium species are less common
pathogens but also cause a fulminant form of infection. Penicillium and
Alternaria are relatively uncommon fungal pathogens. These latter organisms
tend to cause indolent and less aggressive disease, although they invade local
blood vessels also.
Early diagnosis of fungal sinusitis requires a high index of suspicion and a
careful clinical examination. Early ethmoid sinusitis often presents as a black
necrotic patch of mucosa, which may be only several millimeters in diameter,
on the anterior end of the middle turbinate or as a slight erythema at the
medial canthal area. Early maxillary sinusitis presents as erythema or
tenderness over the cheek. In a neutropenic patient, fungal sinusitis can
demonstrate a unilateral opacified antrum, and this is usually not the case
with a bacterial pathogen.
Since Aspergillus and Fusarium species seem to be the most common
fungal pathogens, surgery is the treatment of choice to interrupt a potentially
fulminant infection that can rapidly spread to the orbit, facial soft tissues,
and central nervous system. The surgical treatment should be identical to
that for mucormycosis of the paranasal sinuses. The surgical treatment is
justified even though the specific fungus may not have been identified or
speciated at the time of surgery. A delay of even several days can allow
rapid local spread, aerosol dissemination to the lungs, and hematogenous
spread to distant organs.
Once engraftment occurs, adequate numbers of circulating neutrophils
halt local progression and dissemination so that the disease may become
indolent. Reactivation can occur later on in the sinuses previously affected
if the patient subsequently develops severe GVHD, requires immunosup¬
pressive agents, or again becomes severely neutropenic.
Rhinitis
Bacterial and fungal infections can occur on the nasal septum. It appears
that only the fungal infections assume any clinical importance, since, as in
fungal sinusitis, local tissue destruction can occur. The infection can spread
distally to the soft tissues of the face (Fig. 18-1) or can spread proximally
to the cribriform plate. The fungal infection of the septum can be detected
as a dry, dark or black patch of anesthetic mucosa, most commonly occurring
at the area of Kiesselbach’s plexus. A wide septectomy is usually indicated.
Laryngitis
Upper airway problems are usually due to the extension of infectious
problems in the mouth and nasopharynx. With the breakdown of mucosal
barriers, oral infections with Candida or herpes simplex virus are common.
Obstructive laryngitis can be caused by these organisms as well as by
Aspergillus. The respiratory obstruction is seldom due to airway edema, but
rather to marked mucosal ulceration resulting in the formation of obstructing
crusts, pseudomembranes, or casts caused by bleeding, serous exudation, or
the sloughing of necrotic tissue (Fig. 18-2). The performance of an urgent
tracheostomy can be especially treacherous, since the obstructing crusts can
extend well below the site of the tracheostomy. In such a situation, surgical
entry into the trachea can precipitate total acute airway obstruction, which
FIGURE 18—1. An Aspergillus in¬

fection of the nasal septum had
quickly progressed externally to
cause gangrenous erosions of the
nasal columella, rim, ala, and lip.
may not be promptly relieved by the passage of a bronchoscope. To try to

avoid this problem, it is wise to obtain a CT scan or MRI scan of the major
airways prior to the tracheostomy, if time allows, to assess all the areas of
large airway obstruction.
Esophagitis
This is most frequently caused by Candida species and often results from
the swallowing of Candida-contaminated saliva. Some patients are asymp¬
tomatic, whereas others complain of dysphagia or burning retrosternal pain.
FIGURE 18—2. Cross-section of

the trachea. A large Aspergillus
mycetoma occludes half of the
cross-sectional area of the tra¬
chea. in this patient, many such
lesions were found at other sites
in the trachea and bronchi.
The radiographic appearance of candidal esophagitis can be characteristic.

A ragged esophageal mucosa with deep ulcerations and pseudopolypoid
formation is said to be typical or even pathognomonic. Nevertheless, the
immunocompromised patient may not be able to manifest a typical inflam¬
matory reaction to Candida, and the barium swallow may therefore not be
reliable. Esophagoscopy is the preferred form of diagnosis when a mucosal Esophagoscopy and biopsy are
required lor the definitive diag¬
biopsy is obtained both for culture and for light microscopy. Cytology instead nosis of candidal esophagitis.
of a biopsy may yield false-negative results. The decision to perform an
esophageal biopsy in a thrombocytopenic patient may be difficult and should
be individualized for each case. Nevertheless, definitive diagnosis is very
important, since candidal esophagitis is associated with esophageal perfora¬
tion or candidal sepsis.
Esophagitis may also be due to herpes simplex virus and presents with the
same symptoms as does candidal esophagitis. It appears to be due to the
swallowing of saliva contaminated with virus particles. An extensive patchy
ulceration can occur in the esophagus. At times, the lesions may not be
recognizable as typical herpetic ulcers. Cytology is often an inadequate way
to diagnose this disease, and both culture and biopsy may be necessary.
Definitive diagnosis is necessary, since viremic herpes simplex infections can
occur in the bone marrow recipient with dissemination of the virus particles
to the lungs, liver, and brain.
Cervical Cellulitis
Inflammatory swellings of the neck can occur by means of direct extension

of oral bacteria into fascial spaces or of retrograde infection of Stensen’s
duct or Wharton’s duct. Diffuse edema and erythema can occur, but there
is usually no fluctuance, since neutropenia does not allow the production of
copious pus. These infections are treated with a regimen of antibiotics such
as tobramycin, ticarcillin, and vancomycin. Resolution almost always occurs
spontaneously as engraftment begins. Surgery is seldom, if ever, necessary.
INFECTIONS AFTER MARROW RECOVERY
This period is arbitrarily considered to be the time between marrow

engraftment and approximately day 100 after transplantation. Most infections
after initial marrow recovery are due to latent opportunistic organisms that
undergo reactivation. These organisms tend most commonly to be DNA
viruses. Orofacial herpes simplex viral infections are common and can be
especially troublesome in a small but significant percentage of patients with
widespread involvement of the lingual, buccal, and gingival mucosa. Oral
and intravenous acyclovir has been effective in the treatment and prophylaxis
of these infections.
Varicella-zoster virus infections are also common and can present in a
trigeminal distribution with the complications of blindness or local scarring
of the skin. Ramsay Hunt syndrome has been reported. Hand-foot-and-
mouth disease, most commonly due to coxsackievirus A16, has also been
observed.
LATE INFECTIONS
Infections six months or more after bone marrow transplantation are

relatively unusual. They tend to occur most frequently in patients with
Otitis media and sinusitis are GVHD. In a recent study, the most frequent infections involved the head
common late infections.
and neck region. Otitis media occurs in about 7 per cent of patients and
sinusitis in about 11 per cent. These infections usually are due to gram¬
positive cocci and only seldom to fungi. It has been speculated that the high
incidence of sinus infections is due in part to a sicca-like syndrome induced
in the upper airway mucosa by chronic GVHD. Oral candidiasis occurs in
about 9 per cent of patients and may be related to the use of corticosteroids
for chronic GVHD. Chronic GVHD may occur in up to 40 per cent of bone
marrow transplant recipients. Its onset varies from 70 to 400 days after
transplantation and resembles several naturally occurring autoimmune dis¬
eases such as scleroderma, Sjogren’s syndrome, and systemic lupus erythe¬
matosus.
ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME
AIDS is a devastating disease caused by an RNA retrovirus, the human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The virus preferentially infects helper T
lymphocytes and causes their lysis. The protean manifestations can be
attributed to the resulting deficiency of this crucial component of the immune
system. Approximately 40 per cent of adults with AIDS eventually come to
the attention of the otolaryngologist for head and neck manifestations of the
disease, including Kaposi’s sarcoma. Of these, about one third present with
head and neck infections.
Mouth, Larynx, and Esophagus

The most common infection so far appears to be oral candidiasis. This
can occur at the onset of the disease before definitive diagnosis. Therefore,
any adult patient with oral candidiasis should undergo a thorough social
history, especially in a geographic area with a high incidence of AIDS.
Cervical adenopathy is a nearly Furthermore, the physical examination should emphasize the detection of
constant finding in patients with
AIDS. cervical lymphadenopathy (a nearly constant finding in AIDS), weight loss,
and evidence of other opportunistic infections.
A small but significant percentage of AIDS patients eventually demon¬
strate extension of the candidiasis to the larynx or to the esophagus. Candidal
laryngitis causes the usual symptoms but also can progress to a process that
obstructs the upper airway. Candidal esophagitis has been associated with a
50 per cent mortality rate secondary to candidal sepsis in these patients.
Sinusitis
Sinusitis is usually due to bacteria, and the pathogens tend to be the ones
encountered in a routine practice such as Haemophilus influenzae, Strepto¬
coccus pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus. These infections are appro¬
priately treated with an antral lavage and antibiotics chosen according to
sensitivity testing. More unusual organisms such as Klebsiella and Gardnerella
usually require a Caldwell-Luc procedure to eradicate diseased mucosa and

provide adequate drainage. In one series, Pseudallescheria boydii, a ubiqui¬
tous soil fungus, and Aspergillus species were the most common fungal
pathogens. Therapeutic lavage is not appropriate therapy in these cases, and
consideration should be given to a nasal antral window or, preferably, to a
Caldwell-Luc procedure.
Children
In HIV-infected children, recurrent otitis media and chronic sinusitis can
be presenting illnesses before the onset of opportunistic infections or the
definitive diagnosis of AIDS. For children with these types of infections, it
is recommended that a careful history be taken for blood transfusions and
to assess whether the parents are at risk for AIDS.
SOLID ORGAN TRANSPLANT RECIPIENTS
Infection is the leading cause of death among allograft recipients. This is

especially significant among kidney transplant recipients, since azotemia and
hyperglycemia are associated with a higher incidence of infection.
During the first month after organ transplantation, infections tend to be
caused by nonopportunistic organisms. Head and neck infections tend to be
only slightly more frequent than in a normal population. Opportunistic
infections seem to occur in patients undergoing intensive or prolonged
immunosuppression and in those undergoing repeated courses of antirejec¬
tion therapy. This is especially true during the second through sixth month
after transplantation. It is during this period that the allograft recipient may
experience numerous rejection episodes and be subjected to intensive
immunosuppressive therapy.
Sinusitis tends to be the most frequent head and neck infection, with most
episodes due to bacterial pathogens. Pseudomonas has been notable among Pseudomonas sinusitis requires
aggressive therapy.
these patients and can cause a necrotizing type of infection. This must be
treated aggressively and with the instillation of irrigation catheters into the
maxillary sinuses and nose for frequent daily saline lavages of infected areas.
Fungal sinusitis with Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Phycomycetes has also
been reported. Candidal pharyngitis and esophagitis occur rather frequently.
INFECTIONS IN THE CANCER PATIENT
Infections are a major source of morbidity in the patient with cancer and
often are the major cause of death. Cancer patients are susceptible to
infectious complications due to altered host defense mechanisms, which may
be deficient secondary to the malignancy itself or to its treatment.
Immunologic Milieu
A number of immune functions can be adversely affected by cancer
therapy.
Granulopoiesis, of course, can be inhibited by cytotoxic agents and gran-
ulocyte reserves can be exhausted, with granulocytopenia occurring in about

one week. Neutrophil chemotaxis and phagocytosis can be inhibited by
corticosteroids. Certain chemotherapeutic agents and craniofacial irradiation
can impair the intracellular killing of organisms by neutrophils. The macro¬
phage is not as sensitive to chemotherapy and can provide residual phagocytic
capacities during periods of neutropenia.
Numerous T cell functions can be impaired in cancer patients, even in the
absence of cytotoxic therapy. Decreased lymphocyte responses to mitogens
and antigens, the appearance of monocytes that nonspecifically suppress T
cell blastogenesis, and cutaneous anergy are frequent.
The humoral immune system can be severely affected by chemotherapy.
Impaired antibody production, inadequate agglutination and lysis of bacteria,
and deficient opsonization all can occur.
Malnutrition contributes to the Malnutrition is a frequent occurrence in the cancer patient and can be
breakdown of mucosal barriers.
responsible for other deficiencies in the immune system such as diminished
macrophage mobilization, impaired phagocytosis, and certain lymphocyte
deficiencies. Malnutrition also contributes to the breakdown of mucosal
barriers to microorganisms.
Infections
Sinusitis is frequent in the cancer patient undergoing chemotherapy. When
the symptoms appear chronic, the possibility of anaerobic bacteria must be
entertained and appropriate cultures obtained and antibiotics chosen. It
appears that anaerobic pathogens can be isolated in at least 50 per cent of
the cases of chronic maxillary sinusitis. Fungal sinusitis is common in the
cancer patient also. The incidence of Aspergillus infection seems to be
increasing, and one cancer treatment center has reported that 20 per cent of
adults with acute leukemia developed Aspergillus sinusitis during a five-year
period (Fig. 18-3).
Esophagitis is most commonly caused by Candida, but herpes simplex
virus and bacteria can also be etiologic agents.
In general, the greater the degree of neutropenia, the more likely the
infectious complications will resemble those in the bone marrow transplant
recipient, both in the types of etiologic organisms and in the subtlety of
clinical presentation.
CONGENITAL IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
The most common recurrent head and neck infections in children with
congenital immunodeficiency diseases are rhinitis, sinusitis, tonsillitis, and
suppurative otitis media. The majority of these children who present to the
otolaryngologist already have a known and proven diagnosis of the immu¬
nodeficiency disease.
Nevertheless, a small but significant number present with the basic
immunologic abnormality undiagnosed. To aid in the identification of pa¬
tients who deserve an immunologic evaluation, careful attention should be
paid to certain factors in the history and physical examination. These include
a family history suggestive of immune deficiencies, a history of other
recurrent infectious processes such as skin infections or recurrent pneumonias
18—INFECTIONS IN THE IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST 37y
FIGURE 18-3. Giemsa silver stain demonstrating Aspergillus organisms in the mastoid cavity of a patient
with acute leukemia.
with unusual organisms such as Pneumocystis carinii or Nocardia, recurrent

infections with the same organism, chronic diarrhea, a family history of fetal
wastage or infant deaths, failure to thrive, and hepatosplenomegaly.
If immunodeficiency is suspected, a screening immunologic evaluation
should be performed. This should include a complete blood count and
differential, quantitative circulating immunoglobulins, erythrocyte sedimen¬
tation rate, and skin tests for delayed hypersensitivity to Candida, Tricho¬
phyton, and tetanus toxoid. If an immunodeficiency is still suspected in a
child with normal immunoglobulin levels, a total hemolytic complement
assay should be obtained, especially if documented recurrent infections are
due to 5. pneumoniae or meningococci. Also, IgG subclasses should be IgBsubclass deficiencies can
measured, since a recent report has documented deficiencies of IgG2 and
IgG3 in children with recurrent sinus and pulmonary infections. The IgG
antibody response to many bacterial capsular polysaccharide antigens, in¬
cluding those of H. influenzae, resides chiefly within the IgG2 subclass.
Children with these subclass deficiencies should receive either antibiotic
prophylaxis for their infections or gamma globulin replacement.
References
Berkow RL, Wisman SJ, Provisor AJ, et al: Invasive aspergillosis of paranasal tissues in
children with malignancies. J Pediatr 103:49-53, 1983.
Berlinger NT: Sinusitis in immunodeficient and immunosuppressed patients. Laryngoscope
95:29-33, 1985.
Harris JP. South MS: Immunodeficiency diseases: Head and neck manifestations. Head Neck
Surg 5:114-124, 1983.
Marcusen DC, Sooy CD: Otolaryngologic and head and neck manifestations of acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Laryngoscope 95:401-405, 1985.
McGill TJ, Simpson G, Healy GB: Fulminant aspergillosis of the nose and paranasal sinuses:
A new clinical entity. Laryngoscope 90:748-754, 1980..
Shannon KM, Ammann AJ: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome in children J Pediatr
106:332-342, 1985.
Wong KK, Hirsch MS: Herpes virus infections in patients with neoplastic disease: Diagnosis
and therapy. Am J Med 76:464-478, 1984.
PART FIVE
THE LARYNX
19
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LARYNX
*>«/ lames I. Cohen, M.D., Ph.D.
Embryology
The pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs are derivatives of the embryonal
foregut, which appears at about 18 days after conception. Soon thereafter,
the median pharyngeal groove arises, containing the first indications of the
respiratory system and the anlage of the larynx. The laryngotracheal sulcus
or groove then becomes apparent at around 21 days of embryonic life (Fig.
19-1). Caudal expansion of this groove represents the pulmonary primor-
dium. It deepens and becomes saclike and then bilobed at 27 to 28 days.
The most proximal portions of this enlarging tube will become the larynx.
The arytenoid swellings and the epithelial lamina are recognizable by 33
days, and the cartilages and muscles, including vocal folds for the most part,
develop during the subsequent three to four weeks.
Only the cartilage of the epiglottis does not appear until midfetal life.
Since the development of the larynx is closely linked to the development of
the branchial arches of the embryo, many of the laryngeal structures are
derivatives of the branchial apparatus.
Arytenoid
swellings
FIGURE 19—1. Development of the human

larynx. A, Four weeks; 6, five weeks; C, six
weeks; D, seven weeks; £, ten weeks; F,
infant larynx at birth. Roman numerals refer
to visceral arch derivatives. (From Blue-
stone CD, Stool SE (eds); Pediatric Otolar¬
yngology. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,
1983, p 1136.)
383
384 PART FIVE—THE LARYNX
Incomplete closure of the cri- Defective development may result in a variety of abnormalities that can
fSSSS/S be dia8nosed by direct examination of the larynx. The larynx itself may be
small, or there may be a variable degree of webbing between the true vocal
cords. Rarely, the posterior arm of the T of the laryngotracheal sulcus may
persist, leaving an opened laryngeal cleft between the esophagus and trachea.
Laryngomalacia, an abnormal degree of flaccidity in the laryngeal framework
which allows it to collapse during respiration, is the most common congenital
laryngeal abnormality seen as a cause for stridor in the newborn. It is almost
always a benign self-limiting condition that will resolve with growth and
development. Developmental disorders of the larynx are discussed in Chapter
20; disorders of the esophagus and tracheobronchial tree are discussed in
Chapter 24.
ANATOMY OF THE LARYNX
Supporting Structures
The laryngeal skeletal structure is composed of one bone and several
paired and unpaired cartilages (Fig. 19-2). Superiorly is the hyoid bone, the
U-shaped structure that can be palpated both anteriorly on the neck and
transorally in the lateral pharyngeal wall. Extending from each side of the
central portion, or body, of the hyoid bone is a posteriorly directed long
process and a small, superiorly oriented short process. Attached to the
superior surface of the body and to both processes are tendons and muscles
from the tongue, mandible, and skull. During swallowing, contraction of
these muscles elevates the larynx. However, when the larynx is stabilized,
these muscles open the mouth and contribute to tongue motion. Inferior to
the hyoid bone, and suspended by the thyrohyoid ligament, are the two
alae, or wings, of the thyroid (shield) cartilage. The alae join in the midline
at an angle that is more acute in the male, producing the visible “Adam’s
apple. On the posterior border of each ala are the superior and inferior
cornua. The inferior cornu articulates with the cricoid cartilage, allowing a
small amount of gliding and rocking between the thyroid and cricoid
cartilages.
The cricoid cartilage, also easily palpable subcutaneously, is attached to
the thyroid cartilage by the cricothyroid ligament. Unlike all other supporting
Sup. cornu
Sup. rhqroid
not-ch
Comicu/ate Arytenoid FIGURE 19—2. The cartilages of the lar¬
cart. ' 1 ynx. (Redrawn from Turner.)
M Muscular
process Vocal process
_Th toroid artic¬
ular surface
Oblique line Inf. cornu Arch
Thyroid cart. CriCOld cart. iillf jum.'ClMM.

19—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LARYNX 385
structures of the airway, the cricoid cartilage is a complete circle, unable to

expand. The posterior surface, or lamina, of the cricoid is quite wide, giving' Because the cricoid cartilage
this cartilage the appearance of a signet ring. Prolonged endotracheal cannot expand, prolonged intu¬
bation results in subglottic ste¬
intubation is often damaging to the mucosal lining within the ring and may nosis.
lead to acquired subglottic stenosis. Inferiorly, the first tracheal cartilage
attaches to the cricoid by an intercartilaginous ligament.
On the superior surface of the lamina sit the paired arytenoid cartilages,
each shaped like a three-sided pyramid. The bases of the pyramids articulate
with the cricoid at the cricoarytenoid joints, allowing medial to lateral sliding
and rotation. Each arytenoid cartilage has two processes, an anterior vocal
process and a lateral muscular process. Extending anteriorly from each vocal
process and inserting into the thyroid cartilage in the midline is a vo¬
cal ligament. The vocal process makes up the posterior two fifths of the
vocal cord, while the vocal ligament forms the remaining membranous, or
vibratory, portion of the cord. The free edge and superior surface of the
vocal cord make up the glottis. The larynx above this is the supraglottis and
that below it is the subglottis. There are two small paired cartilages in the
larynx which have no function. The corniculate cartilages are located in the
tissue over the arytenoids. Lateral to these, within the aryepiglottic folds,
are the cuneiform cartilages.
The epiglottic cartilage is a single midline structure shaped like a ping-
pong paddle. The handle, or petiolis, is attached by a short ligament to the
thyroid cartilage just above the vocal cords, while the racquet portion
extends upward behind the body of the hyoid into the lumen of the pharynx,
separating the base of the tongue from the larynx. In most adults, the
epiglottis is mildly concave posteriorly. However, in children and some The epiglottis is more Cl (om¬
adults, it is markedly curved and is called an omega, or juvenile, epiglottis. ega) shaped in the infant.
The epiglottis functions as a keel, forcing swallowed food to the side of the
laryngeal airway.
Additional support is given to the larynx by elastic tissue. Superiorly on
each side is the quadrangular membrane, which extends from the lateral
border of the epiglottis back to the lateral border of the arytenoid cartilage.
This membrane is therefore the dividing wall between the larynx and the
piriform sinus, and its superior border is called the aryepiglottic fold. The
other paired elastic tissue of importance is the conus elasticus. It is much
stronger than the quadrangular membrane and extends upward and medially
from the arch of the cricoid cartilage to join the vocal ligament on each side.
The conus elasticus thus lies beneath the mucosa on the undersurface of the
true vocal cords.
Laryngeal Musculature
The laryngeal muscles may be divided into two groups (Fig. 19-3). The
extrinsic muscles act mainly on the larynx as a whole, whereas the intrinsic
muscles cause movements between the various laryngeal structures them¬
selves. The extrinsic muscles may be categorized by function. The depressors,
or strap muscles (omohyoid, sternothyroid, sternohyoid), originate inferiorly.
The elevators (mylohyoid, geniohyoid, genioglossus, hyoglossus, digastric,
stylohyoid) extend from the hyoid bone to the mandible, tongue, and styloid
process of the skull. The thyrohyoid, although considered a strap muscle,
functions mainly as an elevator. Attached to the hyoid bone and posterior
Transverse arqtenoid m
Arqopfqlottic m.
Oblique Facetx Oblique

arqtenoid m arqtenoid m.
_ Thqro-arq-
tenoid m. Post, crico -
arqtenoid liq.
Post. cerato-.
Lat. crico cricoid licj. Post, crico-
arqtenoid arqtenoid m.
Lat. cerate¬
's cricoid liq.
Post, crico¬
ot rqtenoid m. FIGURE 19-3. The appearance of
the larynx and attached trachea
after removal of all but the muscular
and ligamentous structure, a, Side
view; b, posterior view; c, a dia¬
grammatic representation of the ar¬
Thqro-arqtenoid m. Thqroid cart. rangement of the intrinsic muscles;
d and e, position, attachments, and
Lat. crico-
arqtenoid m.
action of the cricothyroid muscle.
(Redrawn from Turner.)
Crico-
thqroid m
Arqtenoid m.
Post, crico-arqtenoid m. J.fllV. fUeL(W/»\ 'XytMkMJt
edge of the thyroid cartilage alae are the middle and inferior constrictors,
which encircle the pharynx posteriorly and function during swallowing. The
lowermost fibers of the inferior constrictor arise from the cricoid to form the
strong cricopharyngeus, which serves as the upper esophageal sphincter.
The anatomy of the intrinsic laryngeal musculature is best understood by
relating it to function. Extending between the two arytenoids are the
transverse and oblique fibers of the interarytenoid (or arytenoid) muscle.
When it contracts, the arytenoid cartilages glide toward the midline, ad¬
ducting the cords. The posterior cricoarytenoid muscle extends from the
posterior surface of the cricoid lamina to insert on the muscular process of
the arytenoid; it rotates the arytenoid outward, abducting the vocal cord. Its
main antagonist, the lateral cricoarytenoid, takes origin on the lateral cricoid
arch; it inserts also on the muscular process and rotates the arytenoid
medially, causing adduction. Making up the bulk of the vocal cords are the
barely separable vocalis and thyroarytenoid muscles, which contribute to
cord tension. In older individuals, the vocalis and thyroarytenoid muscles
may lose some tone; the cords appear bowed outward, and the voice becomes
weak and hoarse. The other major laryngeal muscles are the paired crico¬
thyroids, fan-shaped muscles that originate anteriorly from the cricoid arch
The cricothyroid muscle tenses and insert on the broad lateral surface of the thyroid alae. Contraction of
the vocal cords, this muscle pulls the thyroid cartilage forward, stretching and tensing the
cords. This also tends to passively rotate the arytenoid medially, so the
cricothyroid is also considered an adductor. In summary, then, there are
one abductor, three adductors, and three tensors, all of which are listed as
follows:
ABDUCTORS ADDUCTORS TENSORS

Posterior cricoarytenoid Interarytenoid Cricothyroid (external)
Lateral cricoarytenoid Vocalis (internal)
Cricothyroid Thyroarytenoid (internal)
Innervation, Blood Supply, and Lymphatic Drainage

Two pairs of nerves supply the larynx with both sensory and motor
innervation. These two superior laryngeal nerves and two inferior, or
recurrent, laryngeal nerves are all branches of the vagal nerves. The superior
laryngeal nerve leaves the vagal trunk just below the nodose ganglion, curves
anteriorly and medially beneath the internal and external carotid arteries,
and divides into an internal sensory branch and an external motor branch.
The internal branch pierces the thyrohyoid membrane to provide the sensory The superior laryngeal nerve is
innervation for the vallecula, epiglottis, piriform sinus, and all the internal primarily sensory. It supplies
, , , r ,, , , „ , . motor function to only one mus-
laryngeal mucosa superior to the free margin of the true cords. Each external cle-the cricothyroid.
branch is the motor supply for just one muscle, the cricothyroid. Inferiorly,
the recurrent nerve ascends in a groove between the trachea and esophagus,
enters the larynx just behind the cricothyroid articulation, and provides the
motor supply to all the intrinsic laryngeal muscles except the cricothyroid.
The recurrent nerve also provides sensation to the undersurface of the true
cords (the subglottic region) and the superior trachea. The differing courses
of the right and left recurrent nerves are illustrated in Figure 19-4, which
also shows the higher neural pathways involved in laryngeal innervation.
FIGURE 19-4. A pen sketch by Dr. Chevalier Jackson "sche¬

matically illustrating in a simplified way the fundamentals of
innervation of the larynx. For clearness, intervening central
structures have been omitted. The laryngeal nerves origi¬
nated in the nuclei ambigui of which there are two, one on
each side of the medulla. Here are activated the autonomic
functions of respiration and reflex laryngeal movements. For
volitional movements the nuclei ambigui are activated and
dominated by impulses, ‘orders’ received from the cortical
executive centers. These bilateral executive centers In turn
receive their ‘orders,’ as to words, from the unilateral lan¬
guage (or word) area located on the left side of the brain
(in right handed individuals), represented diagrammatically
as distributing its impulses bilaterally. To avoid impairing
simplicity, only efferent pathways are indicated in this
scheme, it must be understood that all these pathways have
their complementaiy afferent pathways.” (From Jackson C,
Jackson CL (eds): Diseases of the Nose, Throat, and Ear. 2nd
ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1959.)
Because of the longer course of the left inferior nerve and its relationship
to the aorta, it is more vulnerable to injury than the right.
The superior laryngeal nerve, The arterial supply and venous drainage of the larynx closely parallel the
superior laryngeal artery, and
nerve supply. The superior laryngeal artery and vein are branches of the
vein enter the larynx laterally
between the hyoid bone and superior thyroid artery and vein, and they join the internal branch of
thyroid cartilage. the superior laryngeal nerve to form the superior neurovascular pedicle. The
inferior laryngeal artery and vein arise from the inferior thyroid vessels and
enter the larynx alongside the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Knowledge of the lymphatic drainage of the larynx is important in cancer
therapy. There are two separate drainage systems, superior and inferior,
with the dividing line being the true vocal cord. The cords themselves have
a poor lymphatic supply. Superiorly, the flow accompanies the superior
neurovascular pedicle to join the upper lymph nodes of the deep cervical
chain at the level of the hyoid bone. The subglottic drainage is more diverse,
going to the pretracheal nodes (one in particular is just anterior to the cricoid
and is called the Delphian node), the lower deep cervical nodes, the
supraclavicular nodes, and even the superior mediastinal nodes.
Internal Laryngeal Structure

For the most part, the larynx is lined by columnar ciliated mucosa known
as respiratory epithelium. However, those parts of the larynx which are
exposed to the most airflow, such as the lingual surface of the epiglottis, the
superior surface of the aryepiglottic folds, and the superior surface and free
edge of the true cords, are covered with the hardier stratified squamous
epithelium. Mucus-secreting glands are numerous in the respiratory epithe¬
lium.
The first structure noted on mirror examination is the epiglottis (Fig. 19-
5). Three mucosal bands (one median and two lateral glossoepiglottic folds)
extend from the epiglottis to the tongue. Between the median and each
lateral band is a small pocket, the vallecula. Below the free margin of the
epiglottis the arytenoids can be seen, appearing as two small mounds
connected by the thin interarytenoid muscle. Extending anterolaterally from
each arytenoid to the lateral free edges of the epiglottis are the aryepiglottic
Med. qioaao-
«pm»*t5c -pi*co*
Vent, of
‘allfCuks
FIGURE 19—5. The important structures

to visualize in an examination of the
laryngopharynx are the valieculae, the
Circa m- epiglottis, the aryepiglottic folds, the
vallate
pops Ha ventricular bands ("false” cords), the vo¬
cal cords (“true” cords), the openings of
the ventricles of the larynx, the anterior
Aruepi - commissure, the arytenoid eminences,
qioWsc
fold the piriform sinuses, and the posterior
pharyngeal wall down to the esophageal
Vocal introitus.
cord
t&opH,
intro-
- itus
folds, which are the mucosa-covered quadrangular membranes. Lateral to

each aryepiglottic fold is the piriform sinus, or recess. These are, as seen'
from above, triangle-shaped pouches in which there is no posterior wall.
The medial wall is the quadrangular cartilage above and the arytenoid with
its attached lateral musculature below, and the lateral wall is the internal
surface of the thyroid ala. Posteriorly, the piriform sinus is continuous with
the hypopharynx. The piriform sinuses and pharynx converge inferiorly into
the esophageal introitus, which is encompassed by the strong cricopharyngeal
muscle.
Within the larynx itself, two pairs of horizontal bands arise from the
arytenoids and insert into the center of the thyroid cartilage anteriorly. The
superior bands are the false cords, or ventricular bands, and are lateral to
the true cords. The false cords are found by the inferior free margin of the
quadrangular membrane. The edge of the true (vocal) cords is the superior
margin of the conus elasticus. The vocalis and thyroarytenoid muscles make
up the bulk of this cord. Because the superior surface of the vocal cord is Light reflection from the surface
flat, the mucosa reflects light and appears white on indirect laryngoscopy. of the vocal cord makes it ap¬
pear white.
Separating the true and false cords are the laryngeal ventricles. At its
anterior end, the ventricle extends superiorly as a small diverticulum known
as the laryngeal saccule, which harbors the mucous glands thought to
lubricate the cords. An enlargement of this saccule is known clinically as a
laryngocele.
Surrounding Structures
Anteriorly, the isthmus of the thyroid gland covers the first few tracheal
rings, while the thyroid lobes rest on the lateral tracheal wall and may even The thyroid isthmus is elevated
extend up onto the thyroid alae. The isthmus must be elevated, and or incised during tracheostomy.
occasionally incised, when placing a tracheostomy through the third tracheal
cartilaginous ring. The strap muscles cover the larynx and thyroid gland
except in the midline, where the median raphe places the laryngeal structures
in a subcutaneous position. The cricothyroid membrane is easily palpable
and, in an emergency, can be rapidly incised to establish an airway. Not
infrequently, the innominate artery passes anteriorly to the cervical trachea,
necessitating careful palpation during any tracheostomy procedure. Lateral
and posterior to the larynx are the carotid sheaths, each containing the
carotid artery, jugular vein, and vagus nerve.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LARYNX
Although the larynx is usually thought of as an organ for the production

of voice, it serves three major functions—protection of the airway, respira¬ The major function of the larynx
tion, and phonation. In fact, phylogenetically, the larynx first developed as is to protect the airway.
a sphincter to protect the respiratory tract, and the development of voice is
a relatively recent event.
Protection of the airway during the act of swallowing comes about through Laryngeal functions: protect the
a variety of separate mechanisms. The laryngeal inlet itself is closed by the airway, cough, speech, Valsalva
sphincteric action of the slips of the thyroarytenoid muscle in the aryepiglottic maneuver (as in lifting), central
intrathoracic pressure.
folds and false cords in addition to the adduction of the true vocal cords and
arytenoids brought about by the other intrinsic muscles of the larynx.
Elevation of the larynx under the base of tongue further protects the larynx
as it serves to push the epiglottis and aryepiglottic folds down over the inlet.
These structures then divert food laterally away from the laryngeal inlet into
the pyriform sinuses and through the esophageal introitus. Simultaneous
relaxation of the cricopharyngeal muscle promotes the passage of food into
the esophagus rather than the larynx. In addition, respiration is inhibited
during swallowing owing to a reflex mediated by receptors present in the
mucosa of the supraglottic area. This prevents inhalation of food or saliva.
In animals such as the deer the epiglottis extends superiorly to contact the
nasal surface of the soft palate. This configuration allows simultaneous
breathing while eating so that the animal can still smell and thus protect
itself while grazing. Similarly, in infants, the higher position of the larynx
allows contact of the epiglottis with the posterior surface of the soft palate.
They are thus able to breathe while nursing without passage of food into the
airway.
During respiration, the intrathoracic pressure is controlled by varying the
degree of closure of the true vocal cords. This modulation of pressure assists
the cardiac system inasmuch as it affects pulmonary and cardiac filling and
emptying. In addition, the intrinsic design of the true and false vocal cords
allows the larynx to serve as a pressure valve that, when closed (Fig. 19-6),
allows the build-up of intrathoracic pressure necessary for straining acts such
as lifting or defecation. Sudden release of this pressure produces a cough,
which is useful in maintaining the expansion of the terminal alveoli of the
lungs and clearing any secretions or food particles that end up in the
laryngeal inlet despite all the other protective mechanisms mentioned above.
Voice production, however, is perhaps the most complex and certainly
the best studied of the laryngeal functions. The advent of fiberoptic viewing
systems and stroboscopes that can be coordinated with voice frequency has
helped a great deal in understanding this phenomenon. It is currently thought
that the adducted true vocal cords serve as a passive reed that vibrates as a
result of the air forced up between them by contraction of the expiratory
muscles. The fundamental tone that is produced can be modified in a number
of ways. The intrinsic muscles of the larynx (and the cricothyroid) play a
major role in the adjustment of pitch by changing the shape and mass of the
free edges of the true vocal cords and the tension in the cords themselves.
FIGURE 19-6. With the cords in tight apposition, rising

supraglottic and subglottic pressure tend to force the
vocal cords more tightly together, thus sealing the glottis,
(from Tucker HM: Surgery for Phonatory Disorders. New
York, Churchill Livingstone, 1981, p 9; by permission.)
The extralaryngeal muscles may also play a role. Also, because of the lower
position of the larynx in humans, a large portion of the pharynx is available,
in addition to the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, for modulation of the
tone produced by the larynx. All of this is monitored by a feedback
mechanism consisting of the human ear and a system within the larynx itself
which is poorly understood. By contrast, the loudness of the voice is
essentially proportional only to the pressure in the subglottic airstream that
is setting the true vocal cords in motion. Whispering, on the other hand, is
believed to be due to escape of air through the posterior commissure between
the abducted arytenoids without vibration of the true vocal cords themselves.
Any disease that affects the action of the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles
of the larynx (nerve paralysis, trauma, surgery) or the mass of the true vocal
cords (i.e., vocal cord polyps or carcinoma) affects laryngeal function, and
disorders of either swallowing (i.e., aspiration) or voice will result. Such
disease processes will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.
References
Crelin ES: Development of the upper respiratory system. CIBA Clinical Symposia, Vol 29, No
4, 1977.
Fink RB, Demarest RJ: Laryngeal Biomechanics. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press,
1978.
Hollinshead HW: Anatomy for Surgeons, Vol 1: The Head and Neck. New York, Harper and
Row, 1968.
Kirchner JA: Physiology of the larynx. In Paparella MM, Shumrik DA (eds): Otolaryngology.
Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1980, pp 377-388.
O’Rahilly R, Tucker JA: The early development of the larynx in staged human embryos. Ann
Otol Rhinol Laryngol 82 (Suppl 7):1—27, 1973.
Tucker HM: Monographs in Clinical Otolaryngology—-Surgery for Phonatory Disorders, Vol
3. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1981, pp 6—11.
Van Alyea OE: The Embryology of the Ear, Nose, and Throat. Rochester, MN, American
Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, 1944.
Wyke BD, Kirchner JA: Laryn-Neurology. In Hinchcliffe R, Harrison D (eds): Scientific
Foundations of Otolaryngology. Chicago, Year Book Medical Publishers, 1976, pp 546-573.
20
BENIGN
LARYNGEAL DISORDERS
by John D. Banovetz, M.D.
PATIENT COMPLAINTS
The history of a patient with a laryngeal disease usually includes the

symptoms of hoarseness, pain, cough, stridor, or dysphagia. Hemoptysis is
an unusual symptom. In many instances of laryngeal disease, the early
symptoms are very slight and do not alarm the patient. This is particularly
true for lesions in the base of the tongue, the piriform sinus, or the epiglottis.
Hoarseness is an early symptom of glottic lesions but a late symptom for
tumors that originate in areas away from the glottic aperture. Any patient
who has been hoarse for more than three weeks should have visual exami¬
nation of the larynx. Pain, particularly pain referred to the ear, is often the
first symptom of laryngeal disease from the base of the tongue, the epiglottis,
or the piriform sinus. Cough resulting from laryngeal irritation may also be
an early symptom of serious laryngeal disease. Dyspnea and stridor are
usually late and serious symptoms. They demand immediate visualization.
Any child who has had two or more episodes of croup should be examined
for a possible laryngeal lesion. It should be kept in mind that wheezing does
not necessarily indicate asthma. Unresponsive asthmatics should have the
upper air passages examined. Any change in swallowing ability, particularly
dysphagia related to solid foods, should always be evaluated radiologically
and perhaps endoscopically.
SPECIFIC METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS
The key to laryngeal examination is visualization. Fortunately this can

often be accomplished by indirect (mirror) laryngoscopy or by a flexible
fiberoptic instrument (Fig. 20-1). When this is impossible, direct examination
with a local or general anesthetic can be done. Auscultation of the larynx,
listening directly over the larynx with the stethoscope, is also of value in
determining the volume of air the patient moves with each respiration. This
maneuver is particularly useful for differentiating laryngeal stridor from
bronchial stridor. The larynx itself and the neck should be carefully palpated.
During palpation the examiner feels each neck structure carefully as though
performing a surgical dissection. Each neck structure is examined for size,
texture, and mobility. Lateral soft tissue radiographs often show the size of
the airway and can be invaluable in detecting tumors of the trachea or
392
20—BENIGN LARYNGEAL DISORDERS 393
Incorrect
FIGURE 20—1. Left, Drawing

demonstrates the typical position
the patient will assume. Right, A
proper examination requires the
patient to be sitting up straight.
The feet are flat, legs are un¬
crossed, and most important, the
head is projected forward.
larynx. A chest film may also help localize stridor to upper or lower airway.
Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are valuable in
evaluating masses because they accurately visualize laryngeal spaces and
detect changes in laryngeal cartilages not visible by other means. Esopha-
gograms, particularly those done with videoradiography, are also useful.
Voice recordings can also be diagnostic of the type of vocal disorder and
can be used to compare pre- and postoperative status.
CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
The normal infant larynx is situated higher in the neck than that of the
adult. The infant larynx is softer, less rigid, and more compressible by airway
pressures. In the infant, the larynx is at the level of C2 to C4, whereas in The infant larynx is located
the adult it lies anterior to C4 to C6. The size of the newborn larynx is more superiorly in the neck.
approximately 7 mm in the anteroposterior length and opens approximately
4 mm in a lateral direction. The symptoms that arise from disease here
concern respiratory obstruction, dysphagia, the quality of cry or noise
produced, and a failure to thrive. Airway obstruction may in itself lead to a
failure to thrive, which may be more obvious than the airway obstruction.
Laryngomalacia
There is no underlying pathologic or progressive disorder in laryngoma¬
lacia. Rather, it is an exaggeration of the soft, flabby state that is normal
for newborns. As the infant inhales, the soft larynx falls together, narrowing
the inlet, and stridor results. Swallowing is unaffected. The cry should be
normal. The weight gain and development of these infants are usually
normal. Stridor is the major symptom, and it may be constant or may occur
only with excitement. With the stridor may come retraction of the sternum Laryngomalacia is usually not
and chest; laryngomalacia has been named as a cause of pectus excavatum. apparent until a few weeks of
Usually infants are several weeks old when laryngomalacia begins, in contrast
to the respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn. On direct examination
the physician can see the larynx fall together with inhalation. The subglottic
area is normal, and the stridor ceases if the larynx is held open with a
laryngoscope. The prognosis is good for this most common laryngeal anom¬
Laryngomalacia can be associ¬ aly, as the cartilages gain rigidity. Most infants cease to have the stridor by
ated with a second upper airway
the twelfth to fifteenth month. Twenty per cent of infants with laryngomalacia
abnormality.
have an additional cause of airway obstruction.
Tracheomalacia is a similar disorder of the trachea due to lack of rigidity
of the tracheal cartilages. Tracheomalacia and compression of the airway by
an anomalous great vessel are similar conditions and must be differentiated.
This can usually be done endoscopically. Arteriograms may be necessary to
effectively study the great vessels. Esophagograms also help delineate
vascular abnormalities, especially anomalous vascular rings.
Congenital Subglottic Stenosis

Congenital subglottic stenosis is defined as a subglottic diameter less than
4 mm. A normal newborn larynx should permit passage of a 3.5-mm
bronchoscope. Some neonates present with stridor shortly after birth,
whereas other infants have recurrent episodes of laryngotracheitis. Diagnosis
is made endoscopically. Mild cases may require only observation, but most
cases require tracheotomy. Growth tends to resolve the relative stenosis,
but laser excision or reconstructive surgery may be necessary. More than
one congenital anomaly can exist in a child’s airway.
Webs
Congenital webs may be glottic (75 per cent), subglottic (12 per cent), or
supraglottic (12 per cent). Usually both the airway and the cry or voice are
affected, with the symptoms beginning at birth. Webs must first be diagnosed
by endoscopic visualization. Then treatment, consisting of laser or surgical
excision, repeated dilatation, or tracheotomy and the use of laryngeal inserts,
can be accomplished. The long-term prognosis for congenital laryngeal webs
is favorable.
Congenital Cysts
Newborns who have congenital cysts usually have airway obstruction or
simply do not grow. The episodes of airway obstruction can be confusing
and may be thought to be due to a seizure disorder. Usually the voice and
swallowing are normal. The cyst may arise from the base of the tongue, the
aryepiglottic folds, or the false cords. Whenever possible, these cysts should
be excised, preferably endoscopically. If this is not possible, then aspiration
or marsupialization may be done. In an exceptional patient tracheotomy and
external surgery are necessary.
Hemangioma
Hemangioma of the subglottic area of the larynx is considered here
because it is a tumor that occurs primarily in infants under six months of
age. Half of the patients with laryngeal hemangiomas have an external
hemangioma on the head or neck. Stridor plus a visible hemangioma strongly
suggests this diagnosis. These tumors are not true neoplasms but rather
vascular abnormalities, and they do tend to regress, usually by the age of 12

months. The symptoms of the hemangiomas are not those of bleeding but
of airway obstruction. The voice and swallowing are usually normal. The
hemangioma is very close to the vocal cords above the site of a tracheotomy
and is truly subglottic. A lateral radiograph shows a mass in the airway.
Endoscopically there is a smooth, compressible mass, often on the posterior
or lateral wall. Treatment has often been tracheotomy and allowing time for
regression. Laser excision is currently being used. Low-dose irradiation has
also been employed but is now avoided because of concern about late thyroid
carcinoma.
Laryngocele
Laryngocele is a special type of congenital cyst that develops as a residual
from a small appendix or saccus of the laryngeal ventricle. Like a thyroglossal
duct, it may present at any age, but its origin is congenital. As the cyst
begins, it first causes a bulging of the false vocal cord on that side. With
enlargement, the cyst dissects along the superior laryngeal nerve and vessels
to present as a mass in the neck. Since this cyst may communicate with the
airway, a radiograph may show an air-fluid level. These cysts do not
necessarily contain air but may be solid, containing only fluid. As they
enlarge, they encroach on the airway and may cause stridor and airway
obstruction. The diagnosis can be suggested by aspirating the mass with a
large needle. The only effective treatment for laryngocele is dissection of
the cyst, using an external approach. Usually this is accompanied by a
temporary tracheostomy.
Laryngotracheoesophageal Cleft
This rare congenital abnormality is a result of a failure of fusion of the
dorsal portions of the cricoid cartilages. There is an associated failure of
closure of the tracheoesophageal septum, thus creating a groove in the
region of the cricoid cartilage that resembles in many respects the more
common H-type tracheoesophageal fistula. The infant may have cyanosis,
respiratory distress, and recurrent episodes of pneumonia. In addition, there Clefts may not be apparent on
may be associated changes in the cry as well as inspiratory stridor. Direct routine direct laryngoscopy.
laryngoscopy reveals the larynx to be normal. Cineradiography may be a

useful study to help determine the position of the fistula. Endoscopic
examination is also useful, but the physician must be searching specifically
for this rare abnormality, or the fistula site may not be recognized.
Neurogenic Disorders in the Newborn

Infants can develop vocal cord paralysis from birth canal trauma. Congen¬
ital disorders involving the central nervous system or chest such as a
meningocele or mediastinal mass also cause vocal cord paralysis. Increased Unilateral vocal cord paralysis
intracranial pressure from any cause, especially in children, may result in is more common on the left.
vocal cord dysfunction. Infants with unilateral vocal cord paralysis may show
varying symptoms. In many the cord is lateral enough to give a breathy poor
cry but no respiratory distress. Other infants may have the cord median
Children with bilateral vocal enough so as to limit respiratory exchange. Stridor, especially with crying or
cord paraylsis can have a nor¬
mal cry.
activity, results. Infants with bilateral vocal cord paralysis have a good cry
but poor respiratory exchange and need prompt airway support. An endo¬
tracheal tube forced between the cords gives short-term relief, but trache¬
otomy is necessary eventually. Paralysis often recovers in 6 to 9 months but
may take up to 14 months. The tracheotomy is left until the airway enlarges
by growth, reinnervation, or a lateralization procedure.
LARYNGEAL TRAUMA
Contusions of the Larynx

Mild contusions of the larynx are manifested by internal hematomas and
occasionally by dislocation of the arytenoid cartilage. Usually the trauma is
caused by some blunt object striking an extended neck. The key to treatment
of laryngeal injury is immediate diagnosis. Contusions can be observed while
preparations for tracheotomy are kept in reserve, but they must be differ¬
entiated from the more severe cartilaginous fracture and from laryngotra¬
cheal avulsions by mirror or fiberoptic examination and lateral radiograph.
Usually the patient with a contusion can cooperate sufficiently for the larynx
to be visualized. The hematoma can usually be observed. Direct laryngoscopy
usually reduces the dislocated arytenoid cartilage. The patient should not
have subcutaneous emphysema with a contusion or hematoma.
Laryngeal Fracture
Sharp compression of the larynx, hyoid, and upper trachea between the
cervical spine and the unyielding force of an automobile or motor bike can
cause a fracture. Hyoid fractures usually do not cause airway obstruction,
since the pharynx is very wide at this level. The greater cornu of the hyoid
does not normally unite to the body until age 35. This fact must be known
when radiographs of the hyoid are interpreted. Actual separation of the
greater cornu from the body must occur before a fracture can be diagnosed
here. The epiphyseal line is not a fracture line. Treatment of hyoid bone
fractures can usually be expectant.
Signs of laryngeal fracture: Fractures of the thyroid cartilage itself are common. These injuries are
hoarseness, stridor, hemopty¬
sis, subcutaneous emphysema. characterized by (1) a history of a blow to the neck, (2) hoarseness, (3)
inspiratory or expiratory stridor (or both), (4) hemoptysis, and (5) subcuta¬
neous emphysema. The most likely fracture runs in a vertical plane from the
bottom of the thyroid notch to the lower border of the cartilage. Avulsion
of the thyroid cartilage from the cricoid and trachea may also occur. Facial
pain, aphonia, and subcutaneous emphysema are the most common symp¬
toms. Airway obstruction may develop explosively. On palpation, the
cervical area is usually flat and there is loss of the prominence of the thyroid
When laryngotracheal separa¬ cartilage and cricoid. These patients, if not unconscious, are nearly impos¬
tion occurs, the trachea will re¬
tract into the lower neck. Emer¬ sible to examine with a mirror because their pain and hematoma are too
gency tracheostomy is required. great. If fracture is suspected and the thyroid cartilage is not palpated,
tracheostomy should be done. Intubation is hazardous in these patients,
since it may be impossible to do without compromising the little remaining
airway. Tracheostomy under local anesthesia is preferred in these injuries.
Laryngeal fractures often are accompanied by cervical spine injuries. A

force sufficient to fracture the larynx often dislocates the cervical spine as
well. Cervical spine films must be taken before treatment is begun. Injuries Cervical spine films and neuro¬
to the recurrent laryngeal nerves can often result from avulsion. logic examination are required
in anyone with a laryngeal frac¬
Gunshot wounds of the larynx are characterized by a loss of tissue and a
ture.
greater likelihood of associated cervical spine, great vessel, or esophageal
injury. Esophageal injury is evaluated by radiography with contrast swallow
or by endoscopy. Injuries to the laryngeal cartilage should be repaired as
soon as possible. Therefore, as soon as the central nervous system and
cardiovascular system permit, repair should begin. If feasible, immediate
open repair and reduction of the laryngeal cartilage should be undertaken.
Such immediate surgery tends to prevent the development of hard fibrotic
stenosis. Since torn cartilage without its blood supply is quite susceptible to
absorption, repair should be done quickly.
Laryngeal and Subglottic Stenosis
Scar tissue narrowing the airway is a sequela of disease or injury, and its
treatment is extremely difficult. Blunt or perforating trauma, high tracheot¬
omy, caustic ingestion, a gunshot wound, and irritation from an endotracheal
tube cuff are the more common causes of laryngeal stenosis. Usually patients
who require long-term endotracheal intubation with cuffed tubes are des¬
perately ill, and the laryngeal stenosis occurs as a result of the heroic therapy
they receive. Because of its more resilient cartilage, the child’s larynx is
more forgiving in long-term intubation than are those of adults. CT scans
can be used to delineate laryngeal and subglottic stenosis. Nevertheless,
cuffed endotracheal tubes should be used for as short a time as possible with
the cuff deflated intermittently. Low-pressure cuffs lessen but do not com¬
pletely prevent stenosis. Cuffed tubes should be made of new, nonirritating
plastic and should be free of sterilization gas contamination before being
used. Treatment of chronic laryngeal stenosis is very complicated and must
be individualized. Dilatation, excision, direct re-anastomosis, skin grafting
over a mold, and partial or total laryngectomy are all used.
Intubation Granuloma
Rarely an endotracheal tube abrades the vocal process of the arytenoid

cartilage, causing an intubation granuloma. This may occur any time an
endotracheal tube is used; it is not a complication of laryngeal surgery only.
A perichondritis develops, and the healing process produces a raised polypoid
lesion in the posterior portion of the glottic chink (rima glottidis). The
patients are usually not very hoarse, but they know the voice is changed.
The airway is not obstructed because the lesion is in the wide posterior
portion of the glottis. Occasionally a large granuloma or one that suddenly
increases in size because of hemorrhage may cause obstruction. Often
granulomas are bilateral. Their treatment consists of endoscopic surgical
removal, often using the C02 laser.
ALLERGIC DISEASE OF THE LARYNX

Allergic reactions in which the loose areolar tissue about the glottis is the
shock organ may cause a rapid airway obstruction. Obstructive edema may
develop in only a few minutes after contact with an exciting antigen.

Fortunately, such situations are rare, but when they occur heroic measures,
including steroids and tracheostomy, are necessary.
INFECTIOUS DISEASE OF THE LARYNX
Croup
Croup is a rapidly developing infection of the larynx resulting in stridor
and airway obstruction. Although it can develop at any age, even in adults,
croup is most common in children under six years of age.
Both the laryngeal surface of the epiglottis and the area just below the
vocal cords in the larynx contain loose areolar tissue that is prone to swell
when inflamed. Flence, croup can be divided into acute supraglottitis
(epiglottitis) and acute subglottic laryngitis. Although both can be rapid in
onset and severe, acute epiglottitis tends to be more explosive, often
terminating fatally in a few hours without treatment. Both disorders appear
clinically the same—with restlessness, apprehension, stridor, retraction, and
cyanosis—but there are some subtle differences. A child with epiglottitis
tends to sit up with mouth open and chin forward, is not hoarse, tends not
to have as croupy a cough, but is more likely to have dysphagia. Because it
is painful to swallow, the child may drool. Dysphagia in epiglottitis may be
a sign of impending collapse. It results from spread of inflammation into the
adjacent esophageal inlet and means that the inflammatory process has
swollen the epiglottis markedly.
Children with acute subglottic laryngitis are hoarse with a very croupy
cough and usually want to lie down. Other characteristics that differentiate
these two forms of croup are listed in Table 20-1.
These children must be rapidly treated without long delay in the radiology
or emergency department and must not be upset or agitated. A soft tissue
lateral radiograph of the neck may show narrowing of the subglottic area or
Arterial blood gas studies are of an enlarged epiglottis. A chest radiograph should be normal but is taken to
little value in acute upper air¬ rule out pneumonia, the presence of a foreign body, or asthma. Blood gas
way obstruction.
studies and the finding of leukocytosis are academically interesting, but in
the rapidly changing child results are not obtained in time to aid in planning
treatment. Depressing the tongue to see the epiglottis may force the swollen
epiglottis into the larynx like a cork and should not be done unless one is
equipped to pass a bronchoscope or endotracheal tube.*
Treatment must begin quickly. Intravenous fluid therapy is started in order
to prevent dehydration and drying of secretions. Cold, moist humidity,
Blood culture may isolate H. in¬ preferably with the smallest particulate size of water vapor, is necessary.
fluenzae. Antibiotic therapy to actual Haemophilus or Staphylococcus is initiated while
awaiting the culture results. Antibiotics should not be withheld because,
clinically, it may be difficult to distinguish between the types of croup, and
the course can be very rapid. While smears and cultures should be taken,
their results arrive too late to be of value. Steroids are given in large doses
to reduce inflammation. The patient must be carefully observed and consid¬
eration given to intubation or tracheostomy. The indication for airway
For selection of tube size, see Table 25-1.

