EE3741 - L4 - Power Flow PDF

Power flow analysis
Subject lecturer: Dr. XU Zhao
Department of Electrical Engineering

Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Email: [email protected]
eezhaoxu@polyu edu hk
Room: CF632
Tel: 27666160
Lecture Overview
• Load Flow Objective
• Basic Line & Bus Equations
• Newton--Raphson Method
Newton
• Decoupled & Fast Decoupled Method
• Application: Design and Operation
• Conclusions
2 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Load flow: Objectives and applications
• Busbar (Node) voltages
• Flow of real and reactive powers in the branches of

the network
• Power system augmentation studies to plan

expansion
p to the network to meet future
requirements
• Effect of temporary loss of generation and

transmission circuits on system loading

Load Flow: Objectives and applications
• Optimum
O ti system
t running
i conditions
diti andd load
l d
distribution
• Generator scheduling and reactive scheduling to
minimizes losses
• Optimum rating and tap-range of transformers
• Optional placement of reactive compensation
• Improvements from change of conductor size and
system voltage
• Starting point of other studies such as fault analysis
and stability analysis

A Simple 3 Bus Power System
1 2
I1
AC
I2
AC
y12= y21
'
y12'
y12
3 2
2 y13 = y31 I3 y23=y32
y13' y13' y23' y23'

2 2 2 2
Network elements given in

admittance format
Nodal analysis
• Using KCL (nodal voltage method) to write out nodal
current balance equations
I1=(V1-V3)Y13+V1(Y12’/2+Y13’/2)-(V2-V1)Y12
I2=(V2-V1)Y12+V2(Y12’/2+Y23’/2)-(V3-V2)Y23
I3=(V
( 3-V2)Y
) 23+V3(Y
( 13’/2+Y
’/ 23’/2)-(V
’/ ) ( 1-V3)Y
) 13

Network Performance Equation
( 12+ y13+ y12’/2+
• Y11 = (y /2 y13’/2) ---------self
lf admittance
d itt
• (- y12)= Y12 , (-y13 ) = Y13 ---mutual admittance
⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 ⎤ ⎡V 1 ⎤
⎢ I 2 ⎥ = ⎢Y 21 Y 22 Y 23⎥ ⎢V 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Y 31 Y 32 Y 33⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V 3 ⎥⎦
Solving for Bus Currents
For example,
p , ina two
pprevious
nodecase
y assume
system with Ybus
Bus Bus
⎡ 1.0 ⎤ 2
V=⎢ ⎥
1
⎣ 0
0.8
8 − j 0.2
0 2 ⎦
Then
⎡12 − j15.9 −12 + j16 ⎤ ⎡ 1.0 ⎤ ⎡ 5.60 − j 0.70 ⎤
⎢ −12 + j16 12 − j15 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 15.9
9 ⎦⎣ 0
0.8
8 − j 0
0.2
2 ⎦ ⎣ −5
5.58
58 + j 0.88
0 88 ⎦
Therefore the power injected at bus 1 is
S1 = V1I1* = 1.0 × (5.60 + j 0.70) = 5.60 + j 0.70
S2 = V2 I 2* = (0.8
(0 8 − j 0.2)
0 2) × (−5.58
5 58 − j 0.88)
0 88) = −4.64
4 64 + j 0.41
0 41
Solving for Bus Voltages
For example,
example in previous case assume
⎡ 5.0 ⎤
I=⎢ ⎥
⎣ − 4
4.8
8 ⎦
Then
−1
⎡12 − j15.9 −12 + j16 ⎤ ⎡ 5.0 ⎤ ⎡ 0.0738 − j 0.902 ⎤
⎢ −12 + j16 12 − j15 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 15.9
9 ⎦ ⎣ − 4
4.8
8 ⎦ ⎣ − 0
0.0738
0738 − j1.098
1 098 ⎦
Therefore the power injected is
S1 = V1I1* = (0.0738 − j 0.902) × 5 = 0.37 − j 4.51
S 2 = V2 I 2* = ( −00.0738
0738 − j11.098)
098) × ( −44.8)
8) = 00.35
35 + j 55.27
27
Effect of Shunt Elements
• System
S t power flow
fl can be
b controlled
t ll d by
b switching
it hi
of shunt capacitor banks, shunt reactors, and static
VAR systems.
systems If there is a shunt capacitor of Y Y’ at
bus 1, the self-admittance at bus 1 changes to Y11 =
(y12+ y13+ y12’/2+ y13’/2) + Y’ and no other elements
will be affected.
• Both tap-changing and regulating transformers are
modelled by a transformer with off nominal turns
ratio a and equivalent series admittance Yeq (as
shown in Figure next page). page) Then the
corresponding elements in the YBus (Yii, Yij and Yjj)
g
need to be changed.
Tap-changing and Regulating Transformers
• Equivalent π Circuit
a Yeq
i j
(1 a)Yeq
(1-a) (a 2-a) Yeq
G
Ground
d

