Plant and animal organ systems and their functions

1.1 TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION

LEARNING COMPETENCY

Compare and contrast transport and circulation in plants and animals.

Transport System

 needed by animals to distribute oxygen and other essential substances to all the cells in the
body as well as to remove excretory products from the cells.

 In mammals, blood is circulated through a very complex Circulatory System with the help of
contraction of the heart muscles.

 The circulatory system in humans and other mammals consists of the heart, arteries, veins and
capillaries.

circulation

Circulation
System

Closed Circulation

Blood circulates in a continuous system of tubes, the blood vessels.

Single Circulation – blood passes through the heart once only in each circulation. Ex. Fishes

Double Circulation – blood passes through the heart twice in each circulation. Ex. Birds and Mammals

Circulation
System

The mammalian heart and its regulation

Human Heart

 The human heart, which is an example of mammalian heart, is a hollow muscular organ about
the size of clenched fist and shaped like an inverted cone.

 The heart lies in the thoracic cavity protected by the sternum.

 The heart wall consist of cardiac muscle, which is a specialized muscle unique to the heart.

 The cardiac muscle consists of interlaced crisscross muscle fibers which play an important role in
the cardiac cycle.
Human Heart

 Passing over the surface of the heart are coronary arteries and coronary veins.

 The heart is surrounded by a two layered membranous sac called the pericardium.

 The cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers.

 The direction of blood flow in the heart is controlled by a number of valves to ensure a one-way
flow.

Initiation of Heartbeat

 One of the unique characteristics of the heart is its ability to contract and relax alternately in a
non-stop rhythmic pattern. Each cycle of contraction and relaxation of heart is called one beat
of the heart.

 Each beat of the heart begins with the contraction action of the heart muscle or systole,
followed by a pause (relaxation) or diastole.

 The origin of the heartbeat is not a nerve impulse, but rather it is an inherent property of the
cardiac muscle.

Control of Heartrate

Heart rate is controlled by two factors.

1. Nervous control by the parasympathetic nerve and sympathetic nerve of the

autonomic nervous system.

2. Hormonal control through the actions of adrenaline from the adrenal gland,
and thyroxine from the thyroid gland.

The actions of these two factors integrate at all times in influencing the heart rate and cardiac
input.

Factors affecting Heart rate

Two important factors affecting heart rate are:

1. Change in pH of the blood

2. Temperature

Other Factors affecting Heart rate

1. Body size

2. Gender
 3. Age

4. Physical Activity

5. Stress

6. State of health

7. Medication and Drugs

8. Environmental Factors

9. Smoking and Alcohol

Transport in plants

Route of water movement in Plant Tissues

Water moves in flowering plants along three important routes.

1. Apoplast Route

2. Symplast Route

3. Vacuolar Route

Apoplast Route

 this route is made up of spaces called apoplasm classified as ‘free space’, found in the cellulose
cell walls.

 Since this route does not traverse the contents of living cells, water moves without any
resistance.

 Almost 90% of the water that moves through a plant travels through this route.

Symplast Route

 this route traverses the content of living cells, that is, the cytoplasm.

 The cytoplasm of adjacent cells is connected by cytoplasmic connections, known as

plasmodesmata, which pass through the cell walls via minute perforations.

 However, the movement of water along this route is normally hindered by resistance caused by
cell organelles and membranes.

Vacuolar Route
  water also moves in and out of cell vacuoles by osmosis through the tonoplast and cell
membranes.

 This route is not very significant.

 However, it is through this route that cells absorb water from the apoplasm of cells.

Absorption of water by roots and transport through the cortex

1. Water is absorbed from the soil by root hairs and other epidermal cells through osmosis due to
an absorption pressure deficit gradient between the soil solution and the cell sap in vacuoles.

2. The absorption pressure gradient is caused by the concentration of dissolved substances such as
sugar and other metabolites in the cell sap being higher than the concentration in the soil
solution.

3. Therefore, water molecules move into the cell vacuoles, passing through the cellulose cell walls
and protoplasm.

4. Hence, any increase in the concentration of dissolved substances in the cell or a decrease in
turgidity will promote intake of water into the cell vacuoles.

Absorption of water by roots and transport through the cortex

5. The absorption of water by roots is through the mechanism of osmosis, which is a passive
process and does not involve the use of energy.

6. However, it is believed that the absorption of water by osmosis is usually assisted by active
transport that requires energy.

7. From the root hairs, water enters the vascular tissues located deeper in the center of the roots,
passing through the cortex which comprises parenchyma cells.

8. Continuous discharge of water from the inner parenchyma cells of the cortex into the xylem
vessels of the root produces an osmotic gradient, which is needed for water to be absorbed
from one parenchyma cell to the next in the root.

Water movement in the cortex may occur by three routes.

1. Water is absorbed into the cell sap of one vacuole and then moves to another by osmosis.

2. Water is absorbed into the cytoplasm of one cell and moves from cytoplasm to cytoplasm
through the plasmodesmata.

3. Water diffuses along the cell walls and through adjoining cell wall as well as through the small
spaces between cells.

Water route from the cortex to the vascular system(xylem vessels)

 1. The osmotic pressure created in leaves due to transpiration produces a suction power, called
transpiration pull. This pulling forces causes water to be sucked into xylem vessels.

