Acknowledgement

This project, “National Air Quality Index (IND-AQI) was awarded by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), Delhi to Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur. For this project, CPCB constituted an
Expert Group under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. K. Agrawal, Professor Emeritus & Ex Dean, Maulana
Azad Medical College, New Delhi. The other members of the group were drawn from academia, medical
fraternity, research institutes, Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, advocacy groups and
CPCB. The group deliberated, discussed and devised consensus on the proposed AQI system. The group
oversaw the progress of the project on a continual basis.We gratefully acknowledge the support and guidance
of all members of the group received towards completion of this project.
We are thankful to Shri Susheel Kumar, Chairman, CPCB and Dr. A. B. Akolkar, Member Secretary, CPCB
for showing confidence in us by awarding this study to IIT Kanpur; their suggestions and concerns were
thoughtful and workable. Thanks are due to Dr. Prashant Gargava of CPCB for detailed discussions, posing
challenges and keeping a tight leash for timely completion of the project.
We thank Swapnil Mahajan, Sagar Parihar, Rajesh Singh, Kritika Upadhyay and Quazi Ziaur Rasool
(Graduate Students, IIT Kanpur) for helping in literature review and developing online AQI dissemination
system.

Mukesh Sharma; PhD and Arnab Bhattacharya; PhD

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur

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 Executive Summary

Awareness of daily levels of air pollution is important to the citizens, especially for those who suffer
from illnesses caused by exposure to air pollution. Further, success of a nation to improve air quality
depends on the support of its citizens who are well-informed about local and national air pollution
problems and about the progress of mitigation efforts. Thus, a simple yet effective communication of
air quality is important. The concept of an air quality index (AQI) that transforms weighted values of
individual air pollution related parameters (e.g. SO2, CO, visibility, etc.) into a single number or set of
numbers is widely used for air quality communication and decision making in many countries.

After reviewing literature (on AQI), air quality monitoring procedures and protocols, Indian National
Air Quality Standards (INAQS), and dose-response relationships of pollutants, an AQI system is devised.
The AQI system is based on maximum operator of a function (i.e. selecting the maximum of sub-
indices of individual pollutants as an overall AQI). The objective of an AQI is to quickly disseminate
air quality information (almost in real-time) that entails the system to account for pollutants which
have short-term impacts. Eight parameters (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) having
short-term standards have been considered for near real-time dissemination of AQI. It is recognized
that air concentrations of Pb are not known in real-time and cannot contribute to AQI. However, its
consideration in AQI calculation of past days will help in scrutinizing the status of this important toxic.
The proposed index has six categories with elegant colour scheme, as shown below.

Good Satisfactory Moderately polluted Poor Very poor Severe

(0-50) (51-100) (101-200) (201-300) (301-400) (> 401)

A scientific basis in terms of attainment of air quality standards and dose-response relationships of
various pollutant parameters have been derived and used in arriving at breakpoint concentrations for
each AQI category.

It is proposed that for continuous air quality stations, AQI is reported in near real-time for as many
parameters as possible. For manual stations, the daily AQI is reported with a lag of one week to
ensure manual data are scrutinized and available for AQI. AQIs must be identified if these are from
continuous or manual station to maintain uniformity and clarity on sources of data. A web-based AQI
dissemination system is developed for quick, simple and elegant looking response to an AQI query. The
other features of the website include reporting of pollutant responsible for index, pollutants exceeding
the standards and health effects.

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 Contents
Title Page No.

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

1.1 Origin and concepts of Air Quality Index 1

1.2 Applications of Air Quality Index 1

1.3 Project Conceptualization 2

1.4 Project Objectives 3

1.5 Scope of Work 3

Chapter 2: Air Quality Index: A Review 5

2.1 Definition of Air Quality Index 5

2.2 Structure of an Index 5

2.3 Indices in the Literature 7

2.4 Current Status of AQI Application in India 11

2.5 Eclipsing and Ambiguity 11

Chapter 3: Development, Implementation and Dissemination of AQI 13

3.1 Indian Air Quality Index (IND-AQI): Proposed System 13

3.2 Air Quality Monitoring and AQI Considerations 15

3.3 Computation of sub-indices and AQI 16

3.4 Interpretation of Air Quality using IND-AQI: an example 27

3.5 Web-based AQI Dissemination 32

3.6 Conclusions and Protocols 35

References 36

Appendix-I 40

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 List of Tables
Table No. Title Page No.
2.1 Break Point Concentration of Green Index 7
2.2 Descriptor categories for Ontario API 8
2.3 Break Point Concentrations of ORAQI 9
2.4 Break point concentrations for GVAQI 10
2.5 Break Point Concentrations of MURC Index 11
3.1 Indian National Air Quality Standards 13
3.2 AQI category and Range 14
3.3 Breakpoints for CO 18
3.4 Breakpoints for NO2 19
3.5 Breakpoints for PM10 21
3.6 Breakpoints for PM 2.5 22
3.7 Health Outcomes Associated with Controlled Ozone Exposures [WHO 23
2000]
3.8 Breakpoints for OZONE 24
3.9 Breakpoints for SO2 25
3.10 AQI Breakpoints for NH3 and Pb 26
3.11 Proposed Breakpoints for AQI Scale 0-500 26
3.12 Health Statements for AQI Categories 27

List of Figures
Figure No. Title Page No.
2.1 Formation of an Aggregated Air Quality Index 5
2.2 Ambiguity characteristic of Indices 12
2.3 Eclipsing characteristic of Indices 12
3.1 Overall AQI system 14
3.2 Online monitoring station (ITO, New Delhi) 15
3.3 CO Concentration and COHb level in Blood 17
3.4 Symptoms Based on COHb Level Source: CPCB 17
3.5 Web-based AQI Query: Reporting and Display 33
3.6 Menu-based AQI Query and display 34

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 Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Origin and Concepts of Air Quality Index
In addition to land and water, air is the prime resource for sustenance of life. With the technological
advancements, a vast amount of data on ambient air quality is generated and used to establish the quality
of air in different areas. The large monitoring data result is in encyclopaedic volumes of information that
neither gives a clear picture to a decision maker nor to a common man who simply wants to know how
good or bad the air is? One way to describe air quality is to report the concentrations of all pollutants
with acceptable levels (standards). As the number of sampling stations and pollution parameters (and their
sampling frequencies) increase, such descriptions of air quality tend to become confusing even for the
scientific and technical community.
As for the general public, they usually will not be satisfied with raw data, time series plots, statistical analyses,
and other complex findings pertaining to air quality. The result is that people tend to lose interest and can
neither appreciate the state of air quality nor the pollution mitigation efforts by regulatory agencies. Since
awareness of daily levels of urban air pollution is important to those who suffer from illnesses caused by
exposure to air pollution, the issue of air quality communication should be addressed in an effective manner.
Further, the success of a nation to improve air quality depends on the support of its citizens who are well-
informed about local and national air pollution problems and about the progress of mitigation efforts.
To address the above concerns, the concept of an Air Quality Index (AQI) has been developed and used
effectively in many developed countries for over last three decades (USEPA 1976, 2014; Ontario, 2013;
Shenfeld, 1970). An AQI is defined as an overall scheme that transforms weighted values of individual air
pollution related parameters (SO2, CO, visibility, etc.) into a single number or set of numbers.There have not
been significant efforts to develop and use AQI in India, primarily due to the fact that a modest air quality
monitoring programme was started only in 1984 and public awareness about air pollution was almost non-
existent.The challenge of communicating with the people in a comprehensible manner has two dimensions:
(i) translate the complex scientific and medical information into simple and precise knowledge and (ii)
communicate with the citizens in the historical, current and futuristic sense. Addressing these challenges
and thus developing an efficient and comprehensible AQI scale is required for citizens and policy makers to
make decisions to prevent and minimize air pollution exposure and ailments induced from the exposure.
1.2 Applications of Air Quality Index
Ott (1978) has listed the following six objectives that are served by an AQI:
1. Resource Allocation: To assist administrators in allocating funds and determining priorities. Enable
evaluation of trade-offs involved in alternative air pollution control strategies.
2. Ranking of Locations: To assist in comparing air quality conditions at different locations/cities.Thus,
pointing out areas and frequencies of potential hazards.