Line Flow Equations
• The
Th reall andd reactive
ti power flow fl from
f bus
b i to t b
bus j
is given by: Pij -jQij = Vi* [yij(Vi-Vj)+ Vi (yij’/2)]
• Similarly at bus j the power flow from j to i will be
given by:Pji -jQji = Vj* [yij(Vj-Vi)+ Vj (yij’/2)]
• The algebraic sum of above two equations gives the
line loss over line i-j
yij
i j
y'ij/2 y'ij/2
Note-
Ground
conjugate!
Power Balance Equations
From KCL we know at each bus i in an n bus system
the current injection, I i , must be equal to the current
that flows into the network
n
I i = I Gi − I Di = ∑ Iik
k =1
Since I = Ybus V wee also kno
know
n
I i = I Gi − I Di = ∑ YikVk
k =1
The network power injection is then Si = Vi I i*

Power Balance Equations, cont’d
*
⎛ n⎞ n
Si = Vi I i* = Vi ⎜ ∑ YikVk ⎟ = Vi ∑ Yik*Vk*
⎝ k =1 ⎠ k =1
This is an equation with complex numbers.
q
Sometimes we would like an equivalent set of real
power equations. These can be derived by defining
Yik = Gik + jBik
=
jθ i
Vi Vi e = Vi ∠θ i
=
θ ik = θ i − θ k
Recall e jθ = cosθ + j sin θ
Real Power Balancen Equations
n
Si = Pi + jQi = Vi ∑ Yik*Vk* = ∑ Vi Vk e jθik (Gik − jBik )
k =1 k =1
n
= ∑ Vi Vk (cosθ ik + j sin θ ik )(Gik − jBik )
k =1
Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
n
Pi = ∑ Vi Vk (Gik cosθ ik + Bik sinθ ik ) = PGi − PDi
k =1
n
Qi = ∑ Vi Vk (Gik sinθ ik − Bik cosθ ik ) = QGi − QDi
k =1

Power Flow Requires
q Iterative Solution
I the
In th power flow
fl we assume we know
k Si and
d the
th
Ybus . We would like to solve for the V's. The problem
is the below equation has no closed form solution:
*
⎛ n ⎞ n
Si = Vi I i* = Vi ⎜ ∑ YikVk ⎟ = Vi ∑ Yik*Vk*
⎝ k =1 ⎠ k =1
Rath er, wealgebraic
Nonlinear must pursue an iterative
equation set, notapproach.
exactly
solvable but can be solved through iterative
solvable,
process
V—magnitude and angle !
Gauss Iteration
There are a number of different iterative methods
we can use. We'll consider two: Gauss and Newton.
With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our

equation in an implicit form: x = h(x)
To iterate we first make an initial guess of x, x (0) ,

and then iteratively solve x (v +1) = h( x ( v ) ) until we
find a "fixed point", x? such that x = h(x)
point" x, (x).
?
Gauss Iteration Example
Example: Solve x - x − 1 = 0
( v +1)
x =1+ x (v)
Let k = 0 and arbitrarily guess x (0)

= 1 and solve
k x(v ) k x(v)
0 1 5 2.61185
1 2 6 2.61612
2 2 41421
2.41421 7 2.61744
2 61744
3 2.55538 8 2.61785
4 2.59805 9 2.61798
Stopping Criteria
A keyy problem
p to address is when to stop
p the
iteration. With the Guass iteration we stop when
Δx ( v ) < ε i h Δx ( v ) = x ( v +1) − x ( v )
with
If x is a scalar this is clear, but if x is a vector we
need to generalize the absolute value by using a norm
Δx ( v ) <ε
j
T common norms are the
Two th Euclidean
E lid & infinity
i fi it
n
Δx 2 = ∑ i
Δx 2
Δx ∞ = max i Δx i
19 Electrical Engineering, HKPU i =1 EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Gauss Power Flow
We first need to put the equation in the correct form
*
⎛ n ⎞ n
Si = *
Vi I i = Vi ⎜ ∑ YikkVk ⎟ = Vi ∑ YikkVk
* *
⎝ k =1 ⎠ k =1
n n
S*i = Vi* I i = Vi* ∑ YikVk = Vi* ∑ YikVk
k =1 k =1
S*i n n
Vi*
= ∑ YikVk = YiiVi + ∑ YikVk
k =1 k =1,
1 k ≠i
1 ⎛ S*i n ⎞
Vi = ⎜ * − ∑ YikkVk ⎟
Yii ⎜⎝ V k =1,k ≠i
⎟
⎠
20
i
Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Gauss Two Bus Power Flow Example
p
•A
A 100 MW, 50 Mvar load is connected to a generator
•through a line with z = 0.02 + j0.06 p.u. and line charging of 5 Mvar on
each end (100 MVA base). Also, there is a 25 Mvar capacitor at bus 2. If the
generator voltage is 1.0 p.u., what is V2?
SLoad = 1.0 + j0.5 p.u.

