Aircraft  Design

Lecture  2:
Aircraft  Propulsion
G.  Dimitriadis and  O.  Léonard

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 1

 Introduction
• A  large  variety  of  propulsion  methods  have  been  
used  from  the  very  start  of  the  aerospace  era:
– No  propulsion  (balloons,  gliders)
– Muscle  (mostly  failed)
– Steam  power  (mostly  failed)
– Piston  engines  and  propellers
– Rocket  engines
– Jet  engines
– Pulse  jet  engines
– Ramjet    
– Scramjet

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 2

 Gliding  flight

• People  have  been  gliding  from  the  mid-­

18th century.
The  Albatross  II  by  
Jean  Marie  Le  Bris  -­
1849

Otto  Lillienthal,  1895

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 3

 Human-­powered  flight
• Early  attempts  were  less  than  successful  
but  better  results  were  obtained  from  the  
1960s  onwards.

Gerhardt  Cycleplane (1923) MIT  Daedalus  (1988)

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 4

 Steam  powered  aircraft

• Mostly  dirigibles,  unpiloted  flying  models  

and  early  aircraft

Clément  Ader Avion III  (two  30hp  

steam  engines,  1897)

Giffard dirigible  (1852)

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 5

 Engine  requirements
• A  good  aircraft  engine  is  characterized  by:
– Enough  power  to  fulfill  the  mission
• Take-­off,  climb,  cruise  etc.
– Low  weight
• High  weight  increases  the  necessary  lift  and  therefore  
the  drag.
– High  efficiency
• Low  efficiency  increases  the  amount  fuel  required  and  
therefore  the  weight  and  therefore  the  drag.
– High  reliability
– Ease  of  maintenance

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 6

 Piston  engines
• Wright  Flyer:  One  engine  driving  two  counter-­
rotating  propellers  (one  port  one  starboard)  
via  chains.
– Four  in-­line  cylinders  
– Power:  12  hp
– Weight:  77  kg

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 7

 Piston  engine  development
• During  the  first  half  of  the  20th century  there  
was  considerable  development  of  piston  
engines.
• Power  reached  5000  hp.
• The  most  popular  configurations  where:
– V-­shaped  engines  with  in-­line  cylinders.
• Low  frontal  area  and  drag  but  needed  liquid  cooling.
– Radial  engines.
• High  frontal  area  and  drag  but  air-­cooled.
• Fuel  was  improved,  supercharging  was  
introduced  etc.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 8
 V-­shaped  vs  radial

Rolls-­Royce  Merlin
Pratt  &  Whitney  R-­2800  Double  
Liquid-­cooled  V-­12  with  supercharger.  
Wasp.  Air-­cooled,  twin-­row  radial  
Power:  1030  hp (1937)  to  2060  hp
engine  with  18  cylinders.
(1944)
Power:  1500  hp (1939)  to  2800  
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 (with  turbocharger,  1945) 9
 Piston  engine  design

• Cutout  of  a  piston

TDC:  Top  dead  centre
BDC:  Bottom  dead  centre
Compression  ratio:  ratio  
volume  of  cylinder  at  BDC  
and  TDC.

Crankshaft

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 10

 Piston  engine  operation
• A  four-­stroke  engine  cycle  has  the  following  
stages:
– Intake:  the  piston  moves  from  TDC  to  BDC  with  the  
intake  valve  open  and  the  exhaust  value  closed.  A  
fresh  air-­fuel  mix  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder
– Compression:  both  valves  close  and  the  piston  moves  
from  BDC  to  TDC  compressing  the  air-­fuel  mix.  
Combustion  is  initiated  as  the  piston  reaches  TDC.
– Expansion:  The  high  pressure  and  temperature  forces  
the  piston  from  TDC  to  BDC,  doing  work  on  the  
crankshaft.
– Exhaust:  The  exhaust  valve  opens  and  the  piston  
moves  from  BDC  to  TDC  forcing  the  spend  gases  out  
of  the  cylinder.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 11
 Piston  engine  cycle
• Pressure-­volume  diagram
• Heat  rejection  occurs  as  the  
exhaust  valve  opens  while  the  
piston  is  still  at  BDC.
• The  exhaust  stroke  then  
brings  the  cycle  back  to  the  
starting  conditions.
• The  difference  between  work  
done  on  the  gas  and  work  
done  by  the  gas  is  the  area  
enclosed  by  the  p-­V  curve.
• The  power  is  the  work  done  
times  the  number  of  cycles  
per  second.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 12