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3. Enforcement of Standards: To determine extent to which the legislative standards and existing criteria
are being adhered. Also helps in identifying faulty standards and inadequate monitoring programs.
4. Trend Analysis: To determine change in air quality (degradation or improvement) which have occurred
over a specified period. This enables forecasting of air quality (i.e., tracking the behaviour of pollutants
in air) and plan pollution control measures.
5. Public Information: To inform the public about environmental conditions (state of environment). It’s
useful for people who suffer from illness aggravated or caused by air pollution. Thus it enables them to
modify their daily activities at times when they are informed of high pollution levels.
6. Scientific Research: As a means for reducing a large set of data to a comprehendible form that gives
better insight to the researcher while conducting a study of some environmental phenomena. This
enables more objective determination of the contribution of individual pollutants and sources to overall
air quality. Such tools become more useful when used in conjunction with other sources such as local
emission surveys.
Briefly, an AQI is useful for: (i) general public to know air quality in a simplified way, (ii) a politician to
invoke quick actions, (iii) a decision maker to know the trend of events and to chalk out corrective pollution
control strategies, (iv) a government official to study the impact of regulatory actions, and (v) a scientist who
engages in scientific research using air quality data.
1.3 Project Conceptualization
In the past, AQI has been based on maximum sub-index approach using five parameters i.e. suspended
particulate matter (SPM), SO2 CO, PM10, and NO2 (Sharma 2001). However, the calculated AQI was always
dominated by sub-index of SPM due to lack of data availability for other pollutants. Recently, Indian
Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune has evolved an AQI, which provides sub-index for PM10,
PM2.5, O3, NO2, and CO (Beig et al, 2010), and has applied to continuous air quality monitoring network.
The IITM-AQI describes air quality in terms of very unhealthy, very poor, poor (unhealthy for sensitive
groups), moderate and good.
The revised CPCB air quality standards necessitate that the concept of AQI in India is examined afresh.
The revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards (CPCB 2009) are notified for 12 parameters – PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, Pb, Ni, As, Benzo(a)pyrene, and Benzene. Although AQI is usually based
on criteria pollutants (i.e. PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NO2, CO and O3), a new approach to AQI which considers
as many pollutants from the list of notified pollutants as possible is desirable. However, the selection of
parameters primarily depends on AQI objective(s), data availability, averaging period, monitoring frequency,
and measurement methods. While PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, NH3, and Pb have 24-hourly as well annual
average standards, Ni, As, benzo(a)pyrene, and benzene have only annual standards and CO and O3 have
short-term standards (01 and 08 hourly average). PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NO2, CO, and O3 are measured on a
continuous basis at many air quality stations (including NH3 at some stations), Pb, Ni, As, Benzo(a)pyrene,
and NH3, if monitored, use manual systems. To get an updated AQI at short time intervals, ideally eight
parameters (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which, short-term standards are prescribed
should, be measured on a continuous basis.

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It is seen that multiple agencies propose AQI schemes which may provide varying air quality assessments,
e.g. air quality may be termed as ‘good’ by one scheme and ‘poor’ by the other; this may be very confusing
to general public.There is a need to devise a uniform and efficient AQI scheme which provides information
about every pollutant and generates an overall index and be unique for the entire country.
In view of the above background, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has initiated this project on
National Air Quality Index to strengthen air quality information dissemination system for larger public
awareness and their participation on air quality management. An expert group was constituted with
members drawn from academia, medical fraternity, research institutes, MoEF&CC, advocacy groups, SPCBs
and CPCB. The group was mandated to deliberate, discuss and devise consensus on the AQI system that is
appropriate for Indian conditions. The technical study was assigned to IIT Kanpur on grant-in-aid basis.
1.4 Project Objectives
The project aims to achieve the following:
(i) Inform public regarding overall status of air quality through a summation parameter that is easy to
understand;
(ii) Inform citizens about associated health impacts of air pollution exposure; and
(iii) Rank cities/towns for prioritizing actions based on measure of AQI.
The overall objective of the project can be stated as under:
“To adopt/develop an Air Quality Index (AQI) based on national air quality standards, health impacts and monitoring
programme which represents perceivable air quality for general public in easy to understand terms and assist in data
interpretation and decision making processes related to pollution mitigation measures.”
1.5 Scope of Work
The scope of the work is summarized below:
(i) Review of available AQIs including international practices;
(ii) Suggest health impact threshold limits for eight parameters for which short-term air quality standards
are prescribed;
(iii) Develop a uniform AQI considering objectives, health impacts, air quality standards, existing and future
monitoring scenario including parameters, method and frequency of measurements, and other relevant
aspects;
(iv) Suggest qualitative description of air quality and associated likely health impacts for different AQI
values;
(v) Evaluate proposed AQI with data from a few major cities and towns;
(vi) Develop web-based system for dissemination of AQI to public using current and historical air quality
database; and

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 Central Pollution Control Board

(vii) Finalize AQI and dissemination system in consultation with leading air quality experts, medical
professionals working in the field of air pollution health impacts, State Pollution Control Boards and
other stakeholders
The expert group deliberated, discussed and devised consensus on the proposed AQI system. The group
oversaw the progress of the project on a continual basis and had four meetings in the last three months and
has documented this report.

4
 Chapter 2
Air Quality Index : A Review
2.1 Definition of Air Quality Index
An air quality index is defined as an overall scheme that transforms the weighed values of individual air
pollution related parameters (for example, pollutant concentrations) into a single number or set of numbers
(Ott, 1978). The result is a set of rules (i.e. most set of equations) that translates parameter values into a more
simple form by means of numerical manipulation (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Formation of an Aggregated Air Quality Index

If actual concentrations are reported in μg/m3 or ppm (parts per million) along with standards, then it cannot
be considered as an index. At the very last step, an index in any system is to group specific concentration
ranges into air quality descriptor categories.
2.2 Structure of an Index
Primarily two steps are involved in formulating an AQI: (i) formation of sub-indices (for each pollutant) and
(ii) aggregation of sub-indices to get an overall AQI.
Formation of sub-indices (I1, I2,...., In) for n pollutant variables (X1, X2...., Xn) is carried out using sub-index
functions that are based on air quality standards and health effects. Mathematically;
[1] Ii=f (Xi), i=1, 2,...,n
Each sub-index represents a relationship between pollutant concentrations and health effect. The functional
relationship between sub-index value (Ii) and pollutant concentrations (Xi) is explained later in the text.
Aggregation of sub-indices, Ii is carried out with some mathematical function (described below) to obtain
the overall index (I), referred to as AQI.
[2] I=F (I1,I2,....,In)

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The aggregation function usually is a summation or multiplication operation or simply a maximum

operator.
2.2.1 Sub-indices (Step 1)
Sub-index function represents the relationship between pollutant concentration Xi and corresponding sub-
index Ii. It is an attempt to reflect environmental consequences as the concentration of specific pollutant
changes. It may take a variety of forms such as linear, non-linear and segmented linear. Typically, the I-X
relationship is represented as follows:
[3] I = αX + β
Where, α =slope of the line, β = intercept at X=0.
The general equation for the sub-index (Ii) for a given pollutant concentration (Cp); as based on ‘linear
segmented principle’ is calculated as:
[4] Ii = [{(IHI - ILO)/(BHI -BLO)} * (Cp-BLO)]+ ILO
where,
BHI= Breakpoint concentration greater or equal to given concentration.
BLO= Breakpoint concentration smaller or equal to given concentration.
IHI =AQI value corresponding to BHI
ILO = AQI value corresponding to BLO
Ip = Pollutant concentration
For example, we take PM10 with concentration of 85μg/m3, BHI, BLO, IHI, ILO values from Greater Vancouver
Air Quality Index (Table 2.4) and using equation [4]
Sub Index (Ip) = {(100 – 50)/(100 – 50)}* (85- 50) + 50
= 85
Similarly, Sub Index can be calculated for other pollutants as well.
2.2.2 Aggregation of Sub-indices (Step 2)
Once the sub-indices are formed, they are combined or aggregated in a simple additive form or weighted
additive form:
Weighted Additive Form
[5] I = Aggregated Index = ∑wiIi (For i= 1, …..,n)
where,
∑wi = 1

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 National Air Quality Index

Ii= sub-index for pollutant i

n = number of pollutant variables
wi = weightage of the pollutant
Root-Sum-Power Form (non-linear aggregation form)
[6] I = Aggregated Index = [∑Iip](1/p)
where, p is the positive real number >1.
Root-Mean-Square Form
[7] I = Aggregated Index = {1/k (I12 + I22 + …… + Ik2}0.5
Min or Max Operator (Ott 1978)
[8] I = Min or Max (I1, I2, I3, ..., In)
2.3 Indices in the Literature
2.3.1 Green Index (GI)
One of the earliest air pollution indices to appear in literature was proposed by Green (1966). It included
just two-pollutant variables - SO2 and COH (Coefficient of Haze). The equations to calculate the sub-
indices were:
ISO2 = 84 *X0.431
ICOH = 26.6 *X0.576
Where,
ISO2 = Sulphur dioxide sub-index
ICOH= Coefficient of Haze Sub-index
X = Observed pollutant concentration
The Green Index is computed as the arithmetic mean of the two sub-indices:
GI = 0.5 * (ISO2 + ICOH)
The above equations are obtained from the break point concentration shown in Table 2.1
Table 2.1 Break Point Concentration of Green Index

Index SO2(ppm) COH Descriptors Remarks

0-25 0.06 0.9 Desired Clean, safe Air
25-50 0.3 3.0 Alert Potentially Hazardous
50-100 1.5 10.0 Extreme Curtail Air pollution sources