2. However, it has also been shown that there exists another force that pushes from below. This is
called root pressure and is responsible for pushing water upwards along the stem.

3. It has been proven that water crosses the endodermal cells which lie next to the parenchyma
cells on the inner side of the cortex.

4. The endodermal cell has a special feature called the Casparian strip consisting of a lining of cork
around the radial and horizontal walls of the cell.

Movement of water upwards in the xylem

1. Root pressure is not enough to move water up to the leaves this is proven by the following facts.

2. Transpiration –
Cohesion – Tension
Mechanism

 The phenomenon demonstrated can be explained by the adhesion and cohesion properties of
water molecules.

 Water molecules adhere to one another by cohesive forces, and they adhere to the walls of the
tube by adhesives forces.

 Therefore, the continuity of the water column formed will not break unless the cohesive and
adhesive forces are overcome gravitational pull.

Uptake of Mineral Ions in Plants

1. Apart from carbon dioxide and water, plants also require minerals for growth and development.
The minerals are absorbed in the form of dissolved ions from water in the soil.

2. Mineral ions are absorbed by the roots of plants from the soil solution either by diffusion or
active transport.

Uptake of
Mineral Ions
in Plants

3. The concept of a carrier in the active transport of ions

translocation

Translocation
Is the transport of organic substances, produced by photosynthesis, from the leaves to the other parts
of the plants.

Translocation is carried out in the vascular tissue know as phloem.

Transpiration

Is the loss of water in the form of water vapor from plants through the stomata found in leaves.

Evidences of Phloem as the Site of Translocation

Ringing Experiment

Complete ringing of the main trunk of a tree results in the death of the tree because the roots are
deprived of sugars.

Analysis of Sugar Concentration in Green Plants

Sugar build up in the leaves in the presence of light is followed by sugar accumulation in phloem.

Evidences of Phloem as the Site of Translocation

Use of aphid mouthpart as a micropipette inserted to the sieve tubes of plants.

Analysis of sap exuded shows high concentration of sugar.

Radioactive Tracing

Carbon dioxide that is fed to green leaves in the presence of light is turned into radioactive sugar.
Developed film shows the presence of radioactivity in the phloem.

Cells in the Phloem Tissue

1. Sieve Cells

 located inside the sieve tube, arranged end to end forming cylindrical
tubes.

 do not contain nuclei or typical cell organelle

 they are separated from one another by perforated discs called sieve
plates

 These perforations allow cytoplasm to flow from one sieve tube to the
next in the form of cytoplasmic strands.
Cells in the Phloem Tissue

2. Companion Cells

 arranged next to sieve cells.

 contain a nucleus as well as other cell organelles.
 connected to the sieve cell beside plasmodesmata.
 contain a denser cytoplasm and function in providing essential metabolic substances to the
sieve cells.

Munch’s Mass Flow Hypothesis

 The mass flow or pressure theory was first proposed by Munch (1930) and later elaborated by
Crafts (1938).

 According to this theory, organic solutes are translocated through the sieve tubes from the
source (leaves) to the storage sites (roots, fruits and tubers).

Munch’s Mass Flow Hypothesis

 Mesophyll cells synthesize sugars during photosynthesis. As these get dissolved in the cell sap,
the osmotic concentration and diffusion pressure deficit (DPD) of the mesophyll cells increase.

 Water enters the mesophyll cells from the xylem, and hence, the turgor pressure or pressure
potential of the mesophyll cells increases.

 Sugars dissolved in water move from the mesophyll cells into the symplast system of the sieve
tubes through the companion cells.

 Solutes are carried through the symplast to finally reach the consumption centers.

Munch’s Mass Flow Hypothesis

 At the consumption end, food materials are either used up, as in roots, or are stored in an
insoluble form, as in fruits and tubers. As a result, the osmotic concentration, and consequently,
the turgor pressure in these cells are low.

 In this way, a continuous turgor pressure gradient is established across the symplast between
the cells of the source and the cells of the sink.

 Water returns to the source through the apoplast system.

Plant and animal organ systems and their functions

1.2 GAS EXCHANGE AND ITS CONTROL

LEARNING COMPETENCY

Compare and contrast gas exchange in plants and animals.

What Is Respiration?

In biology, respiration means different things.

Cellular Respiration is the release of energy from the breakdown of food in the presence of oxygen
(occurs in the?????)

At the organism level, respiration is the process of gas exchange—the release of carbon dioxide and the
uptake of oxygen that occurs between RBCs and alveoli

Breathing is the actual mechanical intake of air

Specialized
Respiratory Organs/System

1. GILLS – are highly folded outgrowths that contain blood vessel and covered with a thin
epithelial layer.

BREATHING

Gaseous exchange And control in mammals

Circulation and Gas Exchange

Gas exchange at the lungs and in the body cells moves oxygen into cells and carbon dioxide out.

Gas exchange

Air entering the lungs contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than the blood that flows in the
pulmonary capillaries.

Oxygen transport

Hemoglobin binds to oxygen that diffuses into the blood stream.

Carbon dioxide
transport

Carbon dioxide can dissolve in plasma, and about 70% forms bicarbonate ions.

Some carbon dioxide can bind to hemoglobin for transport.

Organs of the respiratory system

Respiratory System of mammals

Nasal cavity

Pharynx

Larynx

Larynx

Trachea and Bronchus

Lungs

Respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts

Alveoli

Gas exchange in the lungs

Transportation of oxygen in the blood

Structure of Hemoglobin

Adaptations of the alveoli to the exchange of gases

Large surface area

Extensive blood capillary network

Thin walls

Moisture

Gaseous exchange in plant

Gas exchange by diffusion through stomata and lenticels.

Stomata

Function of stomata

Stomata on the leaves

Gas exchange in the leaf

Gaseous exchange in the stem

Lenticels

Ventilation in the stem of

perennial woody plants

Gas exchange in the roots

Diffusion of air within the plant body

• Plant and animal organ systems and their functions

• 1.3 CHEMICAL and NERVOUS CONTROL

• LEARNING COMPETENCY

Compare and contrast chemical and nervous control in plants and animals.

• NERVOUS SYSTEM

• What is Nervous System?

• The nervous system consists of a network of nerve cells that gather information about the
conditions of the body and the external environment, process and integrate that information
and then send instructions to muscles and glands which carry out the responses to the
conditions detected.

• Divisions of the Nervous System

The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM,

• Consists of the brain and spinal cord,

• Processes information and creates a response that is delivered to the appropriate part
of the body through the peripheral nervous system.

• The Central Nervous System

THE BRAIN

• The major areas of the brain—Brain stem – medulla, pons, midbrain; Diencephalon –
thalamus & hypothalamus; Cerebellum; Cerebrum - is responsible for processing and
relaying information

THE SPINAL CORD

• The main communication link between the brain and the rest of the body.
 • Regions of the Brain

• Cerebellum – coordination of movement and aspects of motor learning

• Cerebrum – conscious activity including perception, emotion, thought, and planning

• Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays information to various brain regions

• Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration

• Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain (involuntary responses) and relays information from
spine to upper brain

• Hypothalamus – involved in regulating activities internal organs, monitoring information from

the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland and its hormones, and regulating
sleep and appetite.

• Divisions of the Nervous System

The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• consists of peripheral nerves, that is the spinal nerves and the cranial nerves.

• It connects the brain and spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body including the muscles,
sensory organs and organs of the digestive, respiratory, excretory and circulatory
systems.

• Neurons

 It is the functional unit of the nervous system.

 It is specialized for transmitting impulses from one location in the body to another

• Parts of a Neuron

• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the cell body

• Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of cytoplasm

• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body

• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous System

• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray

• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath

Types of Neurons

Neurons can be classified into three types according to the direction in which an impulse travels.

• Sensory neurons carry impulses from the sense organs, such as the eyes and
ears, to the spinal cord and brain.

• Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain and the spinal cord to muscles
and glands.

• Interneurons process information from sensory neurons and then send

commands to other interneurons or motor neurons.

• Synapse

 Synapse - small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another - the
neurons do not actually tough at the synapse

 It is junction between neurons which uses neurotransmitters to start the impulse in the second
neuron or an effector (muscle or gland)

 The synapse insures one-way transmission of impulses

• Neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters – are chemical substance that transfers information across a synapse, the
junction between a neuron and another neuron.

• It acts by diffusing across the synapse and binding to the protein receptor molecules on
the postsynaptic membrane.

• Examples:

• NORADRENALINE

• ACETYLCHOLINE

• DOPAMINE

• endocrine SYSTEM

• Types and Characteristics of Hormones

1. STEROID HORMONES

these hormones are lipid – soluble and derived from cholesterol.

Examples:

a. Cortisol – secreted by adrenal cortex

 regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism;

 has an anti-inflammatory effect;
 helps the body cope during times of stress

• Types and Characteristics of Hormones

Examples:

a. Testosterone – secreted by the testicles.

b. It is essential for normal growth and development of the male sex organs.

c. Testosterone is responsible for the erection of the penis.

• Types and Characteristics of Hormones

Examples:

a. Progesterone and Estrogen – produced by the ovary

b. These hormones prepare the uterus for pregnancy, promote the development
of mammary glands, play a role in sex drive, and develop secondary sex
characteristics in the female.

c. Estrogen is essential for the growth, development, and maintenance of female

sex organs.

• Types and Characteristics of Hormones

2. AMINES

these hormones are amino acid derivatives.

Examples:

a. Triiodothyronine, also known as T3

It affects almost every physiological process in the body, including growth and development,
metabolism, body temperature, and heart rate.

a. Thyroxine, also known as T4

It stimulate the consumption of oxygen and thus the metabolism of all cells and tissues in the body.

• Types and Characteristics of Hormones

3. PEPTIDES / PROTEINS

these hormones are water – soluble.

They make up the largest hormone group.

Examples

a. Glucagon – produced by pancreas

b. It stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen (stored in the liver) to glucose, which can
be released into the bloodstream. This process is called glycogenolysis.

c. It promotes the production of glucose from amino acid molecules. This process is called
gluconeogenesis.

d. It reduces glucose consumption by the liver so that as much glucose as possible can be
secreted into the bloodstream to maintain blood glucose levels.

e. Glucagon also acts on adipose tissue to stimulate the breakdown of fat stores into the
bloodstream.

• Types and Characteristics of Hormones

Examples

b. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

It stimulates the reabsorption of water by the renal tubules.

• Types and Characteristics of Hormones

Examples

c. Oxytocin – secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

It stimulates the uterus to contract during labor, delivery, or parturition.