TABLE 20-1. CLINICAL FEATURES IN CROUP

LARYNGOTRACHEOBRONCHITIS
SUPRAGLOTTITIS (INFRAGLOTTITIS) BACTERIAL TRACHEITIS SPASMODIC CROUP
3-6 years Under 3 years 8-15 years 1-5 years
Onset hours Onset days 1-2 week period ol Rapid onset, usually
respiratory infection evening
with rapid deterioration
Voice clear Hoarse Barking cough No associated infection
Dysphagia None Inspiratory stridor Exposure to humidity or

cold relieves
Drooling None May be noninflammatory

edema of subglottic area
Sitting up Recumbent Recumbent
Rarely recurs May recur Intubation needed to

remove secretions or
pseudomembranes
Rapid course Days to weeks
Lateral radiograph shows Normal neck films Tracheal radiographs show

supraglottic edema irregular margins
Haemophilus influenzae most Viral etiology Staphylococcus aureus

common; Streptococcus or most typical;
viral etiology less common Streptococcus or H.
influenzae less common
support is deterioration in spite of humidity, antibiotics, and steroids. To Acute epiglottitis can occur in
30-to 40-year-old adults.
evaluate the croup one must monitor pulse, respiratory rate, degree of
restlessness and apprehension, the use of accessory muscles of respiration,
the degree of cyanosis, the degree of retraction, and the overall fatigue of
the patient. If the patient can sleep, airway support is not necessary. On the
other hand, a respiratory rate over 40, a pulse rate greater than 160, and
increasing restlessness and retraction indicate the need for support.
Some authors recommend sedation for croup patients, but it is our belief In selecting an antibiotic for H.
that no sedation or narcotics should be given. The status of the patient influenzae supraglottitis, recog¬
nize that 20 per cent of organ¬
should be watched at all times. Croup is one of the few disorders that require isms are ampicillin resistant.
the physician to be in constant attendance at the bedside. Racemic epineph¬
rine given by inhalation has been valuable, especially in laryngotracheobron-
chitis, and has reduced the need for airway support. Intubation or trache¬
otomy can be used to maintain the airway. If the child collapses, an Ambu
respirator with positive pressure is used to force oxygen through the
edematous airway. ^lasal intubation can be accomplished and may remain
for days. Children’s larynges allow longer intubation than do adults’. When
it must be done, tracheotomy should be performed in an orderly manner in
an operating room over a tube. Most cases of croup resolve in 48 to 72
hours and the patient can be extubated. Chest radiography must be done
after tracheotomy because, especially in children, the pleura rises into the
neck. Its injury results in pneumothorax.
Acute Laryngitis
Vocal abuse, toxic fume inhalation, and infection produce acute laryngitis.
Usually the infection is not limited to the larynx but is a paninfection
involving the sinus, ear, larynx, and bronchial tubes. The influenza virus,
adenoviruses, and streptococci are the most common causative organisms.
Diphtheria must always be suspected in laryngitis, particularly if there is any
evidence of a membrane or lack of immunization history. Mirror examination
usually shows a diffuse erythema of the larynx. Cultures of the throat should
be taken. Treatment consists of voice rest, antibiotics, increased humidity,
and cough suppressants. Medications whose side effect is to cause drying
should be avoided in laryngeal treatment. Singers and voice professionals
must be advised to let the inflammatory process subside before resuming
their careers. Attempting to sing during the infection may result in hemor¬
rhage in the larynx and the subsequent development of vocal cord nodules.
SYSTEMIC DISORDERS WITH LARYNGEAL

MANIFESTATIONS
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Because the cricoarytenoid joint is a true joint, it may be involved by a
rheumatoid process. Pain radiating to the ear, dysphagia, and hoarseness
are symptoms of acute cricoarytenoid arthritis. On visualization the affected
arytenoid is edematous, erythematous, and immobile. In order to differen¬
tiate a vocal cord paralysis from rheumatoid fixation the joint must be
palpated directly. In vocal cord paralysis the joint should move passively,
whereas it is fixed in an arthritis. In addition to systemic rheumatoid
treatment, steroids may be injected directly in and about the cricoarytenoid
joint.
Hypothyroidism
The larynx is involved early in hypothyroidism with the deposit of

mucopolysaccharides submucosally; hoarseness may be an early symptom of
hypothyroidism.
Infiltrative Disorders
The lesions of sarcoid and amyloid may infiltrate the larynx. If localized,
they can be surgically removed. Only 1.5 per cent of patients with sarcoidosis
have laryngeal involvement. The supraglottic larynx is primarily involved as
the true cords are spared. Patients present with hoarseness and dysphagia.
Endoscopic findings show diffuse edema without ulceration of the supraglot¬
tic larynx. Biopsy demonstrates noncaseating granulomas with giant cells.
Treatment requires systemic steroids or direct intralesional injection of
steroids. Obstructing lesions may require tracheostomy.
Histoplasmosis can cause simultaneous mucosal ulceration in the larynx
and oral cavity. These nodular ulcerations may be the initial sign of the
disease an^re often confused with carcinoma or tuberculosis. Diagnosis
depends upon identifying the fungus or detecting a serologic change.
Pemphigus vulgaris may affect the larynx primarily or may be associated Treatment of laryngeal pemphi¬
with oral mucosal involvement. Typical blebs are not seen in the larynx, but gus requires dapsone and ste¬
roids. Even then, cicatricial ste¬
the laryngeal surfaces are ulcerated or covered with a whitish membrane. If
nosis can result.
the associated findings and history suggest pemphigus, treatment should be
begun.
Chronic Granulomatous Infections
Tuberculosis of the larynx is rarely primary but almost always associated

with pulmonary tuberculosis. Infected sputum bathes the larynx, causing
ulceration and infiltration of the walls with tuberculous granuloma. As the
disease progresses, edema, fibrosis, and perichondritis develop. Usually the Tuberculosis more often in¬
posterior commissure is involved first. The diagnosis is based on the clinical volves the posterior aspect of
the cords.
findings of swelling or ulceration plus a positive tuberculosis smear. Usually
a pulmonary lesion is also obvious. Laryngeal biopsies may show tuberculous
granuloma. The treatment of laryngeal tuberculosis is not surgical but is
based on antituberculosis drugs.
Syphilis in its secondary or tertiary state usually affects the larynx. A
diffuse erythema may be a symptom of secondary lues. Tertiary gumma can
invade and destroy the larynx.
Leprosy affects the nose and the larynx together. Mycobacterium leprae
cannot be cultured but can be identified in smears in the lepromatous state
of leprosy. Nasal secretions or sputum may be cultured in studies. The
laryngeal picture is primarily one of infiltration and ulceration.
Mycotic infection of the larynx as a primary disease is rare. Usually oral
pulmonary or cutaneous infection coexists with the laryngeal involvement.
Candidiasis occurs in the immunosuppressed patient or after antibiotic or
steroid therapy.
Androgen Therapy
The vocal signs of virilization occur in women treated with androgens.

Androgens combined with estrogens are sometimes given to women, result¬
ing in vocal masculinizing changes. As a rule, these changes are not
reversible, even though the androgen therapy is discontinued. The decision
to use androgens in women must be based on the disease process involved
and not on the possible laryngeal complications.
CHRONIC NONSPECIFIC LARYNGITIS

Chronic nonspecific laryngitis includes a variety of conditions that are all
characterized by hoarseness and are all examples of long-standing inflam¬
matory changes in the laryngeal mucosa. Such patients may have repeated
attacks of acute laryngitis, may be exposed to irritating dust or smoke, or
may use their voices improperly in a neuromuscular sense. Cigarette smoking
can produce laryngeal erythema and edema. Esophageal disorders such as
Zenker’s diverticulum or hiatus hernia may, through reflux, cause chronic
laryngitis. Rarely, systemic disorders such as allergy, hypothyroidism, or
Addison’s disease are associated with vocal weakness and hoarseness.
Anxiety and tension may also be factors in producing persistent nonspecific
inflammatory changes.
The diagnosis of chronic nonspecific laryngitis is, in a sense, a “catch-all”

diagnosis; in an individual patient there are often unknown factors that can
produce such chronic inflammatory changes. On examination the vocal cords
appear reddened or thickened. Vocal cord mobility should be unaffected,
since the changes are primarily mucosal and submucosal.
Treatment of chronic laryngitis consists of removing the offending cause,
correcting treatable related disorders, and re-educating vocal habits through
speech therapy. Vocal sprays or syrups may be soothing but offer no real
benefits. Antibiotics and short courses of steroids may lessen the inflamma¬
tory changes in a short-term episode but are not of value over the long
period of rehabilitation. Elimination of drugs with “drying” side effects also
helps the larynx.
BENIGN TUMORS OF THE LARYNX
Vocal Nodules
A variety of clinical synonyms exist for the vocal nodular polyp, including
screamer’s nodules, singer’s nodes, or teacher’s nodes. Benign nodules may
Vocal cord nodules that do not be unilateral and result from prolonged or improper use of the vocal cords.
respond to conservative treat¬ Often when there is some coexisting inflammation, the vocal cords strike
ment are excised by micro¬
scopic laryngoscopy. firmly together, causing formation of a polyp or nodule. The nodule may
vary histologically from a soft, loosely edematous tumor to a firm, fibrous
growth or a vascular lesion with many small vessels as its most outstanding
feature. Some patients respond to vocal restraint and re-education, but many
require endoscopic surgery.
Diffuse Vocal Cord Polyposis

Polypoid degeneration all along the length of the vocal cord is usually
associated with prolonged vocal use, smoking, and persistent inflammation.
Surgical removal must be done on one side at a time to prevent the
development of synechiae in the anterior commissure. The surgery must be
followed by cessation of smoking and vocal re-education. If it is not,
recurrence of the thick polypoid tissue along the vocal cord is likely.
Contact Ulcer
The mechanical action of the vocal cords against each other is more likely
to form vocal nodules in women and children, whereas in men it is more
likely to form a contact ulcer. Men forcefully bring the arytenoid cartilages
together, and the resulting irritation forms a granuloma called a contact
ulcer. Characteristically the patient complains of pain and notices only a
slight vocal change. Contact ulcers heal slowly, usually over two to three
months. Speech therapy usually aids their resolution. Biopsy is of value to
reduce some of the excessive granulation tissue and to give assurance to the
patient that the granuloma is not malignant.
Juvenile Papilloma
Papilloma is the most common tumor of the larynx in children. The onset
of the papilloma usually occurs in children between 18 months and 7 years
of age, and involution often occurs at puberty. The duration of the disorder
can extend over 10 years with many recurrent papillomas. Many children
require multiple hospital admissions to maintain the voice and airway.
Hoarseness and abnormal cry are the initial symptoms. Occasionally croup
is suspected, but the papilloma is diagnosed when there is no response to
therapy. Papillomas can enlarge to cause airway obstruction and present as
an emergency requiring tracheostomy. Papillomas can be hormone-depen¬
dent, regressing with pregnancy and puberty. If they persist into adult life,
they tend to be less aggressive and slower to recur. Papillomas are considered
to have a viral etiology, although the virus has not yet been isolated.
With such a socially devastating disease, requiring dozens of hospital
admissions in some patients, many treatments have been proposed. Irradia¬
tion has been discarded because of the late development of carcinoma. The
most effective current therapy is precise surgical removal, often using a
microscope with a C02 laser. In some cases a tracheotomy must be main¬
tained for years. Repeated surgical excisions can lead to laryngeal scarring
or webbing. Other therapies include tetracycline, steroids, smallpox vaccine,
autologous vaccines, and alpha Nj interferon. Fortunately, papillomas are
not common. Malignant transformation in the absence of irradiation is rare
and usually occurs in older patients with a history of smoking or long¬
standing papilloma.
Granular Cell Myoblastoma

These tumors tend to occur on the tongue and larynx. Hoarseness is the
main symptom of this small tumor, and recurrence is unlikely after endo¬
scopic removal. The mucosa over the granular cell myoblastoma may show
pseudoepithelial hyperplasia, which can be confused with carcinoma.
Chondroma
Chondromas are slow-growing tumors of hyaline cartilage arising from the
cricoid, thyroid, arytenoid, or epiglottic cartilages. Hoarseness related to
restriction of the vocal cord and dyspnea due to airway obstruction are the
main symptoms. Many of these tumors are calcified and can be suspected
from radiographic examination. The treatment is surgical, with the origin
and the extent of the tumor determining the surgical technique. Because
these tumors are slow-growing, they can sometimes be partially removed,
relieving the patient’s symptoms without sacrificing the larynx.
Leukoplakia or Erythroplakia
Persistent irritation of the larynx, particularly by smoking, may lead to
the development of whitish areas. Clinically the whitish area is termed
leukoplakia. Paradoxically, areas with the histology and clinical significance
may appear reddened (erythroplakia). Any area of the larynx may be
involved, but usually the vocal cords are most affected. Commonly hoarse¬
ness is the patient’s complaint. Biopsy of these areas shows hyperkeratosis,
carcinoma in situ, or frank carcinoma. Hyperkeratosis is found in most
biopsies. Its treatment requires total endoscopic removal and careful follow-
up of the patient. Smoking must be curtailed. Hyperkeratosis may become

invasive carcinoma over time but does not do so commonly. Most authors
put the incidence at 15 per cent or less.
Surgery of Benign Laryngeal Tumors
Benign, small laryngeal tumors are usually removed endoscopically. Local

anesthesia plus sedation or general anesthesia with an endotracheal tube can
be used. The operating laryngoscope can be stabilized by suspension devices,
and then an operating microscope is employed to give magnification. Lar¬
yngoscopy done with a binocular microscope allows very precise surgical
technique. The carbon dioxide laser has added a new dimension to laryngeal
surgery.
Attached to the binocular operating microscope, the CO, laser has
permitted surgical resection of tumors of the larynx and trachea. The major
advantage of the laser is the possibility of resection without bleeding and
with minimal postoperative edema. In the past, these two factors restricted
Fully (LASER) Partially

reflective reflective
mirror mirror
High energy Low energy

state COz state C02
FIGURE 20-2. Generation of coherent light by means of (L)ight (A)mplification of (S)timulated

(E)mission of (R)adiation (LASER). Laser medium molecules can be in one of two states: high
energy or low energy. The laser pump puts molecules into the high energy state. One of the
molecules ("A”) by chance spontaneously emits in the direction of the axes of the two mirrors.
The light generated by the spontaneous emission (at molecule “A") can stimulate other high
energy molecules to emit additional light that is in phase and of the same frequency as the
original light wave. “Stimulated light emissions" are much more likely to occur in the direction
of the axes of the mirrors. The process proceeds as the stimulated light makes multiple
reflections within the optical cavity. Only light traveling in the direction of the mirror axes is
reflected multiple times and therefore significantly propagated. The energy pump restores
the molecules that have emitted and dropped to a lower energy state back to the high
energy state. (Illustration by Barry P. Kimberley, M.D., M.Sc., Medical Fellow, Department of
Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota.)
to align optical cavity

FIGURE 20-3. Laser components. Basic components of any laser are (1) a laser medium, l.e., COz N, He
in the case of a C02 laser; (2) a source of energy called a laser pump that causes a "population inversion”
in the laser medium; (3) an optical cavity formed by the two mirrors and the space between them; and (4)
a mechanical structure to align the axes of the two mirrors. (Illustration by Barry P. Kimberley M D M Sc
Medical Fellow, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Minnesota.) .
the surgical procedures that could be done transorally. Thus the carbon
dioxide laser has reduced the necessity for operative procedures on the
larynx.
Figures 20—2 and 20—3 explain the mechanism of the laser, which is an
acronym for “light amplification of stimulated emissions of radiation.”
Rather than allowing the light source to illuminate and propagate in multiple
directions with multiple light frequencies, the radiation is made (1) coherent
(that is, in phase), (2) collimated (parallel directions), and (3) monochro¬
matic (one frequency only). This creates a high-power density at one focal
spot. Whether a COz (Table 20-2) or a YAG laser is used, the light
generation in an active medium is the same. The operating room and the
patient are protected from any stray laser beams. The surgeon, sitting at the
head of the table and using the operating microscope, directs the beam onto
the area of tissue that is to be removed for biopsy or vaporized. Currently
the laser is frequently employed for the treatment of subglottic stenosis,
subglottic hemangioma, and most particularly, for the removal of juvenile
laryngeal papillomas.
Large benign laryngeal tumors require an external approach. Usually a
TABLE 20—2. C02 LASER

PHYSICAL PROPERTY CLINICAL FEATURE
Light energy Focused through microscope. Controls bleeding in small
vessels (<0.5 mm)
Power adjustable Depth and size of vaporized area variable
Deactivated by cellular water More power (energy) needed in dense tissue (bone)
Small zone of tissue reaction Postoperative edema is minimal and healing is rapid.
outside lasered area Less pain, and scarring may be lessened.
Tissue vaporized Suction carries away debris.
Ignition of anesthesia Not a problem with precautions
Deflected by mirrors Not yet available in fiberoptics
tracheostomy is done to guarantee the airway. The larynx can be entered

through the midline of the thyroid cartilage or laterally through the pharynx.
The primary principle of benign tumor surgery is removal of only the tumor,
preserving all normal tissue and hence normal laryngeal function. A midline
laryngeal opening is not thought to affect later growth. After laryngeal
surgery for benign disease, most patients are advised to rest their voices and
gradually resume full use over two to three weeks. Cough suppressants are
also used to control explosive coughing. Speech therapy may be essential to
provide vocal re-education and lessen the chance of recurrence.
NEUROGENIC DISORDERS OF THE LARYNX
Vocal Cord Paralysis

Generally five positions of the vocal cord are recognized in describing the
degree of opening of the larynx: median, paramedian, intermediate, slight
abduction, and full abduction. If a paralysis is bilateral, these positions are
designated by observing the size of the glottic chink (Table 20-3). If a
paralysis is unilateral (Fig. 20-4), the observer must first estimate the true
midline position and then relate the cordal position to that.
Any lesion along the course of the recurrent laryngeal nerves can cause
laryngeal paralysis. Intracranial lesions usually have other associated symp¬
toms and present as neurologic problems rather than as voice or articulation
disorders. Lesions of the brain stem may seem to involve the voice primarily,
but they also have other neurologic signs. Multiple sclerosis, brain stem
tumors, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis may have significant voice symp¬
toms. A careful examination of all the cranial nerves plus cerebellar testing
and examination for Horner’s syndrome must be done.
Lesions of the base of the skull that will selectively catch one or more of
the cranial nerves include tumors of the nasopharynx, aneurysms, and
neurogenic tumors. Tumors arising in the lateral pharyngeal space, as well
as from the deep lobe of the parotid, may also cause vocal cord paralysis.
Thyroidectomy or other neck surgery can cause vocal cord paralysis. If
recognized immediately after surgery, re-exploration of the nerves should be
accomplished to look for surgical trauma. This should be done before fibrosis
obliterates the surgical field, making nerve identification impossible. Neo¬
plasms of the thyroid, esophagus, and lung are common causes of vocal cord
paralysis. Mechanical pressure from dilated or abnormal cardiovascular
structures, distended cysts, or rapidly increasing hilar adenopathy can cause
vocal cord paralysis.
Even after thorough evaluation, a number of vocal cord paralyses will still
be unexplained. These idiopathic paralyses are thought to be viral. If a
TABLE 20-3. VOCAL CORD POSITION, OPENING

POSITION VOCAL CORD OPENING
Median Both cords in midline

Paramedian 3-5 mm
Intermediate 7 mm
Slight abduction 14 mm
Full abduction 18-19 mm
I I
FIGURE 20—4. The left vocal cord is paralyzed

and partially abducted (paramedian position).
With phonation, the right cord comes to the
midline, but the left cord remains unchanged.
Unilateral Unilateral
vocal cord vocal cord
paralysis paralysis
(During normal (Quiet)
breathing)
paralysis is termed idiopathic, a careful long-term follow-up with repeated

examination should be done. Occult carcinoma, particularly of the thyroid,
can in its early stages appear to be idiopathic. A list of diagnostic procedures
that might be done for evaluation of vocal cord paralysis includes chest
radiography (both anteroposterior and lateral views), esophagram, CT scans,
radioactive iodine thyroid scan, cervical spine radiography, skull radiogra¬
phy, white blood cell count (for leukemia), blood urea nitrogen, viral titers,
and glucose tolerance test (diabetic neuropathy). Examination of the larynx
must, of course, be done directly or by mirror examination. Palpation of the
cricoarytenoid joint is done to differentiate inflammatory fixation from vocal
cord paralysis. Such fixation may result from rheumatoid arthritis, laryngeal
trauma, or an indwelling endotracheal tube.
Motor and sensory function of the larynx is from a superior and inferior
nerve on each side. Table 20—4 describes the pathology, its effect, and the
findings on examination. An isolated superior laryngeal paralysis is very
subtle to diagnosis, but the other lesions are clinically obvious.
Unilateral vocal cord paralysis in children has an additional feature.
TABLE 20-4. LARYNGEAL PARALYSIS

SUPERIOR LARYNGEAL UNILATERAL RECURRENT BILATERAL RECURRENT COMPLETE
PARALYSIS NERVE PARALYSIS_NERVE PARALYSIS_PARALYSIS
Pathology Paralysis of cricothyroid Paralysis of all intrinsic Paralysis of all intrinsic Vagus nerve lesion above
muscle; sensory loss muscles on that side muscles the superior laryngeal
in half of larynx nerve; may be unilateral
or bilateral
Effect Loss of pitch; aspiration Hoarse; good airway Good voice; poor airway, Similar to corresponding
except in small children; especially on exertion lesions of recurrent
breathy voice; poor paralysis; more likely to
cough aspirate
Examination Anterior commissure Cord in paramedian Vocal cords do not move Cord(s) are immobile but
looks tilted to side of position; no lateral laterally; some patients in intermediate position
lesion; arytenoid on motion adapt and exist with due to loss of adduction
that side tilts in decreased exercise by cricothyroid muscle
tolerance
FIGURE 20-5. The left vocal cord is paralyzed

and cannot reach the midline. The voice is
breathy and hoarse. Injecting Teflon lateral to
the cord under local anesthesia pushes the
cord to the midline. Now during phonation the
cords can approximate.
Injecting Teflon Cords now able to

lateral to true approximate in midline
vocal cord. during phonation.
Because of the small size of the glottis, unilateral paralysis,in a child may
compromise the airway to result clinically in stridor. Many patients recover
their vocal cord function either because the nerve recovers and again moves
the cord or because the opposite vocal cord compensates by crossing the
midline to once again firmly abut against the paralyzed cord. This is possible
if the paralyzed cord is in a paramedian position. Before restorative proce¬
dures are done, 6 to 12 months should elapse to allow time for compensation.
If these mechanisms do not occur, Teflon paste can be injected lateral to
the true cord to increase its bulk and move it medially so that the normal
moving cord can approximate, producing a pleasing voice (Fig. 20-5).
Bilateral vocal cord paralysis (Fig. 20-6) presents a different problem.
Because both vocal cords are usually in a paramedian position, the voice is
less affected, yet the glottic chink is not wide enough to permit any exertion.
The patient may even be dyspneic at rest. Usually patients with bilateral
cordal paralysis have vocal cords that are nearly together, and the majority
of them require a tracheostomy to relieve their airway obstruction. Very
rarely does a patient with a bilateral vocal cord paralysis have the cords
widely separated. Such adducted cords do not result from neurogenic lesions
but can result from laryngeal trauma. In this case the airway is satisfactory,
but the voice is weak and breathy. More commonly in bilateral paralysis
from neurologic lesions, the vocal cords are adducted, and the patient has a
good voice with a very poor airway. These patients often require a trache¬
ostomy. A valve in the tracheostomy tube allows air to be inhaled through
the tube and then closes on expiration, diverting the air stream through the
vocal cords to produce a voice. Many patients do not accept valve tubes,
and a variety of surgical procedures are done to increase the airway while
sparing the voice. These operations all involve compromise; they trade vocal
FIGURE 20—6. During normal inspiration the

cords adduct as seen on the left. When there
is bilateral vocal cord paralysis, the cords are
just off the midline, allowing a slit-like airway.
Tracheostomy or arytenoidectomy is generally
required.
Normal
(Quiet breathing)
paralysis
ability for airway patency and occasionally some degree of aspiration. In

these surgical procedures the arytenoid cartilage is removed or turned
laterally to increase airway size. Some patients may get excellent results and
feel they have good voices as well as a good airway, but for most, the airway
is adequate but the voice is husky and hoarse.
Idiopathic Laryngeal Aspiration

In addition to being a vocal organ, the larynx is also a valve separating
the food and air passages. After trauma or surgery this valve function may
be compromised, and the patient may aspirate foods or liquids. Usually thin
liquids like water are the most difficult to swallow. Fortunately these
symptoms are usually temporary, and the patient can regain nearly normal
swallowing. In the uncommon disorder of idiopathic laryngeal aspiration, an
otherwise healthy patient has a feeling of mucus or saliva going the wrong
way. Then a paroxysm of coughing, choking, and laryngospasm follows. The
patient and on-lookers are frightened. After the spasms relent, the patient
is again asymptomatic. Repeated episodes may occur. Examination and
laboratory testing show no abnormality. The disorder is self-limited and
usually disappears. No medication seems to be of any value.
Brain stem disorders can produce aspiration both of ingested nourishment
and of oral secretions. Treatment of these disorders is difficult and may
include tracheostomy and gastrostomy, esophagostomy, or procedures de¬
signed to close the larynx at the level of the vocal cords.
Spastic Dysphonia
Spastic dysphonia is a strained, hoarse voice, often staccato-like, due to
hyperadduction of the true and false cords. This “tension larynx” usually
starts in young adults, who become very self-conscious and may change
occupation to avoid speech. Psychotherapy, drugs, biofeedback, voice ther¬
apy, and hypnosis have been of limited success. Surgical section of the right
recurrent laryngeal nerve has been the best therapy, although voices do not
return to complete normalcy and some redevelop the dysphonia in time.
The pathophysiology of the disorder is unknown.
Myasthenia Gravis
All ages can be affected by myasthenia, a disease that usually starts with
bulbar involvement. Characteristically muscles weaken with use and recover
after rest. Often the eye or facial muscles are involved, but speech and
swallowing dysfunction may cause the patient to seek medical help. A
diagnostic test can be done with Prostigmin, 15 mg orally (or 0.5 to 1.0 mg
IM); improvement should occur within 30 minutes.
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Typically patients are in their 50’s or 60’s. Bulbar symptoms of swallowing
and speech dysfunction may be prominent, although tongue dysfunction with
fasciculations is more common.
FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS OF THE LARYNX
Functional disorders with no obvious diagnostic abnormality form a special

group of laryngeal disorders.
Psychogenic Aphonia
The patient may complain of a total inability to talk, but on examination
the larynx looks and moves normally. Upon request the patient is able to
cough normally, and this is the key to the psychogenic etiology. Often there
is a history of emotional disturbance, particularly if the patient is questioned
directly.
Dysphonia Plicae Ventricularis

Phonation with the false cords vibrating instead of the true vocal cords
produces a husky voice. On visualization the larynx appears normal, but the
false cords seem to overhang or cover the true cords. The diagnosis can be
clinically suspected and proved by planigrams done during phonation. The
false vocal cords meet and vibrate while the true cords remain apart.
Vocal Weakness
Many older patients complain of vocal weakness. Their voice lacks its
usual tone and vigor. Frequently the voice breaks or drops in pitch. On
examination the vocal cords appear slightly bowed. As the larynx ages, this
bowing occurs normally to a variable degree. The vocal change then is an
extension of a normal physiologic aging process.
When older patients are weakened after illness or surgery, their voices
suffer because of their overall debility and improve as they gain muscle
strength. Excessive emotional tension in the young also can produce a
functional weakness with a cracking, breaking voice. A feeling of dryness or
of a lump in the throat is often an accompanying symptom.
FOREIGN BODIES OF THE LARYNX
Any foreign body in the larynx is an immediate emergency. Often the

patient was holding the object in the mouth between the teeth and acciden¬
tally inhaled. If the patient is not in respiratory distress, no attempt should
be made to remove the object in an emergency room. Removal should be
done in the operating room with anesthesia personnel available. Dislodging
the foreign body may produce airway obstruction. In small children an upper
esophageal foreign body can compress the airway by dilating the esophagus.
A special example of a laryngeal foreign body is the so-called cafe
coronary. There is no cardiac involvement, but foreign material, usually
meat, is lodged in the glottic opening. Suddenly the victim collapses after
taking a large bite of food. An attempt can be made to dislodge the foreign
body by squeezing the chest from behind. This bellows action may dispel
the obstruction like a cork from a bottle. If not successful, a cricothyrotomy
must be done rather than a tracheostomy. The usual tracheostomy site is
low in the neck to enter the trachea. The thyroid gland overlies the trachea,
and in a restaurant, entering the trachea can be both bloody and difficult.
The cricothyroid membrane is subcutaneous between the thyroid and cricoid
cartilages. There are no major vascular structures here and entry is much
easier. After the airway is secure, the foreign body can be removed in a
leisurely manner. If necessary, an orderly tracheostomy can be done later in
a hospital setting. In an emergency with poor facilities, a cricothyrotomy is
preferred over tracheostomy.
References
Bailey BJ, Biller HF: Surgery of the Larynx. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1985.
Cotton RT, Richardson MA: Congenital laryngeal anomalies. Otolaryngol Clin North Am
14:203-218, 1981.
DeSanto L, et al: Cysts of the larynx; classification. Laryngoscope 80:145-176, 1970.
Fried MP (ed): The larynx. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 17(1): February 1984.
Friedman ER, et al: Bacterial tracheitis—two-year experience. Laryngoscope 95:9-11, 1985.
Hodge KM, Ganzel TM: Diagnostic and therapeutic efficiency in croup and epiglottitis.
Linscott MS, Horton WC: Management of upper airway obstruction. Otolaryngol Clin North
Am 12:351-373, 1979.
Nau TW, et al: Management of neonatal subglottic stenosis. Otolaryngol Clin North Am
2(1:153-162, 1986.
Simpson GT, Shapshay SM (eds): The use of lasers in otolaryngologic surgery. Otolaryngol
Clin North Am 16(4): November 1983.
Tucker JA: Obstruction of the major pediatric airway. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 12:329-
342, 1979.
21
SPEECH AND
LANGUAGE DISORDERS
by Virginia Wigginton, M.A., C.C.C.,
Meredith Gerdin, M.A., C.C.C., and
Frank M. Lassman. Ph D.
The development of speech and language is essential to most forms of

human interaction. When there is a disruption in communicative ability,
human development suffers. For this reason, the physician must understand
speech and language development and factors that can alter its normal,
orderly progression and must be aware of available services for treatment.
Definitions
Language is a system of symbols used for the understanding and expression
of ideas and feelings. Attributes of language include not only vocabulary
and grammar but also the abilities to remember, classify, order, and abstract.
In contrast, speech is one mode for conveying language. Among other
modes are writing, gesturing, and signing. Attributes of speech include pitch,
loudness, and quality of voice; vowels, consonants, diphthongs, and the
blending of these into syllables, words, and phrases; and rate, intonation,
and rhythm. “Language" and “speech” are distinguished here for purposes
of clarity. This is not meant as an argument that they are dynamically
separable. For example, there is a considerable amount of language infor¬
mation contained in intonation.
In defining speech and language disorders, there are three primary
considerations: (1) Can the language and speech be understood with little
or no difficulty? (2) Is the language usually appropriate to the substantive
requirements of the communication? (3) Does the manner of communicating
call attention to itself and divert attention from the message? When disorders
of speech or language are judged to exist, there is usually a problem in one
of these areas. With children, this possibility should follow a careful com¬
parison of the child’s performance against the general developmental descrip¬
tion that follows.
NORMAL SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Prelinguistic Development
There are skills and knowledge learned in infancy which are necessary for
the development of language and communication. These primary skills are
412
21—SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS 413
in the areas of cognition and social interaction. Cognitively, the infant must
learn to be aware of objects and events in his environment and to realize
their uniqueness. It is this knowledge base that is the subject of early
communications. Socially, the infant must learn that he can have a specific
effect on caregivers by what he does, to be both an initiator and responder Communication problems in
in interactions, to jointly attend to activities, and to interact with others for children may develop because
of disturbed social and cogni¬
a variety of reasons. Many children with communication problems have had
tive skills in infancy.
disturbances in the development of social and cognitive skills in infancy.
Linguistic Development
Language comprehension seems to precede language usage. Imitation may Language comprehension pre¬
occur without comprehension, but functional language for communication cedes language usage.
purposes appears to require prior comprehension. Even though there are
fairly predictable stages and ages for development, the range of normality is
great.
Receptive language is that which the child hears and must interpret. The
child progresses from simply alerting to a speaker to understanding meaning
based on grammatical construction within the first five years of life.
Expressive language is that which the child expresses to others. Speech
progresses from simple reflexive vocalization to complex sentences. Corre¬
spondingly, nonverbal communication progresses from unintentional behav¬
iors to refined, conventional gestures.
General guidelines for both receptive and expressive language are listed
in Table 21-1.
TABLE 21-1. DEVELOPMENT OF RECEPTIVE AND EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE

AGE LEVEL RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE
0-6 months Startles and turns to sound; Cooing and babbling for pleasure;
understands tone of voice (e.g., differential crying
angry vs. happy)
6-12 months Understands gestures; understands Use of vocalization with inflection;
some words and phrases may develop use of first word
12-18 months Understands common short and Use of single words, using that
simple sentences; points to some word to mean several things;
body parts; can identify familiar continues to use own jargon
picture (syllables with intonation)
18-24 months Understands a few prepositions Uses 2- and 3-word combinations;
and personal pronouns; listens to expresses negation by using
and understands simple stories; “no”
points to pictures when asked
2-3 years Can follow 3-part directions; 3- and 4-word sentences; uses
understands most adult some pronouns and prepositions;
sentences; understands concepts about 50% intelligible
like “one” and “many”
3-4 years Can identify object when given Mostly intelligible; 4- to 6-word
function; understands more sentences with various sentence
prepositions; understands types (interrogative, imperative,
information about more abstract negative)
events
4-5 years Except for vocabulary limitations, 90% of learning to talk completed;
understands most adult expression at a colloquial adult
communication level
Physician’s Screening
Commonly, parents become concerned enough to bring a child who is not
talking or who uses only a few words to a physician at age 24 to 30 months.
An alert physician, however, may recognize problems even earlier. Children
not falling within accepted guidelines for language development should be
referred for consultation with an audiologist and speech pathologist. Speech
pathologists can determine whether behavior is outside acceptable limits and
thereby minimize long-term effects.
SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS IN CHILDREN
inree major considerations j important for the development of com¬

munication skills. Disruption of one or more can cause delayed or disordered
development.
1. The child’s physiologic status: Conditions that affect development
include hearing loss, cleft palate, and CNS dysfunction, among others.
2. The child’s environment: Conditions to consider include cultural fac¬
tors, long-term hospitalization, and impoverished stimulation, ranging
from disadvantage to deprivation.
3. The child’s emotional status: Conditions to consider include ability to
relate, disorders of thought processes, and behavioral problems.
Hearing Loss
Failure to develop speech or The quality of speech and language reflects the ability to hear and perceive.
language requires evaluation tor There is usually a direct relationship between speech/language abilities and
hearing impairment.
the amount of residual hearing. Hearing loss, from the minimal to the
profound, negatively affects speech and language development.
The effects of profound deafness tend to be obvious. Vocabulary, word
order, and grammatical usage are faulty. Voice distortion, speech sound
errors, and rhythm deviations are characteristic, making speech very difficult
to understand.
The use of hearing aid amplification is important for reducing the effective
hearing impairment, enabling the child to hear others as well as himself.
The value of the hearing aid for maintaining speech skills is less obvious but
should not be underestimated.
The hearing aid is but one aspect of the habilitation process. Children
should not be expected to develop communication skills on the basis of
amplification alone. Remediation is further discussed in Chapter 4, which
deals with hearing impairment.
Age of onset is critical. Children who have normal hearing beyond age
two years, even for a short while, are likely to have significantly better
language/speech skills than those who are deaf at birth or very early in life.
Children with moderately severe hearing impairments usually have better
speech and language than those with more profound losses. Attention is
usually not drawn to the speech and language of those with mild hearing
impairment. Yet children with mild, chronic hearing impairment are at risk
A hearing loss of 20 dB may for reduction in language skills. A hearing loss of 20 dB in young children
affect speech. (three years old and under) has been shown to affect language/speech
21 —SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS 415
FREQUENCY (Hz) FREQUENCY (Hz)
250 500 1000 2000 4000 250 500 1000 2000 4 000
FIGURE 21-1. The audiogram (representing both ears) of the child with a hearing
impairment for the higher frequencies. Because of better hearing sensitivity for low
frequencies, the child often appears to have normal hearing to gross inspection. Speech/
language delay may be ascribed to other factors such as assumed intellectual retardation.
learning. A mild intermittent hearing loss may cause additional problems

involving attention and behavior, which in turn affect school learning.
Many children do poorly in speech production yet pass a gross screening
test of hearing. Some of these are later found to have selective hearing
impairment, often for the higher frequencies (Fig. 21-1). They appear to
have normal hearing because they can perceive a portion but not all of the
acoustical information, coupled with situation cues. They may respond
correctly to their name, more predictable messages, and gross environmental
sounds. Parents, teachers, and physicians falsely are led to believe that these
children have normal hearing and that poor speech and school performance
must be attributable to other factors such as attention, intellect, motivation,
and emotional problems.
Because of the possibilities for erroneous conclusion, as described in the
previous paragraph, it is advisable for the physician to consider the speech/
language delay itself as the reason for a carefully conducted clinical exami¬
nation of hearing, including pure tone threshold measures at frequencies 250
Hz (middle C) through 8000 Hz (five octaves above middle C).
Apparently one normally functioning ear is sufficient for normal language
development. Very little hard data are available on this issue, but clinicians
are not of the impression that the speech and language of unilaterally
deafened (e.g., following mumps, virus) children are noticeably different
from those of children with two normally functioning ears.
Voice Disorders
A common childhood voice disorder is hoarseness resulting from vocal
abuse. Unchecked, the condition of the vocal folds can progress from mild
irritation and edema to formation of nodules. Nodules respond to vocal rest
and often to a change in pitch. Group as well as individual therapy has been
successful in locating the causes of the abuse and helping the individual to
take responsibility for vocal output. Behavior modification—e.g., counting
uses of loud voice and timing total use of voice—has been effective.
Nasality following adenoidectomy is not uncommon, and most patients

become normal in a few hours or days. Occasionally, nasality continues and
the child is found to have palatal insufficiency or submucous cleft. In such
cases, the adenoid tissue served to fill in the nasopharyngeal space. The
necessity of preoperative recognition of a submucous cleft, velopharyngeal
insufficiency, or congenitally short palate is discussed in Chapter 17.
Cleft Palate
The child born with a cleft lip/cleft palate faces years of restorative
procedures and rehabilitation. Among the disciplines needed are pediatrics,
prosthodontics, pedodontics, nutrition, education, audiology and speech
pathology, otolaryngology, and maxillofacial surgery. Therefore, coordinated
management is essential.
Cleft palate deformity is often Vocal play helps the baby develop a perception of his oral structure and
associated with conductive
of the sounds he is producing. Cleft palate not only compromises oral
hearing loss.
sensation but also is frequently accompanied by hearing loss, impairing
auditory feedback and environmental stimulation.
In cases of cleft palate, the speech product is excessively nasal. Problems
related to nasal resonance are discussed later in the section on voice disorders
of adults. Of equal significance are the articulation problems that accompany
velopharyngeal insufficiency. That is, the precision of plosive (p-b-t-d-k-g),
fricative (s-z-f-v-th-sh-zh), and affricate (ch-dzh) consonants is reduced
through nasal escape. The child may grimace in an effort to occlude his
nares to prevent the escape of air. In the case of repaired cleft lip, sounds
likely to be affected are those requiring lip closure, rounding, and extension
(p-b-m-oo-ee).
Regardless of whether surgery, prosthesis, or both affect structural repair,
the child may still have inadequate velopharyngeal closure for speech.
Assistance with precise, rapid articulation of speech is necessary. Speech
outcome is one criterion for success of surgical/prosthetic management.
The cleft palate child is at risk for oral sensation deficits, feeding problems,
social/emotional problems, developmental delay, and speech and language
problems associated with hearing impairment.
Stuttering
Stuttering is a fluency disorder or an abnormality of speech rate or rhythm.
All speakers experience normal dysfluency, such as pauses or word repeti¬
tions. When the dysfluencies call attention to themselves or the speaker
struggles to avoid the dysfluency, the speaker is considered a stutterer. The
stutterer may repeat words or sounds, prolong sounds, or “block,” thus
producing no sound at all. In addition, these speech behaviors may be
accompanied by muscular tension and struggling. Secondary characteristics
may include head jerks, eye blinks, and facial contortions.
The speech of many children It is important to know that many children have exaggerated dysfluencies
with dysfluencies at ages 3 and
4 will improve spontaneously.
at around three to four years of age. These interruptions are not associated
with any struggle or tension in speaking and usually disappear spontaneously.
Parents may need reassurance about normal dysfluencies. They should avoid
overreacting to the dysfluencies while responding positively to the sense of
21—SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS 417
the child’s communication. If marked dysfluencies continue, the child and

his parents should be referred to a speech pathologist.
Approximately 1 per cent of the population consider themselves to be
stutterers. Most begin to stutter before they enter school. There are a
number of schools of thought regarding the cause and nature of stuttering,
each with a preferred approach to therapy. Each method has been shown to
be successful for some patients.
Behavioral/Emotional Disorders
Children with behavioral/emotional disorders often have associated lan¬
guage disorders, including mutism, disordered content of speech, compre¬
hension deficits, poor communicative interaction, and atypical vocal char¬
acteristics. The specific type of language disorder, e.g., neologisms, pronoun
reversals, echolalia, excessive talkativeness, is often useful in establishing a
differential diagnosis. Children with the most severe disturbances, autistic
disorder or schizophrenia, always exhibit extreme language disturbance.
There are some children whose emotional disturbance is thought to be a
primary “cause” of the language problem. Emotional disturbance can also
“result” from the inability to communicate. In either case, the communica¬
tion problem warrants evaluation by a speech pathologist.
Cerebral Palsy
The child with cerebral palsy requires a specialized orientation of the
speech pathologist and of the physician as well. Knowledge of body tone,
sensation, posture, and reflexes is essential.
Before speech can be acquired, the child needs an oral musculature that
can manage basic vegetative functions such as eating or swallowing. The
optimum posture for breath support to produce voice should be established.
The speech of the cerebral palsied child reflects his basic neurophysiologic
condition. Voice quality, speech sound articulation, respiration rate, and
rhythm are distorted by flaccidity, spasticity, rigidity, tremor, or athetosis.
The language of the physically disabled child is frequently affected by his
experiential limitations. Moreover, because by definition cerebral palsy
involves brain damage, the child may manifest many or all of the features
associated with language disability or organic mental retardation. In the case
of cerebral palsy related to Rh incompatibility and kernicterus, sensorineural
hearing loss with the resultant speech and language difficulties may occur.
The ability to communicate is more crucial than the ability to speak. When
a child has severe motor speech limitations, alternate or supplementary
communication systems (e.g., word or symbol boards or computer-assisted
communication) may be necessary.
Coordinated rehabilitation services including those of the physician and
occupational and physical therapists, social worker, speech pathologist, and
others are necessary.
Specific Language Disabilities

Children with specific learning disabilities have deficits in one or more of
the processes basic to normal, efficient learning. Although there are other
characteristics, most learning disabled children have some language disorder.

As a group, learning disabled children have average intelligence. They may
have problems forming verbal abstractions and performing the logical oper¬
ations required to interpret the complex relationships expressed in language.
Their oral language problems may lead to deficits in perceiving and inter¬
preting as well as in formulating and producing spoken language. The
difficulties may also be reflected in subject areas such as reading, spelling,
writing, and other academic areas that require adequate language abilities.
While some language disabilities change over time, others persist through¬
out life. A child with language disorders requires special services. Remedial
and compensatory education and therapy are available through schools,
hospitals, and special clinics.
Mental Retardation
In contrast to children with specific language disorder or emotional
disturbance, retarded children are retarded generally. They are delayed in
socioemotional, intellectual, and perceptual-motor development as well as
in language. The greater the severity of general retardation, the greater the
language delay. The profoundly retarded child may not talk at all.
Articulation Disorders
The child who has defective speech articulation may have difficulty with
the precision or sequencing of speech sounds. At any given age, certain
articulation errors fall within normal developmental expectations (Table
21-2).
Parents are sometimes concerned that a child’s speech problem is related
to being “tongue-tied” when, in fact, a lingual frenum would need to be
In the rare incidence that a extremely restricted to account for an articulation disorder. Almost all
tight lingual frenum affects
children compensate for “tongue-tie,” and, in many cases, the restriction
speech, a simple “l" plasty can
be performed. lessens over time.
The most prevalent type ot articulation disorder is called functional
misarticulation. There are four types: substitution, omission, distortion, and
addition. Functional articulation disorders (the largest single disorder cate¬
gory) are common among young school-aged children.
Two other types of articulation disorders are associated with physiological
problems. Children with dysarthria have imprecise speech for reasons of
paralysis, weakness, or lack of coordination of the speech mechanism. When
the difficulty involves the selection, programming, or sequencing of sounds,
TABLE 21-2. ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS

DEVELOPMENTAL
AGE SOUNDS MASTERED*
2 p, h, n, b, k, f
2Vi m, g
3 w, d, y, v
yh s
4 sh
4‘/2 t, ng, ch, r, 1, z, th
*By 50% of children in all positions of a word. Source: Olmsted D: Out of the Mouths of Babes. The
Hague, Mouton, 1971.
it is called apraxia of speech. Dysarthria and apraxia can severely limit the
child’s ability to develop fluent speech.
SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS IN ADULTS
Adult communication disorders can refer to any number of difficulties

that lead to impaired or ineffective communication. The disorders most
frequently encountered by otolaryngologists are voice disorders of laryngec¬
tomees. However, an adult may have other disorders affecting communica¬
tion that can have implications for medical and therapeutic intervention.
Voice uisorder*
Voice is an acoustical end-product of a smooth, balanced, dynamic,
interrelated system involving respiration, phonation, and resonance. A
subglottic pressure of air from the lungs, compressed by abdominal and
thoracic musculature, is addressed against the vocal folds. Sound is produced
by rapid opening and closing of the cords, set into vibration by a smooth
combination of muscular tension and rapid air pressure changes. The pitch
is largely determined by the frequency of cord vibration.
Sound produced at the glottis is amplified and is supplied with characteristic
quality (resonance) as it moves through supraglottic passages, especially the
pharynx. Disturbance of this system can result in voice disorder.
Voice problems have been estimated to occur in 1 per cent of all people
in the United States. Reported incidence of voice disorders in school children
ranges from 6 to 23.4 per cent.
Organic versus Functional Disorders

Voice problems may be functional, organic, or an interaction of both.
Functional voice disorders result from improper use of an otherwise normal
mechanism. Frequently, functional voice disorders occur with vocal abuse
or personality disturbances. Emotional stress may produce musculoskeletal Emotional stress can contribute
tension that can contribute to improper vocal use. Organic voice disorders to improper vocal use.
result from pathophysiologic disease that alters laryngeal structure or func¬

tion. Some disorders (e.g., papillomata, leukoplakia) require medical or
surgical intervention. Most functional disorders and many organic problems
(e.g., nodules, unilateral adductor paralysis) respond to symptomatic reme¬
diation.
Vocal Parameters (Pitch, Loudness, Quality)

Most people speak at a habitual pitch level natural and appropriate for
their physiology. Inappropriate pitch that is inconsistent with the person’s
appearance or his vocal physiology may or may not be socially acceptable.
Pitch deviations can be responsible for laryngeal strain or insult and quality
disorders.
The average speaker should have little difficulty modulating vocal intensity.
Since loudness control depends upon auditory feedback, evaluation of the
hearing of the patient who has difficulty should be considered. Although
there may be an emotional basis for habitual excessive loudness, the
relationship of excessive loudness to background noise is striking. At times,
excessive loudness may be habituated and sustained in the absence of

background noise.
Vocal quality can be subjectively described by numerous terms, two of
which are “harshness” and “hoarseness,” vocal attributes denoting roughness
and rough-breathiness. They often accompany or follow periods of vocal
abuse. Singers, teachers, and others who must vocalize in public for pro¬
longed periods of time develop harsh or hoarse voices, especially when
amplifying equipment is absent. Sports fans and others who shout are also
likely to be in this category. The majority have only temporary difficulty
allayed by a few hours of vocal rest, but a semichronic condition is not
uncommon under these circumstances.
Adductor hyperfunction seems to be implicated in all vocal abuse. In
many, vocalization is initiated with a hard glottal explosion called the “glottal
attack.” Over a period of time, irritation and edema of the vocal folds may
develop. The hyperfunction unchecked, the edges of the folds are at risk for
the development of nodule(s). As the nodule grows, vocal pitch may drop
due to larger mass, the rough quality will increase, and breathiness may be
noticed as air escapes around the nodule.
Adductor spastic dysphonia, which is characterized by a choked, strained,
harsh voice, seems to be an extreme example of hyperfunction, although it
Long-term results of recurrent is seemingly “resistant” to therapeutic techniques. The suspicion remains
laryngeal nerve section for that spastic dysphonia has an important psychological component, but this
spastic dysphonia have not
been as effective as immediate has not often been verified by successful response to psychotherapy. It has
results. Injected botulinum toxin also been considered a possible manifestation of regional neurologic distur¬
is currently being evaluated.
bance. Fortunately, its incidence is low.
Surgical therapy by intentionally interrupting the recurrent laryngeal nerve
has been of benefit in very carefully selected patients but is never preferred
prior to thorough evaluation and attempted correction by more conservative
means. Long-term results have not been as beneficial as initially predicted.
Breathiness seems to result from adductor hypofunction. The breathy
quality betrays a short approximation phase and in the whisper, the cords
do not touch at all. Breathiness is usually responsive to symptomatic
treatment. In these disorders, thorough evaluation of vocal cord movement,
preferably by magnified fiberoptic examination, is required.
“Hyponasality” and “hypernasality” are resonance problems involving the
functioning of the oral, nasal, and pharyngeal cavities and their attachments.
The nasopharyngeal sphincter demands a functioning soft palate in relation
to a dynamic superior constrictor muscle on the posterior pharyngeal wall.
The sphincter remains relatively closed through most speech sounds with the
exception of “m,” “n,” and “ng.” Consider the speed and ballistic precision
required to include nasal consonant sounds without contaminating adjacent
non-nasal sounds. Chronic failure to accomplish this is “assimilated nasality.”
Many good speakers demonstrate some nasality. Persons with cleft palates
have obvious difficulties. Chronic hypernasality should lead to further
evaluation.
Hyponasality requires evaluation Hyponasality is the reduction or absence of nasality when it normally
of the nasal cavity and the na¬
should occur. Thus, it affects only three speech sounds (m, n, and ng).
sopharynx.
“Something is in my nose” becomes “subthig is id by doze.” And often that
is the case. The phenomenon is associated with the congestion and edema
of upper respiratory tract infection, but continued denasality requires ex¬
amination for hypertrophic adenoids, a mass of some kind, or structural
deformity.
Voice Therapy
Following medical examination, the speech and language pathologist can
utilize several techniques that may help the voice patient achieve a more
normal voice. The first step is to increase the patient’s ability to monitor his
own vocal production and to increase awareness of situations in which vocal
abuse can occur. Other treatment goals may include (1) educating the patient
regarding normal anatomy and physiology of the vocal mechanism; (2)
eliminating faulty speaking habits; (3) reducing vocal abuse; (4) decreasing
musculoskeletal tension; and (5) counseling.
Prior to surgical intervention, the patient should receive a trial period of
voice therapy. Therapy for non-life-threatening disorders can often alleviate
the need for surgery. Then the physician, with input from the speech and
language pathologist, can determine the best course of action for the patient.
Post-surgical patients, if not referred to the speech and language pathol¬
ogist prior to surgery, can benefit from therapeutic intervention to reduce
trauma to the vocal folds. A brief period of voice rest, no more than a few
days, may help patients recovering from vocal fold surgery. However, there
is no evidence that voice rest is of benefit to patients in general, and it may
be harmful to those with psychogenic disorders.
Alaryngeal Speech
A person who has undergone laryngectomy must make many adjustments
afterward. One of the most difficult is that of learning to communicate again.
Mechanistic Effects of Laryngectomy

Removal of the larynx separates respiration from speech, eliminates the
vibratory source for phonation as it has existed (the glottis), and leaves
articulation relatively intact. The laryngectomized person breathes through
the tracheal stoma. Instead of the same passage for pulmonary and phonatory
air, the trachea serves only for pulmonary exchange. Usually, in cases of
total laryngectomy, the esophagus remains intact as a connecting passage
from the mouth and pharynx to the stomach. It is in the pharyngoesophageal
region that a new vibratory source for voice production must be established.
This region is identified as the pseudoglottis or neoglottis. The new voice is
called “esophageal” or “alaryngeal.” Approximately 60 to 75 per cent of all
laryngectomees learn some form of esophageal speech, but not all become
excellent or even adequate speakers. Another 15 per cent communicate only
by means of artificial devices, and the remainder do not learn to communicate
orally.
Methods for Achieving Esophageal Voice

There are essentially two methods for air intake to produce esophageal
voice: injection and inhalation. Swallowing as a method of air intake is not
encouraged because the act of swallowing does not allow for the rapid
injection and expulsion of air required for speech.
During injection, air in the mouth or nose is compressed by movement of Alaryngeal speakers do not
the lips or tongue and injected into the esophagus. This may be accomplished swallow air but use the tongue
to inject air into the esophagus.
by consciously placing the lips together, or the tongue tip against the alveolar
ridge, or the dorsum of the tongue against the hard palate, and pushing the
“ball of air” into the throat. Certain consonant sounds (e.g., p., t, and k)
serve to drive air into the esophagus. This is called “consonant injection.”
The laryngectomee who is able to use consonant injection has a built-in
“pumping action,” so that in connected speech, he is continually “recharg¬
ing.”
Inhalation of air into the esoph- During inhalation, the patient maintains a patent airway between the nose
agus is possible if there is re- or iips ancj the esophagus. As he inhales through the stoma, there is increased
laxation of the nasopharynx. negative pressure in the esophagus, creating a partial vacuum. If the
pharyngoesophageal segment is relaxed, the higher pressure in the mouth
and hypopharynx pushes air into the esophagus. The inhalation method has
the advantage of being very natural, since pulmonary and phonatory air are
in synchrony. It is quite possible for a laryngectomee to use a combination
of methods.
The Artificial Larynx