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As the index did not include any other pollutants besides SO2 and SPM, it had limited applications. It is
applicable in colder seasons only. It is also subjected to eclipsing and ambiguity phenomena (arithmetic
mean weighted as linear sum). This index was intended more as a system for triggering control actions
during air pollution episodes than a means for reporting air quality data to the public.
2.3.2 Fenstock Air Quality Index (AQI)
Fenstock (1969) proposed an index to assess the relative severity of air pollution and applied it to assess AQI
of 29 U.S cities. This was the first index to estimate air pollutant concentrations from the data on source
emissions and meteorological conditions in each city:
AQI = Wi Ii
where, Wi = weightages for CO, TSP and SO2
Ii= estimated sub-indices for CO, TSP and SO2
This index is applicable to square urban area with wind always parallel to one side for uniform meteorological
conditions under neutral stability with continuous source distributed uniformly. This AQI is not used for
daily air quality reports but for estimating overall air pollution potential for a metropolitan area.
2.3.3 Ontario API
Shenfeld (1970) developed Ontario Air Pollution Index in Canada. This index was intended to provide the
public with daily information about air quality levels and to trigger control actions during air pollution
episodes. It includes two pollutants variables:
API = 0.2 (30.5 COH + 126 SO2) 1.35
Both COH and SO2 (in ppm) are 24 hour running averages; Descriptor scale is given in Table 2.2
Table 2.2 Descriptor categories for Ontario API

Index Description
0-31 Acceptable
32-49 Advisory
50-74 First Alert
75-99 Second Alert
100 Episode Threshold Level
2.3.4 Oak Ridge Air Quality Index (ORAQI)
Oak Ridge National Laboratory published the ORAQI in 1971. It was based on the 24-hour average
concentrations of the following five pollutants:
1. SO2
2. NO2

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3. PM
4. CO
5. Photochemical Oxidants
The sub-index is calculated as the ratio of the observed pollutant concentration to its respective standard. As
reported by Babcock and Nagda (1972), the ORAQI aggregation function was a non-linear function:
ORAQI = {5.7 ∑ Ii}1.37
where, Ii= (X/Xs)i
X = Observed pollutant concentration
Xs = Pollutant Standard
I = Pollutant
The standards for the pollutants used in developing ORAQI are given in Table 2.3
Table 2.3 Break Point Concentrations of ORAQI

Pollutant Standard Value

(24-hr Average)
Photochemical Oxidants 0.03 ppm
Sulphur Oxides 0.10 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide 0.20 ppm
Carbon Monoxide 7.0 ppm
Particulate Matter 150 μg/m3
The constants (e.g. 5.7 and 1.37 in equation) are so selected that the ORAQI = 10 when all concentrations
are at their naturally occurring or backgrounds levels and ORAQI = 100 when all concentrations are at
their standards.
Although well-defined descriptors are given, its developers imply no correlation with health effects.
It is subjected to eclipsing and ambiguity. It is also difficult to explain to public and involves complex
calculations.
2.3.5 Greater Vancouver Air Quality Index (GVAQI)
The GVAQI is based on Canadian Federal Government air quality objectives that are designed to protect
public health and environment. The index includes the following pollutants:
1. SO2
2. NO2
3. O3

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4. TSP
5. COH
6. PM10
GVAQI values are divided into ranges. The federal Desirable, Acceptable and Tolerable air quality objectives
levels are assigned GVAQI values of 25, 50 and 100 respectively. Intermediate values can be obtained by
extrapolation. Each range is associated with descriptor categories. The break point concentrations used to
find GVAQI are shown in Table 2.4 below.
Table 2.4: Break point concentrations for GVAQI

Index SO2 CO NO2 O3 TSP COH PM10 Descriptors

24-hr 8-hr 1-hr 1-hr 24-hr 1-hr 24-hr
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (μg/m3) (units) (μg/m3)
25 0.06 5 0.105* 0.051 60 1.7 25* Good
50 0.11 13 0.21 0.082 120 4 50 Fair
100 0.31 18 0.53 0.153 400 6 100 Poor
Notes:
1) GVAQI breakpoints are based on federal Government air quality objectives with the exceptions of COH that is
based on criteria developed by Province of Ontario.
2) * indicates extrapolation from other break point concentrations of the series.

The overall GVAQI value is determined by calculating a sub-index for each pollutant measurement and
averaging time. Each sub-index is calculated by straight-line extrapolation of the break point concentrations
corresponding to GVAQI values of 25, 50 and 100 respectively, which are shown in Table 2.4.The maximum
sub-index is reported as the GVAQI, based on the assumption that the combined effect of a number of air
pollutants is related to the highest concentrations relative to air quality objectives. The particular pollutant
responsible for the maximum Sub-Index is called the “Index pollutant”. It is reported with the GVAQI
when the index value is greater than 25. Each GVAQI range is associated with descriptor categories, general
health effects and cautionary statements.
2.3.6 Most Undesirable Respirable Contaminants Index (MURC)
MURC was published in 1968 (taken from Ott, 1978). This was routinely used in the city of Detroit to
report air quality data to the public and was broadcast between 8:30 A.M. and 9.00 A.M. each day on local
radio stations. MURC is based on just one pollutant variable, coefficient of Haze (COH)
MURC = 70X0.7 where, X= COH units
This equation is obtained such that COH values ranging from 0.3 – 2.15 give MURC values ranging from
30 – 120 approximately. Five different descriptors are reported for varying ranges of the MURC index
shown in the Table 2.5.

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Table 2.5 Break Point Concentrations of MURC Index

Index COH (units) Descriptors

0-30 0.3 Extremely Light contamination
31-60 0.92 Light Contamination
61-90 1.53 Medium contamination
91-120 2.15 Heavy Contamination
121 >2.15 Extremely Heavy contaminants
The function was so chosen to reflect a good average approximation of the actual weight of SPM in
the atmosphere as measured by high volume sampler. However, for MURC values higher than 120, the
correlation with SPM concentration does not hold.
2.4 Current Status of AQI Application in India
There have not been significant efforts to develop and use AQI in India, primarily due to the fact that
the National Air Quality Monitoring Programme has started only in 1984. Although NEERI, Nagpur
started monitoring programme in 10 cities in 1978 and Bombay Municipal Corporation even before
1978, attempts were not made to use AQI for data interpretation and public broadcasting. Agharkar (1982)
reviewed available AQIs and compared Air Quality status of the city of Bombay with its suburbs. Although
many technical papers proposing specific indices appeared in international literature, no detailed study was
undertaken to use an index in India.
A recent study to define Air Quality Index in India has been taken up by Beig et al (2010) which includes
air quality forecasting and named the system as SAFAR (System of Air Quality-Weather Forecasting and
Research).This study considered correlation analysis of long term air quality data of different pollutants and
health data for two cities, Chennai and Delhi. The shortcoming of this study was that it accounted health
data only for two cities whereas for an ideal AQI representative of a country, one needs to account health
data for as many cities and towns as possible.
2.5 Eclipsing and Ambiguity
Two important characteristics, eclipsing and ambiguity are common to many indices and are significant to
interpret any index in the right perspective. This could be best illustrated by a simple aggregation of two
indices as in situation presented below:
Example: Let I= I1 + I2 and if I1> 100, I2> 100 indicate that the concentration of each pollutant is greater
than the ‘standard’. Question arises whether ‘I’ combined in this manner reflect properly the meaning implied
in each index? It is possible to have combinations of I1 and I2 such that I = 100, yet I1<100 and I2<100.
Figure 2.2 shows each pollutant being within the prescribed standards but for e.g. if I1 = 70, I2 = 70; I
=140.This gives an impression that combined Index, I > 100, i.e. pollution standards are violated, when they
are actually not. Such a situation shown in Figure 2.2 is called as ‘ambiguous region’. In this region, Index I
exaggerates pollution status i.e. Over-estimation of pollution level. In case of more than 2 sub-indices I will
be greater than 100, if each sub-index is slightly more than 100/n without violating standards.

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Now, let I = 0.5(I1 + I2). Effect of this on I=100, is to move the line parallel to itself without changing its
slope as shown in Figure 2.2. If I2 = 60 and I1 = 120; I = 90. Hence, though the standards are violated for
I2 the combined index underestimates the pollution. This is known as “Eclipsing” (Figure 2.3).These two
characteristics of index (Ambiguity and Eclipsing) are serious problems of additive and multiplicative indices.
There is a significant difference between air quality perceived by index and actual air quality. Therefore,
new indices which have been proposed are not of additive or multiplicative type; but based on Maximum
operator approach as it removes Ambiguity and Eclipsing.

Ambiguous Region
(pollution is
overestimated by
AQI)

Figure 2.2 Ambiguity characteristic of Indices

Eclipsing Region 1 Eclipsing (pollution is underestimated by AQI)

I =0.5I1+0.5I2
I=I1+I2 Eclipsing Region 2

Figure 2.3 Eclipsing characteristic of Indices

For the proposed AQI, a maximum operator system is selected:

AQI = Max(I1, I2, I3, ..., In)
There are two reasons for adopting a maximum operator:
• Free from eclipsing and ambiguity (Ott 1978)
• Health effects of combination of pollutants (synergistic effects) are not known and thus a health-
based index cannot be combined or weighted
Maximum operator approach has been adopted by Sharma et al. (2001, 2002 and 2003) for development of
an AQI scale for IIT-Kanpur and for entire India respectively.