Gauss Two Bus Example, cont’d
The unknown is the complex load voltage
voltage, V2 .
To determine V2 we need to know the Ybus .
1
= 5 − j15
0.02 + j 0.06
⎡5 − j14.95 −5 + j15 ⎤
Hence Ybus = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ − 5 + j15 5 − j14
14.70
70 ⎦
( Note B22 = - j15 + j 0.05 + j 0.25)

1 ⎛ S*2 n ⎞
V2 = ⎜ * − ∑ YikVk ⎟
Y22 ⎝ V2 k =1,k ≠i ⎠
1 ⎛ -1 + j 0.5 ⎞
V2 = ⎜ − (−5 + j15)(1.0∠0) ⎟
5 − j14.70 ⎝ V2 *
⎠
Guess V2(0) = 1.0∠0 (this is known as a flat start)
v V2( v ) v V2( v )
0 1 000 + j 00.000
1.000 000 3 9622 − j 0.0556
00.9622 0 0556
1 0.9671 − j 0.0568 4 0.9622 − j 0.0556
2 0.9624 − j 0.0553
V2 = 0.9622
0 9622 − j 00.0556
0556 = 00.9638
9638∠ − 33.3
3°
Once the voltages are known all other values can
be determined, such as the generator powers and the
line flows
S1* = V1* (Y11V1 + Y12V2 ) = 1.023 − j 0.239
In actual units P1 = 102.3 MW, Q1 = 23.9 Mvar
2
The capacitor is supplying V2 25 = 23
23.2
2 Mvar

Slack Bus
zIn previous example we specified S2 and V1 and then
solved for S1 and V2.
zWe can not arbitrarily
y specify
p y S at all buses because total
generation must equal total load + total losses
zWe also need an angle reference bus.
zTo solve these problems we define one bus as the "slack"
bus. This bus has a fixed voltage magnitude and angle,
and a varying real/reactive power injection.

Gauss with Many Bus Systems
With multiple
p bus systems
y we could calculate
new Vi ' s as follows:
1 ⎛ S*i n ⎞
Vi(v +1) = ⎜ ( v )* − ∑ YikVk( v ) ⎟
Yii ⎜ V = ≠ ⎟
⎝ i k 1
1, k i ⎠
= (v) (v) (v )
hi (V1 ,V2 ,...,Vn )
But after we've determined Vi(v +1) we have a better
estimate
i off its
i voltage
l , so it
i makes
k sense to use this
hi
new value. This approach is known as the
26
Gauss-Seidel iteration.
Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Gauss-Seidel Iteration
Immediatelyy use the new voltage
g estimates:
V2( v +1) = h2 (V1 ,V2( v ) ,V3( v ) ,…,Vn( v ) )
( v +1)) ( v +1))
V3 = h2 (V1 ,V2 ,V3 ,…,Vn )(v) (v )
V4( v +1)) = h2 (V1 ,V2( v +1)) ,V3( v +1)) ,V4( v ) …,Vn(v ) )

#
Vn( v +1) = h2 (V1 ,V2( v +1) ,V3( v +1) ,V4( v +1) …,Vn( v ) )
The Gauss-Seidel
Gauss Seidel works better than the Gauss
Gauss, and
is actually easier to implement. It is used instead
of Gauss.
Three Types of Power Flow Buses
z There are three main types of power flow buses
– Load (PQ) at which P/Q are fixed; iteration solves for voltage
magnitude and angle.
– Slack at which the voltage magnitude and angle are fixed; iteration
solves for P/Q injections
– Generator (PV) at which P and |V| are fixed; iteration solves for
voltage
g angle
g and Q injection
j
zspecial coding is needed to include PV

buses in the Gauss-Seidel iteration

BUS TYPES
Bus Type No of Bus Quantities No. of available No of state

Specified Equations variables
δi and Vi
Slack i=1 1 δ1 V1 0 0
Voltage Ng Pi |V i | Ng (only P Ng
Controlled Equations)
Load Bus NN- Ng -1
1 Pi Q I 2(N- Ng -1)
2(N 1) 2(N- Ng -1)
2(N 1)
Total N 2N 2N- Ng -2 2N- Ng -2