The artificial larynx is another means for producing voice for speech.
There are several types of devices. A common device is one which is held
in the hand, usually against the neck. Sound is transmitted through tissue
and then articulated into words. A similar electronic device is one in which
a tone generator held in the hand is connected to a plastic tube inserted into
the mouth. This device is of particular value to the laryngectomee who
cannot use an instrument on his neck because of extensive neck surgery or
radiation. A third type of device is pneumatic; air is driven from the stoma
to the mouth, using a vibrating reed as sound source (Fig. 21-2). The speech
and language pathologist can assist the laryngectomee in selection and use
of an appropriate artificial larynx.
In the past it was sometimes believed that the artificial device should be
withheld from the laryngectomee, lest it serve as a “crutch” and thus reduce
the motivation to learn esophageal voice. This has never been proved to be
so. In fact, there is some evidence that patients using the artificial larynx
will talk more, thus promoting the development of esophageal voice. In
most centers today, the artificial larynx is demonstrated and sometimes lent
FIGURE 21—2. Some instruments

for alaryngeal speech communi¬
cation. From left to right, Tokyo
Artificial Larynx, Cooper-Rand Ar¬
tificial Larynx, Servox Speech Aid,
and Western Electric #5 Electro¬
larynx.
to the patient at the first visit. Esophageal speech is presented as an ultimate

objective, but the patient is also advised that not all laryngectomees are able
to learn it. Some refuse the artificial larynx, which sounds less like the
normal voice than does esophageal speech. Sometimes the patient will
request it later. The decision should be the patient’s. The artificial larynx
may be particularly useful for telephoning while the patient is at the beginning
stages of learning esophageal voice.
Tracheoesophageal Puncture and Voice Prosthesis

Dr. Mark Singer, an otolaryngologist, and Eric Blom, Ph.D., a speech
and language pathologist, have reported and popularized a surgical procedure
that allows a laryngectomee to speak on his own lung air. While the puncture
can be made at the time of the laryngectomy, most surgeons prefer to wait
for six months to allow the patient to try to learn esophageal speech and the
stoma to be fully matured. The puncture is made through the posterior
tracheal wall into the esophagus, and a one-way valve tube is inserted. The
laryngectomee’s exhaled air is shunted through the silicone prosthesis into
the esophagus when the stoma is occluded, and fluent speech is possible
(Fig. 21-3). Selection of a prosthetic low-pressure valve is now available.
The valve is removed, cleaned daily, and reinserted. It has an average life
span of three months. The speech and language pathologist works with the
surgeon in patient selection, fitting the prosthesis, and educating the patient
in use and care of the prosthesis and in troubleshooting techniques.
Course of Treatment
Rehabilitation should begin, whenever possible, before surgery. A pre- A presurgical visit and discus-
surgical visit to the patient by a speech pathologist and, when indicated, by ston about rehabilitation is es-
a successful laryngectomized speaker informs him that help will be available.
Some laryngectomized patients have reported after surgery that they were
FIGURE 21—3. Blom-Singer pros¬

thesis with valve for speaking.
When the valve is in place, the
patient does not have to occlude
the stoma with a finger or thumb.
frightened or unimpressed by visiting esophageal speakers. Some were

unaware that speech would be possible.
The presurgical visit provides an opportunity to assess communication
skills and to determine whether faulty speech habits, unrelated to the loss
of the larynx, need attention. Cognition and hearing can be appraised. The
physician should be especially alert for selective hearing impairment that
might compromise the discrimination of consonant sounds.
Instruction in the use of an artificial larynx is necessary in order to obtain
Patients are led through a naso¬ the best speech product. Treatment goals include effective tube placement,
gastric tube for 7 to 10 days
accurate on/off timing, accurate articulation, correct phrasing and appropri¬
after a laryngectomy.
ate rate, and appropriate inflection and stress.
Esophageal speech instruction commonly begins as soon as the nasogastric
tube has been removed and the surgeon indicates that there is little chance
of a fistula. Some laryngectomees can produce a sound in the first few
sessions, although the sound is not yet useful for communication purposes.
The rehabilitation of functional communication skills takes months, some¬
times years. Early esophageal speech instruction can help to prevent unde¬
sirable speech behaviors such as “duck voice,” “klunking,” and stomal blast.
Factors Related to Success and Failure

Some laryngectomees learn esophageal speech more readily than others,
and some speakers are more proficient than others. Approximately 25 to 40
per cent do not master functional esophageal voice.
The relationship between speaking skill and various physical and psycho¬
logical factors has been explored by many investigators. A number have
concurred that type and extent of surgery or radiation have little effect on
the ability to learn esophageal speech. Some motivated individuals who are
unable to learn esophageal speech may be experiencing pharyngoesophageal
spasm during attempted phonation. An esophageal insufflation test will
reveal such spasms. In addition, a videofluoroscopic swallowing study may
reveal an otherwise unrecognized problem such as a web, stricture, or spasm
which precludes developing speech. In selected incidences, a myotomy of
the constrictors may benefit these patients. In addition, hearing impairment,
medical problems, cognitive impairment, and psychological characteristics
have also been cited as reasons for failure to learn esophageal speech.
Croup Support
Laryngectomees help each other, providing information and encourage¬
ment to the new patient. The patient should be made aware of the
International Association of Laryngectomees, in care of the American
Cancer Society, 90 Park Avenue, New York, New York 10016.
Other Communication Disorders

Aphasia is a language disorder resulting from a dominant hemisphere
cerebrovascular accident, head trauma, or disease process. There are several
types of aphasia, usually classified according to site of lesion. All aphasic
persons exhibit deficits in comprehension, reading, verbal expression, and
writing to a greater or lesser degree.
Occasionally, when the lesion producing the aphasia is anterior, the patient
may have a concomitant motor speech disorder. Apraxia of speech is a

disorder in the selection, programming, or sequencing of speech sounds and
their combinations to form words. The most common characteristics of
apraxic speech are sound substitutions, inconsistent and unpredictable errors,
and groping behaviors indicating awareness of errors.
Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder due to abnormal tone, paralysis,
weakness, or incoordination of the speech mechanism. Dysarthria can involve
respiration, phonation, resonation, articulation, and prosody. Speech may
sound slurred, uneven, distorted, or nasal. The general goal of speech
therapy is to compensate for unintelligibility.
Patients with right hemisphere deficits may exhibit disturbances in atten¬
tion, orientation, perception, pragmatic communication skills, memory, and
integration. Speech and language may be intact, but the cognitively impaired
patient may have much more difficulty in communicating appropriately than
the aphasic patient.
The head injured patient may demonstrate any of the previous disorders,
most notably aphasia, dysarthria, and cognitive deficits. During recovery,
the head-injured patient usually goes through rather predictable stages of
recovery.
ORAL DYSFUNCTION/DYSPHAGIA
Dysphagia, a deficit in the ability to swallow, can occur in both children

and adults. Children with neurologic, behavioral, or structural deficits may
have oral motor and/or swallowing problems such as weak or inefficient
suck, poor oral intake, failure to thrive, choking, refusal to eat orally, and
inability to handle foods of differing texture at appropriate developmental
ages. Problems can be congenital or acquired. Children frequently develop
oral aversion if not fed by mouth for extended periods of time (three weeks
or longer). Following medical examination, speech and language pathologists
evaluate the problem with a clinical feeding/swallowing assessment and/or a
videofluoroscopic study to determine the reasons for the problem and to
plan a therapeutic feeding program. Intervention can include oral stimulation
or desensitization, oral motor training, or modification of position, equip¬
ment, or food consistencies.
In adults, anatomic or neuromuscular disorders may result in dysphagia.
A patient may complain of difficulty chewing or swallowing, food “sticking”
in the throat, coughing/choking while eating or drinking, and other symp¬
toms. Following a thorough medical examination, the speech and language
pathologist can perform a clinical swallowing evaluation to gain valuable
information regarding history, oral function, and symptoms. If the speech
and language pathologist suspects pharyngeal dysfunction, which may occur
without observable clinical symptoms, a modified barium swallow should be
performed in cooperation with the radiologist. In some medical facilities all
tracheotomized and head and neck cancer patients are routinely evaluated
by a swallowing team.
The modified barium swallow is a videofluoroscopic or cineradiographic
procedure that allows the swallowing process to be viewed and stored on
tape or film for further study. It involves giving the patient several textures
(liquid, paste, solid) of contrast medium and viewing the swallowing process.
The clinician may change the patient’s position or use special techniques to
facilitate the swallow during the study. Information gained from the modified
barium swallow, particularly the presence or absence of aspiration, is
necessary for making decisions regarding oral feeding and treatment proce¬
dures.
SOURCES OF SPEECH PATHOLOGY SERVICES
A referral to a speech and language pathologist should be made if any of

the previously discussed problems is observed by the physician or family.
The speech pathologist is a health professional specialized by academic
preparation, supervised practice, internship experience, national board ex¬
amination, and certification to rehabilitate patients with speech, language,
and swallowing disorders. The private practice of speech pathology tends to
be concentrated in large cities, although these services are beginning to have
broader distribution. Speech pathologists may also be attached to hospitals,
speech and hearing centers, school systems, and departments of education
and health. In some states, licensing boards maintain registries of certified
speech pathologists. Many state speech and hearing associations have annual
directories identifying their members. A national directory of speech pa¬
thologists can be obtained from the American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, Maryland 20852.
References
Aronson AE: Clinical Voice Disorders. 2nd ed. New York, Thieme, Inc, 1985.
Gabbard SA: References for communication disorders related to otitis media. Semin Speech
Lang Hear 3:351, 1982.
Hall P, Tomblin J: A follow-up study of children with articulation and language disorders. J
Speech Hear Disord 43:227-241, 1978.
Logemann J: Evaluation and Treatment of Swallowing Disorders. San Diego, College Hill, Inc,
1983.
McClean J, Snyder-McClean L: A Transactional Approach to Early Language Training.
Columbus, OH, Charles E. Merrill, 1978.
McClowry D. Guilford A. Richardson S: Infant Communication: Development, Assessment,
and Intervention. New York, Grune and Stratton, Inc, 1982.
Milisen R: The incidence of speech disorders. In Travis L (ed): Handbook of Speech Pathology
and Audiology. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970.
Salmon S: Factors that may interfere with acquiring esophageal speech. In Keith R, Darby F:
Laryngectomee Rehabilitation. 2nd ed. San Diego, College Hill Press, Inc, 1986.
Senturia B, Wilson F: Otorhinolaryngologic findings in children with voice deviations. Prelim¬
inary report. Ann Otolaryngol Rhinol Laryngol 22:1027-1042, 1968.
Shames G, Florance C: Disorders of Fluency. In Shames G, Wiig E (eds): Human Communi¬
cation Disorders. Columbus, OH, Charles E. Merrill, 1982.
Silverman E, Zimmer C: Incidence of chronic hoarseness among school-aged children. J Speech
Hear Disord 40:211-215, 1975.
Singer EM, Blom E: An endoscopic technique for restoration of voice after laryngectomy. Ann
Otolaryngol Rhinol Laryngol 90:529-533, 1980.
Wiig E-, Semel E: Language Assessment and Intervention for the Learning Disabled. 2nd ed.
Columbus, OH, Charles E. Merrill, 1984.
NEOPLASMS OF THE
HEAD AND NECK
22
BENIGN NECK MASSES
by James I. Cohen, M.D., Ph.D.
1 ne ncciv -r-. area of the body and therefore swellings in this

area are easily recognized by the patient or detected during routine exami¬
nation. In addition, congenital, inflammatory, and malignant cervical lesions
are relatively common. Thus physicians are often confronted with the
problem of a new lump in the neck. The purpose of this chapter is to develop
a rational approach to the management of the most commonly encountered
neck masses, excluding thyroid disease.
ANATOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
The anatomic boundaries of the neck are as follows: superiorly the lower
border of the mandible, the mastoid tips, and the superior nuchal line;
inferiorly the suprasternal notch, the clavicles, and a horizontal line through
the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra (Fig. 22—1). For The sternocleidomastoid muscle
descriptive purposes, the neck is divided into two halves by the vertical divides each side of the neck
midline, and each side is further divided into an anterior and posterior mt0 two tnaneles‘
triangle by the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Most masses appear in the
anterior cervical triangle.
The surface landmarks of the neck, which are normally palpable, include
the mandible, the submandibular glands, the tail of the parotid glands, the
hyoid bone, the larynx, the thyroid, the trachea, the sternocleidomastoid
muscles, the clavicles, and the cervical vertebrae (Fig. 22—1). These structures
are therefore used to further define a number of regions in the neck (Fig.
22-2), which are important in describing the position of a lump in the neck.
DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
The evaluation of any neck mass begins with a careful history. A logical
series of questions can quickly narrow down the diagnostic possibilities and
streamline subsequent investigations and management (Table 22-1). These
questions and their significance are listed below:
1. What is the age of the patient? Congenital lesions are far more common The older the patient, the more
in younger individuals, whereas malignant lesions are more likely in likely the neck mass is malig-
the elderly. nant-
2. Is the mass growing rapidly? In the absence of signs of infection,
malignant lesions (lymphoma, metastatic cancer) are far more likely to
experience rapid growth than benign ones.
429
430 PART SIX—NEOPLASMS OF THE HEAD AND NECK
FIGURE 22-1. Surface anatomy and anatomic

boundaries of the neck. The normally palpable
structures in the neck are shown.
muscle
Posterior Anterior
cervical cervical
triangle triangle
3. Is there evidence of infection or inflammation? While any neck mass

can become infected, those masses that appear inflamed or infected are
far more likely to be benign.
4. Where in the neck is the mass located? The position of the mass should
be carefully described in the following terms: Is it midline or lateral?
/IGURE 22-2. Anatomic regions of the neck. The

neck is divided into a number of regions that are
useful in describing the location of a neck mass.
22—BENIGN NECK MASSES 431
TABLE 22-1. DIAGNOSIS OF A NECK MASS: PERTINENT QUESTIONS

1. What is. the age of the patient?
2. Is the mass growing rapidly?
3. Is there evidence of infection or inflammation?
4. Where in the neck is the mass located?
5. Is the mass cystic or solid?
6. Is there evidence of infection or malignancy
elsewhere in the head and neck?
If it is lateral, is it in the anterior or posterior triangle (Fig. 22-2)? In

addition, the relation of the mass to any of the normally palpable
structures and regions of the neck defined above (Figs. 22-1 and 22-
2) should be stated. Midline masses are more likely to be related to Whenever a cystic or infected
mass is drained, a portion of
the thyroid, whereas supraclavicular masses are far more likely to
the cyst wall must be sent for
contain metastatic disease. pathological examination.
5. Is the mass cystic or solid? Cystic masses are more often congenital
lesions such as branchial cleft cysts and thyroglossal duct cysts.
6. Is there any evidence of a source of infection or malignancy elsewhere
in the head and neck?
History and physical examination alone may answer all of these questions
and establish a diagnosis, but often more information and tests are required.
However, to avoid unnecessary investigations, each test should be designed
(in advance) to answer a specific question and the answer would be important
to the subsequent management of the mass.
Diagnostic tests for neck masses can be classified into two broad categories:
(1) those that supply information about the physical characteristics or position
of the mass (indirect tests) and (2) those that seek a histologic diagnosis
(direct tests) (Table 22-2). Ultrasonography, CT scans, MRI scans, and
angiography are examples of indirect tests. Ultrasound distinguishes solid
from cystic lesions and should be used in the rare situation in which only
this information is required. Angiography alone is useful to evaluate the
vascularity, the specific blood supply of a mass, or the status of the carotid
artery but gives little information about the physical characteristics of the
mass itself. Alternatively, CT and/or MRI scans can provide information
about both the physical characteristics and the vascularity of the mass and
in addition define its relationship to adjacent structures (Fig. 22-3). Hence,
they are the most useful of the indirect tests and are ordered most commonly.
Direct tests involve histologic examination of tissue from the mass. This Fine needle aspiration (F.N.A.)
tissue can be obtained in one of three different ways: (1) fine needle is the preferred method of diag¬
nosing a neck mass when im¬
aspiration, (2) needle biopsy (Fig. 22-4), or (3) “open” biopsy. A fine mediate excision is not indi¬
needle aspiration involves the insertion of a small needle (23 to 25 gauge) cated.
TABLE 22-2. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS FOR NECK MASSES

Indirect Tests Direct Tests
Ultrasound Fine needle aspiration
CT scans Needle biopsy
MRI scans Open biopsy
Angiography
Thyroid scan
FIGURE 22-3. A, CT scan of a neck mass. A large mass is seen adjacent to the hyoid bone and deep to
the sternocleidomastoid muscle. B, MRI scan of a neck mass. A large mass is seen deep to the
sternocleidomastoid muscle. The carotid artery and internal jugular vein are seen deep to the mass.
Interpretation of a fine needle attached to a syringe into the mass to obtain sufficient cells for cytologic
aspirate requires experience, examination (Fig. 22-4). This procedure is generally well tolerated by
patients and is both safe and accurate in experienced hands. Hence it is the
preferred method at present. By contrast, large-bore needle biopsy methods
(which obtain a “core” of tissue) (Fig. 22-4) and operative “open” biopsy
techniques are more invasive and have a higher risk of “seeding” the
malignancy and complicating future management.
By appropriate work-up most neck masses can be classified into one of
the categories listed in Table 22-3. These will each be discussed separately
below
FIGURE 22-4. Needle biopsy

techniques. The upper needle (25
gauge) attached to a syringe is
used for fine needle aspiration of
neck masses. The larger needle is
used for “core” needle biopsies
of neck masses.
TABLE 22-3. CLASSIFICATION OF NECK MASSES

Congenital Cystic Masses
Thyroglossal duet cyst
Branchial cleft cyst
Cystic hygroma
Solid Masses
Lymph node masses
Infectious disease
Lymphoma
Metastatic disease
Tumors of the neurovascular structures
of the neck
Neurogenic tumors
Carotid body tumors
Thyroid masses
CONGENITAL CYSTIC MASSES OF THE NECK
Branchial Cleft Cysts

Branchial cleft cysts are vestigial remnants of the fetal branchial apparatus Tracts from first branchial cleft
from which all neck structures are derived. Early in development there are cysts drain near the external
five branchial arches and four grooves (between them) present in the embryo êtd^nem.^
(Fig. 22-54'), The rapid growth of the first and second arches and the
epipericardial ridge (the future sternocleidomastoid muscle—Fig. 22-5B)
submerges the third and fourth branchial arches and the second, third, and
fourth branchial clefts into a large cavity known as the cervical sinus of His.
Hence, most branchial cleft cysts (those that develop from the second, third,
and fourth arches) usually present as a bulge or sinus tract opening along
1st ist
FIGURE 22-5. A, Development of

the branchial arch apparatus. Early in
development, there are five branchial
arches and their associated clefts vis¬
ible on the external surface of the
embryo. B, Development of the bran¬
chial arch apparatus. As the embryo
matures, the epipericardial ridge sub¬
merges the arches caudal to the sec¬
ond arch, thereby forming the cer¬
vical sinus of His.
Internal
Foramen
carotid External
FIGURE 22—6. Branchial arch and thyroglossal duct vestiges.

Cystic swellings may appear anywhere along the course of
the development of these structures.
the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The internal tract or

opening of such a cy$t is situated at the embryologic derivative of the
corresponding pharyngeal groove, i.e., the tonsil (second arch) or pyriform
sinus (third and fourth arches). The position of the cyst tract is also
determined by the embryologic relationship of its arch to the derivatives of
the arches cephalad and caudal to it.
A branchial cleft cyst usually presents between the ages of 20 and 30 as a
smooth, painless, slowly enlarging mass in the lateral neck. Infection of the
cyst may be the reason for the first symptoms. Treatment consists of complete
surgical removal of the cyst and tract. If infection or inflammation is present,
this should be treated and allowed to settle prior to removal. Second
branchial cleft cysts are by far the most common type. The tract of these
cysts passes between the internal and external carotid arteries, above the
hypoglossal nerve, and enters the pharynx in the tonsillar fossa (Fig. 22-6).
Thyroglossal Duct Cysts

A midline cyst that elevates with The thyroid gland is first seen as a ventral midline diverticulum of the
swallowing is most likely a thy¬
floor of the pharynx just caudal to the junction of the first and second
roglossal duct cyst.
branchial arches at the site known as the foramen cecum. The developing
thyroid migrates caudally along a tract that passes ventral to the body of the
hyoid, then curves underneath it and downward to the level of the cricoid
cartilage (Fig. 22-7). Thyroglossal duct cysts are vestigial remnants of this
tract. Hence, they are usually midline cysts (Fig. 22-8) found anywhere
between the base of the tongue and superior border of the thyroid gland.
Resection of the midportion of The treatment of a thyroglossal duct cyst consists of complete excision of
the hyoid bone reduces the re¬
both the cyst and the entire thyroglossal duct tract up to the foramen cecum
currence rate of thyroglossal
duct cysts. at the base of the tongue. The intimate association of the tract with hyoid
bone mandates simultaneous removal of the central portion of the hyoid to
Papillary carcinoma has been ensure complete removal of the tract (Sistrunk procedure). Failure to do
reported within thyroglossal
this is the most common cause of recurrence. It is preferable to treat infected
duct cysts.
cysts with antibiotics until the inflammation subsides before excision.
22 —BENIGN NECK MASSES 435
Foramen caecum
area
FIGURE 22—7. Course of the thyroglossal duct

tract. The thyroglossal duct tract is intimately
associated with the body of the hyoid bone.
Therefore, this structure must be removed to
ensure complete removal of the tract.
Cystic Hygroma
A cystic hygroma is a lymphangioma that arises from vestigial lymph
channels in the neck. It may present as a relatively simple thin-walled cyst
in the floor of the mouth or may involve all the tissues from the floor of the
FIGURE 22—8. Typical appearance of a thy¬

roglossal duct cyst. These cysts usually
present as midline structures in the region
of the hyoid bone.
mouth down to the mediastinum. However, approximately 80 per cent of

the time there is only a painless cyst in the posterior cervical triangle or in
the supraclavicular area. The majority of these tumors are present by the
age of two. Sudden increases in size occasionally occur as a result of upper
respiratory infections, infection of the mass itself, or hemorrhage into the
tissues. If the mass becomes sufficiently large, it can cause compression of
the trachea or difficulty in swallowing.
Treatment usually consists of complete surgical excision. However, be¬
cause spontaneous regression has been known to occur, in the absence of
pressure symptoms (obstruction of the airway or interference with swallow¬
ing) or gross deformity, these lesions should be treated expectantly at first.
Complete surgical excision of a If regression fails to occur, then surgery should be undertaken. Excision can
cystic hygroma can be difficult
be difficult because of the numerous satellite extensions that often surround
because of the numerous exten¬
sions of the cyst. the main mass and because of the association of the tumor with vital
structures such as the cranial nerves. Preservation of these nerves is recom¬
mended, and this often necessitates dissection through the mass itself. Hence,
recurrences are common and staged procedures for complete excision are
often necessary.
EVALUATION OF CERVICAL LYMPH NODES
Enlarged lymph nodes are by far the most common type of neck masses
encountered. The cervical lymphatic system consists of interconnected groups
or “chains” of nodes which parallel the major neurovascular structures in
the head and neck (Fig. 22-9). The skin and mucosal surfaces of the head
and neck all have specific and predictable nodes associated with them. Thus,
the location of an enlarged lymph node is an important clue to the position
of the primary disease.
There are general guidelines that may be helpful in the assessment of a
FIGURE 22-9. The cervical lymphatics. The lymph nodes of the

neck are connected in a systematic and orderly fashion. The
flow of lymph is believed to be unidirectional (arrows).
Transverse or
Supraclavicular chain
neck node. Tender neck nodes are more likely to be infectious in origin, Consider an enlarging cervical
whereas painless nodes are more likely to contain metastatic disease. Multiple lymph node in an individual over
60 years of age as malignant
regions of enlarged lymph nodes usually represent systemic disease such as until proven otherwise.
lymphomas, tuberculosis, or infectious mononucleosis, whereas solitary
nodes are more often metastatic. Low neck nodes are more likely to contain
metastatic disease from a source other than the head and neck, whereas
upper cervical nodes are more likely secondary to a head and neck source.
Open biopsy is the last step in the work-up of a neck mass. Prior to biopsy ,
direct examination of the nasopharynx, larynx, hypopharynx, and esophagus
under anesthesia should be performed to rule out small lesions that are
difficult to see with the patient awake. Only when all of these examinations
fail to reveal a source of disease should an open biopsy be considered.
Where possible, node biopsies should be excisional without violation of the
mass itself. Vital structures must be preserved until a definitive diagnosis of When a lymph node is excised
cancer has been established. Skin incisions should be oriented in such a for diagnosis, the incision
should be planned for possible
manner that they can be extended for the performance of a neck dissection, later incorporation for a radical
should it prove necessary. neck dissection.
Nodal Enlargement Associated with Acute Infections

Many types of infectious diseases can cause lymph node enlargement, but
most often the source is an acute infection of the mouth or pharynx. In this
situation, the enlarged nodes are usually just posterior and inferior to the
angle of the mandible. The patient usually has signs of acute infection such
as fever or malaise and the localizing symptom of a sore mouth or throat.
Treatment should be directed toward the primary disease.
Chronic Infections
Chronic infections that involve cervical lymph nodes include tuberculosis,
fungal disease, syphilis, sarcoidosis, cat scratch fever, and AIDS (acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome). Owing to their chronicity, these lymph node
infections are easily confused with neoplasms, especially the lymphomas.
While biopsy is occasionally necessary for diagnosis, skin tests and serologic
study are often more useful. Treatment of all of these conditions is primarily
medical, with surgery reserved for residual sinus tracts or other complica¬
tions.
Malignant Lymphoma
Cervical adenopathy is one of the most common presenting symptoms in
patients with Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. The nodes them¬
selves tend to be softer, smoother, more elastic, and more mobile than
nodes with metastatic carcinoma. Rapid growth is not unusual, particularly
with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Extranodal sites, particularly Waldeyer’s
ring, are often involved in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and enlargement in Lymphoma can present as rapid
giywth of any area of Waldeyer’s
this area may provide a clue to the diagnosis of this disease. Complete ring.
diagnosis requires an excisional biopsy of an intact lymph node. Fine needle
aspiration alone is not enough. Treatment involves the use of radiation
therapy and/or chemotherapy depending upon the pathologic type and
clinical stage of the disease.
METASTATIC DISEASE
Metastatic malignancy should always be suspected when a firm, nontender

enlarging mass is encountered in an older individual. In the great majority
of cases the primary malignancy is located above the clavicle. This is
particularly true for masses in the upper two thirds of the neck.
Metastatic Squamous Cell Carcinoma

The most common cancer that metastasizes to the cervical lymph nodes is
squamous cell cancer from the skin of the face, scalp, lips, tongue, oral
mucosa, nasopharynx, paranasal sinuses, oropharynx, hypopharynx, or lar¬
ynx. A complete examination of these areas reveals the primary lesion in
the majority of cases. If it can be discovered prior to biopsy of the metastatic
site, then appropriate treatment can be planned to encompass both the
primary and metastatic disease. By contrast, hurried neck biopsy without
this search for a primary may contaminate the neck with cancer cells and
complicate or delay treatment of the primary. Such factors can diminish the
When a thorough search for the chances of cure.
source of the primary malig¬ The location of the node can be helpful in the diagnosis. For example,
nancy is made, and none is
found, the metastatic cervical isolated supraclavicular nodes with squamous cell cancer in them usually
node is referred to as an "un¬ represent metastatic disease from the lung. By contrast, squamous cell cancer
known primary" or "occult pri¬ in posterior triangle nodes is usually metastatic disease from the nasopharynx.
mary. " The primary site is most
likely in the base of the tongue, Occasionally, however, despite the extensive search, no primary source of a
nasopharynx, or hypopharynx. A metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of a cervical lymph node is found. In
biopsy of these sites at the time this situation, a neck dissection that encompasses the involved nodes should
of endoscopy, even when no
primary tumor is apparent, is be done. Adjunctive postoperative radiation therapy should then be given
called a "directed biopsy." to the neck and upper aerodigestive tract in most cases.
Metastatic Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinoma in a cervical node most frequently represents metastatic
disease from the thyroid gland, salivary glands, or gastrointestinal tract.
Thus, this situation also requires a thorough search for the primary tumor
through endoscopic and radiologic study of the bronchopulmonary, gastroin¬
testinal, and genitourinary tracts, salivary glands, and thyroid. In women,
breast and pelvic tumors must also be considered.
Carotid Body Tumors

Carotid body tumors are one of a group of tumors known as chemodec-
tomas which are derived from the chemoreceptive tissue of the head and
neck. This specific tumor presents as a firm, round, slowly growing mass at
the carotid bifurcation. The diagnosis can be made by CT scan and/or
arteriography, which will demonstrate a characteristic highly vascular mass
at the carotid bifurcation (Fig. 22-10). Biopsy should thus be avoided. These
tumors are seldom malignant but should be removed in younger, healthier
individuals to avoid subsequent growth and pressure symptoms from the
mass. By contrast, in the absence of symptoms, the risks of bleeding at
operation (due to this tumor’s intimate association with the internal and
external carotid arteries) and the tendency for slow growth allow expectant
treatment in older or debilitated individuals.
FIGURE 22-10. Typical angiographic appearance

of a carotid body tumor. The vascular blush seen
here at the carotid bifurcation at the time of
angiography is characteristic of a carotid body
tumor.
Neurogenic Tumors
The large number of nerves in the head and neck make the area susceptible
to tumors of neurogenic origin. Neurilemmomas (schwannomas) and neu¬
rofibromas, which are the most common types seen, are quite similar. Both
arise from the neurilemmal (Schwann) cell of myelinated nerves and both
usually present as painless, slowly growing masses in the lateral neck.
Differentiation between these two types of tumor can be accomplished only
by histologic examination. Owing to their potential for malignant degener- Paralysis of the involved nerve
ation and their slow but progressive growth, surgical resection is indicated, usually nsults when a neuroma
This, however, may involve resection of the involved nerve(s), particularly
with neurofibromas, which tend to be more invasive and less encapsulated
than neurilemmomas.
THYROID MASSES
Thyroid disease is a relatively common cause of a lump in the neck.

Although the diagnostic approach to the thyroid is similar to that of other
neck masses, there are enough unique features to warrant a separate
discussion here. The specific features of each type of thyroid disease and the
controversies surrounding the management of the various malignant thyroid
conditions will not be discussed.
Diagnostic Approach
Unless there is a concern that thyroid cancer may be present, thyroid
swellings are often treated by medical therapy rather than surgery. Hence,
it becomes extremely important when considering any thyroid mass to
identify those thyroid lumps that might contain malignancy. This discussion
will focus on this issue.
For any individual with a thyroid swelling, clues to the presence of
malignancy are initially sought in the history and physical examination. The
history should specifically ask about prior radiation exposure. Even though
thyroid cancer is relatively uncommon in the general population (1 per cent
of all cancers), it is more common in a subset of patients who were treated

with radiation therapy for benign disease such as acne, tonsillar and adenoid
hypertrophy, and thymic enlargement, as was the practice in some areas in
the past. Hence, these people require frequent thyroid examinations, even
in the absence of any signs or symptoms, and thyroid surgery is probably
indicated for any detectable thyroid abnormality.
A normal thyroid gland can be difficult to palpate. Thus, easily palpable
masses in the midline compartment of the neck (between the sternocleido¬
mastoid muscles and overlying the larynx and upper trachea) generally
represent thyroid abnormalities, particularly if they move up and down with
swallowing. Firm, discrete nodules are more likely to contain malignancy
than diffuse or cystic swellings. Abnormalities of vocal cord function or the
presence of palpable lymph nodes also suggest malignancy.
Thyroid function tests (T3, T4, and TSH) and a thyroid scan are done in
almost all patients with a detectable thyroid abnormality. In the latter test,
the patient is given a radioactive substance (1-131, 1-123, Tc-99m) which is
then taken up and concentrated by the thyroid gland so that it can be
imaged. The scan can help determine if the function of the gland is normal
(Fig. 22-11) or increased either diffusely or locally. If a discrete nodule is
present, the scan can help determine whether it is functional (“hot” and not
likely malignant) (Fig. 22-12A) or nonfunctional (“cold”—a higher incidence
of malignancy) (Fig. 22-1215).
Ultrasound and CT scans can also be helpful in determining the character
Fine needle aspiration plays an (cystic or solid), number (single or multiple), and location of thyroid masses
important role in the diagnosis
but should be used only if this information will not be made available
of thyroid masses
masses
through other more routine tests such as thyroid scans or fine needle
aspiration.
Diffuse Thyroid Disease

Diffuse thyroid enlargement may be due to nodular goiter, thyroiditis
(inflammatory lesions of the thyroid), acute hyperthyroidism, Graves’ dis-
FIGURE 22—11. A normal thyroid

v.
scan. The two lobes of the thyroid
'4
and isthmus are well seen.
4 4
#.*-
+ i
L+- CJaV
R.VC
at i ""’ n
4
* ”
-S^Motc^
4^0 iV
FIGURE 22-12. A, A thyroid scan with a “hot"—hyperfunctioning—area that corresponds clinically to the
position of a palpable thyroid nodule. B, A thyroid scan with a “cold” thyroid nodule. There is decreased
uptake seen in the left inferior pole of the thyroid which corresponds clinically with the position of the
palpable nodule in the thyroid.
ease, or advanced carcinoma. Routine thyroid function tests, history and

physical examination, and thyroid scans can usually help distinguish between
these types of disease. For example, tenderness or signs and symptoms of
infection are important diagnostic clues to the presence of thyroiditis. By
contrast, a positive test for antithyroglobulin antibodies suggests the diagnosis
of autoimmune thyroiditis. Fine needle aspiration (see below) may also be

useful.
Treatment of most of the above conditions is medical and involves
symptomatic measures for pain and suppression of normal thyroid function-
by the administration of exogenous thyroid hormone. Surgery is indicated
only if a malignancy is suspected or if medical therapy fails and the enlarged
gland is causing pressure symptoms or cosmetic problems.
Thyroid Nodules
If physical examination and thyroid scans suggest a discrete thyroid nodule,
then the diagnostic approaches somewhat different from that used for diffuse
disease. Most nodules are benign. However, those that are truly solitary,
firm or hard, growing rapidly, or nonfunctional (“cold”) on scan are more
likely to be malignant. Similarly, if a nodule appears in either a young male,
a pregnant female, or an individual with a history of irradiation or family
history of thyroid cancer, the chances of malignancy are higher.
Fine needle aspiration of thyroid nodules properly done or interpreted
has proven helpful in determining the presence or absence of malignancy
within a thyroid nodule. An aspiration that is positive or suspicious for the
presence of malignancy suggests the need for surgery, whereas those nodules
that are histologically benign and disappear with aspiration can often be
treated with thyroid suppression and observation.
Hyperfunctioning (“hot”) nodules and those in which the suspicion of
malignancy is extremely low can be treated with a trial of thyroid hormone
replacement therapy to see whether this will make the mass disappear.
However, if this is ineffective or signs of malignancy appear, then surgery is
necessary.
Surgery for thyroid nodules involves an excisional biopsy consisting of
total lobectomy and not enucleation alone. More extensive surgery is
performed if the frozen section of the resected specimen reveals carcinoma.
References
Allard RHB: The thyroglossal duct cyst. Head Neck Surg 5:134-146, 1982.
Bonnadonna G, Molinari R, Banfi A: Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma presenting in
the head and neck. In Suen JY, Myers EN (eds): Cancer of the Head and Neck. New York,
Churchill Livingston, 1981, pp 699-717.
Bumstead RM: Thyroid disease: A guide for head and neck surgeons. Ann Otol Rhinol
Laryngol 89(Suppl):72, 1980.
Chandler JR, Mitchell B: Branchial cleft cysts, sinuses and fistulas. Otolaryngol Clin North Am
14:175-186, 1981.
Hamaker RC, Singer MI, DeRossi RV, Shockley WW: Role of needle biopsy in thyroid
nodules. Arch Otolaryngol 109:225-228, 1983.
Holt GR, Mattox DE, Gates GA: Decision Making in Otolaryngology. St. Louis, CV Mosby
Co, 1984, pp 40-41, 88-89, 114-115.
Knight PK, Mulne AF, Vassay LE: When is lymph node biopsy indicated in children with
enlarged peripheral nodes? Pediatrics 69:391-396, 1982.
Lai KK, Stottmeier KD, Sherman IH, McCabe WR: Mycobacterial cervical lympadenopathy.
JAMA 251:1286-1288, 1984.
Lindberg R: Distribution of cervical lymph node metastases from squamous cell carcinoma of
the upper respiratory and digestive tracts. Cancer 28:1446-1449, 1972.
Spiro RHM, DeRose G, Strong EW: Cervical node metastasis of occult origin. Am J Surg
146:441-446, 1983.
Stal S, Hamilton S, Spira M: Hemangiomas, lymphangiomas, and vascular malformations of
the head and neck. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 19:769-796, 1986.
23
MALIGNANT TUMORS
OF THE HEAD AND NECK
Present concepts in the management of patients with head and neck

malignancies result from advances in the fields of surgery, radiation therapy,
chemotherapy, and immunology. In many circumstances, a combination of
these different modalities may prove to be the most effective treatment for
the patient with advanced cancer. In the 100 years since the first laryngectomy
by Billroth, extensive progress has been made in treatment of head and neck
malignancy. The development of the classic radical neck dissection by Crile
in the early 1900’s extended the surgical field to include resection of regional
cervical metastases. Recent further understanding of the metastatic potential
of head and neck cancer by Drs. Bocca in Italy and Byers, Schuller, Skolnik,
Medina, and several others has led to modifications of the standard neck
dissection as described by Dr. Crile. It has been possible to preserve the
accessory (XI) cranial nerve, jugular vein, and sternocleidomastoid muscle
in selected patients. Other major advances, including preservation of the
mandible by methods described by Hamaker, Cunningham, and others, have
led to both better cosmetic and better functional results for the patient with
advanced malignancy. Endotracheal anesthesia, safe blood transfusions,
improved diagnostic tests (particularly the enhanced CT scan), and periop¬
erative antibiotics have added to the effective surgical resection of cancers.
Simultaneously, advances in radiation therapy, such as cobalt-60 therapy and
interstitial iridium radiation, have led to more effective treatment with
greater protection of the skin, mucosa, and mandible. New surgical tech¬
niques now permit reconstructive procedures using regional rotational flaps,
particularly the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap, free flap jejunal inter¬
position with microvascular anastomoses, and more extensive procedures for
the resection of tumors extending to the skull base. Chemotherapy has been
employed investigationally in the initial treatment of head and neck cancer.
Protocols utilizing chemotherapy preoperatively and immediately postoper-
atively in the adjuvant setting appear to be effective. This effect has been
primarily in the reduction of the mass of both the primary and nodal
metastases. The question remains, however, as to whether this size reduction
and initial effectiveness of chemotherapy in producing a partial or complete
response will ultimately affect survival.
443
The overall frequency of head and neck malignancy is rising. Currently in

the metropolitan Midwest, malignant tumors of the larynx, pharynx, and
oral cavity rank sixth in overall incidence, preceded only by cancer of the
breast, colon and rectum, lung, uterus and cervix, and prostate and bladder.
Of particular concern is the increased incidence of smoking in women. The
ratio of carcinoma of the larynx to the lung has had a continuous relationship
of approximately one to ten. Thus, with a rise of lung cancer in women, it
is anticipated that there will be a rise in the incidence of laryngeal carcinoma.
The efforts of all physicians who deal with malignant tumors are directed
toward earlier recognition, increased survival rate, prevention of distant
metastases, and the early recognition of recurrent local and regional disease.
Patients surviving an upper air¬ In the case of head and neck cancer, the incidence of second primary
way cancer have a 20 per cent malignancies ranges up to 20 per cent if the patient survives five years after
chance of developing a second
primary malignancy within the treatment of the original tumor. There is also up to a 10 per cent incidence
next 5 years. of second malignancies diagnosed at the time of recognition of the original
tumor. Thus a complete physical and endoscopic evaluation of any patient
with head and neck cancer is required to make certain that a second tumor
does not coexist.
85 per cent of cancers of the A unique circumstance exists in head and neck malignancy: in over 85 per
head and neck can be detected cent of patients, the tumor can be seen or palpated by thorough head and
by a complete clinical exam.
neck examination. When patients seek early medical attention for their
symptoms or when examination of the head and neck is included as part of
a routine physical examination, an early tumor can be recognized in the
office. A small lesion may have a cure rate as high as 90 per cent and be
treated by a limited surgical resection or radiation directed to a smaller field.
The use of the fiberoptic laryngoscope for examining the nasopharynx,
pharynx, and larynx has added a new dimension to early detection of small
tumors. Unfortunately, there are still factors that exclude early recognition
and diagnosis. These include the following:
1. Failure of the patient to seek medical advice early

2. Failure of the physician to obtain an immediate biopsy of a suspicious
lesion
3. Similarity of presenting signs and symptoms to more common benign
disease
4. Failure to thoroughly examine the upper respiratory and digestive tracts
for the source of the primary tumor before biopsy or excision of a neck
mass
5. Misdiagnosis made when the presenting symptom misdirects the exami¬
nation (e.g., otalgia in the case of small tongue, tonsil, or laryngeal
tumor)
In spite of the lay media’s constant urging of the public to seek medical
Hoarseness is the earliest sign care early, it is not infrequent for a patient to present with laryngeal
of laryngeal cancer.
obstruction from a large cancer rather than the early symptom of hoarseness.
Similarly, a patient with a pharyngeal tumor may ignore the early symptoms
of pain and dysphagia only to present when pharyngeal or esophageal
obstruction has developed. Thus, a great advancement in the control of head
Persistent hoarseness requires and neck malignancy would be education of the public to obtain early
a mirror or fiberoptic exam of
examination. (The physician is obligated to ensure a thorough evaluation of
the larynx.
the patient’s symptoms, including indirect mirror or flexible fiberoptic scope
examination—see Chapter 1.)
23—MALIGNANT TUMORS OF THE HEAD AND NECK 445
ETIOLOGY
Squamous cell carcinoma comprises 90 per cent of head and neck malig¬ Squamous cell carcinoma com¬
nancies. Adenocarcinoma, which usually develops in a major or minor prises 90 per cent ot head and
neck cancer.
salivary gland, is the next most common type. All other pathologic varieties
comprise less than 1 per cent. Tobacco is the etiologic agent most frequently
cited in development of squamous cell carcinoma. However, heavy alcohol
ingestion is often associated with heavy smoking and is incriminated as an
etiologic factor, particularly in tumors of the oral cavity, tonsillar area, and
piriform sinus. Poor oral hygiene has also been implicated. On rare occasions,
an elderly individual without any of these habits develops floor of mouth or
tongue cancer without explanation. While most head and neck malignancy
develops in the 50- to 70-year-old age group, carcinoma of the oral cavity
has been recognized in individuals in their twenties. Alcohol and tobacco
use does not seem to be implicated in many of these younger individuals.
A viral etiology, specifically the Epstein-Barr virus, has been associated Epstein-Barr virus has been as¬
with the development of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Cantonese Chinese sociated with nasopharyngeal
carcinoma.
have a high incidence of nasopharyngeal cancer, suggesting a racial predilec¬
tion. Although the incidence is extremely high in Chinese living in their
homeland, the incidence remains high in Chinese born and raised in the
United States. Adenocarcinoma arising high in the nasal vault and ethmoid
sinuses is prevalent among hardwood furniture workers in certain areas of
Great Britain, suggesting environmental factors. Workers exposed to chro¬
mium and nickel have also been demonstrated to have a higher incidence of
paranasal sinus malignancies (Table 23-1).
Patients with head and neck malignancies are prone to develop a second
tumor at an incidence rate of approximately 4 per cent per year for the first
five years after discovery of the original cancer. Most of these second primary
malignancies are in the upper aerodigestive tract. A second primary tumor
in the lung is particularly common. Thus, the patient ostensibly cured of his
original cancer should remain under constant surveillance for the rest of his
life, not only for the development of metastases from that tumor but also
for detection of a new malignancy.
PATHOLOGY
Squamous cell carcinoma develops as an ulcerative lesion with necrotic Squamous cell carcinoma is far
edges, usually surrounded by some inflammatory response. While the tumor more common in men. Adeno¬
carcinoma occurs equally in
may remain an ulcerative lesion, it is often surrounded by areas of leuko¬
men and women.
plakia of the premalignant type. The tumor initially spreads along the
mucosal surface, eventually extending into the underlying soft tissue. Path¬
ologically, these tumors are graded on the basis of histologic appearance
related to the clinical course. Simply put, all classifications range from well-
TABLE 23-1. AGENTS ASSOCIATED WITH CARCINOMA OF THE

NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES
Oak, beechwood woodworkers
Radium dial painters
Chromium manufacturers
Nickel manufacturers
Isopropyl oil manufacturers
differentiated (low malignancy) to poorly differentiated (highly malignant).

Tumors that are less well differentiated tend to respond well to radiation
therapy; however, their long-term prognosis may be poorer than that for
well-differentiated types.
Adenocarcinoma occurs in the major or minor salivary glands located in
the mucosal lining or in the immediately submucosal areas. Classification of
common tumors of salivary glands include:
1. Acinic cell carcinoma

2. Adenoid cystic carcinoma (cylindroma)
3. Adenocarcinoma
4. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma (high and low grade)
5. Carcinoma arising in pleomorphic adenoma
6. Malignant mixed tumor
Adenocarcinoma may occur at Adenocarcinoma appears to occur equally in men and women. It may
any age. occur in a younger age group than the more common squamous cell
carcinoma. It may metastasize by both lymphogenous and hematogenous
routes. The adenoid cystic carcinoma is a particular type of salivary gland
malignancy that has a high propensity to spread along the neural sheaths. It
is particularly known to recur after a disease-free interval of five to ten
years. As opposed to squamous cell carcinomas, which are usually ulcerative,
adenocarcinoma is generally submucosal, presenting as a smooth, firm,
rounded mass that becomes ulcerated only late in the course of the disease
or after biopsy. There appears to be no correlation with tobacco or alcohol
use. Adenocarcinoma can occur in virtually any of the places squamous cell
carcinoma occurs, but it occurs more commonly in the major salivary glands,
at the junction of the hard and soft palate, or in the paranasal sinuses or
mobile tongue.
Malignant lymphoma (Table 23-2) may present as a primary malignancy
in the head and neck. Lymphomas are usually classified according to whether
they are Hodgkin’s disease or a non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. The latter group
is then divided into reticulum cell sarcoma and lymphosarcoma. The 1965
Conference on Hodgkin’s disease in Rye, New York, further classified
Hodgkin’s lymphoma into four types:
1. Lymphocyte predominance
2. Nodular sclerosis
3. Mixed cellularity
4. Lymphocyte depletion
TABLE 23-2. STAGING CLASSIFICATION OF LYMPHOMA

Stage I Involvement of a single lymph node region (I) or of a single extralymphatic organ
or site (IE)
Stage II Involvement of two or more lymph node regions (number to be stated) on the same
side of the diaphragm (II) or localized involvement of an extralymphatic organ or
site of one or more lymph node regions on the same side of the diaphragm (IIE)
Stage III Involvement of lymph node regions on both sides of the diaphragm (III), which may
also be accompanied by localized involvement of extralymphatic organ or site
(IIIE), by involvement of the spleen (IIIS), or both (111F , s)
Stage IV Diffuse or disseminated involvement of one or more extralymphatic organs or
tissues with or without associated lymph node enlargement
Each stage is subdivided into “A” and “B" categories. “B" for those with defined general
symptoms and “A" for those without.
From Beahrs OH. Myers MH (eds): Manual for Staging of Cancer. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott
Co, 1983, p 228.
23 —MALIGNANT TUMORS OF THE HEAD AND NECK 447
Lymphocyte-predominant and nodular sclerosing types have been reported

to have the most favorable five-year survival rates. The nodular sclerosing
type is commonly localized to the'cervical lymph nodes and upper medias¬
tinum. In addition to classifying Hodgkin’s lymphoma into these types,
further clinical, radiologic, and surgical evaluation permits dividing the
disease into stages I through IV, depending upon the extent of the disease.
Categorization of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is more complex and is
dependent upon both morphologic and immunologic characteristics. Three
systems have developed. There is that of Rappaport, which divides the
tumors into well-differentiated lymphocytic, poorly differentiated lympho¬
cytic, mixed histiocytic-lymphocytic, and diffuse poorly differentiated. The
Lukes-Collins system is more dependent on immunologic identification. In
the European countries the Lennert classification is used.
Lymphomas may arise in any of the primary lymphatic regions of the head
and neck. Thus, they are most commonly found along the anterior cervical
and deep jugular nodes or arising in Waldeyer’s ring. In addition, lymphoma
may be found as a primary tumor within the parotid or submandibular gland
as well as within the thyroid gland. The unilaterally hypertrophied tonsil, A unilateral enlarged tonsil in
with or without pain, in an adult should be suspected of harboring a an adult is suspicious of lym¬
phoma.
malignancy, possibly a lymphoma, especially if accompanied by involvement
of several cervical nodes. If extranodal lymphoma is suspected, for example,
in the palatine tonsil, then the entire tonsil should be submitted for pathologic
examination. Similarly, when a lymph node biopsy is necessary, the entire
node, without destruction of its architecture, should be submitted for
pathologic examination, and the pathologist should be informed at the time
that a diagnosis of lymphoma is being considered. This allows for “Touch”
preparations to be made. Next the patient’s disease process is staged to help
in determining the treatment plan. This may require lymphangiography as
well as special CT scanning, exploratory laparotomy, splenectomy, or me¬
diastinoscopy. Treatment depends on the stage of the disease and usually
consists of irradiation, chemotherapy, or a combination of both.
Connective tissue malignant tumors or sarcomas are not common in the
head and neck. Among those most frequently seen are rhabdomyosarcoma Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most
in children, fibrosarcoma, liposarcoma, osteogenic sarcoma (again usually in common sarcoma in children. It
usually occurs in the posterior
young adults), and chondrosarcoma. The most common sarcoma, however, nares, ethmoid, orbital, and na¬
is malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH). Although it is most common in sopharyngeal regions.
the elderly and extremely rare in children, it can occur at any age. It can be
difficult pathologically to differentiate from other entities such as fibrosar¬ Malignant fibrous histocytoma
coma. It can occur in the soft tissues of the neck or involving bone of the (MFH) is the most common sar¬
coma of the head and neck in
maxilla or mandible. It has been associated with previous radiation therapy. adults.
An unusual circumstance occurs when this tumor develops in a patient who
has undergone previous radiation therapy for bilateral retinoblastoma. How¬
ever, the tumor may occur within or outside of the previous radiation port.
Treatment of MFH is wide surgical resection. Postoperative radiation
therapy has been shown to be of value when malignant fibrous histiocytoma
occurs in the extremities but has not proven to be effective for head and
neck MFH. Chemotherapy regimens based on doxorubicin (Adriamycin) or
high-dose methotrexate are currently being used in a prospective evaluation.
MFH has a tendency to recur locally and to metastasize to the lung. Survival
is better with isolated soft tissue lesions than when it occurs in the maxilla.
Rhabdomyosarcoma, usually of the embryonic form, is the most common
form of sarcoma in children. It generally occurs near the orbit, nasopharynx,

and paranasal sinuses. Diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy. A thorough search
for distal metastases is made before initiating treatment. Treatment consists
of a combination of surgical resection (when not considered mutilating),
radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. A triple-drug regimen consisting of
cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), vincristine, and actinomycin has been used
(VAC). Doxorubicin is often included in the treatment of rhabdomyosar¬
coma as well as other sarcomas.
METASTATIC TUMORS
Metastases to the head and neck from primary tumors elsewhere can
occur. Hypernephroma is the most common tumor to metastasize to the
paranasal sinuses. A mass in the supraclavicular fossa may represent metas¬
tases from a primary tumor of the lung, kidney (renal cell carcinoma),
bladder, prostate, breast, or gastrointestinal tract. Tumors that tend to
metastasize to bone can present in the mandible, maxilla, sphenoid sinus, or
petrous portion of the temporal bone. Even metastatic carcinoma to the
tonsil has been described.
MALIGNANT TUMORS OF THE SKIN
Basal Cell Carcinoma

Basal cell carcinoma occurs in Basal cell carcinoma is the most common skin malignancy and arises in
areas of high sun exposure,
areas with a high exposure to sunlight. Thus, the cheek, nose, forehead, and
ear are common sites. Basal cell carcinoma carries an excellent prognosis,
since it has a metastatic rate of less than 1 per cent. However, if untreated,
it can cause extensive local destruction. Basal cell carcinoma of the medial
canthal area has been noted to invade the orbit, ethmoid sinus, and brain.
Preauricular basal cell carcinoma can extend along the cartilage of the ear
canal or into the superficial parotid gland. Treatment consists of local
resection with sufficient margins. Mohs’ pathologically controlled excision is
commonly practiced for small and even complex tumors. The technique
depends on immediate multiple-section pathologic evaluation of all margins,
including the depth.
Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma likewise arises in areas associated witn high
sunlight exposure; the pinna and lower lip are the most common sites.
Squamous cell carcinoma, however, can metastasize regionally and distally.
These tumors must be initially excised with an adequate margin.
Malignant Melanoma
Melanoma is classified according to size, location, and depth of invasion
determined histologically (Table 23-3).
TABLE 23-3. CLASSIFICATION OF MELANOMA

Clark's Classification
Level I (epidermis to epidermal-dermal interface). Lesions involving only the epidermis
have been designated level I. These lesions are considered to be "atypical melanocytic
hyperplasia" and are not included in the staging of malignant melanoma, for they do not
represent a malignant lesion.
Level II (papillary dermis). Invasion of the papillary dermis; does not reach the papillary-
reticular dermal interface.
Level III (papillary-reticular dermis interface). Invasion involves the full thickness of, (ills,
and expands the papillary dermis; it abuts upon but does not penetrate the reticular
dermis.
Level IV (reticular dermis). Invasion occurs into the reticular dermis but not into the
subcutaneous tissue.
Level V (subcutaneous tissue). Invasion occurs through the reticular dermis into the
subcutaneous tissues.
Breslow's Classification by Depth
1. 0.75 mm or less
2. 0.76 mm to 1.50 mm
3. 1.51 mm to 4.0 mm
4. More than 4.0 mm
From Beahrs OH, Mvers MH (cds): Manual for Staging of Cancer. 2nd ed. Philadelphia. JB Lippincott
Co. 1983. p 118.
Prognosis is related to depth of invasion, location, and size. Patients with