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 Chapter 3
Development, Implementation and
Dissemination of AQI
3.1 Indian Air Quality Index (IND-AQI): Proposed System
Air quality standards are the basic foundation that provides a legal framework for air pollution control.
An air quality standard is a description of a level of air quality that is adopted by a regulatory authority as
enforceable. The basis of development of standards is to provide a rational for protecting public health from
adverse effects of air pollutants, to eliminate or reduce exposure to hazardous air pollutants, and to guide
national/ local authorities for pollution control decisions. With these objectives, CPCB notified (http://
www.cpcb.nic.in) a new set of Indian National Air Quality Standards (INAQS) for 12 parameters [carbon
monoxide (CO) nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter (PM) of less than 2.5
microns size (PM2.5), PM of less than 10 microns size (PM10), Ozone (O3), Lead (Pb), Ammonia (NH3),
Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP), Benzene (C6H6), Arsenic (As), and Nickel (Ni)] . The first eight parameters (Table
3.1) have short-term (1/8/24 hrs) and annual standards (except for CO and O3) and rest four parameters
have only annual standards.
Table 3.1: Indian National Air Quality Standards (units: μg/m3 unless mentioned otherwise)

Pollutant SO2 NO2 PM2.5 PM10 O3 CO (mg/m3) Pb NH3

Averaging time (hr) 24 24 24 24 1 8 1 8 24 24
Standard 80 80 60 100 180 100 4 2 1 400

* BaP, C6H6, As, and Ni have annual standards

As stated in Chapter 1, an AQI scheme transforms weighted values of individual air pollutant concentrations
into a single number or set of numbers. It is important that an AQI system should initially build on the
sacrosanct AQS and then embark on pollutant dose-response relationships to describe air quality in
simple terms which clearly relate to health impacts. While complexity in building the AQI is inevitable,
simplicity in AQI description is essential for general public to understand the air pollution, possibly take
actions to protect themselves and for policy makers to take quick and broad decisions to improve air
quality.
The objective of an AQI is to quickly disseminate air quality information (almost in real-time) that entails
the system to account for pollutants which have short-term impacts. It is equally important that most of
these pollutants are measured continuously through an online monitoring network. Consequently, in the
proposed AQI system, the following pollutants are considered CO, NO2, SO2, PM2.5, PM10, O3, NH3 and Pb.
It is recognized that air concentrations of Pb are not known in real-time and cannot contribute to real-time
AQI but its consideration in AQI calculation of past days will help in scrutinizing the status of this important
toxic.

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It is described in Chapter 2 that the aggregation function, F of combining sub-indices of individual pollutants
is delicate as most indices suffer from ambiguity and eclipsing. For the proposed AQI, a maximum operator
system has been adopted which is free from ambiguity and eclipsing, as shown below:
AQI=Max (I1,I2,I3,...,In)
Figure 3.1 shows the operational scheme of AQI system based of maximum operator (i.e. maximum sub-
index being the overall index). To present status of the air quality and its effects on human health, the
following description categories have been adopted for IND-AQI (Table 3.2):
Table 3.2: IND-AQI Category and Range

AQI Category AQI Range

Good 0 – 50
Satisfactory 51 – 100
Moderately-polluted 101 – 200
Poor 201 – 300
Very Poor 301 – 400
Severe 401 - 500
These categories/AQI ranges should map to key references (breakpoints) of concentration of each pollutants
through a segmented linear or a nonlinear function.

Good Satisfactory Moderately polluted Poor Very poor Severe

(0-50) (51-100) (101-200) (201-300) (301-400) (> 401)
Air Pollution Index
Figure 3.1 Overall AQI System

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3.2 Air Quality Monitoring and AQI Considerations

The air quality monitoring network in India can be classified as (i) online and (ii) manual. The pollutant
parameters, frequency of measurement and monitoring methodologies for two networks are very different.
The AQI system for these networks could be at variance, especially for reporting and completeness in terms
of parameters.
(i) Online Monitoring network: These are automated air quality monitoring stations which record
continuous hourly, monthly or annually averaged data. In India, ~ 40 automatic monitoring stations are
operated (e.g. Figure 3.2: continuous stations in Delhi), where parameters like PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2,
CO, O3, etc. are monitored continuously. Data from these stations are available almost in real-time.Thus
such networks are most suitable for computation of AQI sub-indices, as information on AQI can be
generated in real time. For AQI to be more useful and effective, there is a need to set up more online
monitoring stations for continuous and easy availability of air quality data for computation of AQI for
more Indian cities.

Real time data obtained from online

monitoring station suitable for AQI

Figure 3.2 Online monitoring station (ITO, New Delhi) (www.cpcb.nic.in)

(ii) Manual: The manual stations involve mostly intermittent air quality data collection, thus such stations
are not suitable for AQI calculation particularly for its quick dissemination. In India, air quality is being
monitored manually at 573 locations under National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP). In most
of these manually operated stations, only three criteria pollutants viz. PM10, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are measured, at some stations PM2.5 and Pb are also measured.The monitoring
frequency is twice a week. Such manual networks are not suitable for computing AQI, as availability of
monitored data could have a lag of 1-3 days and sometimes not available at all. However, some efforts
are required to use the information in some productive manner. Historical AQIs on weekly basis can

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be calculated and used for data interpretation and ranking of cities or towns for further prioritization
of actions on air pollution control.
3.3 Computation and Basis of Sub-index Breakpoints
Segmented linear functions are used for relating actual air pollution concentration (Xi) (of each pollutant)
to a normalized number referred to as sub-index (Ii). While AQI system is not complex in understanding,
to arrive at breakpoints which will relate to AQI description is of paramount significance. Consequences of
inappropriate adoption of breakpoints could be far reaching; it may lead to incorrect information to general
public (on health effects) and decisions taken for pollution control may be incorrect.
The basis for linear functions (for this study) to relate air quality levels to AQI requires careful consideration.
Services of practicing doctors and experts in this field (see Appendix 1) have proved very useful. In this study,
in addition to dose response relationship, the breakpoints adopted by other countries/agencies (USEPA
2014; U.K. 2013; Malaysia 2013; GVAQI 2013; Ontario 2013) have been examined for using these in IND-
AQI.
It is important that an AQI system should build on AQS and pollutant dose-response relationships to describe
air quality in simple terms which clearly relates to health impacts. The first step for arriving at breakpoints
for each pollutant is to consider attainment of INAQS (Table 3.1). The index category is classified as ‘good’
for concentration range up to half of INAQS (for example, for SO2 AQI=0-50 for concentration range
of 0-40 μg/m3) and as ‘satisfactory’ up to attainment of INAQS (i.e. SO2 range 41-80μg/m3 linearly maps
to AQI=51-100). To arrive at breakpoints for other categories (for each pollutant), we require a thorough
research/review of dose response relationships, which is described here.
3.3.1 Carbon Mono-oxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide (CO) is an important criteria pollutant which is ubiquitous in urban environment. CO
production mostly occurs from sources having incomplete combustion. Due to its toxicity and appreciable
mass in atmosphere, it should be considered as an important pollutant in AQI scheme.
CO rapidly diffuses across alveolar, capillary and placental membranes. Approximately 80-90% of absorbed
CO binds with Hb to from Carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb), which is a specific biomarker of exposure in
blood. The affinity of Hb for CO is 200-250 times than that of oxygen. In patients with hemolytic anemia,
the CO production rate was 2–8 times higher and blood COHb concentration was 2–3 times higher than
in normal person (WHO 2000). The initial symptoms of CO poisoning may include headache, dizziness,
drowsiness, and nausea. These initial symptoms may advance to vomiting, loss of consciousness, and collapse
if prolonged or high exposures are encountered and may lead to Coma or death if high exposures continue.
A US study estimated that 6 per cent of the congestive heart failures and hospitalizations in the cities were
related to an increase in CO concentration in ambient atmosphere (WHO 2000). Reduction in the ability
of blood to transport oxygen leads to tissue hypoxia. The body compensates for this stress by increasing
cardiac output and the blood flow to specific areas, such as the heart and brain. As the level of COHb in the
blood increases, the person suffers from effects which become progressively more serious. CO has both 1 hr
and 8 hr standard. Figure 3.3 shows air pollution level and percent of COHb.The symptoms associated with
various percent blood saturation levels of COHb are shown in Figure 3.4

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After giving due consideration to INAQS for CO, two categories - Good (sub-index: 0-50 at half level
of standard) and Satisfactory (51-100 at air quality standard) for attainment of INAQS are considered. For
concentration of 10 mg/m3, percentage COHb level could be about 2%. This may be just a beginning
to slightly effect the people having heat diseases, therefore, this concentration category can be taken as
moderately polluted. The next stage of categories has been taken as per the USEPA criteria. The details of
proposed breakpoints and that of USEPA, China and EU are given in Table 3.3.