 Performance  at  altitude
• The  horsepower  of  piston  engines  reduces  with  
altitude,  as  the  atmospheric  density  decreases.
• An  approximate  rule  is:
BHP  at  altitude
• = 1 + 𝑐𝑐 𝜎𝜎 − 𝑐𝑐
BHP  at  sea  level
• where  BHP  is  break  horsepower,  𝑐𝑐 = 0.132 and  𝜎𝜎
is  the  ratio  of  the  atmospheric  density  at  altitude  to  
sea  level  density.
• At  20,000  ft the  BHP  ratio  is  47%.
• This  loss  in  power  can  be  regained  using  
supercharging  of  turbocharging.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 13

 Super/turbochargers
• Super  and  turbocharging  increases  the  engine  
efficiency  by  increasing  the  pressure  of  the  air  going  
into  the  cylinder.
• A  supercharger  uses  a  compressor  driven  by  the  
engine  crankshaft  through  a  belt.
• A  turbocharger  uses  a  compressor  driven  by  a  turbine,  
which  is  in  turn  driven  by  the  exhaust  gas.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 14

 Limitations
• As  the  power  of  piston  engines  increases,  
cooling  becomes  increasingly  difficult.  
• By  the  end  of  WWII,  Pratt  &  Whitney  
produced  a  3800  hp 28-­cylinder  engine  (four  
rows  of  seven  cylinders).  It  would  be  
impossible  to  increase  the  number  of  rows  of  
cylinders  and  keep  effective  cooling.
• Liquid-­cooled  engines  reached  5000  hp with  
H-­24  or  dual  V-­12  configurations  but  required  
huge  radiators  and  turbochargers.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 15
 Jet  engines
• Steam  turbines  have  existed  for  many  centuries.
• Gas  turbines  were  first  proposed  in  1791  but  not  
perfected  until  1903.
• Maxime Guillaume  filed  a  patent  for  powering  an  
aircraft  with  a  gas  turbine  in  1921.  It  was  never  
built.
• Frank  Whittle  filed  a  patent  for  a  turbojet  in  1930.  
His  first  engine  was  built  in  1937.
• Hans  von  Ohain also  built  a  functional  turbojet  in  
1937.
• The  first  ever  turbojet  aircraft,  Heinkel He  178  few  
in  1937  with  one  of  von  Ohain’s engines.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 16
 Jet  engine  design
• Cutout  of  a  jet  engine  with  centrifugal  
compressor

3.  Air  intakes
6.  Combustion  chambers
7.  Shaft  connecting  turbine  
and  compressor
8.  Nozzle
9.  Turbine  fairing
11.  Turbine
12.  Centrifugal  compressor

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 17

 Jet  engine  design  (2)

• Cutout  of  a  turbojet  engine  with  axial  

compressor

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 18

 Jet  engine  operation
• For  both  axial  and  centrifugal  compressor  
designs  the  operation  is  the  same:
– A  compressor  increases  the  pressure  of  the  air  
that  comes  in  through  the  intake.
– The  high-­pressure  air  is  fired  in  the  combustion  
chamber.
– Some  of  the  energy  of  the  high-­pressure,  high-­
temperature  air  is  used  to  drive  a  turbine,  which  
in  turn  drives  the  compressor.
– The  nozzle  converts  the  energy  of  the  high-­
pressure,  high-­temperature  air  into  kinetic  energy,  
which  is  used  to  propel  the  engine  forward.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 19

 Jet  engine  cycle
• Pressure-­volume  diagram
0.  Free  stream  conditions
2.  Compressor  face
3.  Combustion  chamber  
inlet
4.  Turbine  face
5.  Nozzle  inlet
8.  Nozzle  outlet

The  air  returns  to  free  

stream  conditions  externally  
(8-­0).
The  work  done  by  the  air  on  
the  turbine  is  equal  to  the  
work  done  by  the  the  
compressor  on  the  air.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 20
 Thrust  production
• Thrust  is  the  reaction  force  exerted  by  the  fluid  on  
the  engine.
• Compressor  blades  and  diffusers  are  the  main  
sources  of  thrust.
• Combustion  induces  air  expansion  and  a  positive  
thrust.
• Turbine  blades  and  nozzle  induce  a  negative  
thrust.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 21

 Turbofan
• Cutout  of  a  turbofan  engine

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 22

 Turbofan  vs  turbojet
• Turbojet:
– All  of  the  airflow  passes  from  the  combustion  
chamber.
– Relatively  low  mass  flow  rate  with  high  output  
velocity.
• Turbofan
– Part  of  the  flow  bypasses  the  combustion  chamber  
after  the  low-­pressure  compressor  or  a  large  fan.
– The  fan  is  also  driven  by  the  turbine.
– Higher  mass  flow  rate  with  lower  output  velocity.
– Noise  is  reduced  and  propulsive  efficiency  increased.
– Up  to  85%  of  the  thrust  is  generated  by  the  bypass  
air.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 23
 Turboprop

• Cutout  of  a  turboprop  engine

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 24

 Turboprop  operation
• In  a  turboprop  engine  part  of  the  energy  of  the  high-­
pressure,  high-­temperature  air  is  used  to  drive  a  
propeller.
• The  propeller  is  connected  to  the  shaft  through  
reduction  gear:
– The  high  RPM  and  low  torque  output  of  the  turbine  is  
converted  to  low  RPM  and  high  torque.
• The  hot  airflow  is  still  accelerated  through  a  nozzle  but  
only  a  small  amount  of  the  thrust  is  produced  in  this  
way.
• The  jet  velocity  of  the  propeller  and  nozzle  are  low  so  
turboprops  are  efficient  at  low  Mach  numbers  (M=0.6-­
0.7).  

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 25

 Jet  engine  performance

• Thrust  is  given  by 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑞𝑞� 𝑉𝑉�� − 𝑉𝑉�

• where  qm is  the  mass  flow  rate  through  the  
engine,  Vej is  the  ejection  velocity  and  V0 is  
the  inlet  velocity.
• Specific  thrust  is  the  thrust  divided  by  the  
mass  flow  rate  =  𝑉𝑉�� − 𝑉𝑉� .
• Specific  fuel  consumption  =  fuel  mass  flow  
divided  by  thrust.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 26
 Jet  engine  performance  (2)

• Jet  engine  performance  is  governed  by  the  

following  characteristics:
– Cycle  efficiencies  and  pressure  losses
– Overall  Pressure  Ratio  (OPR)  of  the  
compressor
– Turbine  Entry  Temperature  (TET)
– Bypass  ratio
– Fan  Pressure  Ratio  (FPR)

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 27

 Fuel  consumption  in  cruise
• Specific  fuel  
consumption  and  
specific  thrust  at  
cruise  conditions
• As  the  bypass  
ratio  and  OPR  
increase,  so  does  
the  mass  flow  
rate.
• Specific  thrust  
decreases  but  so  
does  fuel  
consumption.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 𝑇𝑇�� = TET 28
 Cycle  efficiency
• Cycle  efficiency  is  the  quality  of  transformation  of  
fuel  heating  value  into  useful  power,  i.e.  the  rate  of  
production  of  kinetic  energy:
�� �
�� ��
useful  power �� � � �
• 𝜂𝜂�� = = � ���
fuel  power �

• where  qf is  is  the  fuel  mass  flow  rate  and  FHV  is  
the  fuel  heating  value:
– Part  of  the  FHV  goes  into  kinetic  energy  in  the  gas.
– Part  of  the  FHV  is  used  for  propulsion.
– Part  of  the  FHV  is  lost  in  the  atmosphere.  

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 29

 Propulsive  efficiency

• Propulsive  efficiency  is  the  quality  of  the  

transformation  of  the  useful  power  
delivered  by  the  cycle  into  power  utilized  
for  propelling  the  vehicle.
propulsive  power thrust×speed
• 𝜂𝜂 � = =
useful  power useful  power
�� ��� ��� �� �
• 𝜂𝜂 � = �� �
= ����� /��
�� ��
�� � � �

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 30

 Lowering  fuel  consumption
• Lowering  the  specific  fuel  consumption  may  be  
done  by  increasing  the  cycle  and  the  propulsive  
efficiencies.
• Increasing  the  propulsive  efficiency  is  done  by  
decreasing  the  specific  thrust.
– the  mass  flow  must  be  augmented  to  keep  the  thrust  
level.
– the  size  of  the  engine  must  be  increased.
– the  weight,  the  drag,  the  cost  increase.
• The  integration  of  the  engine  is  more  difficult.
– the  optimal  engine  configuration  depends  on  the  
mission  of  the  vehicle.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 31

 Engine  diameter

• Engine  diameter  (in)  variation  with  thrust  

(lb).

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 32

 Propulsive  efficiency  of  various  engine  
types

Turboprops  are  most  

efficient  up  to  M=0.7

Turbofans  are  most  

efficient  from  M=0.7  
to  M=1.

Turbojets  are  most  

efficient  at  supersonic  
conditions.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 33

 Energy  consumption
Energy  consumption  
is  measured  in  mega  
Joules  per  Available  
Seat  Kilometer.

Large  gains  in  

efficiency  were  
obtained  from  the  
introduction  of  high  
bypass  engines  
between  1960  and  
1990.

The  trend  has   Piston  

levelled  off  over  the   engines
last  20  years.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 34

 Noise  reduction

Again,  bypass  
engines  led  to  
a  significant  
reduction  in  
noise  but  the  
trend  has  
levelled  off.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 35

 Thrust  and  Mach  number

• The  thrust  of  a  jet  engine  changes  with  

Mach  number.
• Maximum  thrust  is  obtained  at  take-­off,  Tto.
• At  any  other  Mach  number  the  thrust  can  
be  approximated  from
� �.�� ��� �.���
• ���
=1− 𝑀𝑀 + 0.6 + � 𝑀𝑀�
���.��� �
• where  M is  the  Mach  number  and  G is  0.9  
for  low  bypass,  1.2  for  high  bypass.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 36
 Thrust  lapse  ratio
• Thrust  ratio  against  Mach  number  at  take-­
off.

Low  bypass  
engines  loose  
thrust  less  quickly.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 37

 Afterburner
• The  thrust  of  both  turbojets  and  turbofans  can  be  
significantly  increased  using  afterburning  (or  reheat).
• Fuel  is  injected  in  the  flow  downstream  of  the  turbine.  
The  kinetic  energy  of  the  gas  is  increased  significantly.
• Reheat  is  very  inefficient  and  requires  high  fuel  rates  
so  it  used  mostly  in  military  aircraft  for  very  short  
times.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 38

 Ramjet  engine

• Cutout  of  a  ramjet

A  ramjet  has  no  moving  parts.  

The  compression  is  achieved  by  
decelerating  supersonic  flow  to  
subsonic.  
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 39
 Turbo/ramjet  combinations
• A  ramjet  engine  cannot  operate  at  low  airspeeds.  
• It  must  be  combined  with  another  type  of  engine.
• Turbojet,  ramjet  combinations  have  also  been  
proposed.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 40

 Scramjet  engine

• Supersonic  combusting  ramjet.

• The  flow  is  supersonic  when  it  is  ignited.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 41

 Engine  choice

• The  following  considerations  are  

important:
– Engine  type:  piston,  turboprop,  turbofan,  etc.
– Number  of  engines:  required  thrust  and  
probability  of  failure.
– Engine  installation:  underwing,  fuselage  
sides,  tail,  inside  fuselage  etc.
– Choice  of  propellers:  for  piston  and  turboprop  
engines.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 42
 Engine  type
• This  usually  depends  on  the  aircraft  specification:
– Transport  aircraft  at  M  <  0.7:  Specific  Fuel  
consumption  is  paramount.
• Turboprop.
– Transport  aircraft  at  0.7<  M<  1:  Specific  Fuel  
consumption  is  paramount.  
• Turbofan.
– Supersonic  aircraft  M>1:  Thrust  is  paramount.
• Turbojet.
– Supersonic  aircraft  M>3:  Thrust  is  paramount.
• Ramjet.
– Hypersonic  aircraft  M>4:  Thrust  is  paramount.
• Scramjet.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 43

 Various  aircraft

Airbus  340
ATR  72

Concorde Boeing  X-­51

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 44
 Number  of  engines
• Increasing  the  number  of  engines  increases  
the  maximum  thrust.
• It  also  increases  the  probability  of  at  least  
one  engine  failing.
P  is  the  probability  of  one  
engine  failing  per  flying  
hour.  It  is  a  small  number.

Doubling  the  number  of  

engines  doubles  the  
probability  of  failure  of  1  
engine  but  multiplies  by  6  
the  probability  of  failure  of  2  
engine.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 45
 Engine  out  case
• If  an  engine  fails  at  take-­off,  an  airliner  must  still  be  
able  to  complete  the  take-­off:
– At  least  two  engines  must  be  installed.
– A  minimum  rate  of  climb  must  be  achieved  with  the  
surviving  engines.
• Twin-­engined aircraft  are  oversized  for  cruise,  since  
they  must  be  able  to  climb  with  a  single  engine:
�
– Thrust-­to-­weight  ratio   ≈ 0.3.
�
�
• Four-­engined aircraft  have  a  lower   ≈ 0.2 but  they  
�
require  more  maintenance.
�
• Three-­engined aircraft  have   ≈ 0.25.  but  tail  
�
installation  is  costly  and  less  popular.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 46
 Engine  installation
• Underwing:  
– All  Boeing  except  727,  
all  Airbus,  Concorde  
etc.  
– Heavy  military  
transports  C-­17,  C-­5,  
An-­225  etc.
– Heavy  bombers  B52,  
B-­58  etc.
• Fuselage  side:
– Regional  jets  
Caravelle,  Embraer  
145,  Fokker  100,  CRJ  
200
– Business  jets  
Challenger,  Falcon,  
Phenom,  all  Learjets,  
all  Gulfstreams etc.      
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 47
 Engine  installation  (2)
• Tail:
– Boeing  727,  MD-­11,  
DC-­10,  Tristar  etc.
– Three-­engine  
configurations  are  no  
longer  popular.
• Fuselage-­wing  
junction:
– Only  De  Havilland  
Comet  and  some  
military  aircraft.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 48
 Engine  installation  (3)

• Over  fuselage:
– Blended  wing  
bodies,  X-­48

• Over  the  tail:

– Open  rotor  aircraft,  
Airbus  proposals.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 49

 Installed  thrust
• The  maximum  thrust  of  an  engine  that  is  installed  on  
an  aircraft  is  always  lower  than  the  maximum  
uninstalled  thrust:
– Inlet  pressure  losses,  bleed  air  for  de-­icing  and  air  
conditioning,  power  for  driving  aircraft  systems  etc.
• Typical  thrust  losses  due  to  installation  are  4%  for  low  
bypass  and  8%  for  high.
• For  propeller  aircraft,  power  also  decreases  due  to  
installation  effects:
– Propeller  installation,  drag  of  aircraft  components  in  the  
slipstream,  intake  losses,  bleed  air  etc.
• Typical  installed  to  uninstalled  power  ratios  are  85%  
for  turboprops  to  78%  for  a  piston  engine  in  the  
fuselage  nose.
APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 50
 Thrust  reversal
• Thrust  reversal  is  used  during  landing  to  shorten  the  
landing  run.
• The  jet  is  directed  forward,  applying  an  additional  
breaking  force.
• Thrust  reversal  is  particularly  effective  on  wet  
runways.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 51

 Auxiliary  Power  Unit
• An  Auxilliary Power  Unit  (APU)  is  installed  in  most  
modern  airliners.
• It  is  a  small  gas  turbine  that  has  several  uses:
– Supplies  pressurized  air  and  power  for  the  air-­
conditioning  system  on  the  ground.
– Starts  the  main  engines.
– Supplies  power  for  the  electrical  systems.
– Supplies  electricity  for  maintenance  work  outside  the  
hangar.
• It  increases  the  aircraft  weight  but  makes  the  
aircraft  more  autonomous  and  flexible.
• It  is  usually  installed  in  the  tail  of  the  fuselage.

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 52

 APU  examples
Airbus  A-­380 Boeing  737

APRI0004-­1,  Aerospace  Design  Project,  Lecture  4 53