Clark’s level I or Breslow’s thinnest classification have a relatively good
prognosis, whereas patients with Clark’s level V have a remarkably poor
prognosis regardless of treatment.
Malignant melanoma may arise on mucous membranes of the nose or Malignant melanoma can arise
throat. The most common sites are intranasal or on the hard palate or buccal on the mucous membrane of the
mucosa. Preferred treatment is wide surgical resection. Unfortunately, by n0Se'
the time of diagnosis the tumor has often spread beyond the resectable area.
The alternative methods of treatment include radiation therapy, chemother¬
apy, and, more recently, immunotherapy. Occasionally, a malignant mela¬
noma may be found in a cervical lymph node when no apparent primary
tumor is evident. A history of a skin lesion should be sought. Thorough
head and neck examination, particularly of the scalp, nose, oral cavities,
and sinuses, should be performed. Ophthalmologic examination is required.
If a thorough physical examination and radiographic studies reveal no
evidence of other areas of metastases, then radical neck dissection on the
involved side should be considered.
EVALUATION Of PATIENTS WITH HEAD AND NECK

CANCER
Head and neck malignancies may occur in all age groups. However, the
age of the patient is useful in arousing suspicion of a particular type of
tumor. For example, rhabdomyosarcoma and lymphoma would be more
likely in children, whereas adenocarcinoma occurs in all ages. In the 40- to Squamous cell carcinoma:
70-year age range, tumors are most frequently the squamous cell type, with male, age BO, heavy smoker,
drinking history.
a high male predominance, and the history usually elicits heavy smoking or
alcohol ingestion. Hoarseness or chronic sore throat, especially of more than

three weeks’ duration, requires a complete examination. The evaluation of
cervical lymph nodes is discussed in Chapter 22.
Upon completion of a careful history, a thorough head and neck exami¬
nation, including use of mirrors, should be performed. A suspicious ulcera¬
tive lesion in the oral cavity can be biopsied in the clinic following application
of topical 4 per cent cocaine or needle infiltration of a local anesthetic. The
needle track should not extend into the tumor. Use of cupped biopsy forceps
requires minimal anesthesia. Biopsies of the posterior tongue, tonsil, phar¬
ynx, or larynx are usually performed under general anesthesia in the
operating room to allow thorough mapping of the lesion in a relaxed patient.
Laryngeal planigrams or a laryngogram may aid in determining the extent
of the tumor, but the CT scan has become the preferred method. These
procedures are best done prior to biopsy to avoid confusing tumor extent
with edema resulting from the biopsy.
The following tests are recommended to establish the patient’s general
condition, the presence of metastases, and the possibility of a second primary
tumor. Recall that many patients with advanced head and neck cancer have
other major medical problems such as cirrhosis and chronic obstructive lung
disease.
1. Complete blood count, platelet count, urinalysis

2. Chemistry studies, including complete liver function tests
3. Tests of thyroid function (T„) or a scan if the mass is suspected to be in
the thyroid
4. Chest radiographs (posteroanterior and lateral), followed by CT scan if
indicated when a metastatic lesion or second primary lesion is suspected
5. Bone scan for metastasis (if history of bone pain)
6. Cardiac evaluation, including electrocardiogram
7. Blood clotting studies, including prothrombin time and partial thrombo¬
plastin time
8. CT scan of the larynx, maxilla, parotid, skull base, or neck when required
in surgical planning and to determine extent and resectability; barium
swallow if esophagoscopy is contemplated
The concept ot "panendoscopy" In the operating room, thorough endoscopic evaluation is made not only
developed because of the 5 to 8 of the patient’s known or suspected tumor but also of other suspicious areas.
per cent incidence of a second
head and neck cancer. Thus, leukoplakia beyond the primary tumor area must also be biopsied.
The tongue and upper pharynx are carefully palpated. The nasopharynx is
directly visualized and palpated. The laryngopharynx is carefully inspecied
using a laryngoscope, carefully lifting the arytenoid area to examine the
postcricoid and hypopharyngeal regions. The tumor mass is carefully defined
and outlined and an appropriate drawing made in the patient’s chart. Exact
knowledge of the extent of the tumor is imperative. Tattooing the margins
of accessible tumors with India ink is helpful for follow-up examinations.
Presence or absence of palpable neck nodes must be documented, and
palpation is repeated when the patient is under anesthesia. Whether these
nodes are fixed to underlying structures and whether they are present
unilaterally or on the ipsilateral or contralateral side are important. Knowl¬
edge of the extent of the primary tumor and the status of regional metastases
is required in order to plan definitive care and stage the tumor.
Classification
TABLE 23-4. THE TNM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Three capital letters are used to describe extent of cancer:
T Primary tumor
N Regional lymph nodes
M Distant metastasis
This classification is extended by the following designations:
Tuntor
TX The minimum requirements to assess the primary tumor cannot be met.
TO No evidence of primary tumor
Tis Carcinoma in situ
Tl, T2, Progressive increase in tumor size or involvement (see below)
T3, T4
INodes
NX T he minimum requirements to assess the regional lymph nodes cannot be met.
NO No evidence of regional node involvement
Nl, N2. Increasing degrees of demonstrable abnormality of regional lymph nodes (see
N3, N4 below)
Metastasis
MX The minimum requirements to assess the presence of distant metastasis cannot
be met.
MO No evidence of distant metastasis
Ml Distant metastasis present
Specify site of metastasis _
Primary tumor (T)
Tl Tumor confined to the antral mucosa of the infrastructure with no bone
erosion or destruction
T2 Tumor confined to the suprastructure mucosa without bone destruction or to
the infrastructure, with destruction of medial or inferior bony walls only
T3 More extensiye tumor invading skin of cheek, orbit, anterior ethmoid sinuses,
or pterygoid muscle
T4 Massive tumor with invasion of cribriform plate, posterior ethmoids, sphenoid,
nasopharynx, pterygoid plates, or base of skull
Nodal involvement (N)
Nl Single clinically positive homolateral node 3 cm or less in diameter
N2 Single clinically positive homolateral node more than 3 cm but not more than
6 cm in diameter or multiple clinically positive homolateral nodes, none
more than 6 cm in diameter
N2a Multiple clinically positive homolateral nodes, none more than 6 cm in
diameter
N3 Massive homolateral node(s), bilateral nodes, or contralateral node(s)
N3a Clinically positive homolateral node(s), one more than 6 cm in diameter
N3b Bilateral clinically positive nodes (in this situation, each side of the neck
should be staged separately; i.e., N3b: right, N2a; left, Nl)
N3c Contralateral clinically positive node(s) only
From Beahrs OH. Myers Mil (eds): Manual for Staging of Cancer. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott
Co, 1983, pp 44, 50.
MODALITIES OF TREATMENT
There are at present five specific methods available for treatment of head
and neck malignancies:
1. Radiation therapy
2. En bloc surgical excision
3. Laser excision
4. Chemotherapy
5. Combination of modalities
In an effort to improve survival rates, it has been common in the past ten
years to combine two or more of these modalities. Prior to initiation of any
form of treatment, a thorough evaluation is made of the patient’s general
health, likelihood of responsible follow-up, and extent of the tumor and its
metastases. Then, after the options are discussed with the radiation therapist,
family, and others who may be involved in the patient’s care, a treatment
plan is derived. Although a small tumor may be treated adequately by either
radiation therapy or surgery, larger tumors are usually treated by surgery,
with radiation given either pre- or postoperatively. Recurrent tumors not
amenable to additional surgery or irradiation are treated by chemotherapy,
often as part of a research protocol. The role of each of these major
modalities is discussed below.
Radiation Therapy*
Radiation plays an important part in the management of head and neck
malignancies and can be employed as the sole method of treatment for
certain tumors. The radiotherapist, employing x-rays and gamma-rays, must
know the quantity and quality of the radiation in the particular beam being
used. The quantity, or dose, of radiation designates the amount administered,
and the quality, or penetration ability, determines the percentage of radiation
that will reach a lesion at a given depth below the body surface. When the
patient is exposed to x- or gamma-irradiation, a portion of the photons pass
through unchanged, but a certain fraction is absorbed by the interaction
with the atoms of the body. The absorbed photons, if sufficiently energetic,
liberate photoelectrons, recoil electrons, and negatron-positron pairs that
ionize other atoms nearby. In other words, the absorbed energy causes
ionization that is primarily responsible for the therapeutic effects of pene¬
trating radiation.
Definitions
In measuring radiation absorbed, the ideal method would be to calculate
the number of ergs of energy absorbed in the irradiated tissue by the ionizing
radiation. This method requires sophisticated apparatus. Early attempts to
quantify the amounts of radiation absorbed involved exposure of photo¬
graphic film to determine the degree of darkening produced by radiation
exposure or observation of acute changes on the irradiated skin after a given
dose of radiation was administered. This was termed erythema dose.
In 1908, it was suggested that radiation be quantified by measuring the
ionization produced in air or some other gas by a standard radiation
exposure, and hence the roentgen unit was created. The modern definition
of a roentgen is very precise, but essentially it defines a certain amount of
ionization occurring in a specific quantity of air under standard conditions.
However, this measurement does not indicate the dose absorbed by a patient
exposed to a particular beam of radiation. Therefore, an absorbed dose must
also be defined. The amount of energy absorbed in tissues exposed to one
roentgen depends on the type of radiation and the material irradiated.
Hence, in 1953, the Seventh International Congress of Radiology adopted
the rad (radiation absorbed dose) as the unit of absorbed dose. The rad is
independent of the type of radiation and represents an absorbed dose of 100
ergs per gram of any material irradiated. The amount of radiation given to
a patient is ordinarily expressed clinically in tissue rads.
An additional unit of interest is the rem (roentgen-equivalent-man). This
'The section on Radiation Therapy was contributed by Robert Haselow, M.D.

unit attempts1 to quantify the different biologic effects of various forms of

radiation. For example, a fast neutron beam produces significantly more
biologic effect than a cobalt beam for a given equal deposition pf energy.
The rent allows comparison of differing forms of radiation to produce a
given radiobiologic effect.
Recently the Systeme International (SI) unit of absorbed dose has been
changed to the gray (Gy), which is defined as one joule per kilogram. A
subunit, centigray (cGy). is often used. The relationship between the above
units is
1 Gy (gray) = 100 rad
1 rad = lO-i Gy = 1 centigray (cGy)
Goals
The use of radiation therapy for treatment of head and neck carcinoma
has attained greater prominence in recent years. This was made possible by
technological improvements of the machines that produce ionizing radiation,
greater understanding of radiobiologic principles, and increased precision in
radiation measurement and delivery.
The radiotherapist employs several techniques for administering ionizing
radiation. Superficial lesions such as skin carcinoma are best treated by low-
voltage x-ray apparatus. More deep-seated lesions, like those of the tongue
or lymph nodes, require greater penetration, such as that provided by the
cobalt or electron beam. Interstitial irradiation (direct implantation) tech¬
niques utilizing radioactive materials such as radium, gold, or iridium provide
additional methods of treatment. Direct implantation of radioactive materials
results in high local irradiation with the least adverse effects beyond the
immediate area.
The application of a particular technique to a given patient depends on
many factors. It is necessary to know the site and extent of the primary
tumor but also the areas of definite or suspected metastases. A careful
drawing, showing the extent of tumor involvement, is made in the chart and
on the patient’s tumor record. The tumor should be staged according to the
TNM classification system for future reference. The age and general physical
condition of the patient are important factors. It should be decided initially,
before treatment, whether the patient will receive full-course or only pre- or
postoperative irradiation. It is important to know if the patient has had any
previous radiation therapy, including the dosage and specific area.
The use of irradiation as either a preoperative or postoperative technique
is designed to overcome the deficiencies of each modality when used alone.
In the more advanced lesions surgery is effective in removing the bulk of
the tumor in the primary site and metastatic neck nodes but may fail to cure
the patient because of microscopic seeding of unresected tissues by malignant
cells. Conversely, irradiation is effective in eradicating small nests of tumor Postoperative radiation therapy
cells at the periphery of the primary tumor and in metastatic neck nodes but is administered when there is
extra capsular extension of the
frequently fails to control the bulky, poorly oxygenated primary tumor.
cancer.
It has been demonstrated that 5000 rads of gamma radiation given over
five weeks can control 90 per cent of subclinical (i.e., microscopic) squamous
cell carcinoma. On the other hand, 7000 to 8000 rads of gamma radiation
may not control large bulky deposits of squamous carcinoma in the primary
site or lymph nodes. Hence, the rationale of combination therapy is to
achieve the sterilization of microscopic deposits of tumor cells in the treated
volume by irradiation in conjunction with the surgical removal of the major

bulk of primary and metastatic disease.
Laryngeal Lesions
Irradiation alone can be used for treatment of less advanced laryngeal
lesions, thus permitting preservation of voice. With careful follow-up,
surgical resection can be performed later should the carcinoma persist or
recur. This approach is particularly applicable in true vocal cord lesions.
Here, an 80 per cent rate of primary control is attained with irradiation
alone and the surgical salvage rate for those lesions not controlled is likewise
high.
In order to achieve a homogeneous dose distribution throughout the tumor
volume, two or more separate beam portals are used to deliver the radiation.
As an example, in treatment of an early true vocal cord lesion, both right
and left lateral portals would be employed to irradiate a volume of tissue
such as that seen in Figure 23-1. Here, the portal size is quite small, since
these lesions are of limited extent and their potential for nodal metastasis is
minimal.
Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
In contrast, as seen in Figure 23-2, the portals used in the treatment of a
nasopharyngeal carcinoma are much more extensive, as the potential for
nodal metastasis in such cancers is great. Again, both right and left lateral
portals would be used in order to achieve a homogeneous dose.
Lesions of the Paranasal Sinuses

For squamous cell carcinoma arising in the paranasal sinuses, radiation
therapy may be employed pre- or postoperatively. In far-advanced unresect-
able lesions, irradiation alone is used.
For lesions that are laterally placed, such as those of the maxillary sinus,
special techniques enable delivery of a homogeneous dose of radiation to
the target volume without exposing uninvolved or sensitive structures, such
Center field 1 cm. below

thyroid notch
Approx. 5x5 cm. field FIGURE 23—1. Treatment portal

covering larynx in Tl, NO, MO true
vocal cord lesion.
TREATMENT GOALS —
Include : Exclude :
1. Primary 1. All nodes
Initial 4500 rads
Borders
Superior : approx. 1cm. above upper
border of zygoma
Inferior : at level of thyroid notch
Anterior : orbital margin to mandible
avoiding major part of the
larynx
Posterior ; include spinal accessory
chain
Block
1,. top 2 cm. above zygoma
2. to post, margin of EAC and base
of mastoid process (floor of EAC)
3. orbital contents
TREATMENT GOALS —
Include :
1. retropharyngeal nodes
2. anterior cervical chains
3. spinal accessory chains
4. posterior cervical triangles
5. supraclavicular fossae
FIGURE 23-2. Treatment portal used in treatment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. In
addition to this portal, an additional anterior beam is used to treat the lower neck (EAC
= external auditory canal).
as the opposite eye. Figure 23-3 illustrates a treatment plan for a carcinoma
involving the left maxillary antrum. The connecting lines drawn within the
outline of a transverse section through the maxillary sinus represent isodose
lines and connect points of equal dose within the treatment volume. With
FIGURE 23—3. Contour drawn through maxillary sinus, illustrating beam directions,
important anatomic structures, tumor volume, and isodose curves. Note that beam I is
an open, unwedged beam but that beam II passes through a lead wedge filter in order
to achieve a homogeneous dose distribution.
•456 PART SIX—NEOPLASMS OF THE HEAD AND NECK
the proper arrangement of portals to cover the volume of the tumor and
simultaneously avoid uninvolved and sensitive structures, an acceptable
treatment plan may be constructed. Because of the highly complex calcula¬
tions involved in designing such a plan, a computer is necessary in order to
achieve precision in a reasonable period of time. Also, a radiation physicist
and other ancillary personnel are required for the proper operation and
application of these complex functions.
Complications
The difficulties associated with the> administration of radiation therapy
may be divided into early and late complications. Early problems include
the following:
1. Mucositis with associated pharyngeal discomfort

2. Loss of appetite
3. Nausea
4. Dryness of mucous membranes
5. Effect on normal tissue, e.g., overlying skin
6. Hematopoietic suppression (rare in the treatment of head and neck
malignancies)
7. Transverse myelitis (rare)
During therapy the patient should be examined frequently by both

radiotherapist and surgeon.
Delayed complications consist of dryness of the oral cavity and the effects
of radiation on underlying bone. For this reason, any patient who is about
to receive radiation, particularly in the area of the mandible, should have a
complete dental evaluation. All teeth of questionable durability should be
extracted, and the wound must be healed prior to the, onset of radiation
therapy. Fluoride treatments and careful oral hygiene may prevent compli¬
cations such as osteomyelitis. A young person receiving radiation therapy
should be followed carefully throughout life for detection of the possible
delayed development of a malignancy in the field of radiation. This problem
was brought to light when a higher incidence of thyroid carcinoma was found
in individuals who received radiation to the neck for benign disease as
children.
Surgical Treatment
The objective of surgical treatment is total resection of the cancer with a
margin or cuff of normal tissue of at least 2 cm. In addition, surgery on the
primary malignancy is often combined with a cervical lymphadenectomy
(radical neck dissection). The neck specimen is left attached to the primary
area, for example, the larynx* so that the entire region is removed “en
bloc.” This basic surgical principle is applied wherever possible, with certain
exceptions such as the nose, where an “en bloc” neck dissection would not
be reasonable. Resection of the primary tumor combined with the neck
dissection often creates a large soft tissue defect. Regional flaps consisting
of the pectoralis major myocutaneous muscle flap, the forehead flap, the
regional tongue flap, or flaps of cervical skin are then used to repair the
defect.
The second objective of surgical resection is to restore the functional
capacity of the patient. Reconstructive procedures include restoring mandib¬

ular continuity with a prosthetic graft or rib, iliac crest, or free graft. The
pectoralis major myocutaneous flap is used to replace the pharynx or base
of tongue, avoiding the necessity of laryngectomy to prevent chronic aspi¬
ration. Procedures are also available to create a fistula between the new
pharynx and the tracheal stoma to allow voice restoration. Along with Radical neck dissection is often
reconstructive techniques, preservation of the accessory (eleventh) cranial modified to preserve the acces¬
sory (XI) cranial nerve.
nerve has been possible in the majority of patients, thus avoiding the
complication of a shoulder droop and the associated discomfort. Each of the
more common areas of head and neck carcinoma is discussed separately
below, with demonstration of how these general principles apply.
Malignant Tumors of the Internal Nose

Malignant tumors of the internal nose are uncommon. The tumor most
frequently encountered is squamous cell carcinoma, which occurs at the
junction of the nasal septum and the mucocutaneous margin just posterior
to the columella. Male smokers predominate in the group of patients with
this malignancy. Metastases to the neck are rare except in very large tumors
or when the upper lip becomes involved by direct extension.
Results of treatment of early carcinomas are equal with regional resection
or radiation therapy. Because of the difficult functional and cosmetic prob¬
lems created by surgery, radiation therapy is often used in limited tumors.
Very advanced tumors require surgical resection and radiation therapy.
An unusual tumor that arises in the superior aspect of the nose or nasal
vault in the region of the middle and superior turbinate is a papillary
adenocarcinoma. More frequent in males, it has been associated with certain
industrial occupations.
Esthesioneuroblastoma is a rare malignant tumor of the supporting ele¬
ments of the olfactory epithelium. It is slow growing and capable of
pulmonary and cervical metastasis. The tumor eventually erodes into the
anterior cranium through the cribriform plate. Early symptoms include
epistaxis and nasal obstruction. A CT scan is essential to establish whether
there is intracranial extension. While the tumor does respond initially to
radiation therapy, the most favorable results are obtained by wide surgical
resection, which often requires a craniotomy and then postoperative irradia¬
tion therapy.
Inverted papilloma is an unusual nasal tumor that presents as a fleshy
appearing polypoid lesion. While not malignant, it has a recurrence rate of
up to 40 per cent when not completely and widely excised. They occur 80
per cent of the time in the lateral nasal wall in the area of the middle
meatus. While they do not undergo malignant degeneration, there may be
associated areas of malignancy within the mass of tissue in 5 per cent of
cases. Therefore, complete evaluation of all the specimens submitted for
examination is done by the pathologist.
Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
The nasopharynx is a primary site for squamous cell carcinoma, undiffer¬
entiated carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and primary lymphoma. Lymphoepi-
thelioma, which may involve the nasopharynx in younger individuals, rep¬
resents a squamous cell carcinoma combined with elements of lymphatic
tissue. Malignant tumors in the nasopharynx may remain silent until they
involve surrounding structures. Fifth cranial nerve involvement can cause
local and facial pain or numbness. When the tumor spreads superiorly it
Unilateral serous otitis media in may produce diplopia by involving the sixth and then third cranial nerves.
an adult suggests the possibility
Anterior extension results in nasal obstruction. Lateral extension to involve
of a nasopharyngeal neoplasm.
the eustachian tube produces unilateral serous otitis media with a conductive
hearing loss. Metastases are to the retropharyngeal, deep jugular, and spinal
A high posterior cervical node is accessory nodes. A solitary enlarged lymph node located posteriorly and
often the presenting sign of a
high in the neck is often the presenting sign.
nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
The palpable cervical metastasis does not represent the primary nodal
drainage because the retropharyngeal nodes are usually involved first.
Therefore, surgery is rarely indicated. Irradiation is the primary treatment
for both the primary lesion and the cervical metastases. A radical neck
dissection is done when the primary lesion and retropharyngeal lymph nodes
have been sterilized but a cervical metastasis persists.
Malignant Tumors of the Paranasal Sinuses

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignant tumor of para¬
nasal sinuses and most frequently involves the maxillary sinus. The ethmoid
sinus is the second most common site, and malignancies in the frontal and
sphenoid sinuses are rare. Adenoid cystic carcinoma, the second most
common sinus malignancy, is often very extensive before the patient notices
any symptoms. Diagnosis of malignancy is often delayed because the symp¬
CT or MRI scanning is required toms of early malignant tumors of the paranasal sinuses are identical to
to determine the stage and ex¬
tent of paranasal sinus cancer.
those of the common benign chronic sinusitis. To further confuse the issue,
10 per cent of patients have a long-standing history of chronic sinusitis before
the development of malignancy. The patient may first complain to his dentist
because a denture no longer fits or erosion of the tumor occurs into the
maxillary alveolar ridge.
Initial evaluation includes palpation of the area, examination of the nose
and nasopharynx for extension, and evaluation of all cranial nerves, partic¬
ularly the fifth cranial nerve. Ophthalmologic examination is essential to
determine orbital invasion and the status of the eye on the opposite side.
CT scan of this area is mandatory in planning the extent of surgery.
Radiographic evidence of bone erosion or erosion of dental roots is highly
suggestive of a malignancy. Since the tumors erode posteriorly toward the
Paranasal sinus cancers that do skull base, it is essential to evaluate the posterior wall of the maxillary sinus
not extend into the soft tissues
rarely metastasize to the neck. for erosion as well as the involvement of the pterygoid plates or the skull
base (Fig. 23-4). Often a biopsy can be obtained of abnormal-appearing
tissue where the tumor extends into the nasal cavity.
Radiation therapy is required in Treatment of sinus malignancies includes total en bloc surgical resection
sinus malignancies because of
the metastases to the retropha¬ and pre- or postoperative irradiation therapy. To assist in the patient’s
ryngeal lymph nodes. postoperative phase an obturator designed by a prosthodontist is fashioned
to fill the large defect created by the surgical resection. It is possible to
modify a total maxillectomy to preserve the orbital floor and portions of the
palate. However, these alterations in total radical resection should not be
made if they could compromise total tumor resection.
Malignant Tumors of the Oral Cavity

Squamous cell carcinoma is the predominant malignancy found within the
oral cavity and tongue. Other tumors are of minor salivary gland origin,
PATHWAYS OF EXTENSION OF MAXILLARY

SINUS MALIGNANCIES
1) INTO NASAL CAVITY

(EROSION MEDIAL WALL DETERMINATION OF RESECTABILITY OF
OF MAXILLA) MAXILLARY SINUS CANCER
2) INTO ETHMOID AREA
3) INTO ORBIT
(INFERIOR ORBITAL
FISSURE) EXTENSION ACROSS MIDLINE
4) INTO SOFT TISSUES OF INVASION OF ORBIT
CHEEK (EROSION (NEED FOR EXENTERATION)
ANTERIOR WALL OF INVASION OF
MAXILLA) INFRATEMPORAL FOSSA
5) ONTO PALATE OR (NON-RESECTABLE)
ALVEOLAR RIDGE INVASION OF
(PALATE APPEARS PTERYGO-MAXILLARY FOSSA
DEPRESSED DOWNWARD) EROSION OF PTERYGOID
PLATE (NON-RESECTABLE)
6) INTO BUCCAL SULCUS
EROSION OF ALVEOLAR
RIDGE (LOOK FOR EROSION
OF DENTAL ROOTS)
FIGURE 23-4. A, Frontal view of the skull showing possible pathways or extension of a maxillary sinus
cancer. B, Side view of areas of possible extension that should be considered in determining resectability.
(From McQuarrie D, Adams G, Schons A, Browne G (eds): Head and Neck Cancer: Clinical Decisions and
Management Principles. Chicago, Year Book Medical Publishers, 1985, p 319.)
particularly when they arise on the hard palate. These minor salivary gland
tumors are initially nonulcerating, slightly tender, submucosal masses. Squa¬
mous cell carcinoma, on the other hand, ulcerates early and is tender because
of secondary surrounding inflammation.
Treatment of early oral cavity lesions is often successful with either
irradiation or nonradical surgical procedures. Larger tumors are treated by
a composite procedure, which includes an incontinuity neck dissection. When
possible, especially in lesions originating in the anterior tongue and floor of
the mouth, preservation of a rim of the mandible allows removal of the
primary tumor by a “pull through” into the neck. This may avoid functional
and cosmetic defects if the tongue is not bound down by the closure.
Malignant Tumors of the Base of the Tongue

Malignant tumors of the base of the tongue are the most difficult to detect Malignant tumors of the base of
by physical examination. There is often a six-month or more history of the tongue are hardest to diag¬
nose. Physical exam requires
discomfort, pain on swallowing, or referred pain to the ear. The single best
palpation of the tongue base.
method of recognizing an early tumor is palpation of the base of the tongue
with the finger. Biopsy in this region requires a general anesthetic and direct
laryngoscopy. With the more advanced tumors the patient has difficulty and
pain on swallowing and develops the so-called hot potato voice by talking
and at the same time avoiding swallowing the pooled secretions.
Early tumors of the base of the tongue (Tl) can be treated with radiation
therapy. The neck is included in the field because of the tendency to
metastasize early. When the tumor is large, a composite resection is required.
Postoperative radiation therapy is often given in addition when there is
cervical metastasis. Because of the high likelihood of bilateral metastases,
the opposite side of the neck is always included in the radiation port.
TABLE 23-5. TNM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM APPLIED TO CANCER OF THE ORAL

CAVITY
T Primary tumor
Tl Greatest diameter of primary tumor 2 cm or less
T2 Greatest diameter of primary tumor more than 2 cm but not more than 4 cm
T3 Greatest diameter of primary tumor more than 4 cm
T4 Massive tumor more than 4 cm in diameter with deep invasion to involve antrum,
pterygoid muscles, base of tongue, skin of neck
N Regional lymph nodes
NO No clinically positive node
N1 Single clinically positive homolateral node 3 cm or less in diameter
N2 Single clinically positive homolateral node more than 3 cm but not more than 6 cm
in diameter or multiple clinically positive homolateral nodes, none more than 6
cm in diameter
N2a Single clinically positive homolateral node more than 3 cm but not more than 6 cm
in diameter
N2b Multiple clinically positive homolateral nodes, none more than 6 cm in diameter
N3 Massive homolateral node(s). bilateral node(s), or contralateral node(s)
N3a Clinically positive homolateral node(s). one more than 6 cm in diameter
N3b Bilateral clinically positive nodes (in this situation, each side of the neck should be
staged separately: i.e.. N3b; right. N2a; left, Nl)
N3c Contralateral clinically positive node(s) only
M Distant metastasis
MO No evidence of distant metastasis
Ml Distant metastasis present
Specify _
Prevention of aspiration is a Reconstruction of the posterior tongue is required to prevent continuous

major goal in reconstructing the
aspiration. The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap is ideal for this purpose.
base of tongue. Masssive tu¬
mors of the tongue base may Another technique for smaller lesions involves a “push back” of the
even require a total laryngec¬ ipsilateral anterior tongue. Mandibular continuity can be maintained in
tomy.
certain lesions by a midline mandibulectomy, splitting the mandible and
swinging it laterally to gain access. Lesions close to the margin of the tongue
are approached laterally through a composite resection. Very large tumors
in the base of the tongue, when treated by surgical resection, may require
laryngectomy to prevent aspiration pneumonitis.
Cancer of the Tonsillar Area

Carcinoma commonly involves the tonsillar area. This region extends from
the retromolar trigone to include the posterior and anterior tonsillar pillars
as well as the tonsillar fossa itself. Such tumors extend interiorly toward the
base of the tongue and superiorly onto the soft palate. While small tumors
(Tl, T2, NO) may be treated by irradiation, larger tumors (T3, T4) require
surgical resection, frequently accompanied by pre- or postoperative radiation
therapy. Small lesions with palpable metastases are usually treated by surgical
resection and primary closure. This resection is referred to as a composite
procedure. A lateral tongue, forehead, myocutaneous, or cervical flap can
close a large defect.
Carcinoma of the tonsil often metastasizes to the digastric triangle or the
high jugular node known as the tonsillar node. Because of early metastases
of moderate size lesions, neck dissection is usually included in the surgical
procedure.
Since extranodal lymphoma can present as a unilateral enlarged tonsil, it
must be included in the differential diagnosis of tonsillar tumors. Metastatic
cancer from gastrointestinal sites has also been reported.
TABLE 23-6. TNM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM APPLIED TO LARYNGEAL CANCER

Glottis
T1 Tumor confined to vocal cord(s) with normal mobility (includes involvement of
anterior or posterior commissures)
T2 Supraglottic or subglottic extension of tumor with normal or impaired cord mobility
or both
T3 Tumor confined to the larynx with cord fixation
T4 Massive tumor with thyroid cartilage destruction or extension beyond the confines of
the larynx or both
From Beahrs OH, Myers MH (eds): Manual for Staging of Cancer. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott
Co, 1983, p 27.
Carcinoma of the Larynx

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common laryngeal malignancy (94
per cent). Early symptoms include hoarseness and, as the involvement
increases, pain, dyspnea, and eventually dysphagia. The larynx is divided
into the supraglottic larynx (above the vocal cords), the glottic region (the
true cord), and the subglottic area (below the level of the true cord). The
lymphatic drainage of the supraglottic larynx is abundant, and consequently The true vocal cords have
metastases appear early. The true cords have a poor lymphatic supply, and sparse lymphatic drainage;
thus, tumors arising on the true
cervical metastases develop late and are uncommon. The lymphatics of the
cord do not metastasize to cer¬
subglottic region leave the true larynx through the cricothyroid region and vical nodes until late in the
pass to the adjacent (Delphian) nodes and inferior deep cervical nodes. This course of disease.
division of the laryngeal lymphatic drainage is important when planning the
extent of the surgical resection.
The standard supraglottic horizontal laryngectomy includes resection of
the ventricle, false cord, aryepiglottic fold, and epiglottis. The tumor must
not extend into the base of the tongue, to the level of the true cord, or
below the petiole of the epiglottis. Extended supraglottic laryngectomy can
be utilized for resection of tumors in the base of the tongue posterior to the
circumvallate papillae and in the vallecula. This procedure is reserved for
lesions that meet these rigid criteria in patients with good pulmonary reserve
(FEV, 50 per cent of predicted). Because of a 30 per cent incidence of
regional occult metastases, an ipsilateral neck dissection is generally included.
The voice is preserved, but the portion of the larynx that directs food away
from the airway is removed. Tracheostomy is performed at the time of
surgery and is maintained until swelling subsides sufficiently to allow an
adequate airway. Two to three weeks after surgery the patient will learn to
swallow without aspirating, and the nasogastric tube can be removed.
Postoperative, rather than preoperative, irradiation is preferred, since the
wound is healed and the possibility of fistula development is reduced.
Carcinoma of the true glottic region is one of the most common head and
neck malignancies. Radiation therapy or a limited surgical resection is
adequate for treatment of small tumors. Slightly more advanced lesions with
a mobile cord can be treated satisfactorily by a vertical hemilaryngectomy. Staging of laryngeal cancer re¬
When there is fixation of the cord (T3) there is invasion into the surrounding quires determination of vocal
cord mobility.
musculature and almost always a total laryngectomy is required. Extension
of the tumor into the anterior commissure region of the larynx has a slightly
poorer prognosis but, in certain instances, may still be treated by irradiation
or by extending the previously described vertical hemilaryngectomy to
include the anterior third of the opposite true cord as well as the anterior
commissure region.
If the tumor is confined entirely to one side of the larynx, it may be

adequately excised by a vertical hemilaryngectomy. One side of the thyroid
cartilage is removed, together with its medial soft tissue structures (vocal
cord, false cord, aryepiglottic fold, aryepiglottic cartilage) up to or slightly
across the midline. The defect is closed by a redundant mucosal flap from
the adjacent ipsilateral piriform sinus. Tracheostomy is maintained until the
swelling subsides and the airway is judged adequate. The nasogastric tube is
removed when the patient can swallow without aspiration, generally by two
weeks after surgery.
A newer alternative for select patients is laser excision of a T1 cordal
carcinoma. Pathologic examination of margins is still necessary to assure
that all tumor has been excised, so an actual specimen is resected rather
Tumors extending into the ante¬ than vaporizing the tumor. The advantage of this procedure is the single
rior commissure are not amena¬ operative procedure, usually not requiring a tracheostomy. The disadvantage
ble to laser excision.
is a poorer quality voice than can be achieved by radiation therapy.
Large (T3 or T4) laryngeal carcinomas are treated by surgery alone or by
a combination of irradiation and laryngectomy. Carcinoma involving the
subglottic region (more than 1 cm below the true cord) requires total
laryngectomy and paratracheal node dissection. Approximately 40 per cent
of patients who receive a laryngectomy and hemithyroidectomy followed by
postoperative radiation require thyroid hormone replacement.
In a total laryngectomy, the larynx is removed from the anterior wall of
the hypopharynx and cut off from the upper trachea. The hypopharynx is
then closed upon itself and the tongue base, and the upper end of the trachea
is sutured to the skin. Thus, the pharynx and airway are completely
separated. If the lesion involves the adjacent hypopharynx, a partial or total
hypopharyngectomy is additionally required. Because of the possibility of
early invasion into the overlying thyroid gland, the ipsilateral lobe and
isthmus of the gland are often included in the specimen. A nasogastric tube
placed at the time of surgery permits food intake. It is removed about the
seventh postoperative day and the patient is started on a liquid diet.
Malignant Tumors of the Hypopharynx

Small tumors of the hypophar- Carcinoma of the piriform sinus or hypopharynx is most frequently the
^c^cITm&statictisMse scluamous ce^ type. These cancers tend to metastasize early so that even a
small malignancy, difficult to recognize indirectly or by direct laryngoscopy
and pharyngoscopy, may present with cervical metastases. Treatment usually
consists of irradiation (preoperatively or postoperatively) combined with
total laryngectomy and partial pharyngectomy. Tumors in this region have
a poorer prognosis than laryngeal tumors of similar size.
Selected small tumors can be excised without a total laryngectomy. Such
tumors are those limited to the pharyngeal side of the aryepiglottic fold and
above the level of the cricoid cartilage. Another situation in which the larynx
can be preserved is a limited tumor on the lateral wall of the piriform sinus.
Complete or modified neck dissection is required when these tumors are
treated surgically.
An unusual location for a hypopharyngeal tumor is the postcricoid area.
Such tumors have been associated with the Plummer-Vinson syndrome. The
prognosis is poor unless extensive surgical resection is performed, involving
total laryngectomy and total pharyngectomy. Rotation flaps, jejunal inter¬
position, colon transposition, or gastric “pull up” can be used to reconstruct
the pharynx.
Cervical Lymphadenectomy (Radical Neck Dissection)

The radical cervical lymphadenectomy, or radical neck dissection, is an
intrinsic part of most major head and neck surgical resections. The lymph
node chains in the neck can be divided according to anatomic location into
five major groups: (1) the submental nodes filling the fatty space immediately
beneath the chin and superior to the hyoid bone, (2) the submandibular
nodes, which occupy the region surrounding the submandibular gland and
bordered by the mandible and anterior and posterior bellies of the digastric
muscle, again superior to the hyoid bone (submaxillary triangle), (3) the
deep jugular chain, which is closely related to the course of the internal
jugular vein throughout the neck, (4) the posterior or spinal accessory chain
closely associated with the spinal accessory nerve, and (5) the transverse or
supraclavicular nodes, filling the supraclavicular fossa. When radical neck
dissection is performed, all these nodal chains are removed.
The decision to perform radical neck dissection is based on several factors:
1. Clinically palpable nodes suspected of being metastases

2. A primary tumor in an area associated with a high incidence of occult
microscopic neck metastases
3. A palpable cervical node suspected clinically of being malignant in the
contralateral portion of the neck in a patient with a previous head and
neck primary malignancy
4. The occult primary tumor
The occult primary condition exists when a metastatic carcinoma, usually An occult or "unknown”primary
squamous cell carcinoma or malignant melanoma, is found in a cervical cancer occurs when a malig¬
nant cervical lymph node is di¬
lymph node other than the supraclavicular nodes. The site of the primary agnosed and no primary site in
tumor in the upper respiratory tract or food passage is not evident, even the head and neck can be
with careful endoscopic examination including “directed” biopsies of all found.
regions suspected of being potential sites for the primary tumor.

The so-called elective radical neck dissection is performed simultaneously
with resection of the primary tumor in the absence of clinically palpable
cervical metastases. Regions requiring this particular procedure, which is
usually done in conjunction with resection of the primary tumor, are the
supraglottic larynx, base of the tongue, subglottic larynx, tonsil, and hypo-
pharynx. The opposite or contralateral part of the neck is followed carefully
for possible later metastases. Many centers prefer to irradiate the opposite
side of the neck in an attempt to control possible microscopic occult
metastases.
The presence of clinically palpable and obvious cervical metastases may
reduce the overall survival rate by 30 to 50 per cent, regardless of the
surgical procedure. The decision to undertake radical neck dissection in
conjunction with resection of the primary tumor should not be made lightly.
Not only does it extend the time of surgery, but it has an associated mortality
of 1 per cent and increases the postoperative morbidity rate. By resecting
the muscles and fascial coverings over the carotid artery, that artery is left
protected only by the platysma muscle and skin. Development of a fistula
from the pharynx can then cause an associated injury to the carotid artery,
resulting in rupture. In an effort to reduce this disastrous complication,
grafts of dermis may be obtained from the thigh to carefully cover and
protect the carotid artery. Should a breakdown occur, such grafts have the
ability to epithelialize, forming a protective layer over the carotid artery.
Another technique involves swinging a muscle pedicle flap from the levator
scapulae muscle to protect the carotid artery. When the pectoralis major
myocutaneous flap is used to reconstruct the pharynx or oral cavity, the
muscle adds bulk to the site of the neck dissection and protection of the
carotid artery.
An additional factor that must be recognized when planning a radical neck
dissection is the associated weakness on elevation of the ipsilateral arm due
to the loss of innervation of the trapezius muscle. The accessory nerve may
have to be excised because of its intimate association with the spinal accessory
chain in the upper neck.
A modification of the standard radical neck dissection which involves
Supraomohyoid neck dissection resection of the jugular, submandibular, and subdigastric nodal areas above
can be performed for tumors of
the omohyoid is known as a supraomohyoid neck dissection. Indications for
the oral cavity. Midline tumors
may require bilateral supra¬ this procedure include tumors of the anterior oral cavity and lip. In cases of
omohyoid neck dissections. tumors of the pharynx, base of the tongue, or larynx in which bilateral nodal
metastases are palpable, another option is to perform the ipsilateral neck
dissection at the time of resection of the primary tumor, followed in six
weeks by neck dissection on the opposite side. This two-stage, or “split,”
procedure is associated with considerably less morbidity than a bilateral
simultaneous radical neck dissection. If it is possible to preserve one jugular
vein without jeopardizing adequate tumor resection, postoperative morbidity
is considerably less.
The Bocca modification of a standard neck dissection offers yet another
alternative to radical neck dissection. Since the lymph nodes lie within the
fascial plane of the neck, it is possible to perform a careful dissection of the
layers of the superficial deep cervical fascia and its contents while preserving
the sternocleidomastoid muscle, jugular vein, and accessory nerve.
This modified neck dissection is then often followed with postoperative
irradiation therapy. The Bocca neck dissection is not done when (1) there
are large or multiple metastases, (2) there is radiation failure, (3) there is
extension into the muscles, (4) there are “fixed” metastases, or (5) there is
involvement of the accessory chain or posterior group of lymph nodes.
Because it is technically more difficult to perform a modified neck dissection
than a classic radical neck dissection, it should be undertaken only by those
doing the procedure frequently.
TABLE 23-7. REGIMENS FOR TREATMENT OF SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

Preoperative irradiation 4-6 weeks Planned surgery
4,000-5,000 r; 180-200/day
Surgery 4-8 weeks Postoperative radiation
6,000 r; 180-200/day
INVESTIGATIONAL PROTOCOLS
Induction chemotherapy 3 weeks Surgery 4-8 weeks Postoperative radiation
1-3 cycles
Surgery 4 weeks Chemotherapy 4 weeks Postoperative radiation

3 cycles
Inductipn 3 weeks Surgery 4-8 weeks Postoperative Maintenance chemotherapy

chemotherapy radiation x 6 months
TABLE 23-8. CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS

AGENT EFFECT USE ADVERSE EFFECT
Cisplatin (cis- Cross-linking = DNA Squamous cell Nausea; nephrotoxic,
diamminedi- sensitizer carcinoma; ototoxic
chloroplatinum) sarcoma
Methotrexate Competitive inhibition Squamous cell Stomatitis; leukopenia;
of folic acid carcinoma; anemia;
reductase [folate osteogenic thrombocytopenia
inhibitor] sarcoma
Bleomycin sulfate Inhibits DNA synthesis Squamous cell Pulmonary fibrosis
carcinoma
Fluorouracil Inhibits DNA synthesis Squamous cell Stomatitis; leukopenia;
carcinoma in vomiting
combination with
cisplatin
Adriamycin Inhibits nucleic acid Malignant fibrous Potentiates toxicity of
(doxorubicin synthesis histiocytoma; other agents;
hydrochloride) sarcoma mycosuppressive;
cardiotoxic
Chemotherapy
Solid tumors of the head and neck area have been generally resistant to
present chemotherapeutic agents. However, experimental and research pro¬
tocols have demonstrated initial response rates to certain combination Chemotherapy alone or in com¬
regimens. As exciting as these response rates have been, however, the bination with radiation therapy
can produce significant re¬
ultimate survival rate has not been appreciably altered. Chemotherapy thus sponse rates.
plays an adjuvant role in a research protocol setting. Some of the methods
in which chemotherapy has been employed are shown in Table 23-7.
The most common chemotherapy products currently used for squamous
cell carcinoma include methotrexate (MTX), 5-fluorouracil (5FU), and
cisplatin (Table 23-8). These drugs (except MTX) are administered by
intravenous infusion. Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) is often the control drug
used for sarcoma and may be combined with methotrexate. Mithramycin
has been used advantageously when hypercalcemia is associated with meta¬
static carcinoma.
The role of chemotherapy in the adjuvant setting is still to be defined.
Some studies have demonstrated a 70 per cent response rate for advanced
squamous cell carcinoma when two or three courses of chemotherapy are
administered preoperatively. This has not altered surgical wound healing,
but some patients have then refused surgery. Recurrence of tumor is then
always the result, and this time the tumor may not be operable. Chemo¬
therapy for recurrence of tumor in the previously operated, previously
irradiated site of the surgery has been much less effective.
Suggested Readings
It is not possible to cover the subject of head and neck cancer in this text. Selected additional
articles are suggested for more extensive reading on each of the subjects discussed in this
chapter.
General
McQuarrie D, Adams G, Schons A, Browne G (eds): Head and Neck Cancer: Clinical
Decisions and Management Principles. Chicago, Year Book Medical Publishers, 1985.
Million R, Cassisi NJ: Management of Head and Neck Cancer: A Multidisciplinary Approach.
New York, JB Lippincott Co, 1984.
Segren SL: Recent advances in radiation therapy of head and neck cancer. Head Neck Surg
4:227-232, 1982.
Silver CE: Surgery for Cancer of the Larynx and Related Structures. London, Churchill,
Livingstone, 1981.
Snow JB, Belber RD, Kramer S, et al: Randomized preoperative and postoperative radiation
therapy for patients with carcinoma of the head and neck: Preliminary report. Laryngoscope
90:930-945, 1980.
Suen JY, Myers EN (eds): Cancer of the Head and Neck. New York, Churchill Livingstone,
1981.
Vraebec DA, Heffron TJ: Hypothyroidism following treatment for head and neck cancer. Ann
Otol Rhinol Laryngol 90:449, 1981.
Neck Dissection
Bocca E, Pignataro O: A conservation technique in radical neck dissection. Ann Otol Rhinol
Laryngol 76:975-987, 1967.
Fletcher GH, Jesse RH: The place of irradiation in the management of the primary lesion in
head and neck cancer. Cancer 39:862-867, 1977.
Jesse RH, Ballantyne AJ, Larson D: Radical or modified neck dissection: A therapeutic
dilemma. Am J Surg 136:516-519, 1978.
Jesse RH, Fletcher GH: Treatment of the neck in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of
the head and neck. Cancer 39:868-872, 1977.
Johnson JT, Barnes EL, Myers EN, et al: The extracapsular spread of tumors in cervical node
metastasis. Arch Otolaryngol 107:725-729, 1981.
Medina JE, Byers RM: Supraomohyoid neck dissection. Head Neck Surg 11:111-122, 1989.
Schuller DE, et al: Analysis of disability resulting from treatment including radical neck
dissection or modified radical neck dissection. Head Neck Surg 6:551-558, 1983.
White D, Byers RM: What is the preferred initial method of treatment for squamous carcinoma
of the tongue? Am J Surg 140:553-555, 1980.
Second Primacy Malignancies
Maisel RH, Vermeersch H: Panendoscopy for second primary tumors in head and neck cancer
patients. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 90:460-464, 1981.
McQuirt UF: Panendoscopy as a screening examination for simultaneous tumors in head and
neck cancer. Laryngoscope 92:569-576, 1982.
Vraebec D: Multiple primary malignancies of the upper aerodigestive system. Ann Otol Rhinol
Laryngol 88:846-854, 1979.
Salivary Gland Malignancies
Adams GL, Duvall AJ: Adenocarcinoma of the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol 93:261, 1971.
Eneroth CM: Salivary gland tumors in the parotid gland, submandibular gland and the palate
region. Cancer 27:1415-1418, 1971.
Frazell RL: Observations in the management of salivary gland tumors. Cancer 18:235-241
1968.
Johns ME: Parotid cancer: A rational basis for treatment. Head Neck Surg 3:132-144, 1980.
Sarcomas
Blitzer A, et al: Clinical-pathological determination in prognosis of fibrous histiocytomas of the

head and neck. Laryngoscope 91:2053-2070, 1981.
Feldman BA: Rhabdomyosarcoma of the head and neck. Laryngoscope 92:424-440, 1982.
Healy GB, et al: Rhabdomyosarcoma of the head and neck: Diagnosis and management. Head
Neck Surg 1:334-339, 1979.
Malignant Tumors of the Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
Batsakis JG: The pathology of head and neck tumors: Nasal cavity and paranasal sinus. Head
Neck Surg 2:410-419, 1980.
Frazell E, Lewis J: Cancer of the nasal cavity and accessory sinuses. Cancer 16:1293, 1963.
Goefert H, Guillinondequi OM, Jesse RH, et al: Squamous cell carcinoma of the nasal
vestibule. Arch Otolaryngol 100:8-10, 1974.
Ketcham AS, Wilkins JM, Van Buren JM, et al: A combined intracranial facial resection for
tumors of the paranasal sinuses. Am J Surg 106:698, 1963.
Mendenhall NP, Parsons JT, Cassisi NJ, Million RR: Carcinoma of the nasal vestibule treated
with radiation therapy. Laryngoscope 97:626-632, 1987.
Myers EN, Schramm VL, Barnes EL: Management of inverted papilloma of the nose and
paranasal sinuses. Laryngoscope 91:2071-2084, 1981.
Session GA: Symposium: Treatment of malignancies of the paranasal sinuses. Laryngoscope
80:945, 1970.
Skolnik EM, Massari FS, Tenta LT: Olfactory neuroepithelioma. Arch Otolaryngol 81:644-
653, 1966.
Snow EB, Van Der Esch EP, Slotten EA: Mucosal melanomas of the head and neck. Head
Neck Surg 1:24-30, 1978.
Carcinoma of the Nasopharynx
Dickson RI: Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: An evaluation of 209 patients. Laryngoscope 91:333-

354, 1981.
Ho JHC: A epidemiological and clinical study of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol
Biol Phys 4:183-193, 1978.
Carcinoma of the Tongue, Oral Cavity, and Floor of the Mouth
Barrs DM, DeSanto LW, O’Fallon WM: Squamous cell carcinoma of the tonsil and tongue
base region. Arch Otolaryngol 105:479-485, 1979.
Harold CC: Management of cancer of the floor of the mouth. Am J Surg 122:487-493, 1971.
Jesse RH, Sugarbaker EV: Squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx: Why we fail. Am J
Surg 132:435-438, 1976.
Marks JE, Lee F, Smith PG, et al: Floor of mouth cancer: Patient selection and treatment
results. Laryngoscope 93:475-480, 1983.
Matz G, Shumrick DA, Aron BS: Carcinoma of the tonsil: Results of combined treatment.
Laryngoscope 84:2172-2180, 1974.
Parsons JT, Million RR, Cassisi NJ: Carcinoma of the base of the tongue: Results of radical
irradiation with surgery reserved for irradiation failure. Laryngoscope 92:689-696, 1982.
Strong EW: Carcinoma of the tongue. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 12:107-114, 1979.
Carcinoma of the Larynx
DeSanto LW: The options in early laryngeal carcinomas. N Engl J Med 306:910, 1982.
Ogura JH, Bell JA: Laryngectomy and radical neck dissection for carcinoma of the larynx.
Laryngoscope 62:1, 1952.
Kirchner J, Som ML: Clinical significance of fixed vocal cord. Laryngoscope 81:1029, 1971.
Som ML: Conservation surgery for carcinoma of the supraglottis. J Laryngol Otol 84:655, 1970.
Strong MS: Laser excision of carcinoma of the larynx. Laryngoscope 85:1286, 1975.
Wang CC: Treatment of glottic carcinoma by megavoltage radiation therapy and results. AJR
120:157, 1974.
Cancer of the Ear and Temporal Bone
Adams GL, Paparella MM, Elfiky FM: Primary and metastatic tumors of the temporal bone.
Laryngoscope 82:1273-1285, 1971.
Conley JJ, Schuller D: Malignancies of the ear. Laryngoscope 86:1147-1163, 1976.
Lederman M: Malignant tumors of the ear. J Laryngol Otol 79:85, 1965.
Reconstruction
Baek S, Lawson W, Biller HF: An analysis of 133 pectoralis major myocutaneous flaps. Plast
Reconstr Surg 69:460-467, 1982.
Bakamjian VY: A two stage method for pharyngoesophageal reconstruction. Plast Reconstr
Surg 36:173-184, 1965.
Gluckman JL, et al: The free jejunal graft in head and neck reconstruction. Laryngoscope
91:1887-1894, 1981.
Schechter GL, Sly DE, Roger AL, et al: Set-back tongue flap for carcinoma of the tongue
base. Arch Otolaryngol 106:668-674, 1980.
Panje W: Prosthetic voice rehabilitation following laryngectomy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol
90:116-120, 1981.
Singer MI, Blom ED: An endoscopic technique for restoration of voice after laryngectomy.
Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 89:52, 1980.
PART SEV
DISEASES OF THE
TRACHEA AND
CERVICAL
ESOPHAGUS
24
DISEASES OF THE LOWER
AIR PASSAGES, ESOPHAGUS,
AND MEDIASTINUM:
Endoscopic Considerations
by Leighton G. Siegel, M.D.
THE ESOPHAGUS
Esophagoscopy is the most direct method of examining the lumen of the

esophagus. It is essential for visualization and removal of foreign bodies,
evaluation of mucosal and tissue changes, and biopsy for microscopic
examination. It is the most reliable method of obtaining washings for
cytologic studies and culture. The presence and character of strictures,
deviations, and other esophageal abnormalities can be seen and often treated
through the esophagoscope.
Esophageal Disorders
The most common esophageal disorders are probably related to motor The most common esophageal
function. They are generally classified as those of hypomotility or hyper- those of
motility or occasionally a combination of the two.
Functional dysphagia or dysrhythmia is a disorder of hypomotility. It
generally occurs in the older patient and produces the sensation of food
sticking substernally. On radiography the peristaltic waves seem to end in
the midportion of the esophagus, and swallowing is not completed until the
second dry swallow is made. Esophageal achalasia, sometimes called cardio¬
spasm, is a neuromuscular disorder. Failure of the esophagogastric junction
to relax with deglutition results in a proximal dilatation of the esophagus
with an absence of peristalsis. In achalasia the patient feels a need to force
or push food down with water or other beverages to complete swallowing.
There is a sensation of substernal fullness, and regurgitation is common. On
radiography there is a significant retention of barium in the esophagus, with
evident difficulty in passage from the esophagus into the stomach. In all
cases of achalasia esophagoscopy should be performed to rule out malignant
obstruction (Fig. 24-1).
Diffuse spasm of the esophagus is a disorder of hypermotility. Pain is the
primary symptom. This is associated with diffuse spasm of the lower part of
the esophagus and is usually precipitated by swallowing. These attacks are
intermittent, and between attacks the patient may swallow without difficulty.
471
472 PART SEVEN—DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA AND CERVICAL ESOPHAGUS
FIGURE. 24—1. Barium swallow demonstrating (A) corrosive esophagitis from chemical
ingestion, and (B) cardiospasm.
They may also occur without swallowing and may even awaken the patient
from a sound sleep. There may be no radiographic evidence of abnormalities,
but intraluminal esophageal pressure measurements may be diagnostic.
Differentiation between diffuse spasm and cardiac pain is occasionally
difficult.
A hiatus hernia, in which a portion of the stomach has herniated into the
Cough and/or hoarseness may thoracic cavity, is common and may produce a pressure sensation or pain
be the presenting symptoms of
an esophageal disorder. behind the lower sternum. Cough, dysphagia, palpitation, and tachycardia
may also be present. The pain is generally relieved when the patient assumes
an upright position and is aggravated when the patient is recumbent.
Radiographic studies and esophagoscopy are generally diagnostic.
Schatski s contraction ring is a concentric ring-like narrowing at the level
of the inferior esophageal sphincter. It produces dysphagia and discomfort
with regurgitation if more than a small amount of food is swallowed at once.
Diverticuli usually arise in the cervical esophagus and may produce
regurgitation of undigested food and progressive dysphagia as more food is
eaten. Radiographic studies are generally diagnostic.
Many systemic diseases produce esophageal symptoms. Examples of these
are scleroderma, dermatomyositis, myasthenia gravis, and cirrhosis with
esophageal varices.
Inflammatory disorders of the esophagus include acute esophagitis and
reflux esophagitis. Less often seen are tuberculosis and monilial inflamma¬
tions. Metabolic, degenerative, and neurogenic disturbances of the esophagus
may also occur. Benign and malignant neoplasia may arise from both the
esophageal wall and the mucosa or may originate in the stomach or
laryngopharynx and extend into the esophagus. Dysphagia, pain, and weight
loss are the most common initial symptoms of malignant disease, although
they may not occur early! Treatment depends upon size and location of the
neoplasm and consists of surgery/irradiation, or both.
24—DISEASES OF THE LOWER AIR PASSAGES, ESOPHAGUS, AND MEDIASTINUM 473
A great number of congenital anomalies of the esophagus exist. Some Anomalies that compress the
involve the esophagus alone. Others involve the esophagus and trachea. Still esophagus commonly compress
others are anomalies of adjacent structures that impinge on the esophagus. airPassa8esalso-
Esophageal absence is rare. A congenital duplicate esophagus may exist as
either a tube of a cystlike structure adjacent to the esophagus. Simple webs
are rare. Stenosis may be fibrotic or due to a failure of epithelialization of a
section of the esophagus. Congenital esophageal stenosis occurring at the
junction of the middle and proximal third may first become evident when
the infant begins taking solid foods. Several types of tracheoesophageal
fistulas exist, all of which require surgical therapy. Atresia without tracheo¬
esophageal fistula may require repeated bronchoscopic aspirations prior to
surgery. Vascular rings and other cardiovascular anomalies may produce
varying degrees of obstruction because of extrinsic pressure on the lumen of
the esophagus.
Caustic Ingestion
Corrosive esophagitis is most commonly produced by ingestion of house¬
hold cleaning agents, usually by children. The most destructive is sodium
hydroxide, or lye, which causes lysis of tissue and often deep penetration of
the esophageal wall. Liquid drain cleaners may damage the esophagus or
produce similar gastric lesions. Certain agents not only are caustic to the
esophagus but have severe systemic effects, such as renal failure.
If there is a history of possible ingestion of caustic agents, it is imperative
that the presence or absence of esophageal involvement be established. The When caustic ingestion is sus¬
presence or absence of oral pharyngeal ulcerations is of no help in deciding pected it is up to the physician
to prove or disprove that it has
if there is an esophageal burn. This can be established only by esophagos- occurred.
copy, which may be safely done provided that the scope is not passed beyond
the first visible esophageal injury. Esophagoscopy is generally performed 24
to 48 hours after ingestion. If the caustic agent produces an early severe
necrosis, perforation and resultant mediastinitis can occur. More commonly,
perforation does not occur, but in the healing process a scar circumferentially
constricts the esophagus, producing an esophageal stenosis (Table 24-1).
When large quantities of lye are ingested, as in adult suicide attempts,
emergency total esophagogastrectomy may be required. If perforation is
likely, steroids are not given. The use of steroids can mask a developing
peritonitis or mediastinitis. In such cases all efforts are directed at the
TABLE 24-1. COMMON AGENTS PRODUCING ESOPHAGEAL BURNS