Figure 3.3 CO Concentration and COHb level in Blood (Coburn et al., 1965)

Figure 3.4: Symptoms Based on COHb Level (CPCB 2000)

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Table 3.3 Breakpoints for CO (mg/m3)

India (8-hr) US (24-hr)(a) China(a) (24-hr) EU(b) (8-hr)
AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point
Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration
Good 1 Good 5 Excellent 2 Very low 5
Satisfactory 2 Moderate 11 Good 4 Low 7.5
Moderately 10 Unhealthy 14 Lightly 14 Medium 10
polluted for Polluted
sensitive
Poor 17 Unhealthy 18 Moderately 24 High 20
Polluted
Very Poor 34 Very 35 Heavily 36 Very high 20+
Unhealthy Polluted
Severe 34+ Hazardous 58 Severely 36+
Polluted
(a)
Gao (2013) (b) CAQI (2012)

3.3.2 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

The major source of NO2 is combustion processes. An appreciable quantity of NO2 is present in rural and
urban environments. Further, NO2 is showing alarmingly high increasing trend in Indian cities due to
increase in number of vehicles. On inhalation, 70–90% of NO2 can be absorbed in the respiratory tract of
humans, and physical exercise increases the total percentage absorbed (Miller et al., 1982). NO2 exposure
can cause decrement in lung function (i.e. increased airway resistance), increased airway responsiveness to
broncho-constrictions in healthy subjects at concentration exceeding 1 ppm (WHO 2000). Below 1 ppm
level, there are evidences of change in lung volume, flow volume, characteristics of lung or airway resistance
in healthy persons. It has been established that continuous exposure with as little as 0.1 ppm NO2 over a
period of one to three years, increases incidence of bronchitis, emphysema and have adverse effect on lung
performance (WHO 2000). Exposure to excessive NO2, affects the defence mechanism leaving the host
susceptible to respiratory illness.
Chronic exposure of NO2 may lead to chronic lung disease and variety of structural/morphological changes
in lung epithelium conducting airways and air -gas exchange region. Exposure to high levels (>1.0 ppm)
of NO2 causes Eustachian of bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium, inflammation of epithelium and definite
emphysema (WHO 2000).
Normal healthy people exposed at rest or with light exercise for less than 2 hours to concentrations of
more than 4700μg/m3 (2.5ppm) experience pronounced decrements in pulmonary function; generally,
such people are not affected at less than 1880μg/m3 (1ppm). One study showed that the lung function of
people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is slightly affected by a 3.75-hour exposure to 560μg/
m3 (0.3ppm). A wide range of findings in asthmatics has been reported; one study observed no effects from
a 75-minute exposure to 7520μg/m3 (4ppm), whereas others showed decreases in FEV1 (forced expiration
volume in one second) after 10 minutes of exercise during exposure to 560μg/m3 (0.3ppm). The lowest

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concentration causing effects on pulmonary function was reported from two laboratories that exposed mild
asthmatics for 30–110 minutes to 560μg/m3 (0.3ppm) during intermittent exercise (WHO 2000).
WHO (2003) has reported some but not all studies show increased responsiveness to bronchoconstrictors
at nitrogen dioxide levels as low as 376–560 μg/m3 (0.2–0.3 ppm); in other studies, higher levels had no
such effect. Studies of asthmatics exposed to 380–560 μg/m3 indicate a change of about 5% in pulmonary
function and an increase in airway responsiveness to bronchoconstrictors. Asthmatics are more susceptible
to the acute effects of nitrogen dioxide as they have higher baseline airway responsiveness.
For acute exposures, only very high concentrations (1990 μg/m3; > 1000 ppb) affect healthy people.
Asthmatics and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are clearly more susceptible to acute
changes in lung function, airway responsiveness and respiratory symptoms. Given the small changes in
lung function (< 5% drop in FEV1 between air and nitrogen dioxide exposure) and changes in airway
responsiveness reported in several studies, 375–565 μg/m3 (0.20 to 0.30 ppm) is a clear lowest-observed-
effect level. A 50% margin of safety is proposed because of the reported statistically significant increase in
response to a bronchoconstrictor (increased airway responsiveness) with exposure to 190 μg/m3 and a meta-
analysis suggesting changes in airway responsiveness below 365 μg/m3 (WHO 2000)
After giving due consideration to INAQS for NO2, two categories good (Sub-Index: 0-50) and satisfactory
(51-100), the breakpoint concentration are fixed as 40μg/m3 and 80μg/m3. Various studies reported that
the small change in lung function (< 5% drop in FEV1 between air and nitrogen dioxide exposure) and
changes in airway responsiveness gives 375–565μg/m3 (0.20 to 0.30 ppm), as the lowest-observed-effect
level. Therefore, breakpoints of 280μg/m3 for poor, 400 μg/m3for very poor and 400+ μg/m3 for severe
category are adopted. For moderately-polluted category an intermediate value of 180 μg/m3(between 80
and 280 μg/m3) has been adopted. It may be noted that minor tweaking has been done with breakpoints
so that these also corroborate with international breakpoints adopted by other countries. The details of
proposed break points for IND-AQI and breakpoints of USEPA, China and EU are given in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Breakpoints for NO2 (μg/m3)
INDIA (24-hr) US (24-hr)(a) China(a) (24-hr) EU(b) (8-hr)
AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point
Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration
Good 40 Excellent 40 Very low 50
Satisfactory 80 Good 80 Low 100
Moderately 180 Lightly 180 Medium 200
polluted Polluted
Poor 280 Moderately 280 High 400
Polluted
Very Poor 400 Very 2260 Heavily 565 Very high 400+
Unhealthy Polluted
Severe 400+ Hazardous 3760 Severely 565+
Polluted
(a)
Gao (2013) (b) CAQI (2012)

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3.3.3 Particulate Matter (PM): PM10 and PM2.5

PM levels in Indian cities are about 4-5 times higher than in the US cities (WRI, 1996). These high PM
levels may have severe impact on public health. The sixteen-year long survey by Dockery et al. (1994) has
revealed that there is a strong correlation between ambient PM concentrations and increase in mortality
and hospitalizations due to respiratory diseases. Several epidemiological studies (Pope, 1989; Schwartz, 1996)
have linked PM10 (aerodynamic diameter ≤ 10 μm) and PM2.5 with significant health problems, including:
premature mortality, chronic respiratory disease, emergency visits and hospital admissions, aggravated asthma,
acute respiratory symptoms, and decrease in lung function. PM2.5 is of specific concern because it contains
a high proportion of various toxic metals and acids, and aerodynamically it can penetrate deeper into the
respiratory tract.
A HEI study, (Wichmannet al., 2000) reported that the concentration of both ultrafine (PM<0.1) and fine
particles (PM0.1-2.5) was associated with increased daily mortality. Lippmann et al. (2000) reported that four
of five size fractions (PM40 PM10-40 PM10 PM2.5-10 PM2.5) were associated with increased in morbidity and
mortality.The largest particle size fraction (10 μm – 40 μm) was not associated with increased morbidity and
mortality. However, Castillejos et al (2000) in Mexico City and Ostro et al. (2000) in western United States
have found health effects being associated with the coarse fraction as well but studies (Schwartz et al., 1996)
conducted in other parts of the United States and in Canada have reported that effects of fine particles are
predominant.
Major concerns for human health from exposure to PM10 include effects on breathing, respiratory symptoms,
decrease in pulmonary function and damage to lung tissue, cancer, and premature death. An association
between elevated PM10 levels and hospital admissions for pneumonia, bronchitis, and asthma was observed
by Pope (1989). Long-term particulate exposure was associated with an increase in risk of respiratory
illness in children (Dockery et al., 1989). Statistically significant relationships were observed between TSP
levels and forced vital capacity (FVC) and FEV1 (Chestnut et al., 1991). Ostro (1993) has reported a series
of studies that observed associations between daily changes in particulate pollution and daily mortality.
Prospective cohort studies by Pope et al. (1995) observed 30 to 50% increase in lung cancer rates associated
with exposure to respiratory particles. Associations between mortality risk and air pollution were strongest
for respiratory particles and sulfates (Pope et al., 1995). PEFR (peak expiratory flowrate) and respiratory
symptoms were strongly associated with PM10 levels and marginally with ozone levels (Romieu et al., 1996).
Increase in PM concentration correlated with increase in mortality and morbidity rates. An increase of
10μg/m3 of PM10 levels resulted in a 3-6 % increase in visits for asthma people and a 1-3 % increase in visits
for upper respiratory diseases not with asthma to hospitals. The findings are consistent with the result of
previous studies of particulate pollution in other urban areas and provide evidence that the coarse fraction of
PM10 may affect the health of working people (Gordian et al., 1996). A study in six US cities has shown that
there is an association between fine particulate matter (PM2.5) primarily from combustion sources and daily
mortality (Schwartz et al., 1996). Combustion particles in the fine fraction from mobile and coal combustion
sources, both not fine crustal particles, are associated with increase in mortality (Laden et al., 2000).
Sharma et al. (2004) through a study in Kanpur reported that mean PEF (L/min) values of a cohort (of over
100 subjects) decrease with the increase in PM10 and/or PM2.5. The findings of the study can be summarized
as under:

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(i) The correlation (negative) between mean ΔPEF (i.e. deviation in PEF) of a day (no. of days of sampling
= 39) and four indicators of PM levels (PM10, PM2.5, PM10 (one-day lag) and PM2.5 (one-day lag)) was
found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05). It showed that as the pollution level increases the lung
function in terms of PEFR reduces/deteriorates. The negative correlation with PM10 (one day lag) and
PM2.5 (one-day lag) also suggested that PM pollution may have sustained effect on PEFR value due to
pollution level of previous day.
(ii) PM10 and PM2.5 correlate with ΔPEF, PM10 and their concentration levels are better indicator to reflect
changes in PEFR values. This suggests that the deposition of larger particles (PM10) takes place in
upper part of respiratory system that activates mucus secretion resulting is constriction of airways and
thus lowering PEFR value. The fine particles impact the pulmonary region (lower respiratory system),
which are known to cause long-term chronic effects.
(iii) FEV1, PEFR and FVC are the key lung function parameters that reflect health impact of air pollution
(Bates, 2002). The deviations found in FEV1 and FVC are: (a) FEV1 -0.30 L (at VikasNagar (VN): PM10:
300μg/m3), -0.31 (at Juhi Colony (JC): PM10: 300 μg/m3) and -0.18 L (IIT Kanpur (IITK): PM10: 185
μg/m3 IITK) and (b) FVC -0.42 L (VN), -0.40 (JC) and -0.27 L (IITK).
It is evident from the above discussion that both PM10 and PM2.5 have specific health impacts and both of
these pollutants should be considered for AQI.
PM10
WHO (2005) suggests that there is no threshold for particulate concentration below which there is no
harmful effect. At the same time, high PM10 background concentration in India cannot be disregarded
which is reflected in relatively high level of INAQS for PM10; Sharma (2009) has estimated background
concentration of PM10 as 35 μg/m3. For PM10, in view of no specific studies in India, it is proposed that the
breakpoints proposed by USEPA may be adopted after accounting for INAQS (Table 3.5).
Table 3.5 Breakpoints for PM10 (μg/m3)

INDIA (24-hr) US (24-hr)(a) China(a) (24-hr) EU(b) (8-hr)

AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point
Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration
Good 50 Good 50 Excellent 50 Very low 15
Satisfactory 100 Moderate 150 Good 150 Low 30
Moderately 250 Unhealthy 250 Lightly 250 Medium 50
polluted for Polluted
sensitive
Poor 350 Unhealthy 350 Moderately 350 High 100
Polluted
Very Poor 430 Very 420 Heavily 420 Very high 100+
Unhealthy Polluted
Severe 430+ Hazardous 420+ Severely 420+
Polluted
(a)
Gao (2013) (b) CAQI (2012)

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PM2.5
Sharma (2009) has estimated background concentration of PM2.5 as 17-28 μg/m3. The background
concentration in Europe and the US is very low (< 5 μg/m3). Therefore, for lower concentration range, it
is not reasonable to follow the breakpoints as proposed by US or EU. With due regard to INAQS (which
accounts for background pollution), the first two categories, Good and Satisfactory, the breakpoints are
kept as 30 and 60 μg/m3. As per HEI Global Burden of disease report (2013), till 90μg/m3 the relative risk
of Ischemic Heart Disease increase and then more or less it plateaus off, therefore the next break point for
category moderately polluted is kept as 90 μg/m3.
For PM2.5, in view of no specific studies in India, it is proposed that the breakpoints proposed by USEPA
may be adopted. Beyond first three categories, the breakpoints proposed by USEPA and China are adopted
(Table 3.6).
Table 3.6 Breakpoints for PM 2.5
(μg/m3)

INDIA (24-hr) US (24-hr)(a) China(a) (24-hr) EU(b) (8-hr)

AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point
Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration
Good 30 Good 35 Excellent 15 Very low 10
Satisfactory 60 Moderate 75 Good 35 Low 20
Moderately 90 Unhealthy 115 Lightly 65 Medium 30
polluted for Polluted
sensitive
Poor 150 Unhealthy 150 Moderately 150 High 60
Polluted
Very Poor 250 Very 250 Heavily 250 Very high 60+
Unhealthy Polluted
Severe 250+ Hazardous 250+ Severely 250+
Polluted
(a)
Gao (2013) (b) CAQI (2012)

3.3.4 Ozone
Ozone, a secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere, has serious health impacts. Ozone is a strong oxidant,
and it can react with a wide range of cellular components and biological materials. Ozone can aggravate
bronchitis, heart disease, emphysema, asthma and reduce lung capacity. Irritation can occur in respiratory
system, causing coughing, and uncomfortable sensation in chest (WHO, 2000). It can reduce lung function
and can make breathing difficult. Ozone makes people more sensitive to allergens, which are the most
common triggers for asthma attacks, thus it can aggravate asthma, when ambient ozone levels are high. Also,
asthmatics are more severely affected by the reduced lung function and irritation in the respiratory system.
Ozone can inflame and damage lung cells.Within few days of ozone exposure the damaged cells are replaced
and the old cells shed (WHO 2000). Ozone may aggravate chronic lung diseases such as emphysema and
bronchitis and reduce the immune system’s ability to fight off bacterial infections in the respiratory system.

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For 1–3 hours of ozone exposure in healthy subjects during moderate-to-heavy exercise (ventilation > 45
litres/minute), changes in pulmonary function have been reported for the following tests (lowest-observed-
effect levels under conditions of strenuous exercise) (McDonnell et al., 1983 and Gong et al., 1986):
• Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) (240 μg/m3)
• Airway resistance (360 μg/m3)
• Forced vital capacity (FVC) (240 μg/m3)
• Increased respiratory frequency (400 μg/m3).
For 4–8 hours of ozone exposure in healthy adults doing moderate exercise, the following changes in
pulmonary function tests have been reported (Horstman et al., 1990) with given concentrations.
• FEV1, 160 μg/m3
• Airway resistance, 160 μg/m3
• FVC, 200 μg/m3
• Increased airway responsiveness, 160 μg/m3.
Table 3.7 summarizes health impacts at different levels of ozone exposure
Table 3.7: Health Outcomes Associated with Controlled Ozone Exposures [WHO 2000]

Health outcome Ozone concentration (μg/m3) at which the

health effect is/are expected
Increase in inflammatory changes (neutrophil Averaging time 1 Averaging time 8
influx) (healthy young adults at >40 litres/minute hour hours
breathing rate at outdoors)
2-fold 400 180
4-fold 600 250
8-fold 800 320

After giving due consideration to INAQS for ozone, for two categories - Good (subindex 0-50) and
Satisfactory (51-100), the breakpoint concentrations are fixed as 50 μg/m3and 100 μg/m3. It can be seen
that 180, 250 and 320 μg/m3 (8-hour concentration) cause important health endpoints leading to 2, 4 and
8 fold inflammatory changes in population (Table 3.7). With these endpoints, the proposed breakpoints are:
moderately polluted at 200 μg/m3 poor at 250 μg/m3and 1-hr concentration break points for very poor is
taken as 750 and for severe it is taken as 750+ μg/m3 (this concentration will nearly match to 350 μg/m3of
8-hr average concentration).Table 3.8 presents, AQI breakpoints for various categories for ozone along with
breakpoints of other countries.

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Table 3.8 Breakpoints for OZONE (μg/m3)

INDIA (8-hr) US (8-hr)(a) China(a) (8-hr) EU(b) (8-hr)

AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point
Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration
Good 50 Good 100 Excellent 116 Very low 60
Satisfactory 100 Moderate 160 Good 147 Low 120
Moderately 200 Unhealthy 215 Lightly 186 Medium 180
polluted for Polluted
sensitive
Poor 265 Unhealthy 265 Moderately 225 High 240
Polluted
Very Poor 748* Very 800 Heavily 733 Very high 240+
unhealthy Polluted
Severe 748+* Hazardous - Severely -
Polluted
(a)
Gao (2013) (b) CAQI (2012)
(*One hourly monitoring for mathematical calculation only)

3.3.5 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

SO2 is soluble in aqueous media and affects mucous membranes of the nose and upper respiratory tract.
Reduction in mean lung function values among groups of healthy individual have been observed for 10-
minute exposures at 4000 ppb (11 440 μg/m3) (Linn et al. 1984) and at 5000 ppb (14 300 μg/m3) (Lawther
et al., 1975). No significant changes in group mean lung function value have been seen below 1000 ppb
(2860 μg/m3) even during exercise.
Asthmatic people appear to respond in a similar way to normal subjects, with development of
bronchoconstriction, but at lower concentrations. Several studies (Linn et al., 1984) have shown fairly large
changes in mean values of lung function indices with 600 ppb (1716 μg/m3) and heavy exercise. Linn et al.
(1984) examined the dose–response relationship of change in mean FEV1 with increasing concentrations
of SO2 with exercise in patients with moderate or severe asthma. Overall, the mean response at 400 ppb
(1144 μg/m3) has been definite though small, at around 300-ml fall in mean values and at 200 ppb (572 μg/
m3) changes were negligible. Hence, from the information published hitherto, it can be concluded that the
minimum concentration evoking changes in lung function in exercising asthmatics is of the order of 400
ppb (1144 μg/m3).
SO2 breakpoints
The first step is the attainment of INAQS (Table 3.1). The index category for SO2 is classified as ‘good’ for
concentration range 0-40μg/m3 (half of INAQS for SO2) for AQI range 0-50 and as ‘satisfactory’ from 41-
80μg/m3 for AQI range 51-100. For the third sub-index range 101–200, violations of USEPA standards are
examined. The INAQS for SO2 (80μg/m3) is more stringent than the USEPA standard (377μg/m3, USEPA
2014). In other words, the built-in safety factor is higher for the Indian standard. The USEPA standard (and

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discussions above) suggests that for SO2 levels up to 365μg/m3, the air quality is acceptable from a public
health point of view.Thus, for SO2 levels between 81 and 365μg/m3, the corresponding sub-index value has
been taken to vary linearly between 101 and 200, and the AQI category for SO2 is classified as ‘moderately
polluted’. In absence of any other pollutant health criteria in India the rest of the categorization of AQI
is based on the USEPA federal episode criteria and significant harm level (USEPA 1998) and studies of
Lawther et al., 1975) and Linn et al. (1983 and 1984). Table 3.9 shows proposed SO2 breakpoints.
Table 3.9 Breakpoints for SO2 (μg/m3)

INDIA (24-hr) US (24-hr)(a) China(a) (24-hr) EU(b) (8-hr)

AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point AQI Break point
Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration Category concentration
Good 40 Good 50 Excellent 89 Very low 50
Satisfactory 80 Moderate 150 Good 377 Low 100
Moderately 380 Unhealthy 475 Lightly 587 Medium 350
polluted for Polluted
sensitive
Poor 800 Unhealthy 800 Moderately 797 High 500
Polluted
Very Poor 1600 Very 1600 Heavily 1583 Very high 500+
Unhealthy Polluted
Severe 1600+ Hazardous 1600+ Severely 1583+
Polluted
(a)
Gao (2013) (b) CAQI (2012)

3.3.6 AQI Breakpoints for Pb and NH3

It is to be noted that most of the countries have taken only six pollutants (described above) for formulation
of AQI. An attempt has been made to propose breakpoints for NH3 and Pb as these two pollutants also have
short-term standards of 24-hr. While NH3 can be measured on continuous basis and can be included in the
list of real time parameters for AQI, such measurements are not possible for Pb. However, Pb levels can be
utilized in calculation of AQI of past days to assess impact of lead pollution.
Inhalation of high levels of NH3 causes irritation to the nose, throat and respiratory tract. Increased inhalation
may result in cough and an increased respiratory rate as well as respiratory distress. An association has been
reported between exposure to ammonia and cough, phlegm, wheezing, and asthma at high concentration. A
study (http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/ hpawebfile/hpaweb_c/1194947398510) has reported that for NH3
levels below 18 mg/m3, reduction in FEV1 and FVC% were significant in symptomatic than asymptomatic
individuals. For a factor of safety as 10, concentration of 1800 μg/m3 should be considered to be severe in
ambient air. The other breakpoints for ammonia have been evolved on a linear scale from the level of 1800
μg/m3 to the standard concentration of 400 μg/m3.
Pb is a toxic metal and its exposure through all routes result in increased blood lead level. At lower
concentrations, the blood lead level is proportional to air concentration (after accounting for all resulting

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exposure routes). For example, 1 μg/m3 of annual lead level will result in 5μg/dL(on an average) of blood
lead level (WHO 2000). The effect of blood level above 10μg/dL is seen in haematological changes in
sensitive population, therefore, at moderate pollution level the break point is proposed at 2μg/m3. At 20μg/
dL blood lead level the effects become more prominent and this corresponds to break point of 4 μg/m3 but
to account for factor of safety, next break point is kept at 3.0 μg/m3 (and not at 4 μg/m3) and if the lead
concentration in air is more than 3.5 μg/m3 the AQI category will be severe.
In view of the above discussions,Table 3.10 presents the breakpoints for NH3 and Pb; due consideration has
been given to INAQS in deciding breakpoints for category Good and Satisfactory.
Table 3.10 AQI Breakpoints for NH3 and Pb (24-hr)
(Pb from gasoline phased out in 2000)

AQI Category NH3 μg/m3 Pb μg/m3

Good (0-50) 200 0.5
Satisfactory (51-100) 400 1.0
Moderately polluted (101-200) 800 2.0
Poor (201-300) 1200 3.0
Very poor (301-400) 1800 3.5
Severe (401-500) 1800+ 3.5+
Sections 3.3.1 to 3.3.6 have presented basis of AQI breakpoints for eight pollutant parameters considered for
AQI and these are summarized below in Table 3.11 with colour scheme to represent the AQI bands. Table
3.12 shows health statements for every AQI category for people to understand health effects and protect
themselves from these effects.
Table 3.11 Proposed Breakpoints for AQI Scale 0-500
(units: μg/m3 unless mentioned otherwise)

AQI Category PM10 PM2.5 NO2 O3 CO SO2 NH3 Pb

(Range) 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr 8-hr 8-hr (mg/ 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr
m3)
Good (0-50) 0-50 0-30 0-40 0-50 0-1.0 0-40 0-200 0-0.5
Satisfactory 51-100 31-60 41-80 51-100 1.1-2.0 41-80 201-400 0.5 –1.0
(51-100)
Moderately polluted 101-250 61-90 81-180 101-168 2.1- 10 81-380 401-800 1.1-2.0
(101-200)
Poor 251-350 91-120 181-280 169-208 10-17 381-800 801-1200 2.1-3.0
(201-300)
Very poor 351-430 121-250 281-400 209-748* 17-34 801-1600 1200-1800 3.1-3.5
(301-400)
Severe 430 + 250+ 400+ 748+* 34+ 1600+ 1800+ 3.5+
(401-500)
*One hourly monitoring (for mathematical calculation only)

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Table 3.12 Health Statements for AQI Categories

AQI Associated Health Impacts

Good(0–50)) Minimal Impact
Satisfactory May cause minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people
(51–100)
Moderately May cause breathing discomfort to the people with lung disease such as asthma and
polluted discomfort to people with heart disease, children and older adults
(101–200)
Poor May cause breathing discomfort to people on prolonged exposure and discomfort to
(201–300) people with heart disease
Very Poor May cause respiratory illness to the people on prolonged exposure. Effect may be more
(301–400) pronounced in people with lung and heart diseases
Severe May cause respiratory effects even on healthy people and serious health impacts on
(401-500) people with lung/heart diseases. The health impacts may be experienced even during
light physical activity

3.4 Interpretation of Air quality using IND-AQI: an example

An exampele of AQI calculation and description for Delhi (online air quality monitoring network) and
Kanpur (manual network) is presented here for two seasons, monsoon and winter. The sub-index (Ip) for a
given pollutant concentration (Cp), as based on ‘linear segmented principle’ is calculated as:
Ip= [{(IHI - ILO)/ (BHI -BLO)} * (Cp-BLO)] + ILO
BHI= Breakpoint concentration greater or equal to given conc.
BLO= Breakpoint concentration smaller or equal to given conc.
IHI = AQI value corresponding to BHI
ILO = AQI value corresponding to BLO
Finally;
AQI = Max (Ip) (where; p= 1,2,...,n; denotes n pollutants)
AQI of Delhi
AQI has been calculated for July (clean period) and November (highly polluted period) for monitoring
stations AnandVihar, RkPuram, Punjabi Bagh, and MandirMarg
(Source of data: http://www.dpcc.delhigovt.nic.in/Air40.html)

Legend for AQI

AQI Good (0-50) Satisfactory Moderately Poor Very poor Severe

Description (51-100) polluted(101-200) (201-300) (301-400) (> 401)

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July AQI
AnandVihar:

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
26-Jul-13 57 72 12 36 101 16 48 80 112 112
27-Jul-13 48 115 15 42 84 13 29 83 124 124
28-Jul-13 56 115 17 37 97 15 33 188 205 205
29-Jul-13 62 105 14 38 82 15 28 91 162 162
30-Jul-13 54 105 10 29 80 13 26 98 167 167
Responsible ParameterPM10

The AQI for CO and O3 has been calculated for running 8-hr averages. This will give 23 AQI values, here
maximum and minimum AQI of CO and O3 are presented. It can be seen that for most pollutants air quality
is good/satisfactory. It is PM10 which is in moderately polluted category.
RK Puram