Inclusion of PV Buses in G-S
To solve for Vi at a PV bus we must first make a
guess of Qi :
n
Si* = Vi* ∑ YikVk = Pi + jQi
k =1
⎡ ( v )* n (v ) ⎤
Hence (v )
Qi = − Im ⎢Vi ∑ YikV ⎥
⎣ k =1
k
⎦
In the iteration we use (v)
Si = Pi + (v )
jQi

Inclusion of PV Buses, cont'd
T t ti l solve
Tentatively f Vi( v +1)
l for
1 ⎛ Si( v )* n ⎞

Vi ( v +1)
= ⎜ (v )* − ∑ YikVk ⎟ (v)
Yii ⎜ V = ≠ ⎟
⎝ i k 1, k i ⎠
But since Vi is specified, replace Vi( v +1) by Vi
Magnitude is known

Two Bus PV Example
Consider
C id ththe same two
t bus
b system
t from
f the
th previous
i
example, except the load is replaced by a generator
z = 0.02 + j 0.06
Bus 1 Bus 2
V1 = 1.0
10 V2 = 1.05
1 05
(slack bus)
P2 = 0 MW

Two Bus PV Example, cont'd
1 ⎛ S2* ⎞
V2 = ⎜ * − Y21V1 ⎟
Y22 ⎝ V2 ⎠
Q2 = − Im[Y21V1V2* + Y22V2V2* ]
Guess V2 = 11.05
05∠0°
v S2( v ) V2( v +1) V2( v +1)
0 0 + j 0.457 1.045∠ − 0.83° 1.050∠ − 0.83°
1 0 + j 0.535 049∠ − 00.93
0 535 11.049 93° 11.050
050∠ − 00.93
93°
2 0 + j 0.545 1.050∠ − 0.96° 1.050∠ − 0.96°

Generator Reactive Power Limits
zThe reactive power output of generators varies to maintain the
terminal voltage; on a real generator this is done by the exciter
zTo maintain higher voltages requires more reactive power
zGenerators have reactive power limits,
limits which are dependent upon
the generator's MW output
zThese limits must be considered during the power flow solution.

Generator Reactive Limits, cont'd
z During power flow once a solution is obtained check to make generator
reactive power output is within its limits
z If the reactive power is outside of the limits, fix Q at the max or min
value, and resolve treating the generator as a PQ bus
– this is know as "type-switching"
– also need to check if a PQ generator can again regulate
z Rule of thumb: to raise system voltage we need to supply more vars

Accelerated G-S Convergence
Previously in the Gauss

Gauss-Seidel
Seidel method we were
calculating each value x as
x ( v +1) = h( x ( v ) )
g
To accelerate convergence we can rewrite this as
( v +1)
x = x (v)
+ h( x (v )
)−x (v)
Now introduce acceleration parameter α

x ( v +1) = x ( v ) + α (h( x ( v ) ) − x ( v ) )
With α = 1 this is identical to standard gauss-seidel.
Larger values
l off α may result
l in
i faster
f convergence.
Accelerated Convergence, cont’d
Consider the pprevious example:
p x - x −1 = 0
x ( v +1) = x ( v ) + α (1 + x ( v ) − x ( v ) )
Comparison of results with different values of α
k α =1 α = 1.2 α = 1.5 α = 2
0 1 1 1 1
1 2 2 20
2.20 22.5
5 3
2 2.4142 2.5399 2.6217 2.464
3 2.5554 2.6045 2.6179 2.675
4 2 5981
2.5981 22.6157
6157 2.6180
2 6180 2.596
2 596
37 5 2.6118
Electrical Engineering, HKPU 2.6176 2.6180 2.626
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Gauss-Seidel Advantages
zEach iteration is relatively fast (computational order is
proportional to number of branches + number of buses in the
system
zR l ti l easy tto program
zRelatively
Gauss-Seidel Disadvantages
g
zTends to converge relatively slowly, although this can be
improved with acceleration
zHas tendency to miss solutions,
solutions particularly on large systems
zTends to diverge on cases with negative branch reactance
(common with compensated lines)
N d tto program using
zNeed i complex
l numbers
b