• PLANT RESPONSES

• Phototropism

• Geotropism/ Gravitropism

• Hydrotropism

• Thigmotropism

• Plant Hormones

• Plant Hormones are chemicals that occur naturally in plants. These hormones work at extremely
low concentrations.

• They regulate plant growth and development, from seed formation and germination to the
ageing and death of a plant.

• They also coordinate many plant responses to external stimuli, for example, phototropism and
geotropism.

• Plant hormones can be divided into two classes:

• Growth promoters: Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins

• Growth inhibitors: Ethylene gas, Abscisic acid

• Growth promoters

Hormones can promote plant growth in two ways:

• Stimulating cell division in meristems to produce new cells.

• Stimulating elongation in cells.

A. Auxins

• Tropisms

• Tropisms are the growth of a plant toward or away from a stimulus, including:

• Phototropism: in response to light

• Gravitropism: in response to gravity

• Thigmotropism: in response to touch

• Hydrotropism: in response to water

• Apical dominance

• Auxins are released from the shoot tip. These stimulate cell elongation in the stem, but suppress
the lateral buds.

• Adventitious roots

• Adventitious roots are those growing out of places where roots don’t normally grow.

• Auxins stimulate root growth on the end of a houseplant cutting.

• Fruit growth

• Developing seeds produce auxins that stimulate growth of the plant ovary into a fruit.

• Removal of seeds from a strawberry prevents the fruit from growing, but add auxin and will
grow.

B. Foolish rice seedlings

• Gibberellins were discovered when Japanese scientists were investigating bakanae, or “foolish
rice seedling” disease, that caused seedlings to grow excessively tall, then fall over.

• Discovery of Gibberellins

• In 1898, Shotaro Hori suggested that the disease was caused by a fungus that infected the rice.

• Eiichi Kurosawa in 1926 was able isolate secretions from the fungus. The secretions caused the
same symptoms when applied to other rice plants.

• In 1934, Teijiro Yabuta isolated the active substance and named it gibberellin.

• Functions of Gibberellins

• Promotes cell elongation in the internodes of plants.

• Stimulates growth of the ovary wall into a fruit.

• Stimulates seed germination and release of food reserves in seeds.

C. Cytokinins

• They are synthesized in the roots and in developing fruits and seeds, and are transported to
various parts of the plant.

• It promotes cell division in apical meristem and cambium of stem.

• Promote fruit growth

 • Promote lateral bud growth

• Break seed and bud dormancy

• Delay leaf senescence

• Growth Inhibitors

These chemicals inhibit growth and promote dormancy and abscission in plants.

D. Abscisic acid

• Abscisic acid is found mostly near leaves, stems, and unripe fruit.

Functions of Abscisic Acid

• Stimulation of closing of stomata

• Inhibition of shoot growth

• Inducing seeds for synthesizing storage of proteins

E. Ethylene

• Ethylene is present in the tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stems, senescent leaves, and
flowers.

Functions of Ethylene

• Leads to release of dormancy state

• Stimulates shoot and root growth along with differentiation

• Leaf and fruit abscission

• Flower and leaf senescence stimulation

• Stimulation of Fruit ripening

 • Plant and animal organ systems and their functions

• 2.1 REGULATIONS OF BODY FLUIDS

• LEARNING COMPETENCY

Describe the excretory systems in animals especially the human urinary system and their functions in
homeostasis.

EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS

 Homeostasis is the process of maintaining the ideal internal conditions (i.e. correct
temperature, right amount of water and glucose & other solutes) for the body to work at it’s
optimum.

 Excretion is the process of removing metabolic waste products and other toxins.

 Osmoregulation is maintaining the correct balance between water and solutes.

 Excretion, which includes osmoregulation, is thus extremely important in maintaining

homeostasis.

FUNCTION OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Filtration:

 The excretory tubule collects filtrate from the blood. Water and solutes are forced by blood
pressure across the selectively permeable membranes of a cluster of capillaries and into the
excretory tubule.

Reabsorption:

 The transport epithelium reclaims valuable substances from the filtrate and returns
them.

Secretion:

 Other substances are extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of the
excretory tube.

Excretion:

 The filtrate leaves the system and the body.]

EXCRETORY ORGANS
There are four main excretory organs:

 Lungs

 Colon

 Skin

 Kidneys

o The liver is not an excretory organ, but produces many products which are excreted
elsewhere.
o Toxins and drugs as well as alcohol, is broken down in the liver.
o Hence, an excess of smoking, medication and alcohol is extremely harmful to the liver.

 THE LUNGS

 The carbon dioxide released from cellular respiration is carried to the lungs in the blood. It then
diffuses across the respiratory membrane and is exhaled.

 A small amount of heat and water is excreted this way.

 THE COLON

 Bile pigments, from the break down of hemoglobin, and cholesterol are synthesized in the liver.

 They pass into the small intestine as bile and are finally excreted in the feces as bile salts, from
the colon.

 Mucus and bacteria are too excreted through the colon.

 THE SKIN
 Sweat, which is excreted through the skin, contains water, salts and some urea.
 As the water in the sweat is excreted, heat is lost and the body is cooled.
 Sweat is a form of excretion as it rids the body of waste, as well as a form of secretion as it
maintains the body temperature.

THE KIDNEYS

• When amino acids and nucleic acids are broken down, nitrogenous wastes are released as
ammonia, urea, uric acid and creatinine.

• Ammonia is toxic if it accumulates and is therefore converted to less toxic urea in the liver.

• The following substances are made in the liver and excreted by the kidneys:

– Urea, the main nitrogenous waste compound secreted. It is formed by the breakdown
of excess amino acids in the process of deamination.
 – Uric acid, the nitrogenous end product of nucleic acid metabolism.

– Creatinine is formed from creatinine phosphate, found in the muscle cells.

– Non-nitrogenous waste, e.g. CO2, excess water, ions, hormones,

poisons and drugs.

THE URINARY SYSTEM

• The main function of the urinary system is to maintain homeostasis by regulating the volume
and concentration of body fluids.

• It filters and reabsorbs certain materials from the blood.

KIDNEYS

 Located both sides of the spine between thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.

 Blood enters the kidneys through renal arteries and leaves through renal veins.

 Tubes called ureters carry waste products from the kidneys to the urinary bladder for storage
or for release.

 During urination, urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethra.

FLOW OF URINE

GLOMERULUSRENAL TUBULESRENAL PELVISRENAL CALICESURETERS

PARTS OF KIDNEY

Cortex – outer protective portion

Medulla – inner soft portion

Hilum – a depression located in the middle of the concave side of the kidney where blood
vessels, nerves, and the ureters enter and exit the kidneys

• The cortex is where the blood is filtered.

• The medulla contains the collecting ducts which carry filtrate (filtered substances) to the pelvis.

• The pelvis is a hollow cavity where urine accumulates and drains into the ureter.

NEPHRONS

 The functional units of the kidney are called nephrons.

  Nephrons are located in the renal cortex, except for their loops of Henle, which descend into
the renal medulla.

Two parts

a. Renal Corpuscle

1. Bowman Capsule

2. Glomerulus

Fenestrae – pore in endothelial walls of glomerulus.

Podocytes – specialized cells.

Filtration slits

a. Renal Tubule – Series of single layer tubules

1. Proximal Convoluted tubule

2. Loop of Henle

3. Distal Convoluted tubule

• Kidneys are made up of nephrons.

• Blood enters the nephron, where impurities are filtered out and emptied into the
collecting duct.

• The purified blood leaves the nephron through the renal vein.

• The glomerulus is a mass of thin-walled capillaries.

• The Bowman’s capsule is a double-walled, cup-shaped structure.

• The proximal tubule leads from the Bowman’s capsule to the Loop of Henle.

• The loop of Henle is a long loop which extends into the medulla.

• The distal tubule connects the loop of Henle to the collecting duct.

 Each nephron has its own blood supply:

 An arteriole
 A venule
 A network of capillaries connecting them
 Each nephron releases fluids to a collecting duct,
 which leads to ureter.
 Each kidney contains more than 1 million nephrons.
 Blood Flow through the Kidneys

• The glomerulus filters fluid from the blood, and is the first place where urine is formed in the
kidneys.
• Blood flows through the glomerulus at a constant rate.
• Each glomerulus is surrounded by a capsule known as Bowman’s capsule.
• Blood then passes into the renal tubules where some substances are reabsorbed and the
remaining become urine.

HOW IS BLOOD FILTERED?

– As blood enters a nephron through the arteriole, impurities are filtered out and emptied into
the collecting duct.
– The purified blood exits the nephron through the venule.
 The mechanism of blood purification involves two distinct processes:
 Filtration
 Reabsorption

FILTRATION

 Passing a liquid or gas through a filter to remove wastes is called filtration.

 The filtration of blood mainly takes place in the glomerulus.

 The glomerulus is a small network of capillaries encased in the top of the nephron by a
hollow, cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule.

 Fluid from the blood flows into Bowman’s capsule.

 The materials filtered from the blood include water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids,
and some vitamins.

 Plasma proteins, cells, and platelets remain in the blood because they are too large to
pass through the capillary walls.

REABSORPTION

 Most of the material removed from the blood at Bowman's capsule makes its way back
into the blood.

 The process in which liquid is taken back into a vessel is called reabsorption.

 Almost 99% of the water that enters Bowman’s capsule is reabsorbed into the blood.
  When the filtrate drains in the collecting ducts, most water and nutrients have been reabsorbed
into the blood

 Remaining material, called urine, is emptied into a collecting duct.

 Urine is primarily concentrated in the loop of Henle.

 The loop of Henle is a section of the nephron tubule in which water is conserved and the
volume of urine minimized.

 As the kidney works, purified blood is returned to circulation while urine is collected in the
urinary bladder.

 Urine is stored here until it is released from the body through a tube called the urethra.

COMPOSITION OF URINE

• About 95% of urine is water.

• 2.8% is salts, mainly sodium chloride.

• Urea makes up 2%

• 0.2%Creatinine, ammonia and uric acid

• Small quantities of drugs, colourants, hormones and preservatives.

• About 1.5 litres of urine is produced daily.

URETER

- A tube approximately 6 to 7 inches long attached to each kidney.

- Made up of three layers of tissue
- Smooth muscle
- Fibrous tissue
- Mucous layer
- Peristalsis, a rhythmic contraction of the ureter smooth muscle which helps to move the urine
into the bladder.

URINARY BLADDER

- Hollow, muscular organ that stores urine

- Sphincter muscles hold the urine in place
- Holds 300 to 400 milliliters of urine before emptying
- Walls contain epithelial tissue that stretch to allow the bladder to hold twice its capacity
- The trigone is a triangular area at the base of the bladder where the ureters enter and the
urethra exits
URETHRA

A tube of smooth muscle with a mucous lining that carries urine from the bladder to the outside
of the body.

FEMALE URETHRA

• Approximately 1.5 inches long

• Opens through the meatus

MALE URETHRA

o Approximately 8 inches long

o Passes through three different regions:
o Prostate gland
o Membranous portion
o Penis

• Plant and animal organ systems and their functions

• 2.2 SENSORY MECHANISM

• LEARNING COMPETENCY

Describe the structures and functions of organs involved involved in major animal senses.

SENSORY
RECEPTOR

• The sensory system detects signals from the outside environment and communicates it to the
body via the nervous system.

• The sensory system relies on specialized sensory receptor cells that transduce external stimuli
into changes in membrane potentials.

SENSORY RECEPTOR

 Specialized neurons (the receptor cell is also a neuron)

 specialized sensory cells which synapse with a neuron (the receptor cell secretes
neurotransmitters to stimulate changes in membrane potential in the synapsed neuron)

• SENSORY RECEPTOR
 • Sensory receptor cells transduce (convert into changes in membrane potential) incoming signals
and may either depolarize or hyperpolarize in response to the stimulus, depending on the
sensory system.

• In vertebrates, each sensory system transmits signals to a different specialized portion of the
brain such as the olfactory bulb (smell) or occipital lobe (sight), where the signal is integrated
and interpreted to effect some sort of response (often motor output) via the PNS.

• Different sensory receptor cells are specialized for different types of stimuli, and are categorized
by the type of stimulus they detect.

• TYPES OF
SENSORY RECEPTORS

Based on the energy they transduce, sensory receptors fall into five categories

1. Mechanoreceptors

2. Thermoreceptors

3. Chemoreceptors

4. Photoreceptors

5. Pain receptors

• MECHANORECEPTORS

• Mechanoreceptors are receptors in the skin and on other organs that detect sensations of
touch.

• They are called mechanoreceptors because they are designed to detect mechanical sensations
or differences in pressure.

• THERMORECEPTORS

• Thermoreceptors are specialized nerve cells that are able to detect differences in temperature.
Temperature is a relative measure of heat present in the environment.

• Thermoreceptors are able to detect heat and cold and are found throughout the skin in order to
allow sensory reception throughout the body.

• The location and number of thermoreceptors will determine the sensitivity of the skin to
temperature changes.

• CHEMORECEPTORS
 • A chemoreceptor, also known as chemosensor, is a specialized sensory receptor cell
which converts a chemical substance and generates a biological signal.

• A chemosensor detects toxic or hazardous chemicals in the internal or external environment of

the human body and transmits that information to the central nervous system, in order to expel
the biologically active toxins from the blood, and prevent further consumption of alcohol and/or
other acutely toxic recreational intoxicants.

• PHOTORECEPTORS

• Special cells in the eye’s retina that are responsible for converting light into signals that are sent
to the brain.

• Photoreceptors give us our color vision and night vision.

• Rods are a type of photoreceptor cell in the retina.

• They are sensitive to light levels and help give us good vision in low light.

• They are concentrated in the outer areas of the retina and give us peripheral vision.

• Rods are 500 to 1,000 times more sensitive to light than cones.

• The retina has approximately 120 million rods and 6 million cones.

• Cones are a type of photoreceptor cell in the retina.

• They give us our color vision.

• Cones are concentrated in the center of our retina in an area called the macula and help us see
fine details.

• The retina has approximately 120 million rods and 6 million cones.

• PAIN RECEPTORS

• A nociceptor ("pain receptor") is a sensory neuron that responds to damaging or potentially

damaging stimuli by sending “possible threat” signals to the spinal cord and the brain.

• If the brain perceives the threat as credible, it creates the sensation of pain to direct attention to
the body part, so the threat can hopefully be mitigated; this process is called nociception.

• LIGHT RECEPTION IN ANIMALS

• VISION IN INVERTEBRATES

Most invertebrates

• Have some sort of light-detecting organ

One of the simplest is the eye cup of planarians

• Which provides information about light intensity and direction but does not form
images

• Two major types of image-forming eyes have evolved in invertebrates

• Compound eyes are found in insects and crustaceans and consist of up to several thousand light
detectors called ommatidia

• Single-lens eyes are found in some jellies, polychaetas, spiders, and many mollusks

• It works on a camera-like principle.

• THE VERTEBRATE VISUAL SYSTEM

In vertebrates the human eye is able to:

• Detect a vast variety of colors,

• Form images of objects that are far away, and

• Respond to as little as one photo of light.

• STRUCTURE
OF THE EYE

• Conjunctiva, covers the surface of the eye and lines the inner parts of the eyelids. It
functions in keeping the eyes moist.

• Sclera, the white of the eye. It forms a wall and maintains the shape of the eyeball.

• Cornea, a transparent that works like a camera lens and focuses incoming light.

• STRUCTURE
OF THE EYE

• Choroid, a thin pigmented layer, that contains major blood vessels and functions to
provide oxygen and nutrients to the eye.

• Iris, formed from the anterior choroid and gives the eye its color. It controls the amount
of light that enters the pupil.

• Pupil, an opening in the center of the iris.

• Retina, inside the choroid and forms the innermost layer of the eyeball and contains
photoreceptor cells.

THE HUMAN EAR

Ear, organ of hearing and equilibrium that detects and analyzes sound by transduction (or the
conversion of sound waves into electrochemical impulses) and maintains the sense of balance
(equilibrium).

• OUTER EAR

 The outer part of the ear collects sound.

 Sound travels through the auricle and the auditory canal, a short tube that ends at the eardrum.

• auricle (cartilage covered by skin placed on opposite sides of the head)

• auditory canal (also called the ear canal)

• eardrum outer layer (also called the tympanic membrane)

• MIDDLE EAR

 The primary function of the middle ear is to efficiently transfer acoustic energy
from compression waves in air to fluid–membrane waves within the cochlea.

• eardrum

• cavity (also called the tympanic cavity)

• ossicles (3 tiny bones that are attached)

• malleus (or hammer) – long handle attached to the eardrum

• incus (or anvil) – the bridge bone between the malleus and the stapes

• stapes (or stirrup) – the footplate; the smallest bone in the body

• INNER EAR

 The inner ear has two special jobs. It changes sound waves to electrical signals (nerve impulses).
This allows the brain to hear and understand sounds. The inner ear is also important for balance.

• oval window – connects the middle ear with the inner ear

• semicircular ducts – filled with fluid; attached to cochlea and nerves; send information on
balance and head position to the brain

• cochlea – spiral-shaped organ of hearing; transforms sound into signals that get sent to the
brain

• auditory tube – drains fluid from the middle ear into the throat behind the nose
TASTE:
THE GUSTATORY SYSTEM

• The primary tastes detected by humans are sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami (savoriness,
which tends to indicate that a food is high in protein).

• Detecting a taste relies on activation of specific chemical receptors in taste receptor cells
(gustatory receptors).

TASTE BUDS

- The primary organ of taste is the taste bud.

A taste bud is a cluster of gustatory receptors (taste receptor cells) that are located within the
bumps on the tongue called papillae (singular: papilla).

• Each taste bud contains all five types of gustatory receptors, which are elongated cells with hair-
like processes called microvilli at the tips that extend into the taste bud pore.

• Tastants must be dissolved in saliva to bind with and stimulate the receptors on the microvilli,
which is why the sense of taste isn’t as strong when your mouth is dry.

SMELL:
THE OLFACTORY SYSTEM

• Humans have about 350 olfactory receptor subtypes that work in various combinations to allow
us to sense about 10,000 different odors.

• Olfactory receptors are responsible for the flavor of a food, via odorants detected in the
olfactory epithelium during chewing, through a process called retronasal olfaction (the flow of
air from the back of the throat up to the olfactory epithelium via the back of the nose)
 • Plant and animal organ systems and their functions

• 2.2 MOTOR MECHANISM

• LEARNING COMPETENCY

Describe the structures and functions of organs involved motor mechanisms and systems.

• ANIMAL LOCOMOTION

• LOCOMOTION

• Animals need to move from one place to another to find food, to remove themselves from
danger, to find mates or to find another habitat.

• Animals use various modes and anatomical structures to move depending on their environment
and could be either passive or active.

• Passive locomotion is the simplest form whereby the locomotion is aided by the environment.

• Active locomotion is most displayed by animals which are unique depending on their
environment.

• AERIAL LOCOMOTION

• Aerial Locomotion (“Flight”): is the act of flying.

• Skeletal adaptations aid in aerial locomotion by providing modified limb bones to form a wing
as well as allow for muscle attachment.

• In bats, the only mammals capable of true flight, elongated arm and finger bones, combined
with modified skin, form wings allowing them to fly.

• ARBOREAL LOCOMOTION

• Arboreal Locomotion (“Tree Climbing”): refers to species that live in and move through trees.

• These animals often possess physical adaptations that aid in this movement.

• These adaptations may include long limbs, prehensile tail, and claws.

• Animals that exhibit arboreal locomotion include squirrels, sloths, and monkeys.

• AQUATIC LOCOMOTION

• Aquatic Locomotion (“Swimming”): as well as semi-aquatic locomotion, describes an animal’s

movement in the water.

• Many species that live in the water possess aquatic locomotion to aid in their survival.
• Limbs modified into flippers are one of the most common skeletal adaptations found in aquatic
species.

• Some animals exhibiting aquatic locomotion include dolphins, sea turtles, and penguins.

• CURSORIAL LOCOMOTION

• Cursorial Locomotion (“Running”): is the type of locomotion most terrestrial animals use to
move about.

• This form of locomotion primarily refers to running.

• Many species exhibiting this type of movement have developed skeletal adaptations such as
longer limbs, the reduction of toes, modification of the feet and development of hooves.

• Some cursorial species are dogs, cats, horses, and gazelles.

• FOSSORIAL LOCOMOTION

• Fossorial Locomotion (“Digging”): as well as semi-fossorial locomotion refers to the modified

movement of animals that dig and live underground.

• These species often have modified limbs to aid in digging, as well as, compact bodies and
rudimentary eyes.

• Some fossorial species include gophers, moles, and mole rats.

• SALTATORIAL LOCOMOTION

• Saltatorial Locomotion (“Jumping”): animals that use hopping or jumping to move.

• Species utilizing this form of locomotion have evolved large, muscular hind limbs and often have
reduced forelimbs.

• Some saltatorial species include rabbits, kangaroos, and gerbils.

• LATERAL UNDULATION

• Lateral Undulation (“Slithering”): the most common side-to-side motion of snakes.

• It is achieved by the snake contracting muscles on one side of its body and then the other,
resulting in a serpentine motion.

• Snakes using this motion on land will usually push off of irregularities in the landscape using
their belly scales.

• Other types of movement used by snakes are concertina, rectilinear, and sidewinding.

• SKELETAL SYSTEM
• SKELETAL SYSTEM

• The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments and other
tissues that perform essential functions for the human body.

• The major functions of the skeletal system are

 body support,

 facilitation of movement,

 protection of internal organs,

 storage of minerals and fat, and

 blood cell formation.

• HYDROSTATIC SKELETON

• A hydrostatic skeleton is a skeleton formed by a fluid-filled compartment within the body,

called the coelom.

• The organs of the coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external
compression.

• This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid and supports the other
organs of the organism.

• This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones, earthworms,
Cnidaria, and other invertebrates

• EXOSKELETON

• An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement on the surface of an

organism.

• It contains chitin, a flexible but strong polysaccharide and sometimes, calcium carbonate.

• Exoskeleton are rigid and cannot expand as animals grow, so animals must molt or shed their
exoskeletons and grow a new one, periodically.

• This skeleton type provides defense against predators, supports the body, and allows for
movement through the contraction of attached muscles.

• For example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons .

• ENDOSKELETON
• An endoskeleton is a skeleton that consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the
soft tissue of organisms.

• The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues.

• Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow for movement
through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton.

• The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult.

• AXIAL SKELETON

• The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, ossicles
of the middle ear, hyoid bone of the throat, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage (ribcage).

• The function of the axial skeleton is to provide support and protection for the brain, the spinal
cord, and the organs in the ventral body cavity.

• It provides a surface for the attachment of muscles that move the head, neck, and trunk,
performs respiratory movements, and stabilizes parts of the appendicular skeleton.

• The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones.

• APPENDICULAR SKELETON

• The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the upper limbs (which function to
grasp and manipulate objects) and the lower limbs (which permit locomotion).

• It also includes the pectoral girdle, or shoulder girdle, that attaches the upper limbs to the body,
and the pelvic girdle that attaches the lower limbs to the body.

• There are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult.

• The lower portion of the appendicular skeleton is specialized for stability during walking or
running.

• In contrast, the upper portion of the appendicular skeleton has greater mobility and ranges of
motion, features that allow you to lift and carry objects.

• MOVEMENT AND MUSCLE CONTRACTION

• MUSCLES

• Muscles are composed of bundles of single large cells (called muscle fibers) that form by cell
fusion and contain multiple nuclei.

• Each muscle fiber contains many myofibrils, which are bundles of actin and myosin filaments
organized into a chain of repeating units called sarcomeres.
• HISTOLOGY

• The sarcolemma is the cell membrane of muscle fibers. The sarcolemma acts as a conductor for
electrochemical signals that stimulate muscle cells.

• Connected to the sarcolemma are transverse tubules (T-tubules) that help carry these
electrochemical signals into the middle of the muscle fiber.

• The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves as a storage facility for calcium ions (Ca2+) that are vital to
muscle contraction.

• Most of the muscle fiber’s structure is made up of myofibrils, which are the contractile
structures of the cell.

• Myofibrils are made up of many proteins fibers arranged into repeating subunits called
sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle fibers.

• SACROMERES

• Thick filaments are made of many bonded units of the protein myosin.

• Myosin is the protein that causes muscles to contract.

• Thin filaments are made of three proteins:

• THE SLIDING
FILAMENT THEORY

• The sliding filament theory is the explanation for how muscles contract to produce force.

• It was proposed by Andrew fielding Huxley in 1950.

• It is a cycle of repetitive events that cause a thin filament to slide over a thick filament and
generate tension in the muscle.

• TYPES OF
MUSCLE CONTRACTION

• Muscle contraction during exercise is divided into three categories depending on how the
muscle contacts and whether it is lengthening or shortening.

• Categories of muscle contraction

• Concentric contractions (shorten)

• Eccentric contractions (lengthen)

• Isometric contractions (remain the same)

CONCENTRIC CONTRACTION

- A concentric contraction is a type of muscle contraction when the length of the muscles shorten
while undergoing tension.

• Any muscle activity where the strength of the muscle can overcome the resistance of an object
forcing the muscle’s length to shorten, is considered a concentric contraction.

Therefore, most of the exercises that you would typically do at a gym by using the various machines
and/or dumbbells, etc. involve concentric contractions.

ECCENTRIC CONTRACTION

- An eccentric contraction is a type of muscle contraction when the length of the muscle
elongates, or lengthens while undergoing tension.
- Typically this is done in a smooth and controlled motion where the muscle, the biceps, acts to
decelerate the elbow joint at the end of the movement.

ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION

- An isometric contraction of a muscle generates tension without changing length.

- An example can be found when the muscles of the hand and forearm grip an object; the joints
of the hand do not move, but muscles generate sufficient force to prevent the object from being
dropped.