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
15-Jul-13 38 50 8 20 57 7 17 93 75 93
16-Jul-13 42 74 6 18 66 8 20 105 78 105
17-Jul-13 38 61 11 20 61 8 19 117 87 117
18-Jul-13 35 85 10 19 69 8 17 156 104 156
19-Jul-13 41 84 9 17 59 9 18 98 75 98
Responsible ParameterPM2.5

Panjabi Bagh

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
30-Jul-13 66 83 36 57 61 13 16 72 101 101
31-Jul-13 48 77 36 49 53 13 14 696 56 696
1-Aug-13 41 77 30 62 84 13 17 97 128 128
2-Aug-13 41 76 30 41 72 14 19 76 126 126
3-Aug-13 27 56 27 49 74 14 20 71 115 115
Responsible ParameterPM10

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MandirMarg

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
28-Jul-13 22 106 16 18 47 9 14 221 126 221
29-Jul-13 30 79 10 18 37 9 14 90 77 90
30-Jul-13 30 96 12 18 51 9 17 130 105 130
31-Jul-13 33 76 12 18 49 9 12 70 62 76
1-Aug-13 26 67 8 13 46 10 16 102 92 102
Responsible ParameterPM2.5

November AQI
The AQI for CO and O3 has been calculated for running 8-hr averages. This will give 23 AQI values; here
maximum and min AQI of CO and O3 are presented. It can be seen that for most pollutants air quality is
good/satisfactory. It is PM10 and PM2.5 which suggest AQI to be in Severe category
AnandVihar

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
10-Nov-13 88 113 13 32 69 5 23 438 992 992
11-Nov-13 92 121 13 41 67 4 17 444 1158 1158
12-Nov-13 92 151 14 60 62 4 23 578 1559 1559
13-Nov-13 97 160 18 50 55 3 20 540 1442 1442
14-Nov-13 101 143 12 47 45 2 30 530 1765 1765
Responsible ParameterPM10

RK Puram

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
10-Nov-13 47 80 0 55 100 6 20 377 300 377
11-Nov-13 52 85 0 69 129 6 22 314 310 314
12-Nov-13 51 107 1 92 111 9 25 388 462 462
13-Nov-13 47 110 9 103 111 7 25 388 424 424
14-Nov-13 52 114 9 98 110 9 66 370 443 443
Responsible ParameterPM10

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 Central Pollution Control Board

Panjabi Bagh

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
10-Nov-13 41 96 13 64 67 12 12 371 294 371
11-Nov-13 52 105 22 68 76 9 15 320 272 320
12-Nov-13 44 114 15 76 93 11 12 384 390 390
13-Nov-13 43 114 9 79 91 13 15 407 406 407
14-Nov-13 37 110 11 68 90 10 13 335 306 335
Responsible ParameterPM2.5

MandirMarg

Day Subindex AQI

CO CO O3 O3 NO2 NH3 SO2 PM2.5 PM10
(min) (max) (min) (max)
10-Nov-13 83 112 5 136 95 14 20 397 307 397
11-Nov-13 88 114 6 128 109 13 23 352 269 352
12-Nov-13 97 122 7 167 140 13 20 389 361 389
13-Nov-13 101 131 8 171 139 13 28 438 340 438
14-Nov-13 98 122 7 148 124 11 22 326 294 326
Responsible ParameterPM2.5

From the above interpretaion of air Quality index for Delhi responsible parameter for pollution is PM10
and PM2.5. In Monsoon the responsible parameter for pollution in Anand Vihar and Panjabi Baag is PM10
with moderate pollution, R K Puram and Mandir Marg with PM2.5 responsible parameter is satisfactory or
moderate polluted. In winters Anand Vihar and R K Puram has very severe PM10 index, whereas Panjabi
Baag and Mandir Marg hasvery severe PM2.5 index.
AQI of Kanpur (Manual Stations)
It has been observed from AQI results of Delhi that responsible pollutant is PM10/PM2.5. Since manual
stations measure PM10, it is suggested that for manual station AQI for past days can be calculated as long as
PM10 or PM2.5 is measured. It is proposed that for manual station, AQI is reported for at least three parameters
and one of them should be PM10 or PM2.5 possibly on a week basis.

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July AQI
RamaDevi

Day Subindex AQI

NO2 SO2 PM10
10-Jul-13 35 3 75 75
11-Jul-13 10 3 58 58
19-Jul-13 7 4 60 60
20-Jul-13 7 3 194 194
22-Jul-13 18 4 163 163
Responsible ParameterPM10
DadaNagar

Day Subindex AQI

NO2 SO2 PM10
12-Jul-13 18 3 87 87
13-Jul-13 17 7 98 98
15-Jul-13 23 5 79 79
16-Jul-13 37 3 105 105
24-Jul-13 15 4 80 80
Responsible ParameterPM10
IIT Kanpur

Day Subindex AQI

NO2 SO2 PM10
8-Jul-13 8 3 60 60
9-Jul-13 14 3 42 42
17-Jul-13 14 3 45 45
18-Jul-13 11 6 72 72
26-Jul-13 6 3 82 82
Responsible ParameterPM10

November AQI
RamaDevi

Day Subindex AQI

NO2 SO2 PM10
3-Nov-13 53 3 607 607
4-Nov-13 64 3 411 411
5-Nov-13 45 3 339 339
13-Nov-13 84 3 487 487
14-Nov-13 96 3 417 417
Responsible Parameter PM10

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 Central Pollution Control Board

DadaNagar

Day Subindex AQI

NO2 SO2 PM10
16-Nov-13 72 3 412 412
18-Nov-13 79 8 439 439
19-Nov-13 94 5 446 446
27-Nov-13 66 3 296 296
28-Nov-13 67 3 530 530
Responsible Parameter PM10

IIT Kanpur

Day Subindex AQI

NO2 SO2 PM10
11-Nov-13 6 3 296 296
12-Nov-13 17 3 184 184
20-Nov-13 21 3 226 226
21-Nov-13 30 3 245 245
29-Nov-13 17 3 216 216
Responsible Parameter PM10

From the above interpretaion of AQI for Kanpur, the responsible parameter for pollution is PM10. In
monsoon, Rama Devi and Dada Nagar are moderately polluted while IIT Kanpur has satisfactory PM10
index. In winters, Rama Devi has very severe PM10 index, Dada Nagar has very poor and severe PM10 index
and IIT Kanpur is poor and moderately polluted.
3.5 Web-based AQI Dissemination
The AQI system should have web-based AQI dissemination which should be designed for online calculation
and display of nation-wide AQI.The website should render a quick, simple and an elegant looking response
to an AQI query. The other features of the website should include reporting of pollutant responsible for
index, pollutants exceeding the standards and health effects.
The first functionality of the website is taken as AQI query which is presented in Figure 3.5 using three steps
on the AQI website. It shows AQI of past 48 hours on time scale. The last AQI is based on 24-hr running
average (8-hr running average for CO and O3).

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Figure 3.5 Web-based AQI Query: Reporting and Display

As a second part of the functionality, the website can also render menu-based AQI query by searching
through states and cities (Figure 3.6)

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 Central Pollution Control Board

Figure 3.6 Menu-based AQI Query and display

Technologies for Website

Front-End / GUI
HTML 5
Java-Scripts & CSS
Self-Developed java script Library for primary functionalities of the website.

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Google Maps Library for map - https://developers.google.com/maps/web/

Google Charts Library for graph charts - https://developers.google.com/chart/
Bootstrap for GUI - http://getbootstrap.com/
just Gage Library for solid gauges - http://justgage.com/
Bootstrap sortable for sorting the rankings - https://github.com/drvic10k/bootstrap-sortable
Bootstrap date picker for selecting date graphically - http://bootstrap-datepicker.readthedocs.
org/en/release/
Middle-Ware
Apache Server
Play framework with Java
Database – MySQL
3.6 Conclusions and Protocols
The revised air quality standards (CPCB, 2009) necessitate that the concept of AQI in India is examined
afresh. An AQI system based on maximum operator function (selecting the maximum of sub-indices of
various pollutants as overall AQI) is adopted. Ideally, eight parameters (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3,
and Pb) having short-term standards should be considered for near real-time dissemination of AQI. It is
recognized that air concentrations of Pb are not known in real-time and cannot contribute to AQI. However,
its consideration in AQI calculation of past days will help in scrutinizing the status of this important toxic.
The proposed index has six categories and the color schemes shown below.

Good Satisfactory Moderately polluted Poor Very poor Severe

(0-50) (51-100) (101-200) (201-300) (301-400) (> 401)
A scientific basis in terms of attainment of air quality standards and dose-response relationships of various
parameters have been derived and used in arriving at breakpoint concentrations for each AQI category
(Table 3.11).
It is proposed that for continuous air quality stations,AQI is reported in near real-time for as many parameters
as possible. For manual stations, the daily AQI is reported with a lag of one week to ensure manual data are
scrutinized and available for AQI.
A web-based AQI dissemination system is developed for quick, simple and an elegant looking response to an
AQI query.The other features of the website include reporting of pollutants responsible for index, pollutants
exceeding the standards and health effects

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