Drain cleaners (NaOH)
Liquid Plumber
Drano (liquid or crystal)
Oven cleaners
Easy off
Ammonia
Clinitest tablets
Bleach
Phosphates
Acids
Sulfuric
Nitric
Phenol
Iodine
Potassium permanganate
treatment of the mediastinitis or peritonitis. Attention is given to the shock

and toward stabilizing the patient rather than prevention of stricture.
Early diagnosis and treatment Early diagnosis and treatment are essential if a disabling esophageal
are critical. stenosis is to be avoided. By the time the patient is seen in the emergency
room, the use of any substance to neutralize the lye may only cause emesis
and increase the existing injury. The most common sites for burns are at the
level of the cricopharyngeus and the cardia. Burns of the lower esophagus
are associated with reflux. When there is significant pain with swallowing,
the patient is given no food by mouth, and a small polyethylene nasogastric
tube is passed and left in place until healing is complete. This tube allows
feeding and maintains a lumen for future dilatation if necessary. Systemic
broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin) are begun and continued
throughout therapy to control infection. Steroid therapy must be initiated in
the first 48 to 96 hours after the ingestion. Antibiotics and steroids may not
be helpful if administration is begun after this period.
Adults may be given 80 mg of prednisone the first day, 60 mg the second
day, 40 mg the third day, and then 20 mg daily until the esophagus is healed.
Children may be given 1 mg prednisone per kilogram of body weight daily
for two weeks; the dosage is then gradually tapered. The antibiotics, steroids,
and nasogastric feedings are continued until the healing process is complete,
usually for four to six weeks. Esophagoscopy or barium swallow is repeated
about every two weeks until healing is completed. After complete healing is
evident, the antibiotics may be discontinued and the steroid dosage gradually
reduced. Follow-up should also include repeated esophagograms. In those
patients who develop strictures despite therapy, dilatation is necessary. For
small or short strictures, dilatation may be accomplished using esophago-
scopes. or mercury-filled rubber bougies. Dilatation is performed with great
caution, if at all, when patients are still on steroids. If multiple strictures or
severe esophageal deformities are present, a gastrotomy is performed and
retrograde dilatation is accomplished by pulling the dilator from the stomach
through the esophagus with a string. In the rare patient, when all measures
fail to prevent obstructing stenosis, a loop of bowel may be brought up into
the chest as a substitute esophagus. The incidence of carcinoma of the
esophagus is increased one thousand fold in adults who experienced caustic
strictures during childhood.
Foreign Body Ingestion

Ingested foreign bodies may lodge in the esophagus. The etiology of
foreign body ingestion and aspiration is similar and is discussed later in the
section on aspiration. The most important point in the history of ingestion
of foreign bodies, as with caustic ingestion, is to believe the patient. It is up
to the physician to adequately demonstrate the absence of a foreign body or
caustic burn once its presence is suggested by the patient or the patient’s
symptoms. Whenever possible, request that the patient bring a duplicate of
the foreign body so that the endoscopist may decide which type of forceps
and approach will be most effective in removal. Tell the patient to take
nothing to eat or drink and not to induce vomiting. This will reduce the
likelihood of a peristaltic contraction inducing a perforation as it passes the
foreign body and decreases the risk of vomiting and aspiration during later
anesthesia induction.
The most common site for lodgment is at the entrance to the esophagus
at the level of the cricopharyngeus muscle. Other common sites are where
the esophagus is indented by the arch of the aorta and the left main bronchus
and at the entrance to the stomach. Pathologic lesions of the esophagus may
produce partial obstruction and cause the lodgment of foreign bodies that
otherwise would pass through quite easily. Children account for nearly 70
per cent of foreign body ingestion. They tend to carry coins, pins, toys, and
other objects in their mouths, with subsequent accidental ingestion.
A foreign body that lodges in the esophagus produces both difficulty in Dysphagia and odynophagia are
swallowing and discomfort. The position of a foreign body in the esophagus common symptoms.
can often be accurately localized by the patient. If the foreign body has
lodged in the cervical esophagus, pressure against the back of the larynx and
trachea may produce hoarseness, cough, and dyspnea. Saliva may flow out
of the esophagus and into the larynx.
Radiopaque foreign bodies may be seen easily on posteroanterior and
lateral chest radiographs. Radiographs should include all areas from the
nose to the anus. Often more than one foreign body has been ingested, and
unless complete studies are made, additional objects, such as a needle that
has passed into the colon, could be missed. More commonly, the foreign
body is radiolucent and is not seen on plain roentgenogram. Thin metallic P.A. and lateral x-rays are
foreign bodies can be seen only if radiographed on edge. For this reason needed. Avoid large swallows of
barium.
both posteroanterior and lateral films are indicated. An esophagogram and
associated fluoroscopy should then be done. A large swallow of barium
should not be given, as it coats the walls of the esophagus with a thick white
paste that makes subsequent esophagoscopy very difficult. It is better to
have the patient swallow a bit of cotton or marshmallow with contrast
medium in it. Cotton fibers may catch on the foreign body for a moment or
two during deglutition, thereby revealing its presence through fluoroscopy.
Knowledge of the orientation of the foreign body in the esophagus is very
helpful in planning endoscopic removal (Fig. 24-2).
Symptoms associated with the ingestion of foreign bodies occur in three
stages. In the first stage of initial symptoms, there is a violent paroxysm of First stage
coughing or gagging. This occurs when the foreign body is first swallowed. Second stage
Third stage
The second stage is a symptomless interval. The foreign body has lodged,
and symptoms are no longer produced. This stage may last only a moment
or two. The third stage consists of the symptoms produced by complications.
There may be discomfort, dysphagia, obstruction, or perforation of the
esophagus with resultant mediastinitis.
Unless complete airway obstruction exists, first aid during the stage of What not to do.
initial symptoms should consist of resisting the urge to “do something.”
Slapping the patient on the back, hanging the child by the heels, putting a
finger down the patient’s throat, or attempting blind removal may convert a
simple, uncomplicated foreign body into a complicated obstructing one (Fig.
24-3). A more complete discussion on the management of acute airway
obstruction is found later in this chapter under Foreign Body Aspiration.
Esophageal foreign bodies generally require more urgent treatment than Prompt removal of esophageal
those in the tracheobronchial tree because of the danger of perforation of foreign bodies is more impor¬
tant than prompt removal of for¬
the thin esophageal wall and resultant mediastinitis. Therefore, ingested eign bodies in the tracheobron¬
foreign bodies with sharp edges or points should be removed on any chial tree.
emergency basis. Blunt esophageal foreign bodies, such as coins, may be
trapped initially by esophageal spasm. Coins and other disc-shaped objects
FIGURE 24—2. Common types of esophageal foreign bodies in children. A, Coin at the
cervical narrowing ("upper pinchcock”); 6, safety pin arrested at the same site as in A; C,
campaign button arrested temporarily in the lower third of the esophagus.
generally orient in a transverse direction in the esophagus and anteroposte-

riorly in the trachea. They are generally trapped at the level of the
cricopharyngeus muscle in children. Glucagon or a subhypnotic dose of an
analgesic or sedative drug may relax the spasm, allowing the coin to pass
into the stomach.
In general, foreign bodies that have reached the stomach will pass through
the remainder of the gastrointestinal tract without difficulty. One important
exception occurs with objects over 5 cm in length, such as bobby pins,
ingested by children age two or under. At that age straight objects such as
these cannot traverse the duodenal bends and may perforate in one of these
locations. Patients whose foreign body has passed into the stomach should
be instructed to continue a normal diet and should be given no drugs that
would affect gastrointestinal motility. A low roughage diet does not provide
adequate food bulk around the foreign body to protect the intestinal lumen.
Similarly, a high roughage diet may increase peristaltic contractions so that
the foreign body may perforate. The stool should be carefully examined to
FIGURE 24—3. Possible methods of impaction of a foreign body by ill-advised first aid. (From
Tucker GF Jr: Minutes Report of the Committee for the Prevention of Foreign Body Accidents.
Trans Am Bronchoesophagol Assoc 49:181 — 183, 1969.)
prove complete passage of the foreign body. Abdominal pain in these

patients may indicate that a perforation has occurred.
Evaluation of Esophageal Disease

Patient History
When a patient's presenting complaint suggests esophageal disease, the
following specific history should be elicited and characterized as to location,
onset, duration, frequency, relation to eating, and factors that seem to
minimize or increase associated symptoms.
1. Difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia) solids or liquids

2. Complete obstruction (inability to swallow)
3. Discomfort in swallowing (odynophagia)

4. Regurgitation of undigested food
5. Hematemesis (vomiting of blood)
6. Sensation of foreign body
7. Lump in throat
8. Heartburn
9. Weight loss
10. Hoarseness
11. Sensitivity to hot or cold foods
Physical Examination
Physical examinations for esophageal disease should begin with an assess¬
Remember to examine the lar¬ ment of the patient’s voice and speech. Careful palpation of the neck may
ynx and neck when esophageal
reveal evidence of metastatic malignant disease or an enlarged or abnormal
symptoms exist.
thyroid gland. The larynx and trachea normally lie in the midline and should
be checked for deviation. There should not be tenderness over the cricopha-
ryngeus muscle. Intraoral examination may reveal abnormal weakness of the
tongue, soft palate, or pharyngeal walls or deviation of the uvula in the
presence of neurologic disease. Vagal paralysis may produce asymmetric
movement of the posterior pharyngeal wall. Mirror examination of the
hypopharynx and the larynx may similarly reveal a vocal cord paralysis or
abnormal puddling of secretions or saliva in the piriform sinuses. This
puddling is a particularly important sign that may indicate an esophageal
obstruction such as a foreign body or tumor.
Radiographic and Other Studies

Radiographic examination of the esophagus is perhaps the most useful
method for studying this organ. A preliminary chest radiograph and scout
Avoid large quantities of barium film of the neck should precede fluoroscopy with a barium or iodized oil
when doing an esophagram for
foreign body evaluation.
swallow. Videoradiographic techniques may also be helpful if they are
available. Barium coats the esophagus and thus should not be used as a
contrast agent if esophagoscopy is planned shortly after the radiographs are
taken.
Other diagnostic tests may be done in conjunction with radiography,
including intraluminal pressure measurements. In this study, water-filled
tubes are positioned to measure pressure changes within the esophageal
lumen during the deglutition (Fig. 24-4 A and B). Disorders of motor
function, whether involving hypermotility or hypomotility, can be diagnosed
and the effects of therapy quantitatively measured using this technique.
Esophagoscopy
Esophagoscopy is indicated after careful history, physical examination,
and radiographic studies are completed. Esophagoscopy is advised when any
question remains about the diagnosis or if therapy may be instituted via
esophagoscopy. A negative radiographic study does not eliminate the need
for esophagoscopy, since many small mucosal lesions, nonradiopaque foreign
bodies, and nonspecific inflammatory changes can be diagnosed only in this
manner. Esophagoscopy is contraindicated in the presence of an aortic
aneurysm (Fig. 24-5).
Two basic types of esophagoscopes exist. One type is a rigid metal tube
with an oval lumen which contains a light carrier and a channel for aspiration
FIGURE 24—4. A, Esophageal motility

tracing showing a normal peristaltic
wave progressing down the esophagus.
Note evidence of relaxation of the
esophagogastric sphincter shortly after
the patient swallowed. B, Balloon-cov¬
ered transducer with associated poly¬
ethylene tubes used for detection of
intraluminal pressures. (From Andersen
HA: Dysfunction of the esophagus. Oto¬
laryngol Clin North Am 1(2): 197, June
1968.)
of secretions. This type of esophagoscope permits direct unobstructed

visualization of the esophageal mucosa and manipulation with a variety of
instruments for both biopsy and removal of foreign bodies. The second type
is the flexible esophagoscope with fiberoptic illumination and fiberoptic
viewing. A smaller channel exists for aspiration of secretions and insertion
of a slender forceps for biopsy or foreign body removal (Table 24-2). This
type provides a more magnified view of the mucosa but does not allow as
wide a variety of instruments for manipulation, particularly of foreign bodies.
It also will not retract and protect the esophageal wall during removal of
sharp-edged foreign bodies as does the rigid esophagoscope. Esophagoscopy
may be done under local or general anesthesia. The choice of anesthetic and
esophagoscope usually depends upon the endoscopist, the age and general
health of the patient, and the suspected disease (Fig. 24-6).
FIGURE 24-5. Adult and in¬

fant esophagoscopes (Jesberg
models), grasping and biopsy
forceps, and suction tube.
TABLE 24-2. ENDOSCOPE AND TRACHEOSTOMY TUBE SIZES IN

INFANTS AND CHILDREN*
TRACHEOSTOMY
AGE LARYNGOSCOPE BRONCHOSCOPE ESOPHAGOSCOPE TUBE
Premature 6 3.0 mm x 20 cm 3.5 mm x 25 cm 00
Newborn 6 3.5 mm x 25 cm 4.0 mm x 35 cm 0
3 to 6 months 9 3.5 mm x 30 cm 4.0 mm x 35 cm 0 or 1
1 year 9 4.0 mm x 30 cm 5.0 mm x 35 cm 1
2 years 11 4.0 mm x 30 cm 5.0 mm x 35 cm 1
4 years 11 5.0 mm x 35 cm 6.0 mm x 35 cm 2
5 to 7 years 12 5.0 mm x 35 cm 6.0 mm x 35 cm 3
8 to 12 years 16 6.0 mm x 35 cm 6.0 mm x 35 cm 3 or 4
7.0 mm x 40 cm
‘The tube size for adults depends upon height and weight and usually ranges from the size used for 12-
year-olds to two sizes larger.
FIGURE 24—6. Approximate distance of the esophageal anatomic landmarks from the
upper incisor teeth as seen by the endoscopist, (Adapted from Jackson C, Jackson CL:
Bronchoesophagology. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1950, p 229.)
THE TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE
Bronchoscopy is the only method of directly visualizing the tracheobron¬

chial tree and its pathology (Figs. 24-7 and 24-8). It is often the only way
of confirming or making early diagnosis, for it allows direct biopsy of tumors
and localized washings for cytologic studies and culture. Bronchoscopy is
often needed for therapeutic reasons such as the removal of foreign bodies.
Bronchoscopic cleansing is one of the most effective methods of treating
obstructive or aspirated secretions.
FIGURE 24-7. Obstructive emphysema in a 3'/2-year-old child with a foreign body (peanut)
in the right main bronchus, a, On inspiration, the bronchus enlarges and air passes around
the foreign body to inflate the right lung, b, On expiration, the air escapes normally from
the left lung, but the right bronchus closes tightly around the foreign body, keeping the
air trapped on the right side. There is a mediastinal shift to the left.
Left Lung Right Lung
Lobe Bronchus Segment Lobe Bronchus Segment

L1&2 Apical- R1 Apical
Upper Division posterior Upper. R2 Posterior
[l3 Anterior R3 Anterior
Upper
Lower Division 1 L4 Superior R4 Lateral
(lingular) L5 Inferior . R5 Medial
L6 Superior (apical) R6 Superior (apical)

Lower L7&8 Anterior-medial R7 Medial Basal
Basal Lower. R8 Anterior Basal
L9 Lateral Basal R9 Lateral Basal
L10 Posterior Basal [RIO Posterior Basal
FIGURE 24-8. Top, Anatomic landmarks in the bronchial tree (inverted, as presenting to
the bronchoscopist). Arrows indicate directions of bronchoscopic views. (From Norris CM:
Bronchology. In English GM [ed]: Otolaryngology. Vol. IV. New York, Harper &. Row, 1976,
Ch 30.)
Bronchi are designated by simple descriptive names and numbers, according to the
Jackson-Huber nomenclature. These designations are shown in the bronchoscopic report
form. (Adapted from Jackson and Huber, Overholt, and Boyden.)
Tracheobronchial Disorders
Tracheobronchial congenital anomalies are not uncommon and generally
produce respiratory obstruction at birth or soon after. A clear voice distin¬
guishes tracheal from laryngeal obstruction. Tracheal atresia and agenesis
are obviously incompatible with life. Membranous tracheal webs may be
dilated with the tip of a bronchoscope. Longer webs may require more
extensive treatment. Tracheomalacia or flaccid trqcheal cartilages may be
seen on videofluoroscopy and may produce symptoms of dyspnea. Tracheo
esophageal fistulas are generally amenable to surgical correction. Supernu¬
merary bronchial lobes and fissures are occasionally seen.
Metabolic, allergic, and degenerative disorders include asthma, bronchiec¬
tasis, emphysema, and chronic obstructive lung disease. Aspiration or
retention of thickened secretions, especially in children and debilitated or
postoperative patients, may result in atelectasis or pneumonia. This is a
common problem that may be prevented or treated via bronchoscopy.
Culture for identification of infection, including tuberculosis, may require
bronchoscopy. The diagnosis of tracheobronchial and pulmonary malignan¬
cies requires bronchoscopic examination. Often a direct biopsy may be made
or washings for cytologic study can be obtained via the bronchoscope. Benign
tumors are diagnosed in a similar fashion. Blunt and penetrating trauma to
the chest may involve the tracheobronchial tree, requiring endoscopic
evaluation.
Foreign Body Aspiration

Aspiration of foreign bodies is most commonly encountered in children,
although it is seen in patients of all ages. The most common cause of foreign
body aspiration or ingestion is carelessness on the part of the patient or
parent. Children age four and under are not able to adequately chew nuts,
carrots, popcorn, and similar hard foods. They tend to carry such foods in
their mouths as well as toys, pins, and other objects and thus often aspirate
them. United States Federal Regulations specify the smallest manufactured
toy size permitted for children age three and under. A large toy or other
object is less likely to fit into a child’s mouth, thus reducing the risk of
aspiration or ingestion. Other factors leading to foreign body aspiration are
intoxication, unconsciousness for any reason, and facial trauma with the
aspiration of tooth fragments and dental plates. A dental plate covering the
palate decreases intraoral sensation of food particle size and position and
contributes to aspiration.
Symptoms of foreign body aspiration can be divided into three stages. The First stage: emergency manage¬
first stage of initial symptoms occurs while the foreign body is being aspirated. ment is not what your first im¬
pulse would be.
There are usually violent paroxysms of coughing and gagging. First aid at
this point is identical to that for the initial stage of foreign body ingestion.
It consists of resisting the urge to “do something,” unless there is an obvious
complete airway obstruction. Slapping the patient on the back, hanging a
child by the heels, attempting to extract the foreign body with a finger, or
attempting blind instrumental removal may complicate a simple nonobstruct¬
ing foreign body by jamming it into the larynx and converting it into a
complete obstruction. These maneuvers may also disimpact a foreign body
lodged in the right main bronchus, and it can then move up into the larynx,
be “caught” by the vocal cords, and produce a complete airway obstruction.
How much time do you have to If a complete obstruction has occurred, the foreign body must be disim-
dislodge a total airway obstruc¬ pacted or an alternate airway established within four minutes. Hypoxia
tion?
beyond this time limit results in permanent brain damage. Someone should
immediately be sent to obtain a sharp knife so that a tracheostomy or-
cricothyrotomy may be attempted if measures to disimpact the foreign body
fail. The measures described in the preceding paragraph may be attempted.
An attempt may also be made to forcibly expel any air remaining in the
lung. This is generally done by grasping the patient just below the sternum
and forcibly squeezing the upper abdomen. This is the so-called Heimlich
hug taught in standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation courses. If successful,
the diaphragm will be elevated, compressing the lungs. The foreign body
will be blown out of the airway so that the patient may breathe again.
Another method that may be attempted is mouth-to-mouth resuscitation,
either to force the object further down into the tracheobronchial tree so that
it is not completely obstructive or to draw it out. If all these measures fail
to establish an airway, an emergency tracheostomy or cricothyrotomy must
be attempted. This procedure is described in Chapter 25.
The second stage is symptom¬ The second stage is the symptomless interval when the foreign body
less. becomes lodged in one position. This stage may last only an instant or may
extend over a number of years.
The third stage is complication. The third stage is the stage of complications. Obstruction, erosion with
infection, hemorrhage, or perforation may again draw attention to the
foreign body. The foreign body lodged in the larynx or the cervical esophagus
produces discomfort, hoarseness, cough, and perhaps dyspnea. Foreign
bodies in the trachea may move back and forth between the carina and the
bottom of the glottis with respiration, producing an audible slap and a
palpable thud. Traumatic laryngeal edema in this situation may result in
hoarseness and later airway obstruction.
Three types of bronchial ob¬ If the foreign body is in the bronchus, three physiologic possibilities exist
struction exist: complete, in terms of obstruction to air flow. If the object completely obstructs a
check-valve, and nonobstruc¬
tive.
bronchus, peripheral atelectasis results as air is absorbed from the distal
lung into the blood. If the object is nonobstructive, allowing air to flow
around it on both inspiration and expiration, all that may result is an asthma¬
like localized wheezing. Many foreign bodies have been thus misdiagnosed
as asthma. The third possibility, and the one most commonly found, is a
partial obstruction with the foreign body acting as a check-valve. The
bronchus expands on inspiration, allowing air to flow past it into the distal
lung. The bronchus contracts around the foreign body during expiration,
trapping air in the distal lung. This produces an emphysema peripheral to
the foreign body. If the foreign body is left in place, pneumonia, abscess,
or hemorrhage may occur. The possibility of a foreign body is one reason
for bronchoscopy in the presence of persistent or recurrent pneumonia,
localized wheezing, or hemoptysis.
Physical examination should give careful attention to auscultation for
findings compatible with atelectasis, emphysema, or wheezing. Mirror ex¬
amination of the larynx and hypopharynx may reveal foreign bodies present
in this area.
X-rays for a foreign body in the A radiograph, particularly in children, should include the entire area from
thoracic area should include the the top of the nose to the rectum. This is because children often have
neck and abdomen.
aspirated or ingested more than one foreign body. In such cases it is possible
to be looking for a toy in the trachea and miss another object that has
migrated to the colon or has been coughed into the nasopharynx. Postero-
anterior and lateral chest radiographs are needed. In addition, and perhaps
most important, radiographs at the height of inspiration and at the end of
expiration are required. If these inspiratory and expiratory films are ne¬ Inspiratory and expiratory chest
glected, the presence of a foreign body may be missed. A film taken only at x-rays are helpful.
the height of inspiration may not show a check-valve emphysema. A film
taken only on expiration will miss an obstructive atelectasis. Fluoroscopy
during inspiration and expiration may also be valuable. The mediastinum Look for mediastinal movement.
moves toward the side of the foreign body on inspiration if there is a check
valve and when there is a complete obstruction. A radiopaque nonobstructing
foreign body may not be visible on chest radiograph (Fig. 24-7).
If a foreign body is suspected, the patient should be requested to obtain Instruct the patient /parent to
a duplicate of it so that the endoscopist can more accurately determine which bring a duplicate foreign body if
possible.
forceps and approach to use. The patient should be instructed to eat and
drink nothing, to reduce the risk of vomiting and subsequent aspiration at
the time of endoscopy. A foreign body lodged in the tracheobronchial tree,
not totally occluding the airway, is not as great an emergency as one that is
lodged in the esophagus unless it has sharp edges or is an uncooked or Uncooked or dehydrated vege¬
dehydrated vegetable, which can absorb fluids and swell within the lumen. tables are a special problem.
Evaluation of Tracheobronchial Disease
Patient History
Patients with presenting symptoms suggesting disease of the tracheobron¬
chial tree or lung should have a careful history with the following symptoms
and problems characterized:
1. Cough (productive and nonproductive)

2. Hemoptysis
3. Wheeze
4. Hoarseness
5. Atelectasis or emphysema (localized and generalized)
6. Recurrent or persistent pneumonitis or lung abscess
7. Aspiration of foreign material or object
8. Unexplained radiographic shadows
9. Retention of secretions in the tracheobronchial tree
10. Dyspnea not secondary to cardiopulmonary or metabolic decompensa¬
tion
Physical Examination and Laboratory Studies

Physical examination should include careful palpation of the neck for
deviation of the trachea, for supraclavicular and cervical lymph nodes, and
for metastasis. Inspection, percussion, and auscultation of the chest should
be followed by appropriate chest radiography. Radiographic contrast study
of the tracheobronchial tree, bronchography, is accomplished by instilling
radiopaque liquid into the tracheobronchial tree under fluoroscopic control.
Pulmonary function studies, blood gas analysis, complete blood count,
sputum culture, and evaluation of the cardiovascular system are also useful.
Bronchoscopy
Bronchoscopy is indicated when the diagnosis of tracheobronchial or
pulmonary symptoms is not clearly established by radiography or when
therapy necessitates direct access to the tracheobronchial tree (Fig. 24-8).
Two basic types of bronchoscopes exist. One is a rigid metal tube with a
light source at the distal end and the capability of ventilating, the patient
during the procedure. The rigid bronchoscope gives a direct view of the
tracheobronchial tree and has the greatest latitude in terms of aspiration of
secretions, manipulation with forceps, and removal of foreign bodies. Bron-
choscopic telescopes may be placed through these to allow magnified direct
and angled visualization of the more peripheral bronchi. A wide variety of
foreign body and biopsy forceps are available for rigid bronchoscopes, many
having a built-in telescope for magnified viewing and manipulation.
The second type is the flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope (Fig. 24-9). The
larger of these bronchoscopes have small channels for aspiration of secretions
and insertion of a slender forceps for biopsy or foreign body removal as well
as a directable mobile tip. A small brush may be passed through the channel
to obtain brushing samples, under fluoroscopic control, from peripheral lung
lesions for histologic examination. The fiberoptic bronchoscope allows ex¬
amination and biopsy of bronchial segments more peripheral than can be
done through the rigid scope, particularly in the upper lobe branches.
Although the usual flexible bronchoscopes have a smaller diameter than the
comparable adult rigid scope, they are usually too large for use in infants
and children. Flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopes designed for children have a
smaller diameter but may lack a channel for suction or instrumentation and
may not have a directable tip. They normally cannot be used for anything
except diagnostic visualization and are not suitable for foreign body removal.
Bronchoscopy may be done under local or general anesthesia. The choice
FIGURE 24-9. Olympus flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope. Inset shows closeup views of
the brush (utilized for obtaining cells from peripheral lesions) and biopsy cups.
of anesthetic and the type of bronchoscope usually depends upon the

endoscopist, the age and general health of the patient, and the disease
suspected (Table 24-2). The procedure requires only a few minutes to
perform and causes little patient discomfort.
MEDIASTINOSCOPY
Mediastinoscopy is an operative diagnostic technique for identification and

biopsy of tissue in the anterior mediastinum (Fig. 24-12). Its prime uses are
to determine the presence of lymph node metastases from bronchogenic
carcinoma and to diagnose intrathoracic sarcoidosis. Either local or general
endotracheal anesthesia is adequate. The trachea is exposed through a
horizontal tracheotomy incision just above the thoracic inlet. Finger dissec¬
tion is accomplished along the ventral tracheal surface into the mediastinum,
after which the mediastinoscope is introduced into this tract. The procedure
allows a direct examination of the paratracheal, parabronchial, and subcran-
ial areas (Figs. 24-11 and 24-12).
Mediastinoscopy is the only means, short of thoracotomy, currently
available to confirm pathologically spread to paratracheal, parabronchial,
and subcarinal lymph nodes. For example, a biopsy of a small cell carcinoma
may preclude the need for thoracotomy. In addition, mediastinoscopy is one
means of obtaining a prethoracotomy diagnosis of bronchogenic carcinoma.
It is therefore used not only to predict unresectability but also to make the
FIGURE 24-10. Access to the paratracheal and parabronchial area is direct. Arteries
intervene between veins and tracheobronchial tree. The Zeiss Operating Microscope
offers superior light and magnification and enables photography. (From Paparella MM,
Shumrick DA [eds]: Otolaryngology. Vol. 3. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1973, p 734.)
FIGURE 24-11. The area of examination is

outlined by heavy dots. Vessels identified
are the innominate artery (1), aortic arch
'2), left recurrent laryngeal nerve (3), azygos
✓ein (4), and right pulmonary artery (5).
Biopsies should be performed to the right
and left of the main bronchi and subcarinally.
(From Paparella MM, Shumrick DA [eds]:
Otolaryngology. Vol. 3. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1973, p 735.)
diagnosis in a significant percentage of cases. The CT scan has replaced

mediastinoscopy in most situations for determining the presence or absence
of hilar adenopathy.
Other diseases that have been diagnosed by mediastinoscopy include
mediastinal cyst, thymomas, lymphomas, retrosternal goiter, tuberculosis,
silicosis, and carcinoma of the esophagus, stomach, breast, and uterus.
FIGURE 24-12. Composite drawing of

mediastinoscopic view. Structures iden¬
tified in enlarged portions are innomi¬
nate artery (I), arch of aorta (A), trachea
(T), azygos vein (V), right pulmonary
artery (P), and subcarinal sarcoid node
(S). (From Paparella MM, Shumrick DA
[eds]: Otolaryngology. Vol. 3. Philadel¬
phia, WB Saunders Co, 1973, p 735.)
References
Becker W, Buckingham RA, Holinger PH, et al: Atlas of Ear, Nose and Throat Diseases. 2nd
ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1984.
Heimlich HJ: A life-saving maneuver to prevent food-choking. JAMA 234:398-401, 1975.
Harris CS, Baker SP. Smith GA, Harris RM: Childhood asphyxiation by food. A national
analysis and overview. JAMA 251:2231-2235, 1984.
Jackson C, Jackson CL: Bronchoesophagology. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1950.
Paparella MM, Shumrick DA (eds); Otolaryngology. Vol 3: Head and Neck. Philadelphia, WB
Saunders Co, 1980.
Ritter FN: Questionable methods of foreign body treatment. Ann Otol 83:729-733, 1974.
Rothmann BF, Boeckman CR: Foreign bodies in the larynx and tracheobronchial tree in
children. A review of 225 cases. Ann Otol 89:434-436, 1980.
25
TRACHEOSTOMY
by Robert H. Maisel, M.D.
Tracheotomy and tracheostomy are words used interchangeably to mean

a temporary opening in the anterior neck into the trachea. Tracheotomy,
strictly defined, refers to the incision made in the trachea, while tracheostomy
really defines the creation of a stoma through which air may pass to the
lungs, bypassing the upper airway. The permanent stoma, after laryngec¬
tomy, achieved by suture of skin to tracheal mucosa is best described as a
permanent tracheostomy.
HISTORY
This surgical procedure has a long and, until recently, maligned reputation.
McClelland believed that five periods in the development and acceptance of
tracheostomy were discernible. The earliest recorded tracheostomy is buried
in legend. The sacred Hindu book Rig Veda, written between 2000 and 1000
bc, mentions “the bountiful one who can cause the windpipe to reunite
when the cervical cartilages are cut across.” Historians, however, consider
Asclepiades, born about 124 bc, the first to carry out the operation. No
surgeon’s account appears before Brasavola (1500-1570) described his suc¬
cessful surgical management of Ludwig’s angina in 1546. In the second era,
from 1546 to 1833, such surgical attempts were feared, and only 28 successful
tracheostomies were reported in this three-century period.
Trousseau and Bretonneau popularized the operation in France, using it
for treatment of diphtheria with a 25 per cent rate of success (a high cure
rate for the time). This third era of tracheostomy was highlighted in 1921
when Chevalier Jackson described the modern techniques and warned against
incising the cricoid cartilage or first tracheal ring. This admonition, when
followed, reduced the high complication rate from iatrogenic subglottic
stenosis. During this era, the indication for such surgery was almost exclu¬
sively upper airway obstruction.
The fourth era began in 1932, with Wilson’s suggestion that airway toilet
could be managed in difficult cases of respiratory paralysis, specifically
poliomyelitis. Galloway also led the thinking of this era, using tracheostomy
for indications such as head injury, severe chest injury, barbiturate intoxi¬
cation, and postsurgical airway control. This was the period of enthusiasm.
During these years the aphorism “if you think about doing a tracheostomy,
do it” was bora, and this adage is still followed by many to prevent crisis
tracheostomy.
490
25—TRACHEOSTOMY 491
Prolonged Intubation
Since the early 1960s the firm trend to use tracheostomy to bypass
obstruction and to manage accumulated secretions or ventilatory failure has
begun to be challenged. Endotracheal intubation has become more compet¬ Careful endotracheal Intubation
itive, with better nursing care, including frequent suctioning of the trachea, has altered the indications for
“emergency" tracheostomy.
and the use of humidified air and new tubes made of improved plastics that
decrease the amount of crusting, thus no longer necessitating frequent
exchange of the tube. The speed of intubation and the ease of extubation,
as well as the avoidance of the complications of tracheostomy, make the
technique attractive.
Prolonged intubation has significant complications, with morbidity and
some mortality. These include acute sinusitis; nasal, mucosal, and cartilage
destruction; serous otitis media; and laryngeal and subglottic problems. The
laryngeal problems can be more difficult to treat than tracheal stenosis posed
by tracheostomy because the larynx is a functional muscular organ and not
just a hollow tube to conduct air. Reconstruction can be difficult, and
rehabilitation is occasionally unsatisfactory.
At present, many centers intubate patients in emergency situations or if
removal of the tube is expected within one week. After 72 hours, if the tube
is still needed, the tracheostomy is done. Few complications at the laryngeal
and subglottic regions have occurred following this protocol. Prolonged adult
intubation does increase the risks and severity of complications.
In children and infants more prolonged intubation has been successful. It Prolonged intubation is better
may be maintained for up to six days, as shown by clinical studies. Infants tolerated in infants and new¬
borns than in adults.
have been managed for longer periods because of the great difficulty in
performing and caring for tracheostomies in these patients. In neonatbs,
intubation up to six months has been reported with success. However,
occasional laryngeal complications have been seen after prolonged intubation
in children.
The frequency of subglottic stenosis may increase as more infants with
various respiratory distress syndromes are managed this way, and caution is
urged before yielding to the temptation to insert a tube. The more recent
adage, “if you think of doing a tracheostomy, intubate and think again,”
has some merit but must be tempered by the realization that intubation is a
temporary measure and must be either discontinued or replaced by a
tracheostomy tube.
The argument over intubation versus tracheostomy is still unsettled.
However, if intubation is elected, conversion to tracheostomy after six days
in children and after 72 to 96 hours in adults at present appears to be most
satisfactory.
PRESENT INDICATIONS
Indications for tracheostomy involve mechanical obstruction of the airway

and nonobstructive problems that alter ventilation. Any lesion that does or
may occlude the upper airway must be bypassed. Congenital laryngeal
lesions such as subglottic stenosis, vocal cord paralysis, inflammatory disease
that obstructs the airway (e.g., Ludwig’s angina, which elevates the floor of
the mouth and tongue, occluding the pharyngeal airway), epiglottitis, and
vascular, neoplastic, or traumatic lesions that act by similar mechanical

means are firm indications for tracheostomy.
The symptoms of upper airway obstruction are frightening to both patient
and physician. Dyspnea may occur, and stridor, which is usually inspiratory
(crowing) for lesions at or above the level of the true vocal cords, is noted.
Expiratory stridor, typical of obstruction at or below the glottic aperture, is
high-pitched and wheezing. Retraction at the suprasternal notch and supra¬
clavicular and intercostal spaces represents an attempt to create negative
intrathoracic pressure to draw air into the lungs. The patient’s color may be
ashen or cyanotic, while dysphagia or drooling saliva suggests that there is
Restlessness in children with mechanical obstruction to swallowing. Restlessness with these signs is typical
airway obstruction should not
in children and must alert the physician to the urgent need to gain control
be treated by heavy sedation.
of the airway. Heavy sedation for restless children with respiratory distress
is absolutely contraindicated until the obstructed airway is bypassed, except
during surgery. In respiratory mechanical obstruction, a restless child who
becomes quiet without signs of relief is dangerously near death, and urgent
measures are needed.
Patients in the second category have no upper airway obstruction but have
decreased ability to clear secretions, ineffective ventilation, or both. Patients
with secretional obstruction due to loss of cilia, unwillingness to cough
because of pain (fractured'ribs), or inability to cough due to CNS injury
may actually drown in their own secretions. Failure to continue to clear
secretions produces mucous plugs that shunt pulmonary artery blood. This
shunt produces hypoxia, since the ventilated alveoli cannot transfer sufficient
oxygen. Arterial sampling shows low Po2, minimally low Pco2 (because of
20:1 ratio of diffusibility of carbon dioxide as opposed to oxygen), and a rise
in pH. Supplemental oxygen as well as correction of the pathophysiology by
tracheostomy, which allows suctioning of secretions to overcome the absent
cough reflex, is sufficient treatment.
The alveolar hypoventilation syndrome or alveolar-capillary block can be
due to respiratory paresis (poliomyelitis), chronic pulmonary emphysema,
or mechanical chest wall problems (flail chest). These conditions often
require assisted ventilation as well as control of secretions.
The pathophysiology of chronic ventilation problems is different from that
described above, in that C02 retention occurs, reducing respiratory drive.
These patients must be closely observed. The respiratory drive in such
patients may be hypoxic due to C02 narcosis, which shuts off the medullary
respiratory centers that usually stimulate respiration according to C02 levels.
Tracheostomy with inspiration of enriched (oxygenated) air may precipitate
a respiratory arrest because of loss of this last respiratory stimulant, and
assisted ventilation may then be necessary.
ANATOMY
The trachea is a hollow tube supported by (elastic) cartilage rings that are
incomplete posteriorly. It begins below the signet ring-shaped cricoid carti¬
lage and extends directly anterior to the esophagus, descending into the
thorax, where it divides into the two main bronchi at the carina. The great
vessels of the neck parallel the trachea laterally and are encapsulated by the
carotid sheath. The thyroid gland lies over the trachea anteriorly and
laterally, and the isthmus crosses it anteriorly, usually at the level of the
second to fifth tracheal ring. The recurrent laryngeal nerves lie in the
tracheoesophageal groove. Deep to the subcutaneous tissues and anteriorly
overlying the trachea are the suprasternal strap muscles, which attach to the
thyroid and hyoid.
SURGICAL TECHNIQUE
Elective Tracheostomy in Adults

When surgery is not urgent, the tracheostomy is performed in the operating It is preferable to perform a tra¬
room unless the patient’s medical condition requires equipment so cumber¬ cheostomy in the operating
room rather than in the patient's
some as to make the trip to the operating suite overly difficult. The patient
room.
is placed supine with the foot of the bed lowered 30 degrees to decrease the
central venous pressure in the neck veins. A folded sheet is placed between
the scapulae to extend the neck moderately, and the anterior neck is
antiseptically cleaned and draped. The surgeons and assistants wear gloves
and masks when operating at the bedside and surgical gowns as well in the
operating suite. After adequate lighting is assured, the subcutaneous tissue
is infiltrated with lidocaine and 1:100,000 epinephrine. A horizontal skin
incision is preferred. It is made with a sharp scalpel at a level halfway
between the cricoid prominence and the suprasternal notch. The incision is
at least 2 inches long and reaches the medial border of each sternocleido¬
mastoid muscle. Once the skin incision is through the platysma muscle, the
dissection is done vertically, staying in the midline, using sharp and blunt
dissection with scissors and hemostat. Two Allis clamps make excellent
retractors of the strap muscles, which are split in the midline and retracted
laterally until the pretracheal fascia is seen. Frequent palpation of the trachea
through the incision ensures that the dissection is in the midline. The vertical
midline dissection avoids most veins, and any that are encountered are
cauterized or cut, ligated, and retracted. The thyroid gland, whose isthmus
lies over the trachea, can usually be retracted inferiorly, gaining direct
exposure to the first four tracheal rings. If the gland cannot be satisfactorily
retracted, the isthmus is clamped, cut, and tied away from the midline
operative field.
At this juncture in the operation in the alert patient, 4 per cent lidocaine
is injected transtracheally to prevent the violent cough spasm after incision
and intubation. When a cuffed tracheostomy tube is to be used, the cuff is
inflated now and checked under water to be sure that there is no leakage
before incision is made in the tracheal wall.
Palpation of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages and their definite identifi¬ Tracheal rings are identified and
cation will prevent a high tracheostomy. The second and third rings are counted.
identified and after a cricoid hook is placed below the cricoid to pull the
trachea up and into the wound, the incision in the trachea begins anteriorly,
immediately below the second ring. A tissue plug of sufficient size to allow
an adequate lumen for the tube is removed to include at least ring three
and, if needed, ring four. A vertical incision, without cartilage removal, is
also acceptable. Excision of three or more rings is risky, and animal
experiments have shown significant tracheal stenosis after this is done. The
tracheostomy tube used in the adult is the No. 7 Jackson or one comparable
in internal diameter (8 mm) (Table 25—1). Absolute hemostasis is achieved
TABLE 25-1. TRACHEOSTOMY TUBES

JACKSON SHILEY
TUBES TUBES ENDOTRACHEAL
(METAL) (PVC) LANZ TUBES TUBE
OD ID OD ID OD ID Size
ACE SIZE (mm) (mm) (mm) (French)
Less than 3 months 00 4.5 2.80 4.5 3.1 15

3 to 6 months 0 5.0 3.20 5.0 3.4
6 to 12 months 1 5.5 3.20 5.5 3.7 17
1 to 2 years 2 6.0 3.70 6.0 4.1 20
2 to 3 years 3 7.0 4.70 7.0 4.8 22
3 to 4 years 4 8.0 5.70 8.5 5.0 GT15 20F 5.0 mm
4 to 5 years 5 9.0 6.40 GT16 24 6.0 mm 24
5 to 12 years 6 10.0 7.40 10.00 7.0 GT7 28 7.0 mm 26
Over 12 years 32
Adults
Females 7 11.0 8.30 GT18 32F 8.0 mm
Females and 8 12.0 9.30 12.0 8.5 GT19 36F 9.0 mm
males
Notes: In pediatric sizes, Shiley tubes offer a larger cross-section internally than metal Jackson tubes.
After six months of age, children require a tube size at least equal to their age at the next birthday (up
to size 6).
3F = 1 cm.
Size identification of all intratracheal tubes is now standardized. A committee of the American Standard
Institute requires all manufacturers to identify their intratracheal tubes by inside diameter in millimeters.
A simple rule to remember when selecting an endotracheal tube for a child in an emergency situation is
to look at the little finger of the child. The size of the little finger of the child should approximate the outside
diameter of the endotracheal tube selected.
at this point, and the umbilical tape that binds the tracheostomy tube around
the neck is tied firmly while flexing the head. The skin incision is not sutured
(Fig. 25-1).
Cuffed tubes are low pressure The cuff, which should be compliant, is then inflated. Cuffs that have
(compliant) to prevent scarring. 5een correctly manufactured to provide sufficient compliance are available;
if these are not used, cuffs can be prestretched by the method of Geffin.
Tracheostomy in Children
When performing elective tracheostomy in children and infants, the smaller
the patient, the greater the importance of controlled ventilation by a mask
or tube. When the airway is controlled, a horizontal incision is cosmetically
more satisfactory, and meticulous midline dissection is crucial because of the
close proximity of the great vessels. Palpation of the endotracheal tube or
bronchoscope facilitates this. The pleural cupulae ascend into the neck on
inspiration, particularly under positive pressure respiration, and these must
be avoided during dissection, since they may overlie the trachea. Nicking
the cupula will cause pneumothorax. Needle aspiration of the trachea is an
accepted procedure in children to ensure that a major arterial vessel is not
Silk sutures placed at surgery mistaken for the airway. Silk sutures are placed anterolaterally on each side
are used as guides should acci¬ of the midline through two tracheal rings before a vertical incision in the
dental decannulation occur.
second and third (and sometimes fourth) rings is made. Again, the cricoid
and first ring are not to be violated. No tracheal tissue is excised in children.
The tube size appropriate to the tracheal lumen is used.
Emergency surgical control of the airway is gained by cricothyrotomy or
tracheostomy. A vertical skin incision causes less hemorrhage, and the
procedure is quickly performed, staying in the midline. No cartilage is
FIGURE 25-1. Technique of elective tracheostomy. A, After a horizontal skin incision,

vertical dissection in the midline of the neck exposes the trachea. 6, The thyroid isthmus
is retracted from the field or divided in the midline and suture ligated. A vertical ellipse of
the anterior tissue in interspaces 2 and 3 with the ring between them Is removed. C, In
children no ellipse is removed. Silk sutures are placed anterolaterally in each side of the
midline through two tracheal rings. D, The metal tube is shown entering the stoma. £,
Tracheostomy tube in place.
excised before the airway is controlled and cannulated. The cricoid and first
ring should be avoided. If cricothyrotomy is urgently elected, it can be done
by using a Mosher trocar or scalpel blade, extending the neck, identifying Cricothyrotomy is avoided in in-
the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, and incising the cricothyroid membrane. ,lints■
The airway is maintained with retractors or, if available, an appropriately
sized endotracheal or tracheostomy tube. The cricothyrotomy procedure
allows immediate access to the airway safely below the true vocal cord in a
relatively bloodless field; it is converted to a usual tracheostomy as soon as
possible under controlled conditions. Similarly, an emergency tracheostomy
performed by cutting the cricoid and first ring is no disaster if recognized

early by the surgeon. It, too, is converted by an incision at rings three and
four, with removal of the initial tube; no complications should ensue if this
is recognized and corrected within 24 hours.
Standard Modifications of Tracheostomy in

Special Situations
Patients with severe alveolar hypoventilation and patients with severe
obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) often require permanent tracheostomy.
Flap tracheostomies reduce the Obese patients may have difficulty maintaining a permanent stoma without
incidence of granulation tissue bleeding, granulation, or scarring. Flap tracheostomy allows a clean, mini-
and remain patent if decannula- mal_care stoma but does require use of a tracheostomy tube or stomal
non occurs.
button.
Cervical skin flaps are elevated, leaving a layer of fatty tissue on the flaps,
as the subdermal plexus of vessels supplying the overlying skin lies in this
tissue. Undermining laterally to the sternocleidomastoid muscles, interiorly
to the manubrium, and superiorly to the hyoid bone is achieved and the
adipose tissue is removed until the strap muscles are seen (Fig. 25-2).
Tracheal incisions are seen in Figure 25-3, and the skin flaps are sutured to
the trachea as shown in Figure 25-4. After healing is complete, a Mont¬
gomery cannula can be used as a tracheostomy stent. This is worn plugged
except when needed for ventilation at night (Fig. 25-5).
The Montgomery tracheocannula as described above allows tracheal
cannulation without a tracheostomy tube. The tracheal lumen is not oc¬
cluded. This produces less irritation to the tracheal mucosa and permits a
more widely patent upper airway at times when the airway is not obstructed.
The Communitrach tube is a new innovation of an old idea which allows
patients on a ventilator to talk. The Communitrach has a separate channel
for air to be instilled from an external source at 3 to 5 liters per minute.
The air flows through the special channel in the tracheostomy and is sent
superiorly through holes in the tube into the trachea. The airstream travels
only upward (toward the larynx), since the tracheal cuff prevents downward
FIGURE 25-2. Anterior cervical skin incisions. (From Sahni R, Blakley

B, Maisel RH: Flap tracheostomy in sleep apnea patients. Laryngoscope
95(2):221-223, 1985.)
FIGURE 25—3. A, Incisions over tra¬

cheal rings. B, Tracheal flaps. (From
Sahni R, Blakley B, Maisel RH: Flap
tracheostomy in sleep apnea pa¬
tients. Laryngoscope 95(2):221-
223, 1985.)
flow. This airstream goes through the larynx and creates a quiet but
comprehensible voice.
An alternative to tracheostomy in the neonate who has developed acquired Anterior cricoid split offers an
subglottic stenosis is the anterior cricoid split. The cricoid cartilage, the alternative to tracheostomy in a
select group of children with
upper two tracheal rings, and the inferior portion of the thyroid cartilage subglottic stenosis.
are divided in the midline over an endotracheal tube. The child is placed in
a pediatric intensive care unit while intubated for ten days. Precautions are
taken to avoid excessive head motion, and antibiotics are administered to
prevent infections with hospital-acquired Staphylococcus or Pseudomonas
species. At day ten, the endotracheal tube is withdrawn.
The rationale for such a procedure is that acquired subglottic stenosis is
FIGURE 25-4. Stoma after tracheocutaneous flap approximation. (From

Sahni R, Blakley B, Maisel RH: Flap tracheostomy in sleep apnea patients.
Laryngoscope 95(2):221-223, 1985.)
FIGURE 25—5. Silicone tracheal cannula designed to be used in place of a tracheotomy tube.
A, The cannula extends only to the inner surface of the anterior tracheal wall, eliminating foreign
body projecting into trachea. B, Cannula, wing-shaped faceplate, plug, and ring washer. The
groove along the cannula’s long axis assists in drainage of secretions and serves to identify the
inferior aspect of the cannula. The first three rings adjacent to flange are triangular to assist in
fixing the cannula in place and make it difficult to displace anteriorly. The remaining grooves
serve to secure faceplate or ring washer in place. The plug has a head to prevent introduction
too far into the lumen of the cannula. C, Silicone tracheal cannula for long-term use shown with
two washers and a plug. The surface adjacent to the intraluminal junction is smooth to permit
and encourage growth of epithelium from both trachea and skin. (From Montgomery WW,
Montgomery SK: Manual for use of Montgomery laryngeal, tracheal, and esophageal prostheses.
Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol (Suppl 125) 95(4): 1 — 16, 1986.)
always soft in its initial stages. This is due to the formation of granulation
tissue in the subglottic space. This granulation tissue, in large part, has an
edematous component, and the anterior cricoid split is a decompressive
procedure to allow the escape of edema from the otherwise intact cricoid
ring. In this manner, the inexorable process of granulation tissue leading to
firm cicatrix is interrupted.
Although the procedure was introduced approximately six years ago,
enough experience has been gained to show that its success rate is now
approximately 75 per cent. Thus, a large number of neonates with acquired
subglottic stenosis are able to be extubated and not have a need for artificial
airway in the form of a tracheostomy. At present, the procedure is reserved
for those children who are under three years of age and whose subglottic
stenosis is still in the soft granulation tissue stage. Since the procedure is a
decompressive one, it would not succeed when the subglottic stenosis has
progressed to a firm, dense cicatrix. The child must be otherwise extubatable
by all other parameters and not have any glottic pathology that would require
airway bypass (tracheostomy).
Immediate Postoperative Care
The upper airway has been bypassed, and its functions of warming of the
inspired air to 36°C, humidification, and removal of particulate matter have The tracheostomy incision is not
been lost. The cilia of the trachea lose function, and the cough is ineffective. sutured closed.
Early care of the stoma requires auscultation of the chest, and an immediate
chest radiograph is necessary in all children to check tube position so it is
not beyond the carina where it would enter the right bronchus and occlude
the left bronchus, and to assure that no pneumothorax has occurred. The
radiograph should be examined by the surgeon upon completion of the
procedure. Mediastinal emphysema is frequent on chest radiograph, and
repeat films at 48 hours should show no extension of the emphysema. A
humidity collar passing cool water-saturated air or oxygen is placed over the
stoma. A bedside tray with a tracheostomy set and a tube for replacement,
scissors, and full suction apparatus should be available, as should a bell for
summoning help.
Tracheal secretions are copious during the first 24 to 48 hours after
surgery, regardless of the primary disease requiring tracheostomy. The
bronchorrhea must be cleared, for these secretions will inspissate and
produce atelectasis, pneumonia, and pulmonary vascular shunting. The
cough is insufficient, and aspiration of the secretions through the tube is
necessary. This is done as frequently as needed and at least every 15 minutes A loose gauze dressing is
for the first several hours. The frequency thereafter is individually deter¬ placed around the tracheal
stoma.
mined, based on the amount of secretions, auscultation of the chest, and
listening to the patient. A gurgling patient with a tracheostomy is at great
risk and must be suctioned. The technique is performed under sterile
conditions, using a new disposable catheter every time, with the operator
wearing gloves and washing hands between patients.
Secretions tend to accumulate in the trachea often just below the tube.
Bronchial aspiration is also necessary and is achieved by this suctioning
technique. The catheter is attached by a V connector (Fig. 25-6) to a vacuum
line. No negative pressure is supplied to the line unless the V is occluded.
The method of choice is to insert the catheter through the tracheostomy
tube lumen with no negative suction pressure. In tracheostomy tubes with
an inner cannula, the cannula is removed before this is done. After the
suction catheter resists further penetration into the bronchus, it is withdrawn
slowly and completely by rotating the wrist while a fingertip occludes the V.
This is repeated for the other bronchus after a rest period. The rest is needed
because vacuum suction removes air from the lung and if repeated at
frequent intervals will reduce the residual lung volume. Resuctioning of the
same side is continued until auscultation is clear or gurgling respiration from
the tracheostomy tube has ceased.
Tubes with an inner cannula require frequent removal and cleaning of the
cannula. PVC and Silastic tubes are of one piece construction and do not
accumulate crusts or mucus as much as metal tubes. They should be removed
and inspected 48 hours after surgery, replaced, and reinspected at weekly
intervals to ensure that a circumferential bolus of mucus does not occlude
the lumen. The plastic tubes are now constructed to be most malleable at
body temperature. This further decreases resistance to conformity to the
trachea size and direction, which is a problem of metal tubes.
Low-pressure plastic cuffs are now available for the tracheostomy tubes.
These are designed to keep the pressure against the trachea at less than 25
FIGURE 25-6. Technique of suctioning

a patient's tracheobronchial tree through
his tracheostomy. A, A sterile, disposable
glove is used on the hand which will
hold the sterile suction tube. B, The tube
is attached to a vacuum line. C, Using a
Y-connector, the trachea and bronchi
are entered, suctioned, and resuctioned
until clean.
cm H20. This has reduced the incidence of tracheal cuff stenosis. One of
the low-pressure tubes is shown in Figure 25-7.
The alert, intelligent adult can be taught complete care of the stoma, and
in children over six months old the tracheostomy can be cared for at home.
Great caution and careful thought should precede discharging from the
hospital a child younger than six months of age while the child is wearing a
tracheostomy tube.
Complications
Surgical Complications. Complications during surgery can arise frequently,
but the alert surgeon recognizes, prevents, and overcomes them. Hemorrhage
is prevented by elective midline dissection with ligature of all vessels and
careful examination of all oozing surfaces. Pneumothorax, a problem of
tracheostomy in children due to the pleural position, is prevented as
FIGURE 25—7. Three frequently used commercially available tracheostomy tubes. A, No. 6
Shiley tube (also available with nondetachable cuff). B, Lanz tube No. GTI8 with controlled
pressure cuff to keep pressure on tracheal wall below 26 mm Hg. C, Jackson metal tube.
Cuff of rubber is attached by user. Not supplied by Pilling with cuff.
described above, discovered early by auscultation and chest radiograph, and

treated by chest tube placement. The incidence in children is 3 per cent; it A small degree of pneumome¬
is rare in adults, in whom it is seen with increased intrathoracic pressure and diastinum occurs in infants.
rupture of emphysematous blebs. Aspiration should not occur, and cardiac

arrest, which may be due to a loss of the hypoxic drive to respiration, is
treated by the usual measures, including respiratory support until the C02
is washed out of the medulla. Pneumomediastinum is not a complication but
a result. It is not unusual in children but must be followed to ensure that it
does not progress or lead to pneumothorax. Recurrent nerve paralysis is rare
and should be prevented by attention to surgical technique. The tube must A postoperative chest radio¬
be in the airway, not occluding one bronchus and not impinging on the graph is taken after a tracheos¬
tomy is performed and must be
anterior wall of the trachea. Clinical experience and radiologic evaluation puickly reviewed by the sur¬
will diagnose and prevent this. geon.
Delayed Complications. These complications are significant in variety and
number, and all effort must be made to prevent them. Late hemorrhage is
due to erosion of the trachea into a major vessel, usually the innominate
artery. (Actually counting each tracheal ring starting at the cricoid cartilage
is essential.) Extending the patient’s head and pulling the trachea upward
with a tracheal hook can bring the ninth tracheal ring into view. A low
tracheostomy (below the fifth tracheal ring) is often at fault. Prolonged cuff
inflation, with necrosis of the tracheal wall, contributes to vessel erosion.
Mathog recommends that soft plastic tubes are safer. Treatment of the major
hemorrhage is emergent and requires the use of a cuffed tube that is long
ênough to pass distal to the vessel erosion with the cuff expanded. This
prevents aspiration of blood into the lungs. Surgical division and suture of
the vessel at fault may require a partial sternotomy.
Infections are controlled by sterile techniques and humidification.
Prophylactic antibiotics are to be condemned because they allow
opportunistic bacterial overgrowth. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is not
infrequently cultured from a tracheostomy site and does not always represent
systemic infection. Soaking the gauze pad with 0.5 per cent acetic acid Local wound care for Pseudo¬
solution may be all that is required. Patients on multiple antibiotics may monas or mondial infections
often avoids systemic treat¬
have contamination of the tracheostomy site with Candida albicans. Before ment.
initiating systemic drugs, local wound care should be attempted.
Airway obstruction due to a displaced tube or lumen occlusion is treated
differently, depending on the time course since surgery. If more than 48

hours have passed since the tracheostomy was performed, a nurse can be
instructed to cut the neck tie, remove the tube, and examine the lumen and
tube. Mucous plugs occluding the tube lumen must be cleared. Reinsertion
can be achieved when the physician arrives. Well-trained personnel can be
instructed to insert the hook in the stoma and secure the airway before
removing a newly placed tube for inspection. When the situation is not
urgent, the physician should do this. In children, the silk tie, when gently
pulled laterally, will maintain an airway and show the path back to the stoma
for tube replacement.
Tracheoesophageal fistula usually occurs in patients who are hypotensive
and have required prolonged intubation with cuffed tubes and controlled
ventilation. These patients require nasogastric tubes but frequently die from
their primary disease or from the aspiration pneumonia via the fistula.
Surgical repair is complicated and involves placement of strap muscles
between trachea and esophagus after primary repair of the fistula.
The most common major complication is tracheal stenosis. The frequency
is increasing as patients require prolonged controlled ventilation with cuffed
tubes. Fearon believes that stomal stenosis is not a complication but rather
an expected postoperative scar and that the symptoms occur only when the
lumen is 4 mm or less in diameter. When there is granulation above the
stoma or cartilage in the lumen, the problem can be treated by endoscopic
excision or stenting the airway. Cuffed tubes can cause circumferential
mucosal obstruction within hours. The cuff should be inflated and enough
air released to produce an “audible squeak.” Low-pressure cuffs are also
protective. Repair of tracheal stenosis becomes increasingly difficult as the
length of cicatrix increases.
References
Bryant LR, Trinkle JK, Dubilier L: Reappraisal of tracheal injuries from cuffed tracheostomy
tubes: Experiments in dogs. JAMA 215:625-628, 1971.
Cavo J, et al: Low resistance in tracheotomy tubes. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 82:827-830,
1973.
Chew JOY, Cantrell RW: Tracheostomy: Complications and their management. Arch Otol
96:583-645, 1972.
Cotton RT, Myer CM, Bratcher GO, Fitton CM: Anterior cricoid split, 1977-1987. Arch
Cotton RT, Seid AB: Management of the extubation problem in the premature child: Anterior
cricoid split as an alternative to tracheotomy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 89:508-511, 1980.
Fearon B, Cotton R: Surgical correction of subglottic stenosis of the larynx in infants and
children. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 84:231-235, 1974.
Goodall EW: The story of tracheotomy. Br J Child Dis 31:167-252, 1934.
Grillo HC, Cooper JD, Geffin B, Pontoppian H: A low pressure cuff for tracheostomy tubes
to minimize tracheal injury. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 62:898-907, 1971.
Jackson C: High tracheotomy and other errors: The chief causes of chronic laryngeal stenosis.
Surg Gynecol Obstet 32:392-397, 1921.
Mathog RH, Kenan PD, Hudson WR: Delayed massive hemorrhage following tracheostomy.
McClelland RMA: Tracheostomy: Its management and alternatives. Proc R Soc Med 65:401-
403, 1972.
Montgomery WW, Montgomery SK: Manual for use of Montgomery laryngeal, tracheal, and
esophageal prostheses. [Supplement 125] 95(4):1—16, 1986.
Sahni R, Blakley BW, Maisel RH: Flap tracheostomy in sleep apnea patients. Laryngoscope
95(2):221-223, 1985.
Schuller DE, Birck HG: The safety of intubation in croup and epiglottitis: An eight year follow
up. Laryngoscope 85:33-46, 1975.
Snow JB, Preston WJ: Dry, aseptic method of tracheotomy care. Arch Otol 92:191-194, 1970.
Szachowicz E, Walsh J, Maisel RH: TALC tracheostomy tube: Normal laryngeal speech while
on a ventilator. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 89:221, 1981.
PART EIGHT
PLASTIC AND
RECONSTRUCTIVE
SURGERY
26
FACIAL PLASTIC SURGERY
Plastic surgery is a surgical method for reconstructing or improving the

function and appearance of various parts of the body; its principles and
techniques are shared by many disciplines. In the broad field of otolaryn¬
gology there is a special emphasis on the management of functional,
reconstructive, and cosmetic problems of the face, head, and neck areas.
This chapter will focus on soft tissue facial plastic surgery and will also
provide an overview of some of the more commonly performed cosmetic
procedures in the head and neck region. Reconstructive surgery following
trauma of the face and skeleton and tumor ablation are also discussed in the
chapters on head and neck cancer (Chapter 23) and maxillofacial trauma
(Chapter 27).
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Principles of Wound Healing
A gratifying result following facial surgery, like other areas of surgery, is

dependent upon favorable wound healing. A fundamental understanding of
normal wound repair is therefore understandably a prerequisite to successful
surgical planning and technique. The brief overview presented here will
consider wound healing in three areas: collagen synthesis, epithelialization,
and wound contraction.
Collagen and Collagen Synthesis

Collagen, the principal structural protein of the body, is the primary
component of scar tissue and is found in wounds as early as the second
postoperative day. Consisting of a group of glycoproteins, the basic structural
unit of the collagen protein is composed of three separate linear polypeptide'
chains (alpha chains), which are woven in a helix. Glycine, proline, and
hydroxyproline are the predominant amino acids.
Four different types of collagen exist; they are composed of different types
of alpha chains. As a wound matures, the original collagen may be replaced
by another type with consequent changes in the appearance of the wound.
Collagen formed early in wound healing is poorly organized and has a
lower strength/mass ratio than the collagen of mature scars. Thus, immature
scars are bulky and have a relatively low tensile strength. Collagen continues Collagen remodeling occurs for
to be remodeled for six months to a year after injury. Collagen lysis occurs 12 months after injury.
simultaneously with collagen formation, replacing immature forms of colla¬
gen with more compact, mature collagen, which has a greater tensile strength.
505
506 PART EIGHT—PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY
Keloid and hypertrophic scars The processes of synthesis and lysis are in a delicate balance and, if
are due to abnormal collagen disturbed, disorders such as keloid or hypertrophic scar formation can occur.
metabolism. vitamin c and OXygen are essential cofactors for the rapid production of
collagen. Collagen lysis primarily occurs as a result of digestion by collagen-

ase, an enzyme whose activity is increased by corticosteroids. Thus, by
manipulating these factors as well as others, hypertrophic scar and keloid
formation can be minimized.
Epithelialization
Basal epithelial cells begin to migrate across a wound within hours of
injury and produce collagen lytic enzymes that allow the cells to cleave
through collagen at the junction of eschar and viable tissue. Eschar, fibrin,
Epithelialization occurs more and old cellular debris impede epithelialization. If a wound is kept moist
rapidly if the wound surface is ancj protected so that no eschar forms, optimal epithelialization occurs if
moist' there is sufficient oxygenation.
It is important to remember that suture tracts are microwounds and, as
such, epithelial cells follow sutures into the wound to produce a cyst or a
sinus tract. To minimize these disfiguring complications early suture removal
and replacement or substitution by suture tape is recommended (Fig. 26-1).
Wound Contraction
Myofibroblasts cause wound Wound contraction is not the exact equivalent of contracture. Myofibro-
contraction. blasts are responsible for wound contraction; causing the wound bed to
contract decreases its surface area, which occasionally may be unfavorable.
While a smaller wound requires less time to heal, the contraction may distort
normal adjacent structures, e.g., ectropion, “trap-door” deformity. Corti¬
costeroids inhibit this process and may be useful clinically. In an open wound
this process can also be inhibited by stenting the edges during the contraction
phase or by applying a full-thickness skin graft.
FIGURE 26-1. Suture tracts, a, Sutures create microwounds, and epithelial

cells migrate along the suture into the depths of the wound if sutures are
not removed early, b. Small sinus tracts and surface irregularities can develop
if sutures are retained too long.
b.
26—FACIAL PLASTIC SURGERY 507
Principles of Wound Care

Anesthesia
Local anesthesia of 1 to 2 per cent lidocaine or V2 to 3A per cent
bupivacaine with 1:50,000 or 1:100,000 epinephrine decreases oozing and
suffices for most regions on the face. Topical anesthesia of 4 per cent
lidocaine applied with a sponge to an abrasion or open wound often allows
injection of local anesthesia with less discomfort. Lidocaine is the most
commonly used local anesthetic and is available with and without epineph¬
rine. Epinephrine causes vasoconstriction, thus providing a surgical field
with less oozing, and also prolongs the duration of the anesthesia. The
dosage should not exceed 7 mg/kg, or a total of 500 mg, for solutions with
epinephrine or 4.5 mg/kg, or 300 mg, for solutions without epinephrine.
General anesthesia may be preferable for children or for adults with large
or complex injuries.
Incisions
Surgery of the face requires careful planning of operative incisions. Surgical
scars may be camouflaged by placing the incision along favorable lines and
approximating wound edges without tension.
Incisions are less apparent if they are concealed in natural crease lines
and into shadows (Fig. 26-2). Usually the crease lines* are the lines of least
tension and, in such areas, the tendency for widening of the scar is minimal.
“Lines of least tension and crease lines should not be confused with Langer’s lines, which
are related to lines of least tension only in the cadaver. In the living subject these lines of least
tension may change as they are affected by the adjoining dynamic forces of the tissues.
FIGURE 26—2. Favorable orientation of surgical incisions follows relaxed

skin tension lines. Wounds located as shown produce the most favorable
result.
FIGURE 26—3. Technique of incision. The "belly” of the knife

is introduced through the skin (1) and brought vertical to
make a perpendicular cut (2). The remainder of the skin is
incised with the “belly" of the knife (3), which is then brought
vertical again at the end of the incision (4).
Major exceptions are noted in the glabella area, where the lines of least skin
tension are horizontal rather than vertical, and in the lateral eyelid, where
they are horizontal rather than slanted upward. Concealment of scars can
also be achieved by placing incisions within hair-bearing areas, behind the
ears, and in shadows, such as at the side of the nose and beneath the lower
lip.
Incisions on the face are usually made with a small knife blade, i.e., Bard-
Parker No. 15. The incision is initiated using the belly of the blade, with the
physician holding tension on the skin in the direction of the incision line
(Fig. 26—3). The blade is rotated through the skin and to a more vertical
position to create a perpendicular cut and then rotated back to the original
position so that the belly is used to create the major portion of the incision.
The end of the incision is also cut in a perpendicular plane.
It is desirable to make this incision in a way that will minimize skin tension
at the surface. The skin is then undermined in all directions for approximately
1 cm, a maneuver that tends to reduce the traction from underlying structures
and provides for the advancement of skin during wound closure. Gentle use
of sharp hooks avoids trauma to the skin edges. Hemostasis is achieved with
cauterization of small vessels.
Early Care of Wounds

Although infections rarely occur on the face compared to the frequency
for other areas of the body, infections that do occur may lead to conspicuous
sequelae. The initial management of facial wounds requires meticulous
attention to technique and a gentle concern for the tissues.
Debridement reduces the inti- Cleansing. Cleansing and debridement of wounds serve to decrease the
dence of infection andJreu- bacterial count and remove devitalized tissue and any foreign material that
would tend to increase the chance of infection or of tattooing the tissues.
Methods of cleansing/debridement include irrigation, removal with
solvents, mechanical abrasion (by means of a brush or dermabrasion), or
excision. The initial excisional debridement on the face should be
conservative, as the excellent blood supply allows the repair of severely
damaged tissue.
All traumatic facial wounds should be washed thoroughly with an isotonic

saline solution. In the case of abrasions, embedded material should be
removed with a scrub brush or by dermabrasion. All viable tissue should be
salvaged and debridement applied only to those tissues that clearly cannot
survive.
Patients who have had active immunization and boosters against tetanus
within the last ten years should be given another booster injection. Those
individuals who have not received adequate immunization during this period
or have never been immunized should receive human antiserum and undergo
a program of active immunization (Table 26-1). The use of antibiotics
depends upon the nature of the injury and the duration of time tissue was
exposed to infection.
Almost all wounds of the face should be closed primarily with sutures. If
tissue has been lost, local flaps or skin graft is required. Following appropriate
irrigation, lacerations should be undermined, relieved of tension at skin
surfaces, and closed in layers. Areas of “dead space” are drained to prevent
hematoma formation.
Dressings may be an asset in wound healing; however, they are not
essential. Wounds may be managed by a “wet technique” in which an
ointment-based coating is topically applied to the incision. The ointment
prevents wound desiccation, and epithelialization occurs more rapidly.
Sutures. The purpose of sutures is to hold the wound in a stable position
for rapid repair and healing. Ideally, sutures should not interfere with the
reparative process and should maintain immobilization while relieving
tension at the wound surface. Different types of suture material are classified
as absorbable or nonabsorbable, based on their degree of inertness. Common
TABLE 26-1. PROPHYLACTIC TREATMENT OF TETANUS

PATIENT COMPLETELY IMMUNIZED—TIME SINCE LAST
BOOSTER DOSE
PATIENT NOT
TYPE OF WOUND IMMUNIZED 1* to 5 Years S to 10 Years 10 Years or More
Clean minor Begin or complete None Tetanus toxoid, 0.5 ml Tetanus toxoid, 0.5 ml
immunization per
schedule; tetanus
toxoid, 0.5 ml
Clean major or In one arm: human Tetanus toxoid, 0.5 ml Tetanus toxoid, 0.5 ml In one arm: tetanus
tetanus-prone tetanus immune toxoid, 0.5 ml
globulin, 250 mg In other arm; human
In other arm: tetanus tetanus immune
toxoid, 0.5 ml; globulin, 250 mg
complete
immunization per
Schedule
letanus-prone, delayed In one arm: human Tetanus toxoid, 0.5 ml Tetanus toxoid, 0.5 ml In one arm: tetanus
or incomplete tetanus immune Antibiotic therapy toxoid, 0.5 ml
debridement globulin, 500 mg In other arm: human
In other arm: tetanus tetanus immune
toxoid, 0.5 ml; globulin, 500 mg
complete Antibiotic therapy
immunization per
schedule thereafter
Antibiotic therapy
*No prophylactic immunization is required if the patient has had a booster within the previous year.
Note. With different preparations of toxoid, the volume of a single booster dose should be modified as stated on the package label.
Source: American College of Physicians and Surgeons. Committee on Trauma: Early Care of the Injured Patient Philadelphia WB
Saunders Co. 1972. p. 39.
FIGURE 26-4. Technique for layered closure, a. An incision that penetrates

several different tissues should be closed in layers, b, The tissues should be
handled gently. Skin hooks cause less injury than forceps. Reduced tension
of the closure is facilitated by undermining, c, Each layer should be closed
separately with buried knots except for surface sutures.
absorbable sutures include catgut or chromatized catgut, and nonabsorbable

types may be made of silk, plastic, or steel.
Absorbable sutures are used to In general, absorbable sutures are used in deep layers of contaminated
close deep layers. wounds while, occasionally, nonabsorbable sutures such as polyester may be
used in the deeper layers of clean wounds. Appropriately matched deep
layers of the wound and subcutaneous tissues should be sutured with the
knots buried (Fig. 26-4;.
Fine sutures (5-0 or 6-0) are The surface epithelial layer is often closed with a fine cutting needle and
best lor surface closure. nonabsorbable, nonreactive materials such as monofilament nylon or
polypropylene. These skin sutures should approximate only the wound edges
and should be carefully spaced. Skin sutures should be removed early (5 to
7 days) and antitension tapes (Steri-strips) should be applied; these tapes
can be continued for up to six months. In general, the suturing of the deeper
layers should begin at the center of the wound and the wound “halved” in
sequence to avoid inequality of length of the sides. The choice of interrupted
or continuous sutures is usually based on experience and personal preference.
By penetrating the dermis several millimeters away from the incision, the
suture can evert the skin edges and reduce tension at the surface. The knot
should be left small and “buried,” as illustrated in Figure 26-4. Interrupted
sutures applied to the skin surface should be loose and only approximate
the skin edges. Any “tension” should be regulated primarily by the
intradermal and subcutaneous sutures and not by the surface sutures.
Several different techniques are available for closure of the most superficial
layer, including horizontal and vertical mattress sutures, simple interrupted
or running sutures, and subcuticular sutures.
26— FACIAL PLASTIC SURGERY 511
Interrupted mattress sutures require that pressure be applied to large

amounts of tissue; this prevents accurate approximation and may interfere
with survival of tissues at the skin edges but does sufficiently evert the wound
edges (Fig. 26-5a and b). Occasionally the horizontal mattress suture may
be used to attach the tip of a flap to a defect. In this case the mattress suture
penetrates only the subcuticular tissues of the flap side.
A continuous or running suture is also popular for skin closure (Fig. 26-
5d). When combined with an intradermal suture, the continuous stitch can
accurately approximate the skin surfaces. In the eyelid, where the skin is
extremely thin, a continuous, subcuticular suture line is often useful (Fig.
26-5e). Locking type stitches should be avoided, since they tend to constrict
the blood supply.
Owing to the frequency __Uucnce, u is wortnwhile to specifically
mention the treatment of lip lacerations. Careful tissue approximation and
reconstruction of the orbicularis oris muscle with absorbable sutures is
accomplished first. Failure to approximate this muscle may result in a
depressed and widened scar with irregularities of the vermillion border.
Alignment of the vermillion border is the most important step in ,surface
layer closure and should usually be the location of the first skin suture.
Mucosal closure is achieved with absorbable suture. Tongue lacerations can
also be closed with absorbable sutures such as chromic catgut. Small tongue
lacerations are often best managed without suture closure, substituting
instead soft diet and frequent oral rinses for several days.
a. Horizontal b. Vertical
interrupted mattress interrupted mattress
FIGURE 26-5. Surface suture techniques.

Local Flaps and Skin Grafts
The excision of larger lesions or traumatic defects can produce a tissue

defect that cannot be repaired by advancement of adjoining tissues. Such,
cases require repair with a skin graft or skin flap. The choice of technique
depends on the functional and cosmetic goals, the size of the defect, the
availability of local tissues, the condition of the patient, and the experience
of the physician.
Availability of local tissues is an important consideration. Size of flaps
may be affected by adjoining structures such as eyelids, corner of the mouth,
or nares. Skin grafts taken from the extremities, buttocks, scalp, and
abdomen do not have these limitations.
Functional and cosmetic goals must also be evaluated. The thicker the
transplanted tissues, the smaller the contraction and depression that may be
expected with the healing process. The thicker tissues also supply a laxity
that enhances the motion of adjoining structures. These are the advantages
Small facial defects are best of the full-thickness grafts over split-thickness grafts and of flaps over grafts.
closed with local flaps. Closure of a defect with 'local flaps, when feasible, usually produces a
superior aesthetic result because local tissues are a better match in skin color
and texture. Moreover, the use of a local flap avoids creating a second
wound at the donor site of a skin graft.
The condition of the recipient site and the general condition of the patient
may also affect decisions on technique. Poor recipient areas, such as bone,
or areas of tissue previously exposed to radiation or chronic infection may
have an inadequate vascular supply. In these cases, flaps with their own
blood vessels have a definite advantage over grafts. On the other hand, split¬
thickness grafts are more suitable for patients who are too incapacitated to
undergo multiple procedures, and in cases in which there is a need for
immediate replacement of larger areas of skin.
Local Flaps
Rotation, transposition, and advancement flaps are used primarily in the
repair of facial defects. A rotation flap rotates on a pivot point (Fig. 26-8),
a transposition flap is transposed over adjacent skin (Fig. 26-9), and
advancement flaps are advanced in a straight line. Local flaps can be safely
designed with up to a 4:1 length:width ratio (Figs. 26-6 and 26-7).
Ac.ancement flap
FIGURE 26—6. Simple advancement flap.
FIGURE 26-7. Advancement flap, a, Advancement

of tissue to close an adjacent defect may cause
bunching of tissues at the base of the flap that is
corrected by excising Burow’s triangles, b, Result
after advancement.
Rotation flap
a. b.
FIGURE 26-8. Rotation flap, a. Tissue is rotated about a pivot point to close a
wedge-shaped defect, b, Result after closure.
Transposition flap
b■ FIGURE 26—9. Transposition flap, a. Tissue to close a defect can be incised,

I l elevated, and then transposed over skin adjacent to the defect to close a
V defect, b, Result after transposition and direct closure of the donor defect.
The rhomboid flap is a transposition flap that deserves further mention.

This versatile flap is used for a defect designed as an equilateral parallelo¬
gram. The shape of the defect is the equivalent of placing two equilateral
triangles base to base. The flap is cut identical in size and shape and rotated
60 degrees from the defect (Fig. 26-10). Four potential donor sites are
available for each rhombic defect; the choice of the optimum donor area is
dependent upon such factors as (1) which area provides the most skin, (2)
the area’s lines of maximal extensibility, (3) the presence of any anatomic
structures, e.g., nose, eye, mouth, (4) which areas will be under tension
after transposition, and (5) what will be the direction of any resulting vectors
of tension. The principles behind rhombic flat transposition may also be
applied to other flap shapes (see Fig. 26-9).
When designing a skin flap, both sides of the incision must be undermined
to facilitate closure and produce a more acceptable result—this reduces the
lesion and avoids a “trap door” deformity (see the section on Trap Door
Deformity). Excision of Burow’s triangles is frequently necessary to avoid
formation of “dog ears” (see Fig. 26-la). As a rule of thumb, rotation and
transposition flaps for a defect of less than 30 degrees close adequately
without resulting dog ears; flaps that rotate more than 30 degrees, however,
may be improved with an M-plasty (Fig. 26-11).
Because flap repair is often aimed at repairing defects resulting from
excision of skin malignancies, it can be carried out as soon as the physician
believes that the surgery is complete. Flowever, should repair be delayed
owing to concern about the adequacy of the excision or other problems,
temporary split-thickness skin grafts may be used.
Rhomboid flap
FIGURE 26—10. Rhomboid flap, a. The defect to be closed resembles two equilateral triangles placed base
to base, b, A flap of similar size is created with its base at one of the two 60-degree angles, c, Transposition
of the flap, d, The flap closes the recipient site, and the donor site is closed directly. The direction of
tension of the wound is shown and should be oriented in a relaxed skin tension line.
M-Plasty 2.
b.
FIGURE 26—11. M-plasty. la, Excision of a

lesion with fusiform shape having angles of
60 degrees or more, b, Closure of this
defect produces a “dog ear” or standing
cutaneous cone. 2a,b. If the fusiform defect
is created with angles of BO degrees or less,
there is minimal chance of deformity. 3a,b,
An alternative method is to convert the 60-
degree angles to 30 degrees with an M-
plasty.
Tissue Expansion and Regional, Distant, and Free Flaps

Occasionally, oncologic procedures or trauma produce massive wounds
that cannot be repaired with local flaps. In addition, such defects may be
complex, such as through-and-through oral deficits, wounds directly over
bone which will not accept a skin graft, or wounds that include the loss of
essential skeletal tissues.
The introduction of tissue expanders has provided considerable help for
these difficult situations. With this method, an inflatable silicone prosthesis
is placed beneath the healthy soft tissues adjacent to the wound. Over
several weeks, the prosthesis is gradually inflated, providing surplus soft
tissue that can be mobilized to cover the wound. Expansion of hair-bearing
scalp to cover areas of male pattern alopecia is a good example of this
approach. This technique is not suitable for all large wounds, however, and
usually requires a temporary split-thickness skin graft over the defect while
the donor tissue is expanded.
Other reconstructive options for difficult situations include regional and
distant flaps as well as free flaps that are transferred with microvascular
anastomoses. Examples of several of these flaps can provide an understanding
of the reconstructive options currently in use. Myocutaneous flaps have been
used with regularity for the past 15 years. The pectoralis major myocutaneous
flap is used most frequently in head and neck reconstruction. An island of
skin nourished by perforating vessels from the attached pectoralis major
muscle can be transferred to provide soft tissue repair and epithelial coverage
for neck wounds and intraoral defects. Osteomyocutaneous flaps have the
additional advantage of carrying bone into a complex wound. The trapezius
osteomyocutaneous flap can be used to reconstruct both soft tissue and bony
facial defects, as is necessary when a portion of the mandible and attached
soft tissues have been lost. When epithelial coverage is required without a
large amount of underlying bulk, an axial flap such as a deltopectoral or
forehead flap is helpful. Thus, a deltopectoral flap can provide a thin
epitheiial flap to resurface the neck. Finally, the advent of microvascular
technique allows tissue to be transferred from a distant site without the
requirement of a pedicled flap or a second procedure to divide the transferred
tissue from its donor site blood supply. Such free flaps can involve transfer
of epithelial coverage, skeletal elements, soft tissue bulk, and/or muscle.
The radial forearm flap is a good example of this type of flap. The lateral
half of the radius and the thin overlying skin can be transferred to reconstruct
a portion of the mandible and the adjacent intraoral lining or overlying skin.
Crafts
Skin gratts are classified according to the thickness of the transplanted
tissue (Fig. 26-12). Thin, split-thickness grafts are taken at approximately
the superficial dermis (about 0.012 inch), while the thick, split-thickness
grafts are excised to a deeper level of the dermis. Preferred donor sites are
the thighs, upper arms, buttocks, scalp, and abdomen.
Special instruments are available to obtain these grafts. Small grafts are
probably best removed with a small battery-operated dermatome. Larger
grafts may be taken with an electric, air-driven or hand-operated dermatome
(Fig. 26-13).
FIGURE 26-13. Brown electric driven (left) and Padgett manual (right) dermatomes.
Bolster
a. b.
FIGURE 26-14. Bolster to secure a
Cotton skin graft, a, A skin graft is sutured to'
bolster a defect; several sutures are left long.
b, A cotton bolster is then placed
over the graft and secured with the
sutures. The pressure keeps the graft
Skin
stabilized on the donor site, permit¬
graft ting nourishment and vascular in¬
growth.
Trap door
Graft techniques usually require the immediate transfer of the graft to the
recipient site. The graft should be immobilized by sutures and a tie-over
bolus pressure dressing (Fig. 26-14). Stab wounds or “darts” within the graft
may help to provide drainage of blood and serum. Donor sites are managed
by occlusal dressings, open dry technique, or coverage with an adherent
semipermeable membrane dressing. The donor site heals by epithelial
migration from skin appendages that remain in the bed of the donor site.
Full-thickness grafts, as the name implies, involve the excision of the
entire thickness of skin. The skin is usually excised in the form of an ellipse
from the supraclavicular or postauricular area and cleaned of subcutaneous
fat. The donor site is undermined and closed primarily. Transplanted full¬
thickness grafts are sutured to the recipient site and immobilized by pressure
dressings similar to those used in the management of split-thickness grafts.
Complications of Wound Healing
Trap Door Deformity

This deformity is often seen when an injury leaves a flap of tissue with a
relatively narrow pedicle. When the flap is sutured into its original location,
not infrequently maturation of the scar results in flap elevation relative to
the surrounding tissues (Fig. 26-15). Some physicians think this is due to
chronic edema of the flap as a result of vascular and lymphatic compromise;
others believe that contraction of the plane of scar tissue under the flap
Problem Solution
a Anterior
view FIGURE 26-15. Trap door defect. A
narrow flap of tissue may heai with an
elevated contour or trap door defor¬
mity. This can be treated by undermin¬
ing the tissues around the flap, which
Cross allows a sheet of scar tissue to form
sectional that matures with less flap elevation.
view
Sagittal
view
causes the surface to protrude. Treatment consists of undermining both sides

of the incision, enlarging the plane of scar tissue. As this larger plane of
scar tissue subsequently contracts, both the flap and the adjacent tissue are
involved (rather than just the flap) and the resultant protrusion is decreased.
Occasionally, an acceptable result can be achieved by excising the entire flap
of skin and closing the defect directly.
Keloid
The incidence of keloid formation increases with increased pigmentation
of the skin. Keloids occur between the ears and waist and tend to spread
beyond the original wound; the overlying epithelium of the keloid is darker
than the surrounding skin. The rates of both collagen synthesis and lysis in
the keloid are greater than normally observed. Formation of keloids may be
related to melanocyte-stimulating hormone, which is suppressed by steroids.
Treatment consists of intralesional corticosteroids, subtotal excision, and/or
pressure for four to six months. Rarely, low-dose radiation therapy is
applicable.
Hypertrophic Scars
Hypertrophic scars, which are frequently difficult to differentiate from
keloids, usually stay within the boundaries of the wound and occur more
frequently in areas of motion or skin tension. Tension on wounds increases
collagen formation and may explain the occurrence of this problem. Treat¬
ment consists of intralesional corticosteroids, the therapeutic application of
pressure (22 mm Hg), and Z-plasty or graft if the scar is in an area of
tension.
Unsightly Scars
Although most abrasions, contusions, and lacerations of the face heal with
minimal scarring, a small group of individuals develop a significant deformity.
Scars that are wide, red, long, or oriented in an unfavorable direction or
have skin edges at different levels are more noticeable. Erythema, often
seen in immature scars, usually decreases over four to six months. However,
if the scar is under tension the erythema persists for a longer period of time.
Scar revision should be consid¬
Treatment consists of broken line scar revision, dermabrasion, or injectable ered after scar maturation.
lling substances. In most cases treatment consists of revision of the scar
tissue, timed to coincide with the maturation of wound healing. The
techniques of scar revision are listed in Table 26-2.
TABLE 26-2. SCAR REVISION

SCAR DEFORMITY REQUIREMENT
Width Narrowing Excision
Length (>2 cm) Breaking the line Z-plasty, W-plasty, zigzag-
plasty
Angulation Changing the crease line or Z-plasty
shadow
Saunders Co, 1972, p. 39.
Depression Elevation Z-plasty or advance of

subcutaneous tissues;
autogenous implant
Hypertrophy and keloid Depression and narrowing Steroid injection or excision
Contracture Lengthening Transposition with Z-plasty
mucosal or skin grafts
Flaps A & B freed from F|aps A & B
FIGURE 26-16. Z-plasty. A technique to lengthen and change the direction of a scar is shown.
When scars are contracted and angulated in an untavorable direction, it

is often necessary to lengthen the line of the scar and alter the orientation;
this is best accomplished by use of the Z-plasty technique (Figs. 26-16 and
26-17). The amount of lengthening of the transposed tissues depends upon
the angles of the Z. At angles of 60 degrees there is a 73 per cent increase
in length of the central line of the Z; at 45 degrees there is a 50 per cent
increase. The most useful angles are those from 20 to 60 degrees.
When scars of the face are longer than 2 cm they are usually conspicuous.
Breaking the scar line (Fig. 26-18) with a W-plasty or zigzag-plasty often
camouflages the result. These techniques are thus suitable for large scars of
the face covering extensive flat areas, as in the cheek or forehead (Fig. 26-
19).
FIGURE 26—17. Large scar of temple areas, distorting the eyebrow, and appearance after
excision with Z-plasty technique. (From Mathog, R. H.: Scar revision. Minnesota Med
5731-36, 1974.)
W- Plasty Zigzag Plasty
FIGURE 26—18. Scar camou¬

flage by W-plasty and zig-
zagplasty techniques. (From
Mathog RH: Scar revision.
Minnesota Med 57:31-36,
1974.)
original scars
When a scar is noticeable because of a depression, simple excision is often

indicated. Subcutaneous defects can be filled in with an advancement or
transposition of subcutaneous tissues. A bunching of dermal layers and
eversion of the skin edge can also help to obliterate the defect. Mild to
moderate surface irregularities, as seen with acne scars or traumatic scars,
can often be improved with dermabrasion to reduce prominent areas adjacent
to a scar, or filling substances such as injectable collagen can be injected
into areas of depression (Fig. 26-20).
THE AGING FACE
The desire to maintain a more youthful appearance prompts many people

to seek surgical improvement of alterations that occur as a result of the
aging process. It is hypothesized that the action of gravitational forces upon
FIGURE 26-19. A large, wide scar of the cheek caused by a dog bite, and the result of
treatment by zigzagplasty technique.
FIGURE 26—20. Dermabrasion, a, Skin irregulari¬

c. ties due to trauma or acne scars, b. Dermabrasion
planes down the surface toward the depths of
the scars, c, After dermabrasion the surface is
smoother, d. After the skin has healed and the
epithelium thickens, the area can be derma-
braded again if necessary, e, The final result.
repetitious pull of the facial musculature, and the loss of

elasticity during degeneration of dermal collagen and elastic fibers cause the
sagging of the skin and formation of wrinkles, or rhytides. Exposure to the
wind and sun can accelerate degenerative skin changes. Significant weight
loss also may result in excessive skin redundancy. In some cases heredity
may be a factor.
A baggy appearance under the eyes denotes a laxity of skin and frequently
a herniation of orbital fat associated with a weakened septum orbitale. A
double chin may also be noted with the accumulation of fat in the submental
area. These cosmetic problems may also appear at a younger age and are
influenced by heredity.
The procedures to correct these deformities depend upon the type of
cosmetic problem: Rhytidectomy (face-lift) is used for correction of facial
wrinkles due to skin laxity, blepharoplasty for baggy eyelids, and submental
lipectomy for double chin. Rhytidectomy, or face-lift, is especially applicable
for the improvement of facial wrinkles that develop in the cheek and neck
areas (Fig. 26-21). Through camouflaging incisions in the hair and behind
the ears, a large area of skin is undermined and redraped; wrinkle depth is
decreased but not completely abolished, and the underlying layer of facial
muscles is resuspended. This procedure is not designed to correct baggy lids
or finer facial wrinkles.
Blepharoplasty is the technique used to remove excessive skin and her¬
niated fat from the lid area (Fig. 26-22), a procedure that is often performed
FIGURE 26—21. Rhytidectomy or face lift, a, Preoperative view demonstrating incisions in the
hair and preauricularly as well as the area to be undermined, b, Skin elevation, c. Excision of
redundant skin and skin closure, d, Postoperative result.
in conjunction with the face-lift. Essentially, excessive skin is removed

through a crease line incision, and herniated fat is excised through the
septum orbitale. Elevation of the drooping eyebrows can be accomplished
by a simple excision of skin and advancement of tissues above the eyebrow
area. In combination with the blepharoplasty, the brow-lift imparts a more
youthful appearance to the eyes.
FIGURE 26—22. Technique of blepharoplasty. A diagram

of the upper and lower lid procedure, in which the skin
is undermined and excessive skin and protruding fat are
removed from the area.
A submental lipectomy may be added'to the above-mentioned procedures,

depending upon the cosmetic needs of the patient. In this procedure a small
incision is made beneath the chin (in the submental shadow) and the
subcutaneous fat excised. The technique often provides a more graceful
profile when performed with a lift of the neck skin.
Suction lipectomy has been utilized in the recent past to remove fat
collections in the neck and jowl areas as well as from other areas for body
sculpturing (Fig. 26-23). The technique is often performed through small
incisions beneath the chin or adjacent to the ear lobe. Small diameter metal
suction cannulas can be introduced through the incision and manipulated to
dissect and remove excess fat and improve the facial contours. Adequate
improvement of the submental and neck areas, however, requires that the
relaxed and divergent anterior borders of the platysma muscles be corrected
through plication, excision, and/or muscle division. This can usually be
achieved through a submental incision.
Face-lift, blepharoplasty, submental lipectomy, brow-lift, and forehead-
lift procedures can improve many pronounced facial rhytides or wrinkles but
do not provide great improvement of the fine facial rhytides. These are often
most noticeable in the perioral and periorbital areas. Chemical peel and
dermabrasion are the best methods to improve these irregularities. Chemical
peel is a technique in which a solution, usually containing phenol or
trichloroacetic acid, is applied to the skin. The solution causes the superficial
layers of skin to desquamate, and an inflammatory reaction occurs in the
deeper tissues with subsequent deposition of connective tissue. As the peeled
area heals, new collagen is formed and a new, smoother layer of epidermis
regenerates from the remaining epidermal elements. Dermabrasion is a
technique in which the surface of the skin is abraded, most commonly with
a steel brush and a motorized rotary hand piece. The surface of the skin is
planed down, exposing deeper areas of papillary dermis, skin appendages,
and epidermis adjacent to the base of the rete pegs. As the surface is re-
epithelialized, the texture of the new skin is smoother (see Fig. 26-20). This
FIGURE 26-23. Submental suction lipectomy.

The procedure can provide significant improve¬
ment of the neck contour.
"\
26— FACIAL PLASTIC SURGERY 523
technique is not applicable in areas where the skin is very thin, such as the
eyelid.
Contour irregularities that are the result of aging or scar can also often be
improved with the injection of filling substances such as injectable collagen.
Recently, autologous fat injections have been advocated for this purpose,
but the ability of this technique to maintain improvement is unproven. No
permanent injectable filling substance is yet available with FDA approval.
DEFORMITIES OF THE NOSE
Its prominent position in the center of the face makes the nose very
important to facial aesthetics. Because heredity or trauma may produce a
functionally or aesthetically unacceptable appearance, rhinoplasty is one of
the most commonly performed aesthetic procedures. The results of this
surgery can be very gratifying to both the patient and the physician and,
unlike some other cosmetic procedures such as surgery for the aging face,
the improvement is influenced very little by the passage of time.
Nasal correction requires both a functional and a cosmetic evaluation;
nasal obstruction is just as important as deformity of the external appearance.
A detailed history, examination of the interior of the nose, and evaluation
of the paranasal sinuses is essential to the diagnosis and correction of the
many conditions that cause nasal obstruction (discussed in Chapter 12).
Evaluation of the external nose requires a concept of beauty. The overall
proportion of the nose and general balance in relationship to the face should
be considered; that is, a small chin may give the appearance of an unusually
FIGURE 26-24. Technique of rhinoplasty, involving isolation of the bony and cartilaginous
skeleton, trimming of appropriate portions, and repositioning under controlled conditions.
large nose. In most cases it is desirable to have a narrow and straight (or
slightly curved) dorsum, a straight (nonretracted) columella, slight “supratip”
depression, and accentuation of the alar rim.
Rhinoplasty is designed to correct the' external appearance of the nose.
Often this procedure may be combined with a septoplasty, which is used to
correct internal, functional deformities (see Chapter 12). Essentially, the
rhinoplasty technique requires isolation of the bony and cartilaginous skel¬
eton and trimming and repositioning of the structures under controlled
conditions (Fig. 26-24).
In cases of deformities caused by loss of skeletal support, cartilage, bone,
or synthetic materials are implanted into the defect. During the healing
process the nose is immobilized and protected with external and internal
splints. Postoperative swelling may be observed for six months or more.
DEFORMITIES OF THE EAR
Deformities of the ear range from anotia (congenital or acquired due to

trauma or neoplasms), retained auricular hillocks, skin tags, and, more
commonly, the protruding auricle (cup-ear deformity). These ear malfor¬
mations can be a source of embarrassment to a child, particularly in the
early school years. For this reason, correction, when feasible, is usually
recommended by age five or six, before the child begins school.
In the cup-ear deformity the most usual and distinctive problem is an
unfurrowed antihelix with a poorly defined superior crus-. The result is an
ear that protrudes excessively. The repair of this defect is usually accom¬
plished by remodeling and suturing the cartilage into position to create an
antihelical fold.
Defects of the auricle from trauma or cancer resection are treated by
approximation of local tissues. Most small defects can be converted to a V
of the auricular rim and closed in layers of cartilage, subcutaneous tissue,
and skin. Such V excisions are useful in the care of basal cell carcinoma,
squamous cell carcinoma, or other neoplasms. Larger defects require more
complex reconstruction procedures and some residual deformity is to be
expected.
Total accidental auricular amputation is a rare and serious cosmetic injury.
Replacement is worth attempting, however, because secondary plastic re¬
construction is extremely difficult and the application of a prosthesis may
not be satisfactory. Microvascular repair enhances the prognosis but is often
not technically possible. Often the cartilage framework is salvaged and
buried in a pocket behind the ear for use in later reconstruction.
MENTOPLASTY
The chin, the nose, and the forehead have a usual balancing relationship
in the facial profile, and, in cases in which the chin is too large or too small,
mentoplasty is performed. Aberrant maxillary, mandibular, and dental
relationships may require surgical correction; it is important to evaluate the
entire facial skeletal contour before planning a surgical procedure that
addresses only a small chin. A better functional and cosmetic result may be
produced by orthognathic surgery.
Mentoplasty can be done alone or in conjunction with rhinoplasty.
Enhancement of the chin may be accompanied by sliding the lower portion
of the bone of the chin forward (advancement genioplasty) or by implanting
some material, usually Silastic, in front of the chin (augmentation mento¬
plasty).
References
American College of Surgeons. Committee on Trauma: Early Care of the Injured Patient
Philadelphia. WB Saunders Co. 1972, pp 37-41.
Bernstein L: Z-plasty in head and neck surgery. Arch Otolaryngol 89:574-584, 1969.
Borges AF: Elective Incisions and Scar Revision. Boston, Little, Brown and Co, 1973, p 1014.
^9™269 272 ^973^ Reattachment of a totally amputated auricle. Arch Otolaryngol
Converse JM. et al: The aging face. In Converse JM (ed): Reconstructive Plastic Surgery 2nd
ed. Vol II, Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1976.
Creelv JJ, Peterson JD: Carcinoma of the lip. Southern Med J 57:799-784, 1974.
Crikelair GF: Surgical approach to facial scarring. JAMA 172:160-162, 1960.
Farrior RT: A method of otoplasty. Arch Otolaryngol 69:400-408, 1959.
Fernandez AO, Ronis ML: The Treacher-Collins syndrome. Arch Otolaryngol 80:505-520,
Gillis S. Feingold M: Atlas of Mental Retardation Syndrome. Washington, DC, US Government

Printing Office, 1968, p 156.
Girardi G: Principles of local skin flaps. Facial Plastic Surg 1:31-35, 1983.
Gunter JP: Rhombic flaps. Facial Plastic Surg 1:69-73, 1983.
Johnson JB, Hadley RC: The aging face. In Converse JM (ed): Reconstructive Plastic Surgery
Vol III. Phdadelphia. WB Saunders Co. 1964, pp 1306-1342.
Lacv GM, Hemphill JE: Facial revision. Surg Clin North Am 49:1343-1350, 1969
Mathog RH: Scar revision. Minnesota Med 57:31-36. 1974.
M'l6t G0C 178 ^y^correction Prominent ears using simple mattress sutures. Br J Plastic Surg
Rutledge RT: The Pierre Robin syndrome. A surgical emergency in the neonatal period Br J
Plastic Surg 13:204-209. 1960. "
S™'hL JW' Chnical experience with the vermilion bordered lip flap. Plastic Reconstr Surg
27.527-543, 1961.
S^ CRt Surgical technique helpful in obtaining fine scars. Plastic Reconstr Surg 2:21-
rr82l209I'’-?K)2eni972 ^ P°lter°Ck J: Augmentation mentoplasty; reflection. Laryngoscope

27
MAXILLOFACIAL TRAUMA
by Kent S. Wilson, M.D.
it is essential that every physician be familiar witn the basic principles

involved in the care of patients who have sustained maxillofacial or laryngeal
injury. Because of the increasing number of recreational vehicular accidents,
the constant volume of automobile accidents, and interpersonal conflict
injuries, any physician at any time may have to care for a patient who has
sustained head or neck trauma. Injuries of the face and neck must be
managed appropriately in both the initial and later stages, since such injuries
may involve essential portions of the respiratory, vascular, central nervous,
upper digestive, and visual systems as well as major portions of the face,
with cosmetic implications.
Medical care of maxillofacial injuries is very much a team effort from
initial evaluation to definitive therapy. Every physician should be capable of
quickly assessing the severity of a maxillofacial or laryngeal injury and should
be able to formulate an appropriate plan for the patient’s care. The care
plan for major injuries usually involves treatment by one of several members
of a team that includes a maxillofacial surgeon (who may be an otolaryngol¬
ogist or plastic surgeon), an ophthalmologist, a neurosurgeon, and an oral
surgeon or dentist. This chapter is directed to physicians who will be
responsible for initial evaluation as well as the definitive care of less severe
cases.
INITIAL EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT
Initial Care
Initial care is dependent upon the severity of injury. Maxillofacial and
laryngeal injury may range from the simplest nasal fracture without significant
epistaxis and only minor nasal deformity to the most massive facial crush
injury with extensive involvement of the entire head and neck. The initial
care involves rapid general evaluation of the patient’s vital signs and the
institution of basic life-support measures if appropriate.
Airway maintenance is the first Maintenance of the airway is the first priority and may involve suctioning
priority. Qf the orai or nasai cavity to remove blood or other debris. If the patient is
comatose or if mandibular fracture has resulted in instability of the floor of
the mouth with prolapse of the tongue into the pharynx, an oral airway may
be required. If, for whatever reason, an oral airway is unsatisfactory and
tracheal ventilation is necessary, endotracheal intubation is the method of
choice. Emergency tracheostomy is to be avoided if at all possible, since the
526
27—MAXILLOFACIAL TRAUMA 527
procedure is fraught with hazard if the operator is not intimately familiar

with the anatomy and experienced in the surgical technique. Emergency
tracheostomy should be resorted to only if all other measures have failed or
if laryngeal injury is suspected.
The second priority in the initial management of trauma patients is the Sufficient cardiac output is the
maintenance of a reasonable cardiac output. The most common cause of second priority.
inadequate cardiac output in the trauma patient is hypovolemic shock. This
will usually respond to volume replacement and appropriate hemostatic
measures. When stability has been obtained, following initial resuscitative
measures, an orderly head and neck examination may be carried out.
Histoiy and Physical Examination

Initial evaluation of head and neck trauma, as in injury to other organ
systems, requires a thorough and accurate history and physical examination.
The history of the traumatic event should include the time of injury as well
as a detailed description of the circumstances surrounding the incident.
Details, such as whether the patient was wearing a seat belt, approximate
velocities of vehicles involved, and whether recreational vehicles such as
snowmobiles were involved, may give clues as to the types of injuries which
should be searched for.
The physical examination should be done as soon as possible, since swelling
may obscure bony or cartilaginous deformities. The first item to be noticed
is the patient’s state of consciousness, since attendance to cerebral injury
takes first priority in the patient’s management once respiratory and cardio¬
vascular functions have been stabilized. The soft tissue covering of the head
and neck should be thoroughly inspected for lacerations, including the inner
aspects of the ear, nose, and mouth. Special note should be made of facial
mobility, since the presence or absence of seventh nerve paralysis may be
important in the patient’s later management. All wounds should be probed
to their depths to determine whether bone has been injured or exposed or
whether foreign bodies are present within the wound.
The examiner palpates the entire head and neck, beginning at the top of
the skull and progressing inferiorly, to locate displaced fractures and abnor¬
mally mobile structures. Note should be made of the integrity of the
frontozygomatic sutures, which are commonly fractured. Special attention
should be paid to the frontal region, where sinus fractures may create
significant intracranial complications, such as cerebrospinal fluid fistula,
which may require prompt management. Frontal sinus fracture is usually
characterized by a depression in the midfrontal region. Sometimes fracture
fragments may be palpated through the epidermal covering or in the depths
of soft tissue wounds. On palpation of the nose, special note should be made
of any bony deformity or abnormal mobility, especially of the septum. Septal
mobility is best ascertained by grasping the anterior septum between thumb
and forefinger and applying lateral pressure. The cheeks should be palpated
to determine if there is pain on compression, which usually indicates a
fracture of the zygoma. The entire mandible should be palpated to determine
whether tenderness suggestive of fracture is present. Abnormal mobility of
portions of the mandible or displaced fractures may be identified by palpation
also. The teeth should be tested for abnormal mobility or pain sensitivity
because these fractures and luxations require prompt attention. The neck
should be palpated for the presence of free air, which suggests rupture of
the tracheobronchial tree, and for crepitation or tenderness over the larynx
suggestive of fracture.
Cervical spine injury, such as fracture or dislocation, may be suggested by
nuchal muscle spasm, but this not a constant finding. It is advised that
severely injured patients be immobilized as though a cervical spine injury
had occurred until it is radiographically and clinically demonstrated that the
cervical spine is normal.
Radiographic Examination
Radiographic examinations and other tests may be helpful in arriving at
an accurate diagnosis following the history and physical examination. Frac¬
tures of the nose are usually best demonstrated in lateral radiographs, while
fractures of the middle third of the face and paranasal sinuses are best
demonstrated in the Waters projection. Laminagraphic evaluation may be
very helpful in attempting to determine whether fractures of the orbital floor
or anterior cranial fossa have occurred. Fractures of the mandible are best
demonstrated with oblique views of this bone or preferably with a panoramic
radiograph (Fig. 27-1). Computer-assisted tomographic scanning may be
extremely helpful in the diagnosis of facial bone and laryngeal injuries.
Reconstructions, as demonstrated in Figure 27-2, may be quite helpful in
treatment planning. Severe lacerations of the cheek may be evaluated by
sialography to determine whether the parotid duct is intact. This procedure
FIGURE 27—1. a. Fracture of the mandible demonstrated by orthopantomogram, b,

Repair of fracture by application of metallic plate.
FIGURE 17—2. This CT reconstruction gives a three-dimensional view of the fractured right
maxilla.
involves the retrograde instillation of radiographic contrast medium into the

parotid duct orifice. If seventh nerve paralysis is present, electrical testing
may be required as a guide to surgical decompression of this nerve in the
fallopian canal.
Treatment Priorities
Very definite priorities have evolved in the care of the trauma patient
following initial resuscitative measures that are designed to stabilize the
airway and maintain cardiac output. The order of these priorities is as
follows: (1) evaluation and therapy of any central nervous system injury, (2)
evaluation and therapy of any abdominal or thoracic injury, (3) treatment The facial injury must not dis-
of soft tissue, facial, and extremity trauma, and (4) reduction and fixation tract systemic evaluation.
of both facial and extremity fractures. These guidelines, when applied to
facial trauma, dictate that soft tissue wounds be closed in the first four to
eight hours after injury.
If possible, fracture reduction should be done at that time. However, if
other injuries preclude reduction and fixation of facial fractures in the early
post-trauma period, this task is usually best postponed until the fourth to
sixth day after trauma when facial edema has largely resolved. Under nearly
all circumstances, facial fractures should be reduced within the first two
weeks to avoid the problems of malunion from rapid healing or nonunion
because of delayed reduction and fixation.
Soft Tissue Injury

Early evaluation and care of soft tissue injuries are absolutely critical to
obtaining satisfactory functional and cosmetic results in facial reconstruction.
Initial physical examination involves thorough evaluation of all wounds,
even if this requires local or general anesthesia. Special care must be taken
to ascertain the extent of injury in areas about the eye, in the nasolacrimal
region, adjacent to or involving the facial nerve, and about the parotid duct.
All tissues must be handled extremely gently, and all foreign bodies are
removed by copious irrigation with sterile saline. Scrubbing with a surgical
brush may be required to prevent tattooing if debris or dirt has been
embedded in the skin. Debridement on the face must be kept to an absolute
minimum. Because of the rich blood supply of the face, small fragments of
tissue survive which would become devitalized in any other part of the body.
In the treatment of facial injuries, one should follow the rule, “if in doubt,
preserve tissue.” Should tissue become devitalized, it can be debrided later.
Lacerations should be closed in anatomic layers, beginning at the depth of
the wound with absorbable sutures and progressing to the surface where
subcutaneous, clear permanent sutures or absorbable sutures may be em¬
ployed. Subcuticular or cutaneous permanent sutures may be employed for
skin closure and require removal. Meticulous skin closure must be employed
throughout to minimize scarring. After closure, facial lacerations may be
supported with skin closure tape for several weeks to months to minimize
scarring. The decision to use antibiotics must be based on the problems of
each case, depending upon contamination, delay in closure, and similar
considerations. Grossly contaminated wounds, or those that involve exposed
bone, should be treated with antibiotics.
TYPES OF FRACTURES
Nasal Fracture
The most common bone injury involving the face is fracture of the nose.
It must be remembered that the nose is composed of not only bone but also
cartilage and soft tissue and that any or all of these tissues may be disrupted
by an injury. The usual signs of nasal fracture are (1) depression or
displacement of the nasal bones (Fig. 27-3), (2) edema of the nose, (3)
epistaxis, and (4) fracture of the septal cartilage with displacement or
All nasal injuries should be mobility. The patient must always be examined for hematoma of the septum
evaluated for septal hematoma, resulting from fracture, which, if undetected and untreated, may progress to
abscess formation with resorption of the septal cartilage and severe saddle-
nose deformity. Management of a septal hematoma includes incision and
drainage of the hematoma, placement of a temporary drain, application of
intranasal dressings to compress the septal mucosa and minimize the risk of
re-formation of the hematoma, and initiation of antibiotic therapy to decrease
the risk of infection.
Repair of nasal fractures can usually be carried out under local anesthesia
following the resolution of edema. The topical application of 4 per cent
cocaine on cotton pledgets, followed by infiltration of lidocaine, is usually
satisfactory. Not more than 5 ml of 4 per cent cocaine should be used in the
FIGURE 27—3. A and B demonstrate increasing severity of nasal fracture. A demonstrates

depression and comminution of the left nasal bone without displacement of the dorsum or
significant fracture of the septum. B shows more severe comminution of the nasal bones with
fracture of the septal bone and cartilage. This more severe injury usually results in external
deformity, and the septal fracture frequently results in obstructive deflection. C shows a
fracture of the nasal septum with hematoma formation beneath the dorsum and throughout
the central portion of the septum. This may be recognized by a "soft spot” on external
palpation of the dorsum or a soft fluctuant mass to intranasal palpation with a cotton-tipped
applicator. If the hematoma is unrecognized or becomes infected, then cartilage resorption
may occur, resulting in collapse of the cartilaginous septum and resultant external deformity
and usually nasal obstruction, as pictured in D.
adult, and cocaine probably should not be used in children. Children usually
require general anesthesia for the reduction of nasal fractures.
The most common type of fracture involves depression of one nasal bone,
with displacement of the nasal pyramid to the opposite side. Elevation of
the depressed nasal bone with a flat elevator followed by displacement of
the pyramid to its pre-injury position usually may be accomplished without
great difficulty (Fig. 27-4). If closed reduction techniques do not yield a
satisfactory configuration, then open reduction techniques involving wide
exposure of the nasal septum and portions of the nasal bones may be
required. Severe injuries may require not only open reduction but also a
variety of fixation techniques such a direct wiring, external suspension, or
even transfixation with stainless steel wire and the application of lead plates.
Internal and external nasal dressings are useful following the reduction of
most nasal fractures. A satisfactory internal dressing consists of V2- to 1-inch
packing gauze impregnated with antibiotic ointment. External dressings are
applied to either protect the nose or maintain reduction or both. The external
FIGURE 27—4. Reduction of a depressed and dislocated nasal bone fracture. This reduction is
accomplished in two steps following anesthesia by first elevating the depressed nasal bone
as illustrated and then manually displacing the pyramid to the midline.
dressing may be prefabricated of aluminum or fabricated from thermolabile

plastic, plaster of paris, or dental stent material. Antibiotic therapy is
indicated in most cases of nasal fracture, especially if gross soft tissue
disruption has occurred, prolonged internal nasal dressing is required, or
open reduction has been carried out. Internal dressings are usually left in
place for three to seven days, depending upon the severity of injury.
Mandibular Fracture
Fracture of the mandible is the second most common fracture of the facial
skeleton. Signs and symptoms suggestive or diagnostic of mandibular fracture
include (1) malocclusion of the teeth, (2) tooth mobility, (3) intraoral
lacerations, (4) pain on mastication, and (5) bone deformity. Initial evalua¬
tion includes examination for fractures of the teeth and assessment both by
inquiry and by direct examination of the patient’s dental occlusion. Most
patients can state quite accurately whether their teeth fit normally, and
examination may suggest improper alignment of the upper or lower dental
arches. Intraoral examination may show lacerations over the mandible and
there may be palpable or visible deformity of the mandible, both of which
suggest fracture. The most frequently fractured regions of the mandible are
the condyle and the angle (Fig. 27-5).
Repair of a mandibular fracture employs the general principle of splinting
the mandible with its intact dentition against the maxilla with its intact
dentition. The upper and lower dental arches are usually bound together by
ligating arch bars to the upper and lower dental arches with wire. These
arch bars have small hooks that accept either elastic or wire loops which
bind the upper to the lower dental arch (Fig. 27-6). More complex types of
mandibular fractures may require open reduction and the direct wiring or
plating of fragments to obtain stability in addition to intermaxillary fixation
with arch bars. Plating of facial fractures has become popular in the past
decade and provides excellent fracture immobilization and many times
eliminates the need to maintain fixation of the upper and lower dental
arches. This improves patient comfort, oral hygiene, speech, airway, and
alimentation. These open techniques may be required when severe commi¬
nution, gross displacement, or multiple fractures create a situation in which
closed reduction and intermaxillary fixation techniques are inadequate to
stabilize the fractured mandible. Antibiotics, penicillin being the drug of
choice, should be given to nearly all mandibular fracture patients because Most mandibular fractures are
the mandibular mucoperiosteum is so closely applied to the mandible that comP°und-
most mandibular fractures are compound. Antibiotics should be given from
the time of the fracture until the mucoperiosteum has healed and the fracture
has been stabilized.
FIGURE 27-6. Illustration of the principle of splinting one dental arch against
the other, employing arch bars that are affixed to the teeth and then joined
either with loops of wire or dental elastics.
Immediate treatment following fracture of the mandible should include

intraoral hygiene with suction and mouthwashes, the previously noted
antibiotic therapy, and analgesia, as well as first aid type stabilization of
grossly unstable fractures. Elastic figure-of-eight or Barton’s bandaging about
the head is commonly employed to support the mandible, stabilize the
fractured fragments, and reduce pain. Clear liquids or a very soft diet may
be taken by mouth, although in severe injuries tube feeding or intravenous
feedings may be required. Care of the patient following reduction of the
mandibular fracture requires attention to alimentation and oral hygiene. The
patient’s post-reduction diet should be normally nutritious and may include
most foods in the diet prior to the injury. Standard dietary items may be
pureed in a blender and taken through the closed jaws and teeth. Oral
hygiene must be scrupulous and is best carried out with a pulsed water jet
device (Water Pik). Diluted hydrogen peroxide (one-half strength) may also
be employed as a mouthwash to maintain oral hygiene.
Zygoma and Orbital Floor Fractures

Recognition and treatment of a fractured zygoma or orbital floor are
extremely important (Fig. 27-7). If these fractures are untreated, sequelae
may include a flattened cheek and ocular complications such as enophthalmos
or diplopia.
FIGURE 27-7. Radiograph of "tripod" malar fracture. Arrows indicate fracture sites.
FIGURE 27—8. A, The normal ocular-

orbital relationship. B, The mecha¬
nism of orbital blow-out fracture in
which external force results in in¬
creased orbital pressure and fracture-
displacement into the maxillary sinus
with herniation of orbital contents. If
unrecognized, this may result in en-
ophthalmos or limitation of extraocu
lar muscle motion.
Injuries that produce zygoma fractures usually involve a blow to the .body
of the zygoma or “malar” prominence. The orbital floor may be fractured
in this process or may be “blown out” by an object such as a baseball or
tennis ball which occludes the orbit as it strikes the face (Fig. 27-8A and
B). Zygoma fractures may be characterized by (1) palpable deformity (step) Ophthalmologic examination
of the infraorbital rim, (2) diplopia on upward gaze, (3) hypesthesia of the should be part of the evaluation.
cheek, (4) flattening of the lateral aspect of the cheek, (5) periorbital
ecchymosis, or (6) inferior displacement of the ocular globe. Occasionally
only the zygomatic arch is fractured with a depression of the lateral temporal
region. Fractures of the orbital floor may be characterized only by restricted
upward gaze due to entrapment of the inferior rectus muscle. Hypesthesia
of the cheek is caused by contusion or laceration of the maxillary division
of the trigeminal nerve when the maxilla fractures. If Orbital floor fracture
is suspected, planigraphic or CT evaluation may be very helpful in determin¬
ing the degree of injury to the orbital floor.
Repair of these fractures may occasionally be carried out by closed
reduction techniques, but more often an open approach is required, espe¬
cially if an orbital floor fracture is significantly displaced. An open reduction
of the fractured zygoma usually involves a lateral brow incision to approach
the fractured frontozygomatic suture and a medial infraorbital incision to
approach the fractured zygomaticomaxillary region. Alternative approaches
include an intraoral incision to expose the lower portion of the zygoma and/
or subciliary, or conjunctival incisions to expose the orbital floor and orbital
rim. The orbital floor may be explored and reconstructed through this
infraorbital route. Orbital floor reconstruction is best done by realignment
of displaced bone fragments, but when this does not yield a stable floor, an
implant of transplanted bone or synthetic material may be required. When
the fractured zygoma has been reduced via these approaches, it is fixed in
place with stainless steel wire ligatures. Small metallic plates are also useful
and may be used in place of wire ligatures. Rarely, an injury of the zygoma
may be so severe that the bone must be affixed to external traction devices
to maintain its position. This general technique is referred to as external
fixation and usually involves a “halo” frame. When bone has been lost or
when the bone is extensively comminuted, immediate grafting with hip, rib,
or calvarial bone may be appropriate.
Maxillary Fractures
Fractures of the maxilla are among the most severe injuries involving the
face and are characterized by (1) mobility or displacement of the palate, (2)
mobility of the nose in association with the palate, (3) epistaxis, or (4)
mobility or displacement of the entire middle third of the face. Le Fort’s
classification of maxillary fractures is satisfactory for both diagnostic and
therapeutic purposes. It should be remembered, however, that any single
maxillary fracture may not precisely fit the classic descriptions of Le Fort
(Fig. 27-9A and B). This classification resulted from Le Fort’s observation
that the facial skeleton fractures in a stereotypical pattern when low-velocity
blows are sustained. The Le Fort I fracture is a low transverse fracture of
the maxilla involving the palate only and is characterized by mobility or
FIGURE 27-9. Le Fort classification of maxillary fractures. Le Fort

I fracture is a low maxillary fracture that separates the maxilla at
the level of the nasal floor. Le Fort II fracture results in separation
of the central third of the face from the base of the skull. Le
Fort III fracture results in complete separation of the zygomati¬
comaxillary complex from the skull base.
displacement of the maxillary dental arch and palate; dental malocclusion is

usually present. The Le Fort II fracture, or pyramidal fracture, involves
fracture en bloc of the palate and middle third of the face, including the
nose. It is characterized by mobility of the palate and nose en bloc as well
as significant epistaxis. Usually dental malocclusion with some retrodisplace-
ment of the palate is present. The Le Fort III fracture is the most severe
injury and involves complete disruption of the attachments of the facial
skeleton to the cranium. The entire zygomaticomaxillary complex may be
mobile and displaced. Open reduction techniques with direct wiring in
association with intermaxillary fixation are usually required in the therapy
of these injuries. The basic principle in such treatment involves firmly fixing
the fractured fragments to the intact portions of the facial skeleton by
employing direct wiring techniques or using internal suspension wires as
illustrated in Figure 27-10A and B. Small bone plates are available to
immobilize the fractured segments, replacing wire ligatures. As noted in the
discussion of mandibular fractures, the use of plate stabilization may elimi¬
nate the need for fixation of the upper and lower dental arches in the
postoperative period. A variety of surgical approaches may be required in
treatment of these injuries. Careful incisions allow exposure of the entire
facial skeleton, leaving only the most minimal postoperative scarring. When
open reduction and internal fixation techniques with wire have not resulted
in satisfactory reduction or fixation, external fixation devices to produce
anterior or lateral traction may be required (Fig. 27—11). The previously
noted “halo” frame may also be employed (Fig. 27-12).
Because most maxillary fractures are compound, involving either the oral
or nasal cavity, antibiotic coverage is appropriate. Penicillin is the drug of
rhr>i~~ natients.
FIGURE 27—10. A, A severe maxillary fracture—Le Fort III, associated with a left mandibular
angle fracture. B, Repair employing intermaxillary fixation, open reduction, and interosseous
fixation with wire of the mandible and zygomaticomaxillary fractures and suspension-fixation
of the maxilla from the frontal processes.
FIGURE 27-11. An acrylic splint affixed to bone screws provides

three-dimensional reduction and fixation. (From Wilson KS. Chris¬
tiansen TC, Quick C: External fixation in maxillofacial surgery. Otol
Clin North Am 9(2):530, 1976.)
Frontal Sinus Fracture

Frontal sinus fractures, while relatively infrequent, may be extremely
serious because of their cosmetic deformity and central nervous system
involvement. These injuries are characterized by (1) depression of the
anterior table of the frontal sinus, (2) epistaxis, and (3) occasional disruption
of the posterior table of the frontal sinus with dural rupture and cerebrospinal
fluid rhinorrhea. Fractures that involve only the anterior table of the frontal
sinus can usually be satisfactorily treated by open reduction and internal
fixation techniques. Fractures that involve the posterior table with dural
rupture and cerebrospinal fluid fistula are treated neurosurgically and may
require an approach either through the sinus or through the anterior cranial
fossa to close the dural dehiscence.
FIGURE 27-12. This figure illustrates the use of an external “halo” to

stabilize a severe midfacial fracture.
Late Deformity
Late deformity of the face which results from untreated, inadequately
treated, or severe trauma usually may be improved surgically. Nearly all
unsightly scars may be improved by revision surgery employing camouflaging
techniques in combination with instruction in the judicious use of cosmetics.
Many late bone deformities may be improved by remobilization with reduc¬
tion and fixation in a more natural anatomic position. This is especially
applicable in the case of internal or external nasal deformity in which the
airway involvement or cosmetic results are not sufficiently apparent to cause
the patient to seek assistance until well after the traumatic episode. Bone
deformity that does not yield to mobilization often can be camouflaged by
implantation of autograft and/or homograft bone, or cartilage, or occasionally
synthetic material.
References
Dingman O, Natvig P: Surgery of Facial Fractures. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1964.
Foster A, Sherman JE: Surgery of Facial Bone Fractures. New York, Churchill Livingstone,
1987.
Mathog RH: Maxillofacial Trauma. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1984.
Rowe NL, Killey F1C: Fractures of the Facial Skeleton. 2nd ed. Edinburgh, E & S Livingstone,
1968.
Sisson GA, Tardy J: Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery of the Face and Neck: Proceedings of
the Second International Symposium. Vol 2: Rehabilitative Surgery. New York, Grune &
Stratton, 1977.
Zaydon J, Brown JB: Early Treatment of Facial Injuries. Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1964.
INDEX
ii A
i
Note: Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations; page numbers

followed by (t) refer to tables.
Abscess(es), alveolar, acute, 297 Adenocarcinoma (Continued)

dural, and sinusitis, 266, 267 pathology of, 446
formation of, extradural, 118 undifferentiated, of salivary gland, in adults, 329, 329(t)
subdural, 118 Adenoid, anatomy of, 334
of brain, 266, 267 hypertrophy of, 337-339, 338
and mastoiditis. 119 and obstructive sleep apnea, 364
and otitis media, 119 mass of, 17, 333
of frontal lobe, 266, 267 Adenoidectomy, and nasality, 416
of head and neck, 280 for obstructive sleep apnea, 366, 368(t)
of masticator, 360 for serous otitis media, 102
of nasal septum, 215, 216 for speech problems, 339
of parapharyngeal space, 358 indications for, 339
of retropharyngeal space, 360-362, 361 instruments for, 356
complications of, 362 with LaForce adenotome, 355
diagnosis of, 361 with tonsillectomy, benefits of, 350-351
etiology of, 360-361 Adenoiditis, and eustachian tube obstruction, 93
symptoms of, 361 Adenoma, oxyphil, of salivary glands, 328
treatment of, 361, 361-362 pleomorphic, of parotid gland, in adults, 327
orbital, 264, 264 in children, 325
peritonsillar, 345-347, 346(t), 347 of salivary glands, in adults, 329
and acute sore throat, 340(t) serous cell, of salivary glands, 328
bacteriology of, 346, 346(t) Adenopathy, cervical, examination of, 22
etiology of, 345-346 Adenotonsillectomy, benefits of, 350-351
pathology of, 346 Air-bone gap, 53, 54, 55, 56
symptoms of, 346 Airway obstruction, and dysphagia, 492
treatment of, 346-347, 347, 347(t), 348 and foreign body aspiration, 483
immediate tonsillectomy in, 347, 347(t) and foreign body ingestion, 475
subperiosteal, 264, 264 and obstructive sleep apnea, 363
of frontal bone, 267-268 complications of, 362(t)
Accessory nerve, evaluation of, 21 emergency treatment of, 484
Achalasia, esophageal, 471, 472 in children, 482
Acne, scars from, dermabrasion for, 519, 520 in tracheostomy, 501-502
Acoustic immittance, 58-59, 59(t) patient history in, 11
Acoustic neuroma, 133-134, 153 symptoms of, and tracheostomy, 492
ABR testing in, 63, 63 Alaryngeal speech, 421-424. See also Speech, after laryn¬
and facial nerve paralysis, 152 gectomy.
computed tomographic assessment of, 108 Albers-Schonberg disease, 127
magnetic resonance imaging of, 133, 133 Albinism, and congenital deafness, 127
radiologic assessment of, 105 Alcohol use, and laryngeal carcinoma, 445
Acoustic reflex, and associated conditions, 60(t) Allergen(s), elimination of, in nasal allergy treatment, 221
measurement of, 59-60, 60(t) identification of, immune mechanism in, 200-202, 201(t)
Acousticofacial ganglion, development of, 29 in nasal allergy, 221
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 376-377 in vitro methods in, 200-202, 201(t)
and cervical lymph node involvement, 437 in vivo methods in, 200, 201(t)
Acrocephalosyndactyly, 290 patient history in, 199
and micrognathia, 283 Allergy, cellular response in, 197
Addison's disease, and chronic nonspecific laryngitis, 401 definition of, 196
Adenocarcinoma, 121 evaluation of, in children, 12
classification of, 446 food, and nasal allergy, 219
etiology of, 445 food tests for, 221
metastatic, 330-331, 438 nasal, 196-205. See also Nasal allergy.
of parotid gland, in children, 328-329 Alport’s disease, and congenital deafness, 129
541
542 INDEX
Alstrom’s disease, and congenital deafness, 130 Audiometry (Continued)

Ameloblastoma, 311, 311 impedance, 36, 57-58
American Sign Language (Ameslan), 75 in facial nerve paralysis, 147
Amplification, and hearing aid features, 70, 70, 71 pediatric, conditioning in, 67
binaural, advantages of, 71 play, in children, 67
Androgen therapy, laryngeal complications of, 401 pure tone, 50-57, 52, 55, 56 See also Pure tone audi¬
vocal changes from, in women, 401 ometry.
Anesthesia, for facial plastic surgery, 507 speech, 60-61. See also Speech audiometry.
in examination, 22-23 masking in, 54-55
Angiofibroma, juvenile, of nasopharynx, 245 Auditory brain stem evoked response tests (ABR), 61-64,
of nasopharynx, 336-337, 337 62, 63
computed tomographic scan of, 336, 337 clinical use of, 62-64
Ankyloglossia, 286, 286 for acoustic neuromas, 63, 63
Anosmia, 187 in brain stem disorders, 63-64
patient history in, 12 in difficult patients, 63
Antibody, role of, in allergic reactions, 196-197, 197(t) in facial nerve paralysis, 147
Antigen, role of, in allergic reactions, 196-197, 197(t) in Meniere’s disease, 63
Antihistamine(s), classification of, 224, 224(t) in pediatrics, 63, 67
Antihypertensive drugs, and rhinitis, 226 Jewett classifications in, 62, 62
Antrum, anatomy of, 36 technique of, 62, 62
radiologic assessment of, 108 threshold evaluation in, 63
Apert syndrome, 290 Auditory canal, external. See External auditory canal.
Aphasia, 424-425 internal, radiologic assessment of, 102, 104, 108
Aphonia, psychogenic, 410 tumors of, 153
Apnea, and adenoid hypertrophy, 338 Auditory meatus, external, 5
obstructive, and sleep apnea, 364. See also Obstructive Auditory training, 73
sleep apnea. Aural rehabilitation, 73-75
Applicator, selection of, 7 of adults, 73
use of, 9 of children, 74-75
Apraxia, in children, 418-419 Aural speculum, use of, 6-7, 7
Arrhythmia(s), and obstructive sleep apnea, 362 Auricle, anatomy of, 5. See also External ear.
Arteritis, temporal, and headache, 167 gouty tophi in, 89
diagnosis of, 167 infections of, 83, 83 *
features of, 162(t) laceration of, 86
Arthritis, of cricarytenoid joint, 400 malformations of, 87
Articulation, development of, in children, 418(t) Autophony, and abnormally patent eustachian tube, 93
disorders of, 418-419 Axonotmesis, 145, 146
Arytenoid cartilage, anatomy of, 384, 385
Arytenoid muscle, anatomy of, 386, 388, 388
Aspergillosis, 216 Balance, components of, 137
Aspergillus infection, in cancer patients, 378, 379 Barium swallow, for dysphagia, 425-426
of nasal septum, in bone marrow recipient, 374 Barosinusitis, 268
of trachea, 374 Barotrauma, and eustachian tube function, 94
Asphyxia, from retropharyngeal space abscess, 362 and inner ear damage, 95
Aspiration, in tracheostomy, 501 and perilymph fistula, 140
laryngeal, idiopathic, 409 of middle ear, 94-95
of foreign body, 483-485 prevention of, 95
Aspirin sensitivity, and asthma and nasal polyps, 202, 225 symptoms of, 95
Asthma, and allergic rhinitis, 218 Behavioral disorder(s), in children, and speech and lan¬
and aspirin sensitivity and nasal polyps, 202, 225 guage disorders, 417
and atopic eczema, 218 Bell’s palsy, 152-153
Atelectasis, and foreign body aspiration, 484 pathologic changes in, 155
Atresia, choanal, congenital, 335 treatment of, 154, 155, 156
Audiogram, air conduction, principles of, 50 Benign lymphoepithelial disease, of salivary glands, 322
notation for, 52 Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, diagnosis of, 44
and aging, 65 Benign positional vertigo, 137-138
bone conduction, principles of, 51 Bing test, 49
notation for, 52 Biopsy, directed, for metastatic disease, 438
for acute otitis media, 65 in head and neck examination, 23
for serous otitis media, 64 of cervical lymph node, 447
in children, and speech and language disorders, 415 of mediastinum, 487, 487-488, 488
I noise exposure and, 66 Black hairy tongue, 302, 302-303
Audiology, 46-76 Blast injury(ies), and middle ear damage, 98
purposes of, 46. See also Audiometry; Hearing test(s). and sensorineural hearing loss, 135
Audiometer, pure tone, 50. See also Pure tone audiome¬ Bleeding, in nose, patient history in, 11. See also Epi-
try. s taxis.
Audiometry, acoustic immitance in, 58-59 Bleeding disorder(s), and epistaxis, 241
brain stem evoked response. See Auditory brain stem and tonsillectomy, 353
evoked response tests (ABR). Blepharoplasty, 520-521, 521
INDEX 543
Blom-Singer prosthesis, 423, 423 Carcinoma (Continued)

Blood disorders, pharyngeal manifestations of, 345 and thyroid disease, 440-442
Blow out fracture, 535, 535 asymptomatic, sites of, 15
Bone marrow transplantation, 370-375, 374 basal cell, of external ear, 89
and esophagitis, 374-375 of head, 448
and immunosuppression, 370-371 basal cell syndrome, 294
and laryngitis, 373-374, 374 bronchogenic, and mediastinoscopy, 487
and otitis media, 371-372 metastatic, cervical, ressection for, 463
and otomycosis, 372 mucoepidermoid, metastatic, 330-331
and rhinitis, 373, 374 of parotid gland, in children, 328, 329(t)
and sinusitis, 372-373 of salivary gland, in adults, 329, 329(t)
infection in, delayed, 375-376 of face, 512, 512-513, 513
early, 371 of larynx, classification of, 461(t)
Boyle’s law, 94 treatment of, 461-462
Brain stem, disorders of, ABR testing in, 63-64 radiation in, 454 , 454
and aspiration, 409 of nasopharynx, and Epstein-Barr virus, 337
tumors of, and acoustic reflex, 59 etiology of, 445
and vocal cord paralysis, 406 treatment of, 457-458
Branchial arch apparatus, cyst of, 434 radiation in, 454, 455
embryology of, 278(t), 278-279, 383, 433 of neck, early detection of, 444
Branchial cleft, abnormalities of, 87, 87-88 radical dissection for, 463
cysts of, 433, 433-434, 434 of sinuses, etiologic agents of, 445, 445(t)
formation of, 278(t), 278-279 radiation therapy for, 454-456, 455
Branhamella catarrhalis, and tonsillitis treatment, 343 of thyroid, from radiation therapy, 456
Breathiness, from adductor hypofunction, 420 of tonsil, 460
Breslow’s classification, of melanoma, 449(t) squamous cell, 152, 453
Bronchoscope(s), flexible fiberoptic, 486, 486 chemotherapy for, 464(t), 465(t)
rigid, 486, 486 etiology of, 445
selection of, 480(t) metastatic, 330-331, 438
Bronchoscopy, of tracheobronchial tree, 481, 482, 486, of external ear, 88-89
486-487 of head, 448
Bronchus, carcinoma of, 487 of larynx, treatment of, 461-462
foreign body in, 484 of middle ear, 121
obstruction of, in children, 482 of nose, 457
Bruxism, and temporomandibular joint dysfunction, 171 of salivary gland, in adults, 329, 329(t)
Bullous myringitis, and hearing loss, 132 of sinuses, 458, 459
Burn(s), caustic, of esophagus, 473-474 pathology of, 445-446
agents in, 473(t) treatment of, 464(t), 465(t)
treatment of, 474 Cardiac arrest, in tracheostomy, 501
Bursitis, nasopharyngeal, 335, 336 Cardiospasm, 471, 472
Carhart notch, and otosclerosis, 57, 66
Caries, dental, 296-297
Cafe coronary, 410 Carotid artery, external, ligation of, for epistaxis control,
Calculi, of salivary glands, 321 239
oral, detection of, 16, 16 Carotid body tumor, 438, 439
Caldwell-Luc procedure, for chronic maxillary sinusitis, Carotidynia, 173
258, 258 Cat scratch fever, and cervical lymph node involvement,
for sinusitis treatment, 377 437
Caloric stimulation, 42 Cauliflower ear, 31, 87
vs. rotation tests, 44 Cautery, for epistaxis control, 233, 233-234
Cancer. See Carcinoma-, Tumor(s). of nasal turbinate, 223
Candida albicans, in tracheostomy, 501 Cavernous sinus thrombosis, 264, 264, 265
Candidiasis, of esophagus, in bone marrow recipient, 374- Cellulitis, cervical, 375
375 peritonsillar, 345-347, 346(t), 347
of larynx, 373-374, 401 etiology of, 345-346
of nose, 216 pathology of, 346
of oral cavity, 309, 309-310 symptoms of, 346
after bone marrow transplantation, 376 treatment of, 346-347, 347, 347(t), 348
in AIDS, 376 Cementoma, 313
Carcinoma, acinic cell, metastatic, 330-331 Central nervous system, disorders of, evaluation of, 42. 44
of parotid gland, 329 Cerebellopontine angle, tumors of, 152,133
of salivary gland, in adults, 329(t), 329-330 ABR testing in, 63
adenocystic, 121 Cerebral hemisphere, right, deficits of, 425
metastatic, 330-331 Cerebral palsy, in children, and speech and language dis¬
of parotid gland, 329 orders, 417
of salivary glands, in adults, 329, 329(t) Cerumen, accumulation of, 78-79
of sinuses, 458, 459 removal of, 7, 7, 9,10, 79
of submandibular gland, 331 Cervical spine, injury of, and laryngeal fracture, 397
and associated infections, 377-378 in maxillofacial trauma, 528
544 INDEX
Chausse III projection, in middle ear evaluation, 104 Conduction, air, audiogram notation for, 51, 52
Cheek, lacerations of, evaluation of, 528-529 interaural attenuation in, and masking, 54
Chemical peel, for rhytide obliteration, 522-523 principles of, in audiometry, 50-51
Chemicals, ingestion of, 473-474 test models for, 47
Chemodectoma, 438, 439 thresholds in, in audiogram interpretation, 55-57, 56
Chemotherapy, agents for, 465, 465(t) validity of 53, 54
and associated infection, 378, 379 versus bone conduction, 47
for head and neck tumors, 464(t), 465, 465(t) bone, audiogram notation for, 51, 52
for squamous cell carcinoma, 464(t), 465(t) interaural attenuation in, 53-54
immune system effects of, 377-378 principles of, in audiometry, 50-51
Childbirth, trauma in, and facial nerve paralysis, 151 test models for, 47
Chin, deformities of, plastic surgery for, 524-525 thresholds in, validity of, 53, 54
Choanal atresia, in neonates, 209 versus air conduction, 47
Cholesteatoma, computed tomographic assessment of, 109 vibrator placement in, in pure tone audiometry, 51,
in chronic middle ear infection, 111, 112, 112 53
of external auditory canal, 80 Congenital anomalies, of lips, 286-291, 287
of mastoid, 107 of palate, 286-291, 287
Cholesterol granuloma, 112, 112 Congenital epulis, 314
Chondritis, in helix, 89 Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), for obstruc¬
Chondroma, of larynx, 403 tive sleep apnea, 366, 368
Chorda tympani nerve, anatomy of, 32 Contraction, in wound healing, 506
Chromosome(s), abnormalities of, and congenital deaf¬ Corniculate cartilage, anatomy of, 385
ness, 128 Cough, in laryngeal disease, 392
Cilia, respiratory, anatomy of, 183, 183 patient history in, 19
compromise of, 192 Cranial nerve(s), and herpes zoster, 305-306
function of, 191-193 eighth, acoustic reflex of, 59
histology of, 182-183 evaluation of, 21
Clark’s classification, of melanoma, 449(t) seventh, dysfunction of, 85. See also Facial nerve, paral¬
Cleft(s), laryngotracheoesophageal, 395 ysis of.
of face, 289-290 Craniofacial dysostosis, 290-291
of lips, 286-291,287 and micrognathia, 283
and associated developmental anomalies, 289-290 Cretinism, and congenital deafness, 129
formation of, 286, 287 Cricoid cartilage, anatomy of, 384, 384-385
treatment of, 288-289 split of, for subglottic stenosis, 497-498
and speech development, 288 Cricothyroid membrane, anatomy of, 389
of palate, 286-291, 287 Cricothyroid muscle, anatomy of, 386, 386
and associated developmental anomalies, 289-290 Cricothyrotomy, emergency, in children, 494-496
and eustachian tube dysfunction, 93-94 for foreign body aspiration, 410-411, 484
formation of, 286, 287 Cross hearing, in pure tone audiometry, 53
in children, and speech and language disorders, 416 Croup, clinical features of, 398, 399(t)
incidence of, 287-288 in laryngeal disease, 392
treatment of, 288-289 treatment of, 398-399
and speech development, 288 Crouzon syndrome, 290-291
Cleft lip. See Cleft(s), of lips. and congenital deafness, 131
Cleft palate. See Cleft(s), of palate. Cyst(s), congenital, of branchial cleft, 433, 433-434,
Cochlea, blood supply to, 34 434
computed tomographic assessment of, 109 of larynx, 394, 395
evaluation of, 47 dentigerous, 292, 292
ABR testing in, 63 dermoid, of nose, 210, 211
function of, 37-38 of oral cavity, 295-296
hair cells of, innervation of, 37-38, 38 epidermoid, 295-296
osseous, anatomy of, 34, 34-35, 35 eruption, 292
Cochlear duct, anatomy of, 35 fissural, 294-296, 295
Cochlear implants, 72-73 gingival, in newborns, 292-293
Cochlear microphonic, role in sound transmission, 36-37 incisive, 294, 295
Cochlear nerve, 38, 38 nasoalveolar, 295
Cochleovestibular nerve, evaluation of, 21 nasopalatine, 294, 295
Collagen, synthesis of, in wound healing, 505-506 nonodontogenic, 294-296, 295
Collagen injection, in facial plastic surgery, 523 odontogenic, 292, 292-294, 293
Common cold, 212-215 of branchial cleft, 22
clinical features of, 212-213 of hyoid bone, 434, 435
'treatment of, 213-214 of jaw, 291(t), 291-296, 292, 293, 295
Communication. See Speech', Language. of nose, 210, 211
Communitrach tube, 496-497 of oral cavity, 291(t), 291-296, 292, 293, 295
Compliance, in tympanometry, 57-58, 58 • of thyroglossal duct, 22
Computed tomography, of inner ear, 108-109, 109 palatal, of newborns, 292-293
of mastoid, 108-109,109 radicular, of oral cavity, 293, 293-294
of middle ear, 108-109, 109 retention type, 296
Conditioning, instrumental, in pediatric audiometry, 67 sebaceous, of external ear, 89
INDEX 545
Cystic fibrosis, and sinusitis, 269 Dysphonia, plicae ventricularis, 410

versus sinusitis. 204 spastic, 409
Cytology, in head and neck examination, 23 treatment of, 420
Cytomegalovirus, and infectious mononucleosis, 345 Dyspnea, in laryngeal disease, 392
Deafness. See also Hearing impairment; Hearing loss. Ear, anatomy of, 30-36
congenital, 125, 125-131, 126(t), 127(t) deformities of, plastic surgery for, 524
delayed, genetic, 129-131, 130 embryology of, 27-30
and associated abnormalities, 129-131, 130 examination of, 4-10
genetic, 126-128 patient history in, 4-5
and associated abnormalities, 127-128 external. See External ear.
chromosomal abnormalities in, 128 function of, 36-38
nongenetic, 128-129 inner. See Inner ear.
sensorineural, and otitis media, 113, 116 middle. See Middle ear.
cochlear implants for, 72 Ear wax. See Cerumen.
familial progressive, 129 Earache, patient history in, 5
unilateral, evaluation of, 68 Eardrum. See Tympanic membrane.
Debridement, of facial wounds, 508-509 Electromyography, for facial nerve evaluation, 149
Decongestant(s), complications from, 226, 227 Electroneuronography, 149
Deglutition, 280, 390 for facial nerve evaluation, 153, 154
muscles of, 384
Electronystagmography, for vestibular function evaluation
Dental caries, 296-297 42, 43, 125
Dental disorders, 296-301 Ellis-van Creveld syndrome, 300
Dental evaluation, in radiation therapy, 456 Emotional disorder(s), in children, and speech and lan¬
Dental replantation, in tooth trauma, 316 guage disorders, 417
Dental splinting, for mandibular fractures, 532-533, 533 Emphysema, mediastinal, after tracheostomy, 499
Dermabrasion, for acne scars, 519, 520 obstructive, in children, 482
for rhytide obliteration, 520, 522-523 Encephalocele, of nose, 210-211, 211
Dermatitis, eczematous, of external ear, 84 Endolymphatic hydrops, audiometric findings in, 66
Dermatomes, 515, 515-516 Endoscopy, for head and neck tumors, 450
Dermoplasty, septal, and epistaxis control, 241 for laryngeal tumor, 404
and Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome treatment, 231, in chronic sinusitis treatment, 259, 259
231
in nasopharyngeal examination, 17
Diabetes, and gingivitis, 298 of nose, 207, 209
and necrotizing external otitis, 85
Endotracheal intubation, 491. See also Tracheostomy.
Diffuse otitis externa, 81-82
Enophthalmos, from orbital floor fracture, 534, 535
treatment of, 81(t), 82
Eosinophilia, interpretation of, 198, 198(t)
Dilantin, and gingival enlargement, 299, 300 Epiglottis, anatomy of, 385, 388, 388
Diphtheria, and acute sore throat, 340(t) function of, 390
in laryngitis, 400 Epiglottitis, in children, 398
treatment of, 344-345
Epistaxis, 231-241, 232, 233, 235-237, 239, 240
Diplacusis, evaluation of, 68 and frontal sinus fracture, 538
Diplopia, from zygoma fracture, 534
and juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma, 336
Discharge, from ear, in chronic otitis media, 110 and leukemia, 241
patient history in, 5
and maxillary fracture, 536
from nose, 11
and nasal trauma, 240-241
in throat, 13-14
anterior, treatment of, 234-235, 235-237
Diverticuli, and dysphaarST472 / evaluation of, 232
Dizziness, 4-5. See alsvT VertigJ.
posterior, treatment of, 236-240, 237, 239, 240
differential diagnosisW_UJ4(t) complications of, 238
origin of, vestibular versus central, 124 hospitalization in, 238
nasal packing in, 236-238, 237
Doerfler Stewart test, 69
sphenopalatine ganglion block in, 236
Down’s syndrome, and micrognathia, 283
recurrent, and Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome, 231, 241
and premature periodontal destruction, 301 cautery for, 233, 233-234
and scrotal tongue, 302
treatment of, cautery in, 233, 233-234
Drooling, treatment of, 322
Drug(s), ototoxic, 132(t), 132-133
principles of, 231-232
Drumhead, anatomy of, 32, 36
vessel ligation in, 238-240, 239, 240
examination of, 7. See also Tympanic membrane. Epithelialization, in wound healing, 506, 506
Dysarthria, 425
Epstein-Barr virus, and infectious mononucleosis, 345
in children, 418-419
and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, 337, 445
Dysfluency, in children, 416-417
Erythema dose, definition of, 452
Dysphagia, 471, 472
Erythema multiforme, of oral cavity, 307, 307-308
and airway obstruction, 492
Erythroblastosis fetalis, and congenital deafness, 128-129
arid croup, 398
Erythroplakia, of larynx, 403-404
and foreign body ingestion, 475 Esophagitis, 472
and speech and language disorders, 425-426 corrosive, 472, 473(t), 473-474
patient history in, 13, 13-14, 18 treatment of, 474
546 INDEX
Esophagitis (Continued) External ear (Continued)

esophagoscopy for, 375 hematoma of, 87
in bone marrow recipient, 374-375 infections of, 87
Esophagogastrectomy, for caustic ingestion, 473 acute, 80-84, 81, 81(t), 83
Esophagoscope(s), selection of, 478-479, 480, 480(t), 481 chronic, 84-86, 85
Esophagoscopy, 478-479, 480, 480(t), 481 fungal, 82-83
anatomic landmarks for, 481 inflammation of, 80-84, 81, 81(t), 83
for achalasia, 471, 472 chronic, 84-86, 85
for caustic burns, 473 injuries to, 30-31
for foreign body removal, 479, 480(t) keloid of, 88
in esophagitis diagnosis, 375 lacerations of, 83, 86
indications for, 478 malformations of, 87, 87-88
Esophagus, anatomy of, 277 neoplasms of, 88, 88-89
and otalgia, 169(t) pain in, 169(t)
burns of, 473-474 trauma to, 83, 86-87
agents in, 473(t) External nose, anatomy of, 177-178, 178, 242, 242
treatment of, 474 External otitis, 80-86, 81
discharge from, 13-14 and dermatitis, versus infection, 80, 84
disorders of, 471-477, 472, 473(t), 476, 477 causes of, 80
congenital, 473 drug therapy for, 81 (t)
evaluation of, 477-481, 479, 480, 480(t), 481 management of, 80
diagnostic studies in, 478, 479 necrotizing, 85
esophagoscopy in, 478-479, 480, 480(t), 481 antimicrobial treatment of, 85
patient history in, 477-478
inflammatory, 472
embryology of, 273-274 Face, aging of, plastic surgery for, 519-523, 520-522
foreign body in, 474-477, 476 carcinoma of, 512, 512-513, 513
in children, 476 clefts of, 289-290
location of, 475, 476 deformity of, 539
patient history in, 474 developmental anomalies of, 282, 282-286, 283, 285,
treatment for, 475-476, 477 286
herpesvirus infection of, 375 examination of, 20-22, 22
intraluminal pressures of, 478, 479 fractures of, 528, 529, 529. See also Maxillofacial
spasm of, 471-472 trauma.
Esthesioneuroblastoma, of nose, 457 and sinusitis, 269-270
Estrogen therapy, and nasal congestion, 227 Face lift, 520, 521
Ethmoid artery, anterior, ligation of, for epistaxis control, and facial nerve paralysis, 155, 155-156
240, 240 Facial bone(s), fibrous dysplasia of, 245 , 245
Ethmoidectomy, for chronic ethmoid sinusitis, 259, 260 fracture of, 528, 529
for acute ethmoid sinusitis, 254 reduction in, 529
Eustachian tube, patent, 93 Facial cleft, 289-290
anatomy of, 32, 33, 34, 34 Facial nerve, anatomy of, 31, 32-33, 33, 34, 142-143, 143,
assessment of, 92 144, 317
disorders of, 92-95 disorders of, 85, 142-156
and serous otitis media, 100 evaluation of, 21
embryology of, 92 acoustic reflex in, 59
obstruction of, 93 audiologic tests in, 147
and acute otitis media, 98-99 diagnostic tests in, 147
and adenoid hypertrophy, 338 nerve function tests in, 149, 149-150, 150
ventilation dysfunction of, and tympanic membrane, 90 reflex tests in, 147, 148(t)
Exostosis, of external ear, 88 taste tests in, 148, 148(t) /
External auditory canal, anatomy of, 31, 77, 77-78 salivation tests in, 148(t), 149'
and cholesteatoma, 80 tear tests in, 147, 148, 148(t)
and furuncle, 81, 481 injury to, classification of, 145, 145
and keratosis obturans, 79 lesions of, and topognostic testing, 153
cleansing of, 9, 9, 19 site determination of, 143, 153
foreign body in, 96, 98 paralysis of, and acute otitis media, 147
function of, 36, 77-78 and Bell’s palsy, 152-153
infection of, chronic, 84, 85 and childbirth trauma, 151
fungal, and bone marrow transplantation, 372 and face lift, 155, 155-156
radiologic assessment of, 104 and infections, 151
tumors of, 88-89 and neoplasms, 152
External auditory meatus, embryology of, 28 and skull fracture, 152
External ear, anatomy of, 5, 30-31 and vascular lesions, 152
basal cell carcinoma of, 89 causes of, congenital, 151,151
dermatitis of, 84 idiopathic, 152-153
diseases of, 79-89. See also names of specific disorders, complications of, 153-154
examination of, 5-9, 78 differential diagnosis of, 150
frostbite of, 86 electromyography for, 149,149
INDEX 547
Facial nerve (Continued) Fracture(s) (Continued)

paralysis of, from otomycosis, 372 of mandible, 532-534, 533
treatment of, 153-156, 155 of maxilla, 536-537, 536-538
prognosis for, 153, 154 computed tomographic assessment of, 528, 529
physiology of, 143-144 of nose, 241-243, 242, 528, 530-532, 531, 532
repair of, 146-147 of orbital floor, 534, 534-535, 535
nerve grafting in, 154 of skull, and facial nerve paralysis, 152
. Facial plastic surgery, 505-525 of teeth, 316
anesthesia in, 507 of temporal bone, 134, 134
complications of, 516, 516-519, 517(t), 518 of zygoma, 534, 534-535, 535
general principles of, 505-519, 506-508, 509(t), 510- Frontal bone, osteomyelitis of, and sinusitis, 267-268
516, 517(t), 518 subperiosteal abscess of, and sinusitis, 267-268
incisions for, 507, 507-508, 508 Frontal lobe, abscess of, 266, 267
wound care in, 507, 507-512, 508, 509(t), 510, 511 Frontoethmoidectomy, for chronic frontal sinusitis, 261,
wound healing in, 505-506, 506 261-262
Facial wound(s), care of, anesthesia in, 507 Frontonasal duct, repair of, in chronic frontal sinusitis,
incisions in, 507, 507-508, 508 261, 261-262, 262
cleansing and debridement of, 508-509 Frostbite, of auricle, 86
collagen synthesis in, 505-506 Fungal infections. See Infection(s), fungal.
contraction in, 506 Furuncle, of external auditory canal, 81
epithelialization in, 506, 506 of nose, 215, 215
healing of, complications of 516, 516-519, 517(t), 518 sequelae of, 83
principles of, 505-506, 506 Furunculosis, 80, 81, 215, 215
suture techniques for, 509-511, 510, 511 drug therapy for, 81 (t)
tetanus prophylaxis for, 509, 509(t)
Fascial space(s), of head and neck, anatomy of, 280-281,
281 Gag reflex, management of, 22-23
Gargles, in tonsillitis treatment, 342-343
Fat injection, in facial plastic surgery, 523
Fibroma, ameloblastic, 312 Genioplasty, for obstructive sleep apnea treatment,
366
Fibromatosis, gingival, 299, 299
Fibromyalgia, and headache, 165 Geographic tongue, 301,301
Fibrositis, and headache, 165 Gingiva, enlargement of, and Dilantin use, 299, 300
Fibrous dysplasia, 314, 315 Gingivitis, 297-299, 298
of facial bones, 245, 245 and diabetes mellitus, 298
and pregnancy, 298
Fistula, oroantral, and maxillary sinusitis, 253
tracheoesophageal, in tracheostomy, 502 ulcerative, necrotizing, 298, 298-299
Glioma, of nose, 210-211, 211
Fistula test, for chronic middle ear infection. 111, 111
for labyrinthitis, 117 Glomus jugulare tumor, 120, 152
Glomus tympanicum tumor, 120
Fixation, external, for maxillary fracture, 537, 538
for orbital floor fracture, 535 Glossitis, rhomboid, median, 285, 285
Glossopharyngeal nerve, evaluation of, 21
internal, for maxillary fracture, 537, 537, 538
Flap(s), distant, 514 Goiter, and thyroid disease, 440-442
free, 514-515 Gouty tophi, of auricle, 89
local, for facial wounds, 512-513, 512-514. See also Gradenigo's syndrome, 117-118
Skin flap(s). Graft-versus-host disease, and fungal sinusitis, 373
regional, 514 in bone marrow transplantation, 370, 371, 376
Granuloma, dental, 297
Flouride, and dental caries prevention, 296
Flu, 214-215. See also Rhinitis. of larynx, from intubation, 397
Folliculitis, evaluation of, 13 Graves’ disease, and thyroid disease, 440-442
Foreign body(ies), aspiration of, 483-485 Gray (Gy), definition of, 453
complications of, 484 Gumma, of larynx, 401
Gunshot wound, of larynx, 397
in children, 482
location of, 484-485
symptoms of, 483-484 Hair cell(s), cochlear, innervation of, 37-38, 38
in esophagus, 474-477, 476, 477 of organ of Corti, anatomy of, 35
esophagoscopy for, 479, 480(t) of otolith organs, 41
in children, 476 vestibular, 39-40, 40
location of, 475, 476 Halitosis, 310
possible impaction of, 477 Halo frame, for maxillary fracture, 537, 538
symptoms of, 475 for orbital floor fracture, 535
treatment of, 475—476, 477 Hand-foot-and-mouth disease, after bone marrow trans¬
in external auditory canal, 96, 98 plantation, 375
in nose, 246-247 Hat band headache, 164. See also Headache, muscle-cor
removal of, 246-247, 247 traction type.
of larynx, 410-411 Head, evaluation of, 3
Fracture(s), of facial bones, 528, 529. See also Maxillofa¬ in maxillofacial trauma, 527-528
cial trauma. fascial spaces of, 280, 280-281
of frontal sinus, 527-528, 538 tumors of, classification of, 451(t)
of hyoid bone, 396 evaluation of, 449-450, 451(t)
548 INDEX
Head (Continued) Hearing impairment, 4. See also Hearing loss.

tumors of, malignant, early detection of, 444 combined, 46-47
etiology of, 445 conductive, 46-47
frequency of, 444 evaluation of, in children, 67
incidence of, 445 in children, with speech and language disorders,
pathology of, 445-448, 446(t) 74-75
treatment of, 451-465, 454, 455 , 459, 460(t), 461(t), nonorganic, 68-69
464(t), 465(t) ABR testing in, 69
chemotherapy in, 464(t), 465, 465(t) acoustic reflex in, 69
principles of, 443 audiometric findings in, 68
radiation in, 452-456, 454, 455 delayed feedback test in, 69
surgical, 456-457 Doerfler Stewart test in, 69
metastatic, 448 Stenger test in, 68
Head injury, and speech disorders, 425 patient history in, 4
Head mirror, 3 rehabilitation of. See Aural rehabilitation.
Head noises, 4. See also Tinnitus. sensorineural, 46-47
Head pain, features of, 162, 162(t). See also Headache; testing models for, 47
Neuralgia. types of, 46-47
Headache, 157-168 Hearing loss. See also Hearing impairment.
and fibromyalgia, 165 acoustic reflex in, 59-60, 60(t)
and fibrositis, 165 and acoustic tumors, 133, 133-134
and head and neck diseases, 160 and barotrauma, 95
classification of, 157-160 and chronic otitis media, 110-111, 111, 113
major categories in, 158 and facial clefts, 288
clinical examination of, 161-163 and inner ear disease, 117
combined type, 159 and serous otitis media, in children, 100
definition of, 158 audiologic evaluation of, 125
versus neuralgia, 162 causes of, aging, 135
differential diagnosis of, 162-163 idiopathic, 135
laboratory examination of, 162 infectious, 131-132
migraine, and vertigo, 137 cochlear implants and, 72-73
muscle-contraction type, 159 combined, 55, 56
and structural abnormalities of neck, 165 conductive, 55, 56
features of, 162(t), 163, 163-165 and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, 458
misdiagnosis of, 165 and Treacher Collins syndrome, 291
of nasal vasomotor reaction, 159 causes of, 96
and vasomotor rhinitis, 166. See also Rhinitis, vaso¬ congenital, 96, 125, 125. See also Deafness, congenital.
motor. genetic, 126-128
features of, 162(t), 166-167 in children, 126(t)
pain mechanisms in, 166 genetic, versus sensorineural, 129
treatment of, 167 in children, screening tests for, 415, 415
patient history in, 160-161 with speech and language disorders, 414-415, 415
psychogenic, 159 in elderly persons, 126
radiologic examination of, 162 sensorineural, 55, 56, 92
sinus, overdiagnosis of, 157 and myringitis, 92
traction type, 159-160 and tympanic membrane perforation, 98
vascular, cluster type, 159 cochlear implants for, 72
differential diagnosis of, 163 in children, 127(t)
features of, 162(t), 163 sudden,136
treatment of, 163-164 treatment of, 136-137
lower-half type, 159, 167 unilateral, 60
migraine type, 158-159 amplification in, 72
nonmigrainous type, 159 CROS hearing aid and, 72
Hearing, evaluation of, 46. See also Audiometry; Hearing Hearing test(s), 46-76
test(s). Bing test, 49
Hearing aids, 69-73 , 70, 71 Doerfler Stewart test, 69
amplification features of, 70, 70, 71 impedance audiometry, 57-59
Bi-CROS, 72 pediatric audiometry, 64-66, 64-68
cochlear implants and, 72-73 pure tone audiometry, 50-57
CROS, 72 Rinne test, 9, 11
for children, 72 Schwabach test, 9
with speech and language disorders, 414 speech audiometry, 60-61
indications for, 69 Stenger test, 68
multi-CROS, 72 tuning fork tests, 9-10, 10, 11, 47-50
selection of, 70, 70-72, 71 Weber test, 9, 11, 49
binaural versus uniaural amplification in, 71 Hearing-impaired child, education of, 74-75
types of, 70, 71, 71 Heart failure, and obstructive sleep apnea, 362-363
Hearing conservation, in industry, 69 Heerfordt’s syndrome, 321
INDEX 549
Heimlich maneuver, for foreign body aspiration, 484 Immune system (Continued)
Hemangioma, of larynx, 394-395
development of, role of tonsils in, 351
of parotid gland, in children, 325
diseases of, congenital, 378-379
subglottic, laser microsurgery for, 405
evaluation of, 379
Hematoma, of external ear, 87
dysfunction of, from cancer therapy, 377-378
of nasal septum. 216, 531
infections of, 370-380
and nasal obstruction. 242
Immunosuppression, for organ transplantation, and infec¬
Hemilaryngectomy, for laryngeal carcinoma, 462 tion, 377
Hemorrhage, in tracheostomy, 500
from bone marrow transplantation, 370-371
of oral cavity, from trauma, 315
Incus, anatomy of, 31, 33
Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia. See Osler-Weber- embryology of, 28
Rendu syndrome.
function of, 36
Herpes simplex, primary, inoculation, 303, 304
radiologic assessment of, 106, 107
of oral cavity, 303, 303-304
Infantile cortical hyperostosis, 315
secondary, 303, 304
Infection(s), acute, of external ear, 80-81, 81, 81(t) 83
Herpes zoster, of oral cavity, 305-306
of nose, 215, 215, 216
Herpes zoster oticus, 83, 91
and bone marrow transplantation, 371-376, 374
and facial nerve paralysis, 151
and facial nerve paralysis, 151
and otalgia, 168
bacterial, of nose, 217
Herpesvirus infection, after bone marrow transplantation,
chronic, and cervical lymph node involvement, 437
of external ear, 84-86, 85
of esophagus, in bone marrow recipient, 375
of mastoid, 110-113, 111, 112
of larynx, 373
of nose, 216-217
Hiatus hernia, 472
fungal, and cervical lymph node involvement, 437
and chronic nonspecific laryngitis, 401
in bone marrow recipient, 372
Histiocytoma, fibrous, chemotherapy for, 465(t)
of external ear, 82-83
treatment of, 447
of nose, 216
Histiocytosis X, 152
in cancer patients, 377-378
and premature periodontal destruction, 301
in immunocompromised patients, 370-380
Histoplasmosis, of larynx, 400-401
in tracheostomy, 501
Hoarseness, in laryngeal disease, 392, 444
of deep neck, 356-362, 357-361
in polychondritis, 86
of middle ear, 110-113, 111, 112
Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and cervical lymph node involve¬ of nasal septum, 374
ment, 437
of parapharyngeal space, 358, 358-359, 359
and tonsillectomy, 351
of trachea, 374
pathology of, 446-447
streptococcal, and tonsillectomy, 352
Horners syndrome, and vocal cord paralysis, 406
Inflammation, acute, of external ear, 80-84, 81, 81(t), 83
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 376
chronic, of external ear, 84-86, 85
in children, 377
Inner ear, anatomy of, 34, 34-36
Hurler’s syndrome, and congenital deafness, 130
computed tomographic assessment of, 108-109, 109
Hydrocephalus, 119
diseases of, 123—141. See also Deafness; Hearing loss.
Hygroma, cystic, 435-436
and barotrauma, 95
and macroglossia, 284
ototoxic causes of, 132(t), 132-133
Hyoid bone, cyst of, 434, 435
embryology of, 28-29
fracture of, 396
evaluation of, 123-125
Hyperkeratosis, of larynx, 403
dizziness in, 124
Hypernasality, and speech and language disorders, 420
Hypernephroma, 448
physical examination in, 124-125
Hyperostosis, cortical, infantile. 315
tinnitus in, 123
Hyperpigmentation, and congenital deafness, 127-128 infections of, 131, 131-132
Hypertension, and obstructive sleep apnea, 362, 362(t)
complications of, 117
Hyperthyroidism, and thyroid disease, 440-442
innervation of, 34-35
Hyperventilation, and vertigo, 137
trauma to, 134, 134-135
Hypoglossal nerve, embryology of, 274
tumors of, 133, 133-134
evaluation of. 21
Internal auditory canal, radiologic assessment of, 102 104
Hypoglycemia, and vertigo. 137
108
Hyponasality, and speech and language disorders, 420 tumors of, 153
Hypopharyngectomy, for laryngeal carcinoma, 462
Internal nose, anatomy of, 178-180, 179
Hypopharynx, anatomy of, 19, 277, 277, 334-335
blood supply of, 185
diseases of, and obstructive sleep apnea, 364
Intranasal balloon, for epistaxis control, 234, 235, 236-237
examination of, 18-20, 20
Intubation, endotracheal, 491. See also Tracheostomy.
tumors of, malignant, treatment of, 462
Irrigation, antral, for maxillary sinusitis, 252, 252, 253
Hypopnea, and obstructive sleep apnea, 364
in cerumen removal, 79
Hypothyroidism, and chronic nonspecific laryngitis, 401 of external ear canal, 9, 10
and laryngeal involvement, 400
saline, for pharyngitis, 348
Jaw, bone disorders of, 314-315, 315

Immune response^ and nasal allergy/196-197, 197(t)
cysts of, 291-296, 291(t), 292, 293, 295
Immune system, abnormalities of, and bone marrow trans¬
developmental anomalies of, 282, 282-286, 283 285
plantation, 370-371
286
550 INDEX
Kartagener’s syndrome, and bronchiectasis, 269 Larynx (Continued)

and sinusitis, 262, 269 disorders of, functional, 410
Keloid, formation of, 517 infectious, 398-400, 399(t)
of ear lobule, 88 neurogenic, 406-409, 407. 407(t), 408
Keratosis obturans, of external auditory canal, 79 symptoms of, 392
Kidney transplantation, and associated infections, 377 embryology of, 383, 383-384
Klestadt’s cyst, 295 examination of, 18-20, 20, 392-393, 393
Klippel-Feil syndrome, and congenital deafness, 130 endoscopy for, 404
equipment and technique in, 19, 19-20, 20
in vocal cord paralysis, 407, 407(t)
Labyrinth. See also Inner ear. patient history in, 18-19
fistula formation in, 117 foreign bodies of, 410-411
membranous, anatomy of, 34-35, 35 fractures of, 396-397
development of, 29 functions of, 389-390
radiologic assessment of* 102, 108 infections of, granulomatous, 401
Labyrinthitis, and chronic otitis media, 117 herpesviral, 373
fistula test for, Ill, 117 innervation of, 387-388, 388
and meningitis, 131 internal structure of, 388, 388-389
and vertigo, 138-139, 139 lymphatic drainage of, 388
suppurative, 117 musculature of, extrinsic, 385-386, 386
Laceration(s), of cheek, evaluation of, 528-529 in voice production, 390-391
of face, treatment of, 530 intrinsic, 386, 386-387
of lips, 511 paralysis of, 406—409, 407, 407(t), 408
of tongue, 511 pathology of, 407, 407(t)
LaForce adenotome, 355 physiology of, 389-391, 390
Language, definition of, 412 skeletal structure of, 384, 384-385
development of, disorders of, 412-420 stenosis of, 397
definition of, 412 trauma to, 396-397
in adults, 419-425, 422, 423 tumors of, benign, 402-406, 404, 405, 405(t)
in children, 414-419, 415, 418(t) surgical treatment of, 404, 404-406, 405, 405(t)
screening tests for, 415 malignant, and otalgia, 170
expressive, 413, 413(t) Laser microsurgery, mechanism of, 404, 405, 405, 405(t)
linguistic, 413, 413(t) for laryngeal carcinoma, 404-406, 405(t), 462
prelinguistic, 412-413 Law position, in middle ear evaluation, 102-104, 104
receptive, 413, 413(t) Le Fort’s classification, of maxillary fractures, 536, 536-
screening tests for, 414 537
Laryngeal nerve, anatomy of, 386, 386 Learning disability, in children, with speech and language
paralysis of, 406 disorders, 417-418
Laryngectomy, for hypopharyngeal tumors, 462 Lennert classification, for non-Flodgkin’s lymphoma, 447
for laryngeal carcinoma, 461 Leprosy, of larynx, 401
mechanistic effects of, 421 of nose, 217
speech rehabilitation in, 423-424 Leukemia, acute, 345
Laryngitis, acute, 400 and acute sore throat, 340(t)
in bone marrow recipient, 373-374, 374 and mastoid infection, 379
nonspecific, chronic, 401-402 and tonsillectomy, 351
subglottic, acute, in children, 398 and epistaxis, 241
Laryngocele, 389, 395 versus retropharyngeal space abscess, 362
Laryngomalacia, 384, 393-394 Leukoplakia, of larynx, 403-404
Laryngopharynx, anatomy of, 388 Lichen planus, of oral cavity, 308, 308-309
Laryngoscope(s), selection of, 480(t) • Ligation, arterial, for epistaxis control, 238-240, 239, 240
Laryngoscopy, 392-393, 393 Lingual thyroid, 285, 285-286
for head and neck tumors, 404, 444, 450 Lip(s), anatomy of, 275
indirect, 19, 19-20 clefts of, 286-291, 287. See also Cleft(s), of lips.
Laryngotracheobronchitis, clinical features of, 399(t) and encephalocele, 211
Larynx, anatomy of, 384-388, 384-389 and nasal deformities, 209-210, 210
and aspiration, 409 Lipectomy, of neck, 522
and otalgia, 169(t) submental, 522, 522
artificial, 422, 422-424 Lipreading, 73
blood supply of, 388 Ludwig’s angina, 359, 360
candidiasis of, 373-374, 401 Lukes-Collins classification, for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma,
carcinoma of, classification of, 461(t) 447
treatment of, 461-462 Lyme disease, and facial nerve paralysis, 151
laser microsurgery in, 404-406, 405(t), 462 Lymph node(s), cervical, and infection, 437
radiation in, 454, 454 biopsy of, 447
contusions of, 396 evaluation of, 436, 436-437
cysts of, 394, 395 location of, in metastatic disease, 438
disorders of, allergic, 397-398 surgical anatomy of, 463
and systemic disease, 400-401 Lymphadenectomy, cervical. See also Radical neck dissec¬
benign, 392-411 tion.
congenital, 384, 393-396 for head and neck carcinoma, 456-457, 463-464
INDEX 55
Lymphangioma, of neck, 435 Maxillofacial trauma (Continued)

of parotid gland, in children, 325 treatment priorities in, 529-530
Lymphoma, and lymph node enlargement, 437 Maximal nerve stimulation test, and facial nerve evalua¬
and tonsillar hypertrophy, 349 tion, 149-150, 150
extranodal, versus tonsillar carcinoma, 460 Mayer position, in middle ear evaluation, 104, 106
Hodgkin’s, and cervical lymph node involvement, 437 Median rhomboid glossitis, 285, 285
malignant, 437 Mediastinoscopy, 487, 487-489, 488
of head and neck, pathology of, 446(t), 446-447 Mediastinum, examination of, 487, 487-489, 488
non-Hodgkin’s, and cervical lymph node involvement, Melanoma, malignant, of head and neck, 448-449
437 classification of, 449(t)
versus retropharyngeal space infection, 362 Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome, 152
and scrotal tongue, 302
Meniere’s disease, 135
Macroglossia, 284 ABR testing in, 63
Mainstreaming, for hearing-impaired child, 74-75 and vertigo, 139-140, 140
Major aphthae, 305 Meningioma, 152
Malformation(s), of external ear, 87, 87-88 Meningitis, 118
Malleus, anatomy of, 31, 33 acute, and sinusitis, 266, 266
embryology of, 28 and facial nerve paralysis, 151
function of, 36 and hearing loss, 131, 131
radiologic assessment of, 105-107 Mental retardation, in children, with speech and language
Malnutrition, in cancer patients, 378 disorders, 418
Malocclusion, 284 Mentoplasty, 524-525
in maxillary fracture, 537 Metastases, cervical, 22
Mandible, fracture of, 532-534, 538 Michel’s deafness, 126
repair of, 532-533, 533 Micrognathia, 283
signs of, 532 Microtia, 96
supportive care in, 534 Middle ear, anatomy of, 31-33, 33, 36
Mandibulofacial dysostosis, 291 barotrauma to, 94-95
Mass(es), benign, of neck, 429-442 computed tomographic assessment of, 108-109, 109
of adenoid, 333 congenital stenosis of, 96
of hypopharynx, patient history in, 18 diseases of, 90-122
of larynx, 18 adenotonsillectomy for, 350
of throat, patient history in, 13 embryology of, 27-28, 28
of thyroid, 439-442, 440, 441 fluid in, 8-9
Mastoid, anatomy of, 33, 33, 37, 115 function of, 36
computed tomographic assessment of, 108-109, 109 infections of, and sensorineural hearing loss, 131
development of, 30, 31, 106-107 chronic, 110-113, 111, 112
diseases of, 90-122 and cholesteatoma, 112, 112
infections of, 84, 379 fistula test in. 111, 111
chronic, 107, 110-113, 111, 112 signs of, 110-111, 111
signs of, 110-111, 111 treatment of, medical, 111-112
treatment of, 112-113 surgical, 112-113
medical, 111-112 complications of, 113, 116, 117-120
surgical, 112-113 extradural, 117-118
complications of, extradural, 117-118 in central nervous system, 118-120
pneumatization of, 106-107 innervation of, 28
radiologic assessment of, 102, 104-108, 104-108 pain in, 169(t)
tumors of, 120-122 radiologic assessment of, 102, 104-108, 104-108
Mastoidectomy, for chronic middle ear infection, 112-113, trauma to, 96-98
114-115 tumors of, 120-122
Mastoiditis, coalescent, acute, 109-110 Mirror, head, 3
and cholesteatoma, 112,112 nasopharyngeal, 16, 17, 18, 333
chronic, 110-113, 111, 112 Mobius’ syndrome, 151
complications of, 113, 116, 117-120 Mondini’s deafness, 126
Maxilla, fractures of, 536-537, 536-538 Mononucleosis, infectious, 345
classification of, 536, 536-537 and acute sore throat, 340(t)
computed tomographic assessment of, 528, 529 and cervical lymph node enlargement, a a/
treatment of, 537, 537, 538 Montgomery tracheocannula, 496, 497
Maxillary artery, internal, ligation of, for epistaxis Mouth, developmental anomalies of, 282, 282-286, 283,
control, 239-240, 241 285, 286
Maxillofacial trauma, 526-539 examination of, 13-16
evaluation of, 526-530, 528, 529 equipment and technique in, 15, 15—16
patient history in, 527 patient history in, 13—14
physical examination in, 527-528 Mucocele, 296
radiographic studies in, 528, 528-529, 529 Mucormycosis, 216
fracture reduction in, 529 Mucosa, nasal, changes in, and medication misuse, 227
fracture types in, 530-539, 531-538 respiratory, 192
initial care in, 526-527 function of, 191, 191-193
soft tissue involvement in, 530 in disease prevention, 193
552 INDEX
Mucosa (Continued) Nasal septum (Continued)

respiratory, histology of, 181-182, 183 deformities of, 180
Multiple sclerosis, and hearing loss, 135 septoplasty for, 242
and vocal cord paralysis, 406 deviation of, and airway resistance, 189
assessment of, acoustic reflex in, 59 and compensatory hypertrophic rhinitis, 228
diagnosis of, ABR testing in, 63-64 and maxillary sinusitis, 251
Mumps, 318
and obstructive sleep apnea, 364
Myalgia, and headache, 165 and paradoxical nasal obstruction, 228
Myasthenia gravis, 409 evaluation of, 12
Mycosis, of larynx, 401 infections of, in bone marrow recipient, 374
Myoblastoma, granular cell, of larynx, 403 hematoma of, 530, 531
Myofascitis, and headache, 165 perforation of, 246, 246
Myringitis, 91 trauma to, 241-243, 242
Myringotomy, 116, 119-120 Nasal speculum, 12
and otitis media complications, 119-120 Nasal tampons, for epistaxis control, 234, 236
for serous otitis media, 102, 103 Nasal turbinate, cautery of, 223
indications for, 120 hypertrophy of, and obstructive sleep apnea, 364
Myxoma, 313 Nasal vestibule, examination of, 207
Nasal vestibulitis, 215
Nasality, after adenoidectomy, 416
Nasal allergy, 217-225. See also Rhinitis, allergic. Nasoantrostomy, for chronic maxillary sinusitis, 257, 257-
and associated conditions, 224-225 258, 258
and chronic nonspecific laryngitis, 401 Nasopharyngeal mirror, 16, 17, 18, 333
and sinusitis, 256
Nasopharyngitis, and eustachian tube obstruction, 93
diagnosis of, 197-202, 198(t), 199(t), 201(t), 218-221 Nasopharyngoscopy, 333-334, 334
allergen identification in, 199 Nasopharynx, anatomy of, 275-276, 276, 332-334, 333,
allergen-immune mechanism in, 200 334
dietary tests in, 199, 221 carcinoma of. See Carcinoma, of nasopharynx.
histamine-release assay in, 201-202, 202(t) disorders of, 335-339, 336-337
immune response in, 198(t), 198-199, 199(t) and obstructive sleep apnea, 364
in vitro tests in, 221 examination of, 333, 333-334, 334
versus in vivo tests, 201-202, 202(t) equipment and technique in, 15, 15-17, 17, 18
nasal smear in, 220 patient history in, 14
patient history in, 198, 219 obstruction of, and adenoid hypertrophy, 338
physical examination in, 198, 219, 219 tumors of, 335-337, 337
radioallergosorbent test (RAST) in, 200-202, 201(t) and Epstein-Barr virus, 337
radiologic studies in, 219, 220 and eustachian tube obstruction, 93
skin tests in, 200-202, 201 (t) versus epistaxis, 234
differential diagnosis of, 218
Neck, anatomy of, 278(t), 278-280, 429, 430
treatment of, 221-224
carcinoma of, early detection of, 444
allergen elimination in, 221 radical dissection for, 463
medical, 221-222
deep, infection of, 356-362, 357-361
surgical, 221-223
examination of, 3, 20-22
systemic, 223-224, 224(t)
in maxillofacial trauma, 527-528
Nasal cavity, blood supply of, 185, 185
fascial spaces of, 280, 280-281
mass of, 337
infection of, 358
Nasal congestion, 225-228, 226(t), 227 lipectomy of, 522
Nasal deformity(ies), in maxillofacial trauma, 527
lymph nodes of, evaluation of, 436, 436-437
Nasal filtration, 190-191
masses of, 431-432, 432
Nasal fracture(s), 241-243, 242, 530-532, 531, 532
benign, 429-442. See also specific types,
reduction of, 530-531, 533
biopsy of, open, 437
signs of, 530, 531
classification of, 432, 433(t)
Nasal infection, acute, bacterial, 215, 215, 216
cystic, congenital, 433(t), 433-435, 433-436
chronic, 216-217
evaluation of, 429-432, 431(t), 432
Nasal obstruction, and hypernasality, 194
computed tomography in, 431, 432, 432(t)
and juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma, 336
diagnostic tests in, 431-432, 432, 432(t)
and nasal fractures, 241-243, 242
MRI scans in, 431, 432, 432(t)
and obstructive sleep apnea, 363
patient history in, 429-431, 431(t)
and septal hematoma, 242
ultrasonography in, 431, 432(t)
causes of, 207
location of, 429, 430
from foreign bodies, 246-247, 247 metastatic disease of, 438-439
paradoxical, 228
palpation of, 22, 22
Nasal packing, anterior, for epistaxis control, 234-235 tumors of, classification of, 451(t)
235, 236
evaluation of, 449-450, 450(t)
posterior, complications of, 238
malignant, early detection of, 444
for epistaxis control, 236-238, 237 etiology of, 445
Nasal pain, causes of, 166
pathology of, 445-448, 446(t)
Nasal septum, abscess of, 215, 216,
treatment of, 451-465, 454, 455, 459, 460(t), 461(t),
anatomy of, 180, 180
464(t), 465(t)
blood supply of, 185, 185, 232
chemotherapy in, 464(t), 465, 465(f)
INDEX 553
Neck (Continued) Obesity, and obstructive sleep apnea, 363

tumors of, malignant, treatment of, principles of, 443 Obliteration procedure, for chronic frontal sinusitis, 261,
radiation in, 452-456, 454, 455 262
surgical, 456-457 Obstructive sleep apnea. See Sleep apnea, obstructive.
metastatic, 448 Odontoma, ameloblastic, 312, 313
Necrotizing external otitis, 85 Odynophagia, and foreign body ingestion, 475
Neuralgia, 160, 167 Olfaction, 187-188
definition of, 162 histologic basis of, 184, 184-185
glossopharyngeal, 162(t), 172-173 laboratory measurements of, 188
trigeminal, 162(t), 172 Oncocytoma, of salivary glands, 328
Neurapraxia, 145, 145 Onychodystrophy, and congenital deafness, 128
diagnosis of, 153 Optic nerve, evaluation of, 21
Neurilemmoma, of neck, 439 Oral cavity, anatomy of, 274-275
Neurofibroma, of neck, 439 and otalgia, 169(t)
Neuroma, acoustic. See Acoustic neuroma. candidiasis of, 309, 309-310
Neutropenia, from bone marrow transplantation, diseases of, 282-316
371 embryology of, 273-274
Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome, 294 erythema multiforme of, 307
Nocturnal polysomnography, in obstructive sleep apnea hemorrhage of, from trauma, 315
diagnosis, 365, 365 tumors of, malignant, 458-459
Nodule, in helix, 89 Oral mucosa, disorders of, 301-303, 301-310, 308, 309
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and cervical lymph node in¬ herpes zoster of, 305-306
volvement, 437 white lesions in, 308
pathology of, 446-447 Oral tori, 282, 282-283, 283
Nose, airflow through, filtration of, 190-191, 191 Orbital cellulitis, 263, 264
temperature regulation of, 189-190, 190 and ethmoid sinusitis, 254, 254
airway resistance in, function of, 188, 188-189 Orbital complications, of sinusitis, 263-265, 264, 265
anatomy of, 12, 12, 177-181, 178-181, 183-188 Orbital floor, fractures of, 534, 534-535, 535
and pulmonary physiology, 193 repair of, 535
and speech production, 194 signs of, 535
blood supply of, 185, 185, 232, 232 Organ of Corti, anatomy of, 35, 35
candidiasis of, 216 embryology of, 29
carcinoma of, squamous cell, etiologic agents of 445 function of, 36-37
445(t) Organ transplantation, and associated infections, 377
cysts of, 210, 211 Oropharynx, anatomy of, 276, 334, 355
deformities of, congenital, 209-212, 210, 211 diseases of, 340, 340-350, 341, 346(t), 347-349
plastic surgery for, 523, 523-524 and obstructive sleep apnea, 364
discharge from, 11 Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome, and epistaxis, 241
diseases of, 206-248 treatment of, 231, 231
and obstructive sleep apnea, 364 Ossicles, anatomy of, 34
and systemic disorders, 229-231 embryology of, 27-28, 28
inflammatory, 212-217 Ossicular chain, and tympanic membrane perforation, 98
symptoms of, 206-207 disorders of, 95-98
examination of, 10-13 congenital, 95-96
anesthesia in, 209 Ossicular disarticulation, audiometric findings in, 65
instruments for, 12, 206, 208 Ossicular system, audiologic evaluation of, 57-58
patient history in, 11-12 Osteoma, of external auditory canal, 88
radiography in, 13 of sinuses, 270
techniques for, 206-209, 207 Osteomyelitis, from radiation therapy, 456
external, anatomy of, 177-178, 178, 242, 242 of frontal bone, and sinusitis, 267-268
fractures of, 241-243, 242, 528, 530-532, 531, Otalgia, 168, 168-170, 169(t)
532 and herpes zoster oticus, 168
histology of, 181-187, 182-187 and temporomandibular joint dysfunction, 171
infections of, acute, bacterial, 215, 215, 216 causes of, 169, 169(t)
chronic, 216-217 referred, 170, 170
innervation of, 186, 187 Otic capsule, anatomy of, 34, 34
internal, anatomy of, 178-180, 179 development of, 28-29, 29
lymphatic system of, 186, 186 Otitis, external, 80-86, 81, 83
mucociliary function in, 191, 191-193 drug therapy for, 81(t)
mucosa of, histology of, 181-182, 183 necrotizing, 85
obstruction of. See Nasal obstruction. Otitis externa, circumscripta, 80, 81
olfactory area of, function of, 187-188 drug therapy for, 81(t)
histology of, 184-185, 185 diffuse. See Diffuse otitis externa.
physiology of, 187-193, 188, 190, 191 Otitis media, acute, 6, 98-110, 99
trauma to, 24-241 audiometric findings in, 65
tumors of, 243-246, 245 bacteria in, 99(t)
evaluation of, 244 eustachian tube obstruction and, 98-99
malignant, 457 purulent, symptoms of, 99, 99
turbinates of, 12, 12 treatment of, 99-100
Nosebleed. See Epistaxis. treatment of, 113, 117
554 INDEX
Papilloma (Continued)
Otitis media (Continued)
after bone marrow transplantation, 376 squamous, of nose, 244
Papillon-Lefevre syndrome, and premature periodontal de¬
and cleft palate, 288
and facial nerve paralysis, 147 struction, 301
Paralysis, congenital, of vocal cord, 395-396
and meningitis, 118
of cranial nerve, and nasopharyngeal tumors, 336, 337
and subdural abscess, 118
of facial nerve. See also Facial nerve, paralysis of.
chronic, 91, 110-113, 111, 112
and herpes zoster oticus, 83, 168
and labyrinthitis, 117
and otitis media, 113-117
fistula test in, 111, 111
and temporal bone malignancy, 121
treatment of, medical, 111-112
of recurrent nerve, in tracheostomy, 501
surgical, 112-113
Parapharyngeal space, infections of, 358, 358-359, 359
complications of, 113, 116, 117-120
from bone marrow transplantation, 371-372 complications of, 359
treatment of, 358-359, 359
in children, 100
recurrent, in HIV-positive children, 377 tumors of, 328
Parotid gland, anatomy of, 317
serous, 6, 100-102, 101
computed tomographic assessment of, 320
and adenoid hypertrophy, 338
hemangioma of, in children, 325
and chronic allergic rhinitis, 224
tumors of, benign, in adults, 327-328
and cleft palate, 94
and hearing loss, in children, 100 in children, 325
and nasopharyngeal tumors, 336, 337, 458 malignant, in children, 328-329, 329(t)
audiometric findings in, 64 treatment of, 327
chronic, adenoidectomy for, 339 ultrasonographic assessment of, 320
etiology of, 100 Parotitis, acute, 318-319
examination of, 101, 101 chronic, 322
in children, 100 suppurative, acute, 319
treatment of, medical, 101 Pectus excavatum, 393
surgical, 102, 103 Pediatric audiometry, 64-66, 64-68
Pemphigoid, of mucous membrane, 306-307
Otocyst, development of, 29
Otolaryngology, anesthesia in, 22-23 Pemphigus, of oral cavity, 306
biopsy in, 22-23 Pemphigus vulgaris, of larynx, 401
equipment for, 3 Pendred’s disease, and congenital deafness, 128
examination in, 3-23 Perichondritis, 83, 83-84
and headache, 161 Perilymph fistula, and vertigo, 140
and temporomandibular joint, 171 Periodontal disorders, 296-301
neurologic evaluation in, 21 destruction in, premature, 301
restraint in, 22-23 Periodontitis, 297-299
Otolith organs, evaluation of, 44 Peripheral nervous system, disorders of, evaluation of, 42
Otologic examination, in otosclerosis, 97 Petrositis, 117-118
Otomycosis, 82-83 Pharyngectomy, for hypopharyngeal tumors, 462
in bone marrow recipient, 372 Pharyngitis, acute, 340, 340-342, 341
Otosclerosis, 96 and acute sore throat, 340(t)
and congenital deafness, 129 diagnosis of, 342
assessment of, 96, 97 etiology of, 340-341, 341, 341(t)
audiometric findings in, 66 pathology of, 340-341
Carhart notch in, 57, 66 symptoms of, 341
Otoscope(s), battery powered, 7, 8 treatment of, 342
pneumatic, 8, 8 and tobacco use, 349
Siegle, 8, 8 atrophic, 347-348
Ototoxicity, causative agents of, 132(t), 132-133 treatment of, 348-349
Owens view, in middle ear evaluation, 104, 107 lateral, 341, 341
Ozena, 226(t), 228-229 membranous, 344-345
recurrent, adenotonsillectomy for, 350
viral, etiology of, 340-341, 341(t)
Pharynx, anatomy of, 274, 274-277, 276, 277
Paget’s disease, and congenital deafness, 130, 130 and otalgia, 169(t)
Palatal myoclonus, 93 blood supply of, 279
Palate, anatomy of, 275 embryology of, 273-274
clefts of, 286-291, 287. See also Cleft(s), of palate. examination of, 13-16
and encephalocele, 211 and otalgia, 161
and nasal deformities, 209-210, 210 equipment and technique in, 15, 15-16
embryology of, 274 patient history in, 13-14
fractures of. See Maxilla, fractures of function of, in voice production, 391
soft, evaluation of, 13 innervation of, 279-280
Palpation, in oral and pharyngeal examinations, 16,16 physiology of, 280
Papillary adenocystpma lymphomatosum, 327 Pierre Robin syndrome, 283-284
Papilloma, inverted, of nose, 244, 457 Piriform sinus, anatomy of, 389
juvenile, 402-403 Plasmacytoma, extramedullary, of nose, 244-245
laser microsurgery for, 405 Plastic surgery, facial, 505—525. See also Facial plastic sur¬
treatment of, 403 gery.
INDEX 555
Plate stabilization, for mandibular fractures, 533, 533 Radiation therapy (Continued)
for maxillary fractures, 537 preoperative versus postoperative, 453
for zygomatic fractures, 535 techniques of, 453-454
Plaut’s angina, 344 and tumor stage, 453
and acute sore throat, 340(t) Radical neck dissection, for head and neck carcinoma,
Play audiometry, 67 456-457, 463-464
Plummer-Vinson syndrome, and hypopharyngeal tumors, for occult tumors, 463
462 indications for, 463
Pneumomediastinum, in tracheostomy, 501 modifications of, 464
Pneumothorax, in tracheostomy, 501-502 Radiculopathy, cervical, and headache, 165
Poliomyelitis, incidence of, after tonsillectomy, 351 Radioallergosorbent test (RAST), 200-201, 201 (t)
Polychondritis, relapsing, nasal manifestations of, 230 Radiosialographic scanning, 323
of external ear, 86 Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 83, 91, 305
Polycythemia, and obstructive sleep apnea, 362 after bone marrow transplantation, 375
Polyp(s), antrochoanal, 256, 257 and facial nerve paralysis, 151, 151
nasal, 202-204 Rappaport classification, for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma,
and aspirin sensitivity and asthma, 202, 225 447
and chronic ethmoid sinusitis, 259 Refsum’s disease, and Congenital deafness, 130
and obstructive sleep apnea, 364 Rem (roentgen-equivalent-man), definition of, 452-453
and sinusitis, 256 Renal dysfunction, and hearing loss, 129
clinical features of, 202 Respiratory tract, obstruction of, and associated disease,
differential diagnosis of, 222 193
treatment of, 203-204 Restlessness, in children, and airway obstruction, 492
complications of, 204 Restraint, in otolaryngologic examination, 22-23
surgical, 222, 223 Reticulosis, polymorphic, nasal manifestations of, 230
with hyposensitization, 204 Retraction, and airway obstruction, 492
versus inverted papilloma, 244 Rhabdomyosarcoma, 121, 152
of sinuses, 268-269 in children, 447-448
Polypectomy, nasal, 222, 223 Rheumatoid arthritis, and laryngeal disease, 400
Polyposis, nasal. See Polyp(s), nasal. Rhinitis, 212-217. See also Nasal allergy.
Positional tests, 44 allergic, 196, 202-204, 217-225, 219
Posturography, 44-45 and hyperplastic sinusitis, 224
Pregnancy, and gingivitis, 298 chronic, and nasal polyps and aspirin sensitivity, 225
Presbycusis, audiometric findings in, 65 and serous otitis media, 224
Prognathism, 284 diagnosis of, 202-203, 218-221
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, in tracheostomy, 501 differential diagnosis of, 204
Pulmonary disease, detection of, 22 incidence of, 202
Pulpitis, 297 pathogenesis of, 202
Pure tone audiometry, air conduction in, 50-51 treatment of, 203-204
audiogram in, and air-bone gap, 55, 56 allergen elimination in, 203
classic interpretation of, 55, 56, 57 medical, 203
notation for, 51, 52 surgical, 204
audiometric zero, and intensity range, 51 systemic, 223-224, 224(t)
bone conduction in, 50-51 with hyposensitization, 21
cross hearing in, 53-54 and temperature change, 227
interaural attenuation in, 53-54 and viral exanthemas, 215
masking in, 54-55, 55 atrophic, 226(t), 228-229
threshold determination in, 51-53 and atrophic pharyngitis, 348
patient preparation in, 51-52 treatment of, 229
procedures for, 52-53 hypertrophic, 226(t), 228
validity of, 53 and decongestant use, 226
versus speech audiometry, 60 in bone marrow recipient, 373, 374
Pyocele, and sinusitis, 265-266 infectious, versus nasal allergy, 218
influenzal, 214-215
nonallergic, chronic, 225-229, 226(t)
suppurative, 215
Rad (radiation absorbed dose), definition of, 452 vasomotor, 225-228, 226(t), 227
Radiation therapy, after neck dissection, 463 and drug usage, 226, 226(t), 227
complications of, 456 etiologic factors of, 226-228
for base of tongue tumors, 459 Rhinoliths, 247
for head and neck carcinoma, 452-456, 454, 455 Rhinophyma, 247
dosage definitions in, 452-453 Rhinoplasty, 523, 523
for laryngeal carcinoma, 454, 454, 461 Rhinoscleroma, 217
for nasal tumors, 457 Rhinoscopy, 207, 209
for nasopharyngeal carcinoma, 454, 455 for headache, 161
for sinus carcinoma, 454-456, 455 for nasal allergy, 219
for squamous cell carcinoma, 464(t) Rhytidectomy, 520, 521
for tonsillar tumors, 460 Rhytides, formation of, 520
immune system effects of, 377-378 obliteration of, 522-523
556 INDEX
Richards-Rundle syndrome, and congenital deafness, 131 Sialolithiasis, 321

Rinne test, 9, 11, 48 Sialorrhea,.322
interpretation of, 49(t) Sinus(es), anatomy of, 179, 179, 180-181, 181
validity of, 50 carcinoma of, squamous cell, 458, 459
Roentgen, definition of, 452 etiologic agents of, 445, 445(t)
Rollover, in speech discrimination, 61 radiation therapy for, 454-456, 455
Rotation test(s), 42-44 cysts of, 210, 211
versus caloric stimulation, 44 diseases of, 209, 247, 249-270
Rubella, and congenital sensorineural hearing loss, 128 and trauma, 269-270
congenital, 269
examination of, 10-13
Salicylate, ototoxicity and, 132 instruments in, 12
Salivary gland(s), anatomy of, 317-318 patient history in, 11
computed tomographic assessment of, 325 radiography in, 13
disorders of, 317-331 frontal, fracture of, 538
inflammatory, 318-321, 320 obliteration of, 262
symptoms of, 14 infections of, after bone marrow transplantation, 376
systemic, 321-322 and nasal polyps, 222
embryology of, 274 polyps of, 268-269
examination of, 13-16 radiologic assessment of, 219, 220
equipment and technique in, 15, 15-16 tumors of, 243-246, 245, 270
patient history in, 13-14 malignant, 458
innervation of, 318 extension of, 459
radiologic assessment of, 323, 323(t), 323-325, 324 versus epistaxis, 234
tumors of, benign, in adults, 327-328 Sinusitis, 167-168, 202-204
in children, 325 acute, 250-255, 251-255
differentiation of, 328(t) features of, 162(t)
malignant, in adults, 329(t), 329-331 allergic, 268-269
classification of, 330, 330(t) and asthma, 224
treatment of, 330 and headache, 167
in children, 328-329, 329(t) and nasal polyps, 222
TNM classification of, 330(t) and vascular atony, 228
Sarcoid, of larynx, 400 bacterial, 250
Sarcoidosis, and cervical lymph node involvement, 437 chronic, 255-262, 256-262
nasal manifestations of, 230-231 and tumors, 168, 458
of parotid gland, 321 computed tomographic assessment of, 259, 260
thoracic, and mediastinoscopy, 488 features of, 162(t)
Sarcoma, 447-448 in HIV-positive children, 377
Scar(s), acne, dermabrasion for, 519, 520 predisposing factors of, 255-256, 256
hypertrophic, 517 symptoms of, 256-257
of face, concealment of, 507, 507-508, 508, 539 treatment of, 257
revision of, 517(t), 517-519, 518, 519 endoscopy in, 259, 259
traumatic, dermabrasion for, 519, 520 versus acute sinusitis, 255
Scheibe’s disease, 127, 127 versus epistaxis, 234
Schirmer test, 147, 148, 148(t) complications of, 263-268, 264-266
Schuller view, in middle ear evaluation, 104, 105 computed tomographic assessment of, 263
Schwabach test, 9, 48 intracranial, 266, 266-267
interpretation of, 48(t) orbital, 263-265, 264, 265
validity of, 50 differential diagnosis of, 204
Sclerosis, amyotrophic, 409 ethmoid, acute, 254, 254
and vocal cord paralysis, 406 chronic, 259
Scrotal tongue, 302, 302 frontal, acute, 254-255, 255
Sedation, in examination, 22-23 chronic, 259, 261, 261-262, 262
Seeing Essential English (SEE), 75 complications of, 266, 267
Semicircular canals, anatomy of, 34, 36 fungal, in bone marrow recipient, 372-373
physiology of, 39-40 hyperplastic, and allergic rhinitis, 224
Septoplasty, 524 in AIDS, 376-377
for septal deformity, 242 in cancer patients, 378, 379
for obstructive sleep apnea, 366, 368(t) in children, 262-263
Shadow curve, in pure tone audiometry, 53 in organ transplantation, 377
Sialadenitis, acute, of submandibular gland, 319 infectious, etiologic agents in, 250
and sialography, 325 general considerations in, 249-250
chronic, of parotid gland, 319-321, 320 maxillary, acute, 250-253, 251-253
treatment of, 320-321 causes of, 250-251, 253
recurrent, 318-319 evaluation of, 251, 251-252
of submandibular gland, 321 of dental origin, 253, 253
Sialodochiectasis, 319-321, 320 treatment of, 252, 252, 253
Sialography, 320, 323, 323-325, 324, 326 chronic, 257, 257-258, 258
for cheek lacerations, 528-529 noninfectious, 268-269
INDEX 557
Sinusitis (Continued)
Speech reception threshold (SRT), 60-61
sphenoid, acute, 255 Speechreading, 73
chronic, treatment of, 262
Splinting, for mandibular fractures, 532-533, 533
treatment of, 203-204, 204
Spondylosis, cervical, and headache, 165
versus impaired ciliary physiology, 192
Squamous cell carcinoma. See Carcinoma, squamous cell.
viral, 250
Stapes, anatomy of, 33, 33
Situs inversus, and Kartagener's syndrome, 269 embryology of, 28
Sjogren's syndrome, 322 function of, 36
and chronic parotitis, 322 Stenger test, 68
and sialography, 325 Stenosis, esophageal, 473, 473(t)
nasal manifestations of, 231 prevention of, 474
Skin tumors, malignant, 448-449, 449(t) laryngeal, 397
Skin flap(s). See also Flap(s). of external auditory canal, 84, 85
advancement, 512, 512 subglottic, 397
in tracheostomy, 496, 496, 49', congenital, 394
local, general considerations in, 512, 513 from intubation, 385
of face, 512-513, 512-514 in children, 491
rhomboid, 513, 513 treatment of, in neonates, 497-498
transposition, 512, 513 laser microsurgery for, 405
Skin grafts, classification of, 515, 515 tracheal, in tracheostomy, 502
general considerations in, 512 Stensen’s duct, dilatation of, 323
harvesting of, 515, 515-516, 516 sialographic assessment of, 326
Sleep apnea, obstructive, 362-368 Stenvers position, in middle ear evaluation, 104, 108
and cardiopulmonary syndrome, 362, 362(t) Stomatitis, aphthous, recurrent, 304-305
clinical presentation of, 362-363 Stridor, and airway obstruction, 492
diagnosis of, 364-365, 365 in laryngeal disease, 392
mechanisms of, 363-364 Stuttering, in children, 416-417
psychosocial effects of, 364-365 Sublingual glands, anatomy of, 318
treatment of, 365-368, 366, 367, 367(t), 368(t) Submandibular glands, anatomy of, 317-318
continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) in, 368 sialographic assessment of, 323-325, 324, 326
genioplasty in, 366 tumors of, 327
medical, 367(t), 368 malignant, 331
surgical, 368(t)
Suctioning, in tracheostomy care, 499, 500
tracheostomy in, 366, 366 Supraclavicular fossa, mass of, 448
uvulopalatopharyngoplasty in, 366-367, 367, 368(t) Supraglottitis, clinical features of, 399(t)
Smell. See Olfaction. Sutton’s disease, 305
Snoring, 362-368. See also Sleep apnea, obstructive. Suture(s), absorbable, versus nonabsorbable, 510
Soft tissue, injury of, in maxillofacial trauma, 530 interrupted mattress, 510-511, 511
Sore throat. See also Pharyngitis-, Tonsillitis. running, 511, 511
acute, and associated diseases, 340, 340-350, 341 technique for, in facial plastic surgery, 509-511, 510
346(t). 347-349 511
patient history in, 13, 13-14 tracts of, 506, 506
Sound, transmission of, 36 Swallowing, stages of, 280
air conduction in, 47
Swimmer s ear, 81—82. See also Diffuse otitis externa.
Speculum, aural, 6-7, 7
Syphilis, and cervical lymph node involvement, 437
nasal, 12
and hearing loss, 131-132
Speech, after laryngectomy, 421-424
laryngeal involvement in, 401
and artificial larynx, 422, 422-423 Syringe, irrigating, 10
and voice prosthesis, 423, 423
methods for, 421-422
rehabilitation in, 423-424 Taste, innervation for, 275
support groups for, 424 Teeth, anatomy of, 275
definition of, 412
embryology of, 273-274
disorders of, 412-426
eruption of, disorders in, 300
adenoidectomy ii), 339 fractures of, 316
definition of, 412'
Teflon, injection of, for vocal cord paralysis, 408
in adults, 419-425, 422, 423
Temporal bone, anatomy of, 144
in children, 414-419, 415, 418(t) embryology of, 29-30, 30
screening tests for, 415 fractures of, 134,134
hypernasal, 194
radiologic assessment of, 102, 104-108, 104-108
hyponasal, 194
trauma to, and facial nerve paralysis, 152
rehabilition services in, 426
Temporomandibular joint, dysfunction of, 171-172
Speech audiometry, in children, 67-68 differential diagnosis of, 171
masking in, 54-55
features of, 162(t)
speech discrimination tests in, 61 treatment of, 171-172
speech reception threshold (SRT) test in, 60-61 examination of, and headache, 161
versus pure tone audiometry, 60 Tetanus, prophylaxis for, 509, 509(t)
Speech discrimination, 61 Tetracycline, dental side effects of, 300
Speech pathology services, 426
Thornwaldt’s disease, 335, 336
558 INDEX
Thrombophlebitis, and brain abscess formation, 266, 267 Torus mandibularis, 283, 283
of lateral sinus, 118 Torus palatinus, 282, 282
septic, and parapharyngeal space infection, 359 Total communication, 75
Thrombosis, of cavernous sinus, 264, 264, 265 Towne view, in middle ear evaluation, 104
Thyroglossal duct, anatomy of, 435 Toxic shock syndrome, and nasal packing, 215
cysts of, 434, 434, 435 Trachea, anatomy of, 386, 492-493
embryology of, 278-279 Aspergillus infection of, 374
hyroid gland, anatomy of, 389, 440 Tracheal atresia, 483
carcinoma of, from radiation therapy, 456 Tracheal cannula, 498
cysts of, 434, 435 Tracheitis, bacterial, 399(t)
diseases of, 439 Tracheobronchial tree, anatomy of, 482
diffuse, 440-442 disorders of, 483-485
examination of, 22, 22 congenital, 483
masses of, 439-442, 440, 441 evaluation of, 481, 482, 485-487
diagnosis of, 439-440 bronchoscopy in, 486, 486-487
thyroid scans in, 440, 440, 441 foreign bodies in, location of, 484-485
nodules of, evaluation of, 440, 441, 442 symptoms of, 483-484
Thyroid cartilage, anatomy of, 384-386, 384 Tracheomalacia, 394, 483
fracture of, 396 Tracheostomy, 389, 490-502
Thyroiditis, and diffuse thyroid disease, 440-442 alternatives to, in neonates, 497-498
diagnosis of, 441 complications of, delayed, 501-502
Thyrotoxicosis, 197 surgical, 500-501
Tic douloureux, 172, See also Neuralgia. definition of, 490
Tinnitus, audiologic evaluation of, 125 elective, in adults, 493-494, 494(t), 495
etiology of, 123-124 in children, 494
in polychondritis, 86 emergency, 494-496
treatment of, 136-137 in maxillofacial trauma, 526-527
Tissue expansion, in facial plastic surgery, M4 for bilateral vocal cord paralysis, 408, 408-409
TNM classification, for head and neck tumors, 451(t) for foreign body aspiration, 484
for laryngeal carcinoma, 461(t) for laryngeal fracture, 396
for oral cavity tumors, 460(t) for laryngitis, 373-374
Tobacco use, and chronic nonspecific laryngitis, 401 for Ludwig’s angina, 360
and pharyngitis, 349 for obstructive sleep apnea, 365-366, 366
and squamous cell carcinoma, 445 history of, 490-491
Tongue, anatomy of, 275 incisions for, 496, 497
base of, malignant tumors of, treatment of, 459-460 indications for, 491-492
embryology of, 274 modifications of, 496-498, 496-498
Tongue depressor, in oral and pharyngeal examination, postoperative care in, 499-500, 500
15, 15-16 surgical technique for, 493-502, 494(t), 495-498, 500,
Tongue tie, in children, 418 501
Tonsil(s), anatomy of, 276, 276-277, 334, 354, 355 tubes, postoperative care of, 499-500, 500
and immune system development, in children, 351 sizes of, for adults, 493, 494(t)
carcinoma of, 460 for children, 494(t)
hypertrophied, and lymphoma, 447 types of, 496-497, 501
Tonsillectomy, 350-356, 355, 356 versus endotracheal intubation, 491
and otalgia, 170 Tracheotomy, and laryngeal stenosis, 397
and poliomyelitis, 351 definition of, 490
anesthesia for, 354, 357 Transplantation, bone marrow. See Bone marrow trans¬
contraindications to, 353 plantation.
dissection technique in, 357 organ, and associated infections, 377
for obstructive sleep apnea, 366, 368(t) Trap door deformity, 513, 516, 516-517
hemostasis control in, 354-355, 357 Trauma, acoustic, 36
immediate, indications for, 347, 347(t) auricular defects from, 524
indications for, 351-353 during childbirth, and facial nerve paralysis, 151
instruments for, 356 to external ear, 86-87
outpatient versus inpatient, 356 to maxillofacial area, treatment of, 526-539. See also
patient preparation in, 353-354, Maxillofacial trauma.
postoperative bleeding in, 354-355 to nose, and epistaxis, 240-241
surgical anatomy for, 354, 355' to oral cavity, 315-316
technical considerations in, 354-356, 355 Treacher Collins syndrome, 95, 279, 291
with adenoidectomy, benefits of, 350-351 Trephination, for frontal sinusitis, 255
Tonsillitis, acute, 342-343 Trigeminal nerve, evaluation of, 21
and acute sore throat, 340(t) Trismus, and deep neck infection, 358
pathology of, 342 Trisomy 13-15 (D), and congenital deafness, 128
treatment of, 342-343 Trisomy 18 (E), and congenital deafness, 128
chronic, diagnosis of, 349-350, 350 Tuberculosis, and cervical lymph node involvement, 437
treatment of, 350 of esophagus, 472
etiology of, 352 of larynx, 401
lingual, 343-344 of middle ear. 111
and acute sore throat, 340(t) of nose, 217
INDEX 559
Tubotympanic recess, formation of, 27, 28 Ulcers, contact, of vocal cord, 402
Tumor(s), acoustic, 133, 133-134 Usher’s disease, and congenital deafness, 128
benign, of salivary glands, in adults, 327-328 Uveoparotid fever, 321
in children, 325 Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, for obstructive sleep apnea,
carotid body, 438, 439 366-367, 367, 368(t)
malignant, connective tissue, 447-448
of head and neck, 443-467
treatment of, 451-465, 454, 455, 459, 460(t), 461(t),
464(t), 465(t)
chemotherapy in, 464(t), 465, 465(t) Vagus nerve, evaluation of, 21
radiation in, 452-456, 454, 455 Varicella-zoster virus infection, after bone marrow trans¬
surgical, 456-457 plantation, 375
of middle ear, 121 Vasoconstrictor(s), topical, in examination, 13
of nose, 457 Venous system, and sinusitis complications, 266,.266-267
of oral cavity, 458-459 Ventilation problems, chronic, versus airway obstruction,
of salivary glands, 329(t), 329-331 492
of sinuses, 458, 459 Ventilation tube(s), placement of, for serous otitis media,
of skin, 448-449, 449(t) 102, 103
metastatic, to head, 448 indications for, 120
to middle ear region, 121-122 Vertigo, 137-141
neuroectodermal, of neural crest origin, 314 and chronic otitis media, 111
neurogenic, 439 and inner ear disease, 117
nonodontogenic, 314 and tympanic membrane perforation, 98
occult, and cervical metastasis, 463 assessment of, fistula test in, 111, 111
odontogenic, 310(t), 310-313, 311, 313 benign paroxysmal positional, 137-138
adenomatoid, 311 diagnosis of, 44
epithelial, calcifying, 312 benign positional, 137-138
of cerebellopontine angle, 133, 152 causes of, nonvestibular, 137
of middle ear and mastoid, 120-122 vascular, 137
of oral cavity, 310(t), 310-314, 311, 313 vestibular, 137-140, 138(t), 139, 140
of parotid gland, 327 cervical, 137
of salivary glands, differentiation of, 328(t) differential diagnosis of, 124(t)
TNM classification of, 330(t) _ ** evalu.ation.of,(*41i<42
of skull base, and vocal cord paralysis, 406 in pblychondrifis>;86
of submandibular gland, 327 treatment ofj 144 (
malignant, 331 Vestibular function,' disorders of, 21
of tongue base, 459-460 evaluation of, 41-45, 43
Tuning fork, Riverbank 512 cycle, 9 caloric stimulation in, 42, 44
Tuning fork test(s), 9-10, 10, 11, 47-50. See also Hearing electronystagmography in, 42, 43
test(s). positional tests in, 44
Bing test, 49 posturography in, 44-45
reliability of, 49-50 rotation tests in, 42-44
Rinne test, 9, 11, 48, 49(t) vestibulo-ocular reflex in, 42
Schwabach test, 9, 48, 48(t) Vestibular nerve, pathways of, 38
threshold determination in, 47-48 Vestibular neuronitis, and vertigo, 138
validity of, 49-50 Vestibular reflex, pathways of, 41
Weber test, 9, 11, 49 Vestibular system, disorders of, 138(t)
Tympanic cavity, radiologic assessment of, 104 physiology of, 39-41
Tympanic membrane, anatomy of, 6, 31, 32, 33 Vestibule, of inner ear, anatomy of, 34, 35-36
appearance of, in acute otitis media, 99, 99 radiologic assessment of, 104
in disease, 90-91 Vestibulo-ocular reflex, evaluation of, 42
audiologic evaluation of, 57-58. See also Tympanome¬ pathways of, 41
try. Vincent’s angina, 344
diseases of, 90-92, 91 and acute sore throat, 340(t)
examination of, 5, 7, 7-8, 8 Vincent’s infection, 298, 298-299
inflammation of, 91-92 Virus(es), and hearing loss, 131
perforation of, 8-9, 91, 91, 96, 98, 111 respiratory, 213-215
and ossicular chain damage, 98 Vocal abuse, adductor hyperfunction and, 420
treatment of, 98 Vocal cord(s), anatomy of, 388, 389
Tympanocentesis, for otitis media, in bone marrow trans¬ contact ulcer of, in men, 402
plantation, 371 examination of, in chronic laryngitis, 402
Tympanogram, classification of, 57-58, 58 function of, 390, 390
of tympano-ossicular system, 57 leukoplakia of, 403
Tympanometry, 57-58 musculature of, 386-387
acoustic immittance in, 58-59, 59(t) nodules of, 400, 402
Tympano-ossicular system, tympanometry and, 57-58 paralysis of, 406-409, 407, 407(t), 408
Tympanoplasty, for chronic middle ear infection, 112-113, bilateral, 406, 407(t), 408, 408-409
115 causes of, 406-407
Tympanosclerosis, 110 congenital, 395-396
audiometric findings in, 65 cord designation in, 406, 406(t), 407
560 INDEX
Vocal cord(s) (Continued) Waldeyer’s ring, lymph nodes of, and non-Hodgkin’s lym¬
paralysis of, unilateral, 406, 407, 407(t) phoma, 437
in children, 407-408 lymphoma in, 447
treatment of, 408, 408 Warthin’s tumor, 327
Vocal weakness, 410 Waters’ view, 220
Voice, artificial larynx for, 422, 422-423 Weber test, 9, 11, 49
disorders of, and loudness, 419-420 Web(s), congenital, of larynx, 394
and pitch, 419 Wegener’s granulomatosis, nasal manifestations of, 229-
and vocal quality, 420 230
functional versus organic, 419 Wharton’s duct, dilatation of, 323
in adults, 419-421 sialographic assessment of, 326
in children, 415-416 Wheezing, and foreign body aspiration, 484
incidence of, 419 Wire stabilization, for mandibular fractures, 533, 533
psychologic factors in, 419 for maxillary fractures, 537, 537
therapy for, 421 Wound care, principles of, 503-512, 507, 508, 509(t), 510,
esophageal, and artificial larynx, 422-423 511. See also Facial plastic surgery; Facial wound(s).
methods for, 421-422 Wrinkles, formation of, 520
outcome factors in, 424 obliteration of, 522-523
production of, 390
prosthesis for, 423, 423
Von Recklinghausen’s disease, and acoustic neuroma, 133 Z-plasty, 517(t), 518, 518
and congenital deafness, 130 Zenker’s diverticulum, 277
and chronic nonspecific laryngitis, 401
Zigzag-plasty, 517(t), 518, 519
W-plasty, 517(t), 518, 519 Zygoma, fractures of, 534, 534-535, 535
Waardenburg’s disease, and congenital deafness, 127 repair of, 535

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SIXTH EDITION

A Textbook of Ear, Nose and Throat

LAWRENCE R. BOIES, Jr., M.D.

PETER A. HUGER, M.D,

Philadelphia, London, Toronto, Montreal, Sydney, Tokyo

583 Orchard Road #09-01 Forum

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

This edition is authorized for the sales only in the Philippines.

Last digit is the print number 9 8765432 1

GEORGE L. ADAMS, M.D.

JOHN H. ANDERSON, M.D., Ph D.

JOHN D. BANOVETZ, M.D.

NORMAN T. BERLINGER, M.D., Ph D.

MALCOLM N. BLUMENTHAL, M.D.

LAWRENCE R. BOIES, Jr.. M.D.

JAMES I. COHEN, M.D., Ph D.

ARNDT J. DUVALL, III, M.D.

MEREDITH GERDIN, M.A., C.C.C.

ROBERT J. GORLIN, D.D.S., M.S., D.Sc (Athens)

DONNA G. GREENFIELD, M.S.

PETER A. HILGER, M.D., M.S.

FRANK M. LASSMAN, Ph.D.

SAMUEL C. LEVINE, M.D.

STEPHEN L. LISTON, F.R.A.C.S., F.R.C.S., F.A.C.S.

MICHAEL M. PAPARELLA, M.D.

LEIGHTON G, SIEGEL, M,D,

VIRGINIA WIGGINTON, M.A,, C.C.C

KENT S. WILSON, M.D,

Lawrence R. Boies, Jr.

HISTORY AND EXAMINATION

THE NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES

THE ORAL CAVITY AND PHARYNX

NEOPLASMS OF THE HEAD AND NECK

DISEASES OF THE TRACHEA AND CERVICAL ESOPHAGUS

PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY

The skills required to obtain a medical history and perform a physical

BASIC EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE FOR A HEAD

5. What other symptoms occur simultaneously? Do they include nausea,

Discharge from the Ear

Examining the Ear

FIGURE 1—1. The auricle and external auditory Anthelix

FIGURE 1-3. The largest aural

FIGURE 1 -4. The technique of examining the external auditory canal

membrane. Inspection of the external ear canal must not be neglected in an

FIGURE 1-7. Winding a cotton applicator is

Clinical Hearing Tests

FIGURE 1—8. The use of the irrigating syringe.

The Nose and Sinuses

Loss or Change of Smell (Anosmia)

The Normal Nose

Equipment and Techniques

FIGURE 1—11. The shape, position, and relation¬

Mouth, Pharynx, and Salivary Glands

1. Are the symptoms acute or chronic?

The most frequent pharyngeal complaints are sore throat; a discharge in

Discharge in the Throat

Difficulty in Swallowing (Dysphagia)

Nasopharyngeal symptoms may include drainage or obstruction of nasal

1. Are symptoms acute or chronic?