Page 337 Example 9.2
9 2 Power system
analyses

Newton-Raphson Algorithm
z The second major power flow solution method is the Newton
Newton-Raphson
Raphson
algorithm
z Key idea behind Newton-Raphson is to use sequential linearization
General form of problem: Find an x such that

f ( xˆ ) = 0

Newton-Raphson Method
1 For each guess of xˆ, x(v) , define
1.
Δx(v) = xˆ - x(v)
2. Represent f ( xˆ ) by a Taylor series about f ( x)
(v)
df ( x ) (v)
f ( xˆ ) = f ( x ) +
(v)
Δx +
dx
1 d 2 f ( x(v) ) (v) 2
+
2 dx 2 ( Δx ) + higher order terms

Newton-Raphson Method

Newton-Raphson Method, cont’d
3. Approximate
pp f ( xˆ ) byy neglecting
g g all terms
except the first two
(v)
df ( x ) ( v )
f ( xˆ ) = 0 ≈ f ( x (v)
)+ Δx
dx
4. Use this linear approximation to solve for Δx ( v )
−1
⎡ df ( x ) ⎤ (v )
Δx = −⎢(v )
⎥ f ( x (v)
)
⎣ dx ⎦
5. Solve for a new estimate of x̂
x ( v +1) = x ( v ) + Δx ( v )
Newton-Raphson Method, cont’d

NR method general formulation
Use Newton Raphson to solve f ( x) = x 2 - 2 = 0
Newton-Raphson
The equation we must iteratively solve is
−1
⎡ df ( x ) ⎤ (v )
Δx (v )
= −⎢ ⎥ f ( x (v )
)
⎣ dx d ⎦
Δx (v ) ⎡ 1 ⎤ (v ) 2
= − ⎢ ( v ) ⎥ (( x ) - 2)
⎣2x ⎦
x (v +1)) = x ( v ) + Δx ( v )
x ( v +1)
= x (v) ⎡ 1 ⎤ (v) 2
− ⎢ ( v ) ⎥ (( x ) - 2)
⎣2x ⎦
Jacobian matrix
x (v+1) ⎡ 1 ⎤ (v) 2
= x − ⎢ (v) ⎥ ((x ) -2)
(v)
⎣2x ⎦
Guess x(0) =1. Iteratively solving we get
v x(v) f (x(v) ) Δx(v)
0 1 −1 0.5
1 1.5 0.25 −0.08333
2 1.41667
141667 6953×10−3
6.953 2454×10−3
−2.454
3 1.41422 6.024×10−6

Jacobian matrix
x (v+1) ⎡ 1 ⎤ (v) 2
= x − ⎢ (v) ⎥ ((x ) -2)
(v)
⎣2x ⎦
Guess x(0) =1. Iteratively solving we get
v x(v) f (x(v) ) Δx(v)
0 1 −1 0.5
1 1.5 0.25 −0.08333
−3 −3
2 1.41667
141667 6953×10
6.953 −2.454
2454×10
3 1.41422 6.024×10−6
Bus type and Jacobian formulation

Iteration process

NR steps

NR steps

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

NR example

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Power flow analysis

Subject lecturer: Dr. XU Zhao

Department of Electrical Engineering

2 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• Busbar (Node) voltages

• Flow of real and reactive powers in the branches of

• Power system augmentation studies to plan

• Effect of temporary loss of generation and

3 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

4 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

y13' y13' y23' y23'

Network elements given in

6 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

11 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

The network power injection is then Si = Vi I i*

15 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our

To iterate we first make an initial guess of x, x (0) ,

Let k = 0 and arbitrarily guess x (0)

SLoad = 1.0 + j0.5 p.u.

22 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

24 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

25 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

V4( v +1)) = h2 (V1 ,V2( v +1)) ,V3( v +1)) ,V4( v ) …,Vn(v ) )

zspecial coding is needed to include PV

28 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Bus Type No of Bus Quantities No. of available No of state

Total N 2N 2N- Ng -2 2N- Ng -2

29 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

30 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

31 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

32 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

33 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

34 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

35 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Previously in the Gauss

Now introduce acceleration parameter α

38 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

39 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

General form of problem: Find an x such that

42 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

43 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

44 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

46 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

48 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

50 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

51 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

52 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

53 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

54 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

55 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

56 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

57 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

58 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

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60 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

61 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

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63 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu