UNIT 3 SOCIAL CHANGE, DEVELOPMENT

AND EDUCATION
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Social Change
Development
Perspectives on Education
Education in Indian Perspectives
3.6.1 Education and Social Change
Education, Economic Growth and Development
The Mismatch Problem
Globalization and Education
Let's Sum Up
Answers to Check your Progress
References and Suggested Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION
It has been observed that change is such an evident feature of social reality that any
social-scientific theory, whatever its conceptual starting point, must sooner or later
address it. Others also point out that the only thing that does not change is change.
At the same time it is essential to note that the ways social change has been identified
have varied greatly in the history of thought. In this Unit we point out the three main
elements of social change that must stand in definite relation to one another:

1) Structural determinants of social change, such as population changes, the

dislocation occasioned by war, or strains and contradictions.
2) Processes and mechanisms of social change, including precipitating
mechanisms, social movements, political conflict and accommodation, and
entrepreneurial activity.
3) Directions of social change, including structural changes, effects, and
consequences.
,

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be in a position to:
understand the meaning of Social change;
understand the concept of Social development;
understand the relationship between education and social change; and
appreciate the relationship between Education, Economic Growth and
Development.

3.3 SOCIAL CHANGE -

Change is generally said to be a subject of the law of nature. Changes occur both
in nature as well as society. Social change would refer to the changes taking place
33
Education and Society: in the human society. Social change may also be taken to mean only such alterations
Concepts and Penpwtives
as occur on the structure and functions of society. As individuals constantly interact
in society, the social structures that govern the forms and rules of interactions relatively
stay stable for long durations. However change takes place, speedily or slowly, in the
structure which signifies social change. 'Social change does not refer to social
interaction but rather to the normative conditions of interactions'.

Social change has also been viewed as part of cultural change which covers all
changes that occurs in any branch of culture like art, science, technology, philosophy,
and also changes in the forms and rules of social organization. It needs to be noted
that no part of culture is completely unrelated to the social order. However, changes
in certain branches of culture may take place without having much impact on the
social system. In the context of social change, cultural changes are relevant to the
extent that they arise from or have as an effect on social organization.

The scope of social change indicates change in the whole structure of society (from
agrarian to industrial) or the changes within the structure of society (introduction of
a new system of education). There is observed even 'lag' in changes taking place
in different parts of the society as the rate of change may not be the same for all the
parts. There is also observed lag between societies /countries in terms of changes
and, hence, the challenge for one set of societies to 'catch up' with the other set of
societies.

Social change is also viewed in terms of the direction of change, like moving towards
attaining some goal. In that case social changes could be seen as progressive or
retrogressive in nature. As regards the source of social change, there are two contrasting
perspectives. The evolutionary view holds that social changes pass through a series
of self-generating (internal sources) stages. But the diffusionists hold that it occurs
due to borrowing of traits across (external sources) societies. Generally, the borrowed
traits are modified and adapted to suit the society concerned. So, there could be both
internal and external sources of changes occumng in societies.

There are two major theories explaining social changes. The theory of 'economic
.determinism' is associated with Karl Marx and F. Engels who hold the primacy of
economic factor in determining the nature of social, political and intellectual life
generally. They consider economic structure of society as the base and all other
spheres of life as superstructure, and affirm that a change occumng in the base
determines, in the ultimate analysis, the shape of the superstructure of society.

But the 'functionalist-structural' theory of social change denies any deterministic role
of the economic structure of society. It gives equal weight to all spheres of life. It
views society as a social system consisting of different parts. Changes occumng in
one part lead to changes in other parts of the social system. The social system always
intends to achieve equilibrium. It reflects a kind of moving equilibrium. This
equilibrium approach does not make much difference between variables. The variables
are treated as mutually dependent, and change in one variable inevitably leads to
changes in other variables which lead to a state of social equilibrium. The process
of change goes on and gives a picture of society in a state of moving equilibrium.
The social system is viewed as self-restoring in nature, which resists deflection or
ruptures in society (Davis 1981).

3.4 DEVELOPMENT
The concept of development is multi-dimensional in nature. It is viewed in both
restricted and comprehensive ways. In a restricted sense, it may refer only to economic
changes. Changes in the economy could be both wider and narrow in nature. Wider
 changes would refer to qualitative and structural changes in the state of an economy. Social Change,
Further, the concept of growth is very commonly viewed as synonymous with and Education
development. However, growth is generally treated in a limited way i.e. quantitative
and tangible increase in the GNP, or per capita income. In a broad sense, development
implies a relatively stable increase in real national income that is accompanied by a
change in the attitudes of the people, their motivation, institutional set up, production
techniques, etc. Thus, development has both economic and non-economic dimensions,
and these two are interlinked.
C
i Economic development influences non-economic spheres in the life of people.
Similarly, non-economic factors promote or hinder economic development. Non-
I
economic factors refer to human capital which includes the social, political, cultural
1
I and educational background of the people who participate in the process of
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h
I
development. Education plays an important role in the formation of human capital
and thus contributies to economic development in particular, and overall societal
I development in general.
r

j The concept of development is associated with other concepts such as growth and
1I modernization. Its historical roots lie in the period of major changes connected with
the industrial revolution when industrial and social change in Europe became
i synonymous with social progress.
I
After the end of the Second World War the dominant view of development was that
of modernization of the ex-colonial countries. This view of development looked at
the world as composed of two sets of societies - the traditional societies (i.e. ex-
colonial countries) and the modem societies (the developed countries of Europe and
North America). Here, the process of development meant transformation of the
traditional societies into modem societies through adopting institutions, ideas and
practices of the latter such as modem science and technology, democratic political
institution, capital and expertise etc. In thls process, the traditional social structures
are transformed into those of a modem type along the lines of what happened earlier
in Europe. This involved a one-way process of import of ideas, technology, capital,
skills and such resources from the developed countries to the backward ones. But
this view has been severely criticized by the underdevelopment theorists who hold
that there exists only one system i.e. the capitalist world system in which the developing
countries/societies have been underdeveloped through colonial/neo-colonial
exploitations and thus facilitated the development of the modem countries of Europe
and North America. Another view holds that what is underway is the process of
'dependent development' of a section of the people in the developing countries as a
result of their close linkages with the developed ones. Thus the concept of development
has different connotations depending on the perspective adopted look at the process
of changes occurring in different sets of societies/countries.

3.5 PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION

Relationship between education and society has been viewed from different angles.
There are three major sociological perspectives in connection, namely, (1) the
Functionalist perspective, (2) the Marxist perspective, and (3) the Interpretive
perspective. The first two perspectives are macro in focus. They concentrate on
analyzing the relation between education and society. But the third perspective is
micro in nature. It emphasizes the study of micro social processes in the classroom
and school.

Functionalist thinkers are concerned with the function of education for society as a
whole. They assess the contribution made by education to the maintenance of value
consensus and social solidarity. Further, they deal with the functional relationships
Education and Society: between education and the other parts of the social system. This, for example, leads
Concepts and Perspectives to an examination of the relationship between education and the economic system,
the political system and culture, etc., and a consideration of how this relationship
helps to integrate the society as a whole. In general, functional analysis focuses on
the positive contributions made by education to the maintenance of the social system.
It is assumed that education is functional for the society as a whole. Here, four
major functions of education could be seen in relation to society, i.e., socialization,
role allocation, social mobility and social change.

The Marxian perspective provides a radical alternative to functionalist views of the

role of education in society. Marxists have approached the matter in two ways.
Either they see education as assisting in the process of the 'reproduction' or
maintenance of capitalist 'relations of production'; or they view education as a 'site
of resistance' to the demands of the capitalist system. Education, according to direct
reproduction theories, helps to reproduce or maintain the capitalist economic system.
Some of these theories involve an economic determinist conception of society. Other
theories are more voluntarist in nature, emphasizing that the ruling class moulds
education to suit its own purpose. Finally, certain theories whilst paying lip service
to the idea of the 'relative autonomy' of education nevertheless see education as
nothing more than an element of the 'state apparatus', the crucial function of which
is to perpetuate capitalist relations of production.

Orthodox Marxists believe that the economic base determines the superstructure in
the sense that, for example, a society's educational system, or its form of government,
or the type of family prevalent at any particular time is a direct consequence of the
nature of its economic system. Furthermore, as economic base changes, so do other
social, political, educational and cultural institutions.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of unit.

1) There could be both internal and external sources of changes occurring

in societies. True or False

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2) Mention the three major sociological perspectives in education.
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 Social Change,
3.6 EDUCATION IN INDIAN PERSPECTIVES Development and Education

In view of the post-independence aspirations for modernization, change and

development it is but natural that several sociologists focus upon the issue of education
as an instrument for modernization, change and development. Together the several
conceptual analyses and empirical studies on this theme provide a valuable elucidation
of the functions of education as an instrument of development, the conditions under
which this instrument is effective as the conditions in which its functioning is
constrained. They also provide valuable data and insights on how, where and why
education in the country has failed as an instrument of change. The writings on the
subject reveal a shift in the outlook on education across the years. In the beginning
the writings generally exuded faith in education as an instrument of development and
focus on spelling out the manner in which it is expected to function as such. In
contrast, later writings displayed a measure of skepticism about the effectiveness of
education and generally inclined towards indicating where and why it fails.
We find broadly two paradigms on the issue of education and society in India. They
are the functional paradigm and the conflict paradigm. In the functional paradigm
education is considered as the main instrument of social change and transformation.
It is evident in the writings of educationists, planners, policy-makers and most of the
sociologists. For example, the opening paragraph in the chapter on education in our
Third Five Year Plan (1961) states:
Education is the most important single factor in achieving rapid economic development
and technological progress and in creating a social order founded on the values of
freedom, social justice and equal opportunity. Programmes of education lie at the
base of the effort to forge the bonds of common citizenship, to harness the energies
of the people, and to develop the natural and human resources of every part of the
country.
Further, the report of Kothari Commission (1964) held:
The destiny of India is now being shaped in her classrooms. This, we believe, is no
mere rhetoric. In a world based on science and technology, it is education that
determines the level of prosperity, welfare and security of the people. On the quality
and number of persons coming out of our schools and colleges will depend our
success in the great enterprise of natural reconstruction.
The report adds, 'In fact, what is needed is a revolution in education which in turn
will set in motion the much desired social, economic and cultural revolution'.
In the conflict paradigm, education is not considered as a prime mover of social
change or as the main weapon, or even one of the important instruments of achieving
fundamental social changes. Here, it is asserted that change in or through the
I
educational system is not possible without prior changes in the social structure. The
changes in economic structures, in the political power structure, or the legal structure
are the mainsi>rings of change in the social hierarchy and the relationships between
different sections in it. All these factors including education are inter-related and
interact, and it is difficult to separate out the effects and say that a particular aspect
of the chpge is attributable to education. Hence education seldom rises above the
socio-economic and socio-political situation in which it is embedded.
It has been argued that although fonnal education plays a vital role in 'ideational
change' tbough transformation of the knowledge, attitudes and values of the people,
its effectiveness in bringing about structural change in society is extremely limited.
The vicious circle in which education is caught in India todayAmaybe broken if the
linkages baween the existing practices, procedures and vested interests in the status
quo are meaningfully exposed by social scientists through their research.
Education and Society: 3.6.1 Education and Social Change
Concepts and Perspectives
Education is regarded as the key for restructuring the economies of the developing
countries. It helps in overcoming the techno-economic problems and also plays an
important role in resolving the socio-demographic problems.

Education facilitates the development of human resources, cultural expression, and

improved health and thus provides an essential base for social and economic
development. It is considered as an empowering phenomenon which enables the
people to combat social justice and exploitation and thus creates the required synergy
for a structural socio-political transformation. According to UNESCO, education
leads to social revolution.

Education is regarded as an important instrument of social change. The role of

education could be viewed from two related but slightly different perspectives, which
may be called teleological and empirical perspectives. In the teleological perspective,
the role of education is to assist the society to achieve the goals it has set for itself.
These include:

i) Goals in the fields of technological, scientific, and other areas of economic

development of the country,

ii) Social goals like reduction of various forms of social inequality; and
iii) The goal of moulding the character of citizens as responsible and socially and
politically conscientious members of democratic society.

There are roles of education attributed by educationalists, the government, or other

agencies but the empirical perspective focuses on examining exactly what role
education plays in development at the empirical level. This would involve a delineation
of facts as operative at the ground level, and also an explanation of those facts in
terms of why and how.

Edu'cation was regarded as an important means for reducing social inequalities in

India. The Constitution of India made special provisions for promoting the educational
interests of the weaker sections of society. Educational support was provided to SC
/ ST through the programmes of scholarships and fellowships, and making reservations
of seats for them in various educational institutions. It was presumed that education
would contribute to their overall development. Education could facilitate their
economic development as it enables them to get better paid jobs and achieve social
mobility. Education also has an emancipators' role. It promotes social awareness and
sharpening of self-respect and dignity. However, it is noted that education performs
only a restricted role in the upward mobility of the weaker sections, and at the same
time enables the elites to maintain positions of power and authority.

The Indian Constitution provides equality of educational opportunity to all citizens.

The liberal democratic system permits competition and holds this as a legitimate
strategy for the betterment of one's status in soc'iety. Competitiveness is an
important feature of the Indian education system. There is a dialectical relationship
between education and social mobility in general and mobility to elite positions in
particular. But it is only to a limited extent that education has facilitated social
mobility.

The dialectical relationship is manifested in the processes of 'early selection' and

'mass examination' in India. The process of early selection is involved in the enrolment
of children when they are very young in different types of educational institutions.
Children from the elite background are 'selected' early in life and placed in good
quality, high fee, English medium 'public schools' where they are prepared - in
38
terms of skills, behaviour and values - specifically for elite status in their later life. Social Change,
Children of the middle class study in medium quality quasi - public schools run by and Education
private institutions, and in Central and Sainik Schools of the Government, and later
generally work at middle level occupational strata. Children of the lower class people
get the opportunity to study in the ill-equipped low quality regional medium
government-run schools and are prepared to join the lower occupational strata in the
society. Similarly, the higher education institutions, both general and professional,
are of high, medium and low quality. Students of the elite public schools generally
enter the selected few elite colleges. Those from the medium and lower quality
schools generally get admission to the medium and lower quality colleges and
institutions.

However, the educational inequalities created by the process of early selection is

counter balanced to some extent by the system of mass examination held at state or
national level, in which different types of schools are obliged to take part. The
system of mass examination has a symbolic significance of giving all individuals an
equal chance based on competition and thus giving democratic legitimacy to the
education system. Performance at the examinations plays an important role in linking
education with competition for achievement of status and power in life. A very small
number of students from the medium and lower quality schools are able to enter into
better quality higher education institutions, get better education and achieve better /
elite positions in life. The scope available for limited upward social mobility builds
and retains the confidence in the system and keep the aspirations of the masses alive
in the education system in particular, and the society in general. The governmental
provision of reservations in admission to educational institutions for the backward
sections of society further reinforces their confidence in the system. Realizing the
significance of education in social mobility, the people belonging to the dominant
middle castes have set up schools and colleges and increased the opportunities for
their education and subsequent benefits in life. It is observed that whereas the strategy
of early selection practised by the private education system continues to offer safe
routes towards status professions to the children of the elite, mass examination offers
to the rest of society the assurance that status can also be achieved through competition.
So, while early selection is a 'reproductionist' force in Indian education, mass
examination is a symbol of the possibility of change.

Various studies have shown that the major beneficiaries of higher education come
from the upper social strata and an urban background. Education had earlier facilitated
the extension of dominant peasant caste hegemony particularly at the state level. But
with the passage of time, those belonging to the lower castes, like SC/STs also made
considerable progress in higher education and so has achieved the attendant socio-
economic benefits through limited mobility.

3.7 EDUCATION, ECONOMIC GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
There exists a highly contrasting set of views on the relation between education and
development, particularly on economic development. Education plays a positive role
in development; however there are other studies which state that education has no
effect on economic performance, for instance, in the agricultural development.
Education has also been noted to be having a negative effect, on development,
particularly in case of rural development i.e. although it is reasoniable to assume that
formal schooling plays some role in rural and agricultural development, it is quite
apparent that schooling alone is not likely to effect any major nlral transformation.
Whatever the role that education plays, it is not likely to be a powerful agency of
change. Education is but one element that contributes to rural development and at
certain stages is conceivably far from being the most important. 39
Education and Society: Education, especially higher education contributes to the process of social and
Concepts and Perspectives
technological changes through research and development. It facilitates the creation
of new ideas, tools, techniques and products as reflected in quantum jumps in
technological innovations which promote the process of development. Here,
development stands between research and diffusion. It promotes change and
transformation of techniques.tools and products. However, it may or may not bring
in its wake a transformation of the basic value system of a society.

Knowledge is the most powerful engine of production and the most valuable of all
capital that is invested in human beings. In earlier times, education was considered
an item of consumption. But the view of planners has changed, and education is
regarded as investment for achieving rapid development. Most human capital
economists hold that education has both consumption and investment value. Education
has implications for the existing inequality of income and wealth.

Humans are both producers and consumers of goods and services. At individual/
family level they invest in education and training to increase their productivity and
income and thereby their consumption. The society as well invests in education with
a view to promoting growth and productivity. The government subsidizes education
for national development. So there are costs and benefits of education at both private
and social levels.

Relation between education and development is analyzed in terms of the rate of

return from different levels of education. This has two aspects - rate of return to
individuals i.e. private benefits, and rate of return to society i.e. social benefits from
education. Previously economists focused on the private benefits in terms of individual
income across different levels of education. Later, the social benefits accruing from
education was well recognized. In accounting for the benefits from education, it is
not sufficient to look only at the higher earnings associated with more education.

Generally education seems to have a positive rate of return and at some levels, they
are favourable. However, if the high rate of unemployment is the sole consideration,
education may not be said to give a positive return and has even been said to be an
economic waste.

An important finding in the studies on rates of return is that elementary education

generally yields the highest returns. As one moves up the educational ladder, there
is reflected progressively lower rate of return. This could be true of the poor developing
countries. However, in case of the developed countries the optimum level of return
is not achieved by elementary education
Besides monetary returns, education has other developmental impact such as
It leads to reduction in fertility rate and population.
It raises socio-political awareness of the people and, thus, a better citizenry and
promotes democracy.
Education facilitates the fuller and better utilization of all the productive resources.
Research and development raise the productive capacity of the resources. With
increasing level of education of the people, the structure of economy undergoes a
change. The dominant sector of the economy shifts from agriculture to industry and
then to service sector in terms of contribution to the economy and employment.

There are serious limitations on education to promote social mobility of the weaker
sections of society. The prevailing socio-political structures limit educational potential
in that the upper strata reaps the major benefits of the gigantic expansion of educational
facilities, threby sharpening the differentiation in rural society rather than reducing
it. There is a close correlation between the agrarian class structure and educational
40
achievement. In India, the political developments since Independence have contributed Social Change,
largely towards determining the course of educational growth. There developed a and Education
differential system of education to satisfy the needs and aspirations of different strata
of society. Nobody cared about the people at the bottom of the social hierarchy who
are considered to be the rejects of society.

THE MISMATCH PROBLEM

There is noticed certain level of mismatch between education and development,
particularly rural development in India. It is opined that the education system is out
of pace with the rhythm of life in India. The primary schools are completely focused
on preparing students to enter into the secondary system of education. The secondary
system has no concern with life around it and is fully meant to prepare students to
feed into the tertiary system whose goals seem to rest outside the India's requirements.
The products, particularly of the elite institutions prefer to leave the country and
work in the affluent foreign countries only for their individual benefits. A large
number of educated youth remain unemployable in the country. The poor people do
not find education useful and attractive as it does not ensure job, besides other
factors.

Non-formal education, including adult education is seen to have large potential to

promote development and social change in a country like India. The classroom-
centered education and training is largely geared to producing urban based elites. It
has created a serious problem of educated unemployment and also high dropouts and
illiteracy among the backward sections of society. The expedcentered, literacy/skill
focused non-formal education, including adult education has not been able to
adequately cater to the needs of the people.

The stream of non-formal education, including adult education, was introduced long
back in the country focused mainly on the p r o g r d s of literacy and sometimes a
little vocational training. This did not prove to be much useful to the people and their
development. This was due to the fact that the problems of the poor are manifold and
the kind of non-formal education that is given to them, does not adequately respond
to their needs. It is observed that the major challenges for them are to negotiate and
confront with the vested interests which oppress them. The first step in learning for
them would involve learning to fight the vested interests and the petty bureaucracy.

Besides literacy, education has to meet the need for skill development and employment
generation (not creating unemployment). It could develop their personal and collective
critical thinking, problem diagnosis and solution through organizing themselves in
different ways. The programme would break their isolation and marginalization, and
motivate, organize and 'empower them to fully participate in social and public /
political activities in life. Here, the outside support would only facilitate the process
and the deprived people would themselves actively participate in their overall
development in a sustainable way.

3.9 GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION

'Globalization' is a favourite catchphrase for business theory and practice, and has
entered academic debates and become a focus for discussion in education. But what
people mean by 'globalization' is often confused and confusing. It has been defined
as the process of removing government-imposed restrictions on movements between
countries in order to create an "open", "borderless" world economy. Those who have
argued with some success for the abolition of regulatory trade barriers and capital
controls have sometimes clothed this in the mantle of 'globalization'.
Education and Society: The context in which educators operate has been conditioned by people's experience
Concepts and Perspectives
with both formal and informal education. Schools and colleges have, for example,
become sites for branQng and the targets of corporate expansion. Many policymakers
automatically look to market 'solutions'. The impact and pervasiveness of these
forces of globalization also means that they should be a fundamental focus for
education and learning; but there are powerful currents running against honest work
in this area. The impact of globalization on education includes:
Commodification and the corporate takeover of education.
The threat to the autonomy of national educational systems by globalization.
De-localization and changing technologies and orientations in education.
Branding, globalization and learning to be consumers.
The government support to education sector is being substantially reduced. Private
educational institutions which operate on commercial principles are rapidly increasing.
They could provide the choice of better quality education. In this kind of scenario,
middle class is able to take the maximum benefits. They are able to use their existing
stock of economic, social and cultural resources to acquire quality education in a
deregulated market situation. Market systematically offers privileges to better off
families because they have more knowledge and material resources. But the lower
classes are adversely affected as they know less about the market in education and
do not have adequate material resources to acquire quality education which they
cannot afford. At the same time the quality of education in the government supported
institutions, declines due to retreat of the state. Those studying in these institutions,
mostly the poorer sections, get negatively affected.

The process of globalization would mainly affect the parts of education system that
could be exposed to it. Moreover, changes in education are generally slow to occur.
Hence, it could be stated that 'strong mismatches and discrepancies will prevail
between the expected impact of globalization on education and the actual changes
occumng in education as a result of globalization'. It may be noted that globalization
is not a radical revolution that is going to completely transform education: its impact
will be more an emphasis of certain trends.

The increasing dominance of market in the contemporary society imposes constraints

on the state for ensuring the industrial development and competitiveness of the
economy, and favouring multinational expansion of national companies. Hence, the
increasing race for excellence in the economy does/ will put pressure on the educational
institutions to complete with one another in more intense manner. Moreover, increasing
economics and reduction in public spending on education would lead to increased
segmentation between different types of educational institutions, a decrease in access
to good quality education for the poorer sections, and a general decline in the quality
of education.

Check Your Progress 2

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of unit

3) Briefly identify the relationship between education, economic growth

and development.

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 Social Change,
4) Mention any three impact of globalization on education. Development and Education

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3.10 LET'S SUM UP

Social change refers to changes in the social organisation of society. It covers the
alterations that occur in the social structure and functions. It encompasses changes
in different spheres of social life. The scope of social change varies. It includes
changes of the structure of society and changes within the structure of society. There
are two major perspectives on social change - the evolutionist and the diffusionist
perspectives. l k o major theories of social changes are the functionalist theory and
the theory of economic determinism.

The concept of development is multidimensional in nature. The concept and theories

of development also deal with social change, but they are specific to the kind of
changes proposed and occurring in the developing countries after their independence
from the colonial rule.

The relationship between education and society has been viewed from three different
perspectives, i.e. functionalist perspective, the Marxist perspective, and the interpretive
perspective.

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) True
2) i) Functionalist perspective,
ii) The Marxist perspective, and
iii) The Interpretive perspective

3) Education generally leads to higher monetary returns

It leads to reduction in fertility rate and .population.
It raises socio-political awareness of the people and thus a better citizenry and
promotes democracy.
Education facilitates the fuller and better utilization of all the productive resources.

4) Commodification and the corporate takeover of education.

The threat to the ahtonomy of national educational systems by globalization.
De-localization and changing technologies and orientations in education.
Branding, globalization and learning to be consumers.
Education and Society:
concepb and ,mpectives 3.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
Acharya, Poromesh. (1987). 'Education: Politics and Social Structure,' in Ghosh
Ratna and M. Zachariah (eds), Education and the Process of Change, New
Delhi: Sage Publications.

Kamat, A.R. (1985). Education and Social Change in India, Bombay, Somaiya
Publications.

Mehta, Prayag (1995). Education, Participation and Empowerment, New Delhi,

Concept Publishing Company.

Rao, Sudha V. (1985). Education and Rural Development, New Delhi, Sage
Publications.

Sivakumar, Chitra (1982). Education, Social Inequality and Social Change in

Karnataka, Delhi, Hindustan Publishing Corporation.