1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

NASA TM X- 58173
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

February 1976
APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT 6. Performing Organization Code
PRELIMINARY SCIENCE REPORT
JSC-10632
7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

NASA Editorial Review Eoard, R. Thomas Giuli (Chairman)

_ 10. Work Unit No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 953-36-00-00-72

11. Contract or Grant No.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas 77058
13. Type of Report and Period Covered

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

Technical Memorandum
National Aeronautics and Space Administration 14. Sponsoring Agency Code

Washington, D.C. 20546

15. Supplementary Notes

16, Abstract

This document summarizes the experimental concepts and preliminary analyses (as of
December 1975) for each of the 28 scientific experiments conducted during the Apollo-Soyuz
Test Project from July 15 to 24, 1975. The scientific topics areX-ray and extreme ultra-
violet astronomy, solar astronomy, gamma-ray detectors, Earth studies (including the upper
atmosphere, meteorological phenomena, hydrology, oceanography, geology, desert studies,
and gravity field studies), microbiology, heavy cosmic particle interaction with live cells,
vestibular system studies, and materials processing (including high-temperature and ambient-
temperature processing of industrial materials and electrophoretic processing of biological
materials).

17, Key Words (Suggested by Author(s)) 18. Distribution Statement

Orbital science Materials processing STAR Subject Category:

Astronomy Crystal growth
Solar physics Life sciences 88 (Space Sciences, General)
Earth observations Electrophoresis
Space applications Microbiology
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security'Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price*

Unclassified Unclassified 529 $12.50

"For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151

NASA -- JSC

JSC Form 1424 (Rev Jul 74)

 NASA TM X-58173

APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT

PRELIMINARY SCIENCE REPORT

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Stock No. : 033-000-00639-0
 EDITORIAL BOARD

The material submitted for the "Apollo-Soyuz Test

Project Preliminary Science Report" was reviewed by a
NASA Editorial Review Board consisting of the following
members: R. Thomas Giuli (Chairman), J. Vernon Bailey,
Richard R. Baldwin, Leland J. Casey, P. Donald Gerke,
John K. Holcomb, David N. Holman, W. Wilson Lauderdale,
Patricia D. Marsden, James M. Sanders, Robert S. Snyder,
Orion E. Tollefsbol, and Lyle Vande Zande.

Cover: Drawing by artist Robert McCall, 1974

 CONTENTS

Section Page

INTRODUCTION ..................... xi
Chester M. Lee and Glynn S. Lunney

SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC RESULTS ............ 1-1

R. T. Giuli

MISSION DESCRIPTION 2-1

S. N. Hardee

SOFT X-RAY OBSERVATION - EXPERIMENT MA-048 .... 3-1

S. Shulman, G. Fritz, D. Yentis, R. G. Cruddace,
H. Friedman, W. Snyder, and R. C. Henry

4 EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET SURVEY -

EXPERIMENT MA-083 ................. 4-1
S. Bowyer, B. Margon, M. Lampton, F. Paresce,
and R. Stern

5 INTERSTELLAR HELIUM GLOW - EXPERIMENT MA-088 5-1

S. Bowyer, J. Freeman, F. Paresce, M. Lampton,
and B. Margon

6 ARTIFICIAL SOLAR ECLIPSE - EXPERIMENT MA-148 .... 6-1

R. T. Giuli, M. D. Jenness, A. N. Lunde,
and K. A. Young

7 CRYSTAL ACTIVATION - EXPERIMENT MA-151 ....... 7-1

J. I. Trombka, E. L. Eller, R. L. Schmadebeck,
C. S. Dyer, R. C. Reedy, D. W. Barr, J. S. Gilmore,
R. J. Prestwood, B. P. Bayhurst, D. G. Perry,
A. R. Smith, R. C. Cordi, R. H. Pehl, J. S. Eldridge,
E. Schonfeld, and A. E. Metzger

8 ULTRAVIOLET ABSORPTION - EXPERIMENT MA-059 .... 8-1

T. M. Donahue, R. D. Hudson, J. Anderson,
F. Kaufman, and M. B. McElroy

9 STRATOSPHERIC AEROSOL MEASUREMENT -

EXPERIMENT MA-007 ........ , ........ 9-1
T. J. Pepin and M. P. McCormick

10 EARTH OBSERVATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHY -

EXPERIMENT MA-136 .................. i0-I
Farouk E1-Baz and D. A. Mitchell

vii
Section Page
11 DOPPLERTRACKING - EXPERIMENTMA-089 ........ 11-1
G. C. Weiffenbach and M. D. Grossi

12 GEODYNAMICS- EXPERIMENTMA-128 ........... 12-1

F. O. Vonbun, W. D. Kahn, J. W. Bryan,
P. E. Schmid, W. T. Wells, and T. D. Conrad

13 QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATION OF LIGHT FLASH

SENSATIONS- EXPERIMENTMA-106 ........... 13-1
T. F. Budinger, C. A. Tobias, E. Sehopper,
J. U. Schott, R. H. Huesman, F. T. Upham,
T. F. Wieskamp, J. M. Kucaia, F. S. Goulding,
D. A. Landis, J. T. Walton, and R. E. Walton
14 BIOSTACK III - EXPERIMENTMA-107 ......... 14-1
H. B_cker, R. Faeius, D. Hildebrand, G. Horneck,
G. Reitz, U. Scheidemann, M. Sch_fer, C. Thomas,
B. Toth, A. R. Kranz, E. H. Graul, W. R_ther,
M. Delpoux, H. Planel, J. P. Soleilhavoup, C. A. Tobias,
T. Yang, E. Sehopper, J. U. Schott, E. Obst,
O. C. Allkofer, K. P. Bartholom_, R. Beaujean, W. Enge,
W. Heinrich, H. Francois, G. Portal, R. Kaiser,
J. P. Massu_, R. Pfol_l, C. Jacquot, E. V. Benton,
and D. D. Peterson

15 ZONE-FORMINGFUNGI - EXPERIMENTMA-147 ....... 15-1

T. D. Rogers, G. R. Taylor, and M. E. Brower
16 MICROBIAL EXCHANGE - EXPERIMENTAR-002 ....... 16-1
G. R. Taylor, K. D. Kropp, M. R. Henney,
S. S. Ekblad, T. O. Groves, T. C. Molina,
J. G. Decelle, C. F. Carmichael, N. J. Gehring,
and E. L. Young
17 CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE- EXPERIMENTMA-031 . 17-1
B. S. Criswell

18 THE EFFECTS OF SPACE FLIGHT ON POLYMORPHONUCLEAR

LEUKOCYTE RESPONSE- EXPERIMENTMA-032 ...... 18-1
R. R. Martin
19 KILLIFISH HATCHING AND ORIENTATION -
EXPERIMENTMA-161 .................. 19-1
H. W. Scheld, J. F. Boyd, G. A. Bozarth,
J. A. Conner, V. B. Eiehler, P. M. Fuller,
R. B. Hoffman, J. R. Keefe, K. P. Kuehnow,
J. M. Oppenheimer, G. A. Salinas, and
R. J. von Baumgarten

viii
Section Page

20 ELECTROPHORESISTECHNOLOGY-
EXPERIMENTMA-011 .................. 20-1
R. E. Allen, G. H. Barlow, M. Bier, P. E. Bigazzi,
R. J. Knox, F. J. Micale, G. V. F. Seaman,
J. W. Vanderhoff, C. J. Van Oss, W. J. Patterson,
F. E. Scott, P. H. Rhodes, B. H. Nerren, and
R. J. Harwell

21 ELECTROPHORESISEXPERIMENT-
EXPERIMENTMA-014 ................. 21-1
K. Hannig and H. Wirth

22 MULTIPURPOSEELECTRIC FURNACE -
EXPERIMENTMA-010 ................. 22-1
A. Boese, J. MeHugh, and R. Seidensticker

23 SURFACE-TENSION-INDUCEDCONVECTION-
EXPERIMENTMA-041 ................. 23-1
R. E. Reed

24 MONOTECTIC AND SYNTECTIC ALLOYS -

EXPERIMENTMA-044 ................. 24-1
C. Y. Ang and L. L. Lacy
25 INTERFACE MARKINGS IN CRYSTALS -
EXPERIMENTMA-060 .................. 25-1
H. C. Gatos and A. F. Witt

26 ZERO-G PROCESSINGOF MAGNETS -

EXPERIMENTMA-070 .................. 26-1
D. J. Larson, Jr.

27 CRYSTAL GROWTHFROM THE VAPOR PHASE -

EXPERIMENTMA-085 .................. 27-1
H. Wiedemeier, H. Sadeek, F. C. Klaessig,
and M. Norek
HALIDE EUTECTIC GROWTH- EXPERIMENTMA-131 28-1
28
A. S. Yue, B. K. Yue, and J. Y. M. Lee

29 MULTIPLE MATERIAL MELTING -

EXPERIMENTMA-150 .................. 29-1
R. S. Snyder and A. Boese

3O CRYSTAL GROWTH- EXPERIMENTMA-028 ......... 30-1

M. D. Lind

ix
Section Page

31 SCIENCE DEMONSTRATIONS ................ 31-1

R. S. Snyder, K. S. Clifton, B. Facemire,
A. F. Whitaker, P. G. Grodska, and S. Bourgeois

APPENDIX A w ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......... A-I

APPENDIX B w UNITS AND UNIT-CONVERSION FACTORS ...... B-I

APPENDIX C --HARDWARE VENDORS ................ C-I

APPENDIX D --POINTS OF CONTACT ................ D-I

X
 INTRODUCTION

Chester M. Lee and Glynn S. Lunney

International cooperation was the keynote of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.

In the 3 years since the project was initiated in the U .S .-U .S .S .R. Agreement
Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (signed by the
U .S. and U .S .S .R. Heads of State on May 24, 1972), the great effort expended in
coordination, communication, and integration culminated in the highly successful
flight from July 15 to 24, 1975. The 9-day flight marked the first time that manned
spacecraft of two nations have met in space for joint engineering and scientific
investigations.

The principal objective of the project was to develop a compatible docking

system and rendezvous and crew transfer procedures that might be appropriate
for future international manned space missions. This objective was successfully
accomplished.

An additional objective of major importance was the program of scientific

investigations conducted during the mission. A science program was planned
by NASA that made abundant use of the experimental opportunities afforded by
the mission parameters and spacecraft capabilities. The 2-day docked phase
of the flight was used to conduct three experiments that required joint scientific
activities within the two spacecraft. Subsequent to the docked phase, two addi-
tional joint scientific experiments were conducted that required inVolved, precise
maneuvering of the Apollo spacecraft relative to, and in the proximity of, the
Soyuz spacecraft. The remaining unilateral phases of the mission were likewise
used effectively by each country to perform scientific experiments on a unilateral
basis. In addition to the five joint U.S .-U.S .S .R. experiments, the Apollo crewmen
conducted 23 unilateral experiments. Two of these were provided by the Federal
Republic of Germany -- a further illustration of the international scope of the
mission. Not only was seientific research served by this mission, but worldwide
space-science awareness was promoted through extensive home television broad-
casting and filming of flight experimentation and in-flight science demonstrations.

This report discusses the joint experiments and the U .S .-condueted unilateral
experiments. It provides detailed descriptions of the scientific concepts and exper-
iment design and operation. The results of scientific analyses are preliminary.
Although much analysis remains to be done by the scientists involved in this pro-
gram, the preliminary results indicate significant scientific achievements. The
Summary Science Report, to be published in the latter part of 1976, will contain
more detailed results of the experiment analyses. The scientific value of this
international venture will contribute significantly to the development of future
international science collaboration on the Space Shuttle flights and other projects.

xi
 1. SUMMARYOF SCIENTIFIC RESULTS
R. T. Giuli a

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) experiments package comprised 28

separate experiments. Twenty-one were unilateral U.S. experiments, five were
joint U .S .-U .S .S .R. experiments (i .e., involving participation by both Apollo
and Soyuz crewmembers), and two were unilateral West German experiments
(i.e., funded by the Federal Republic of Germany). Together, these experiments
formed a well-integrated program of complementary scientific objectives. In
several cases, related experiments used different experimental techniques in
pursuit of the sameor similar scientific objectives. A comparison of the scientific
results from these experiments may be useful in defining the best technique to
pursue in future space missions.
The individual experiments are grouped in this report according to category
and topic. The space sciences experiments are presented in order of the distance away
from the center of the Earth that the objects of study.lie. The soft X-ray objects lie
deep in our galaxy and even beyond our galaxy. The extreme ultraviolet (EUV) ob-
jects lie within a few hundred light-years from the solar system, whereas the portion
of the interstellar medium investigated by the helium glow experiment lies within a few
astronomical units. The corona photographed during the artificial solar eclipse lay
within approximately 50solar radii from the Sun. Two crystal detectors that have po-
tential application for future gamma-ray astronomy payloads were carried onboard the
Apollo spacecraft to measure their susceptibility to radioactivation by cosmic par-
ticle bombardment. The tenuous Earth atmosphere at the spacecraft altitude was
investigated by ultraviolet absorption, and the aerosol component of the atmosphere
below the spacecraft was investigated by stratospheric aerosol measurements.
Features of the Earth surface were observed and photographed by the Apollo crew,
and the structure of the Earth below the surface was investigated by two spacecraft-
spacecraft Doppler techniques.

The life sciences experiments addressed three primary topics. One was the
effects of cosmic particle bombardment on live cells: the human eye retina (light
flash), dormant eggs and seeds (biostack), and growing fungi (zone-forming
fungi). (The fungi experiment also studied the effects of space-flight factors on
biorhythm.) The second topic was the effects of space flight on the human immune
system from the aspect of microbial transfer and ability to cause infection and
from the aspect of the ability of the immune system to resist infection. The third
topic was the effects of reduced gravity on the calcium metabolism of the killifish
vestibular system. The purpose was to assess the feasibility of using the killifish
vestibular system as a model for future investigations of space-flight effects on
human calcium metabolism.

aNASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.

1-1
 The materials processing effort addressed two topics: the separation of
live cells and the improvement of physical properties of solid materials. The live
cell separation was performed by each of two electrophoresis methods in which an
electric field was applied through a buffer solution containing a mixture of cells
with different biological functions (and hence with different negative surface
charges). The cells separated into groups of cells with like biological function,
each group being characterized by a unique value of cell surface charge. Each
group thus acquired a unique speed through the buffer solution. The solid
materials were processed both by a high-temperature (melting) technique and an
ambient-temperature (crystal growth from solution) technique.

The subsequent sections in this report describe in detail the conceptual,

instrumental, and operational aspects of each experiment and include a preliminary
assessment of scientific results. This section describes the major preliminary
results of a few of the experiments (astronomy, Earth atmosphere, Earth observa-
tions, biological materials processing, and solid materials processing) as known
in December 1975.

ASTRONOMY

The first known pulsar outside our galaxy was discovered (jointly with a
rocket experiment by the sameinvestigator) by the Soft X-ray Experiment
(MA-048). The pulsar is contained in a binary star system in the Small Magellanic
Cloud, which is a companion galaxy located approximately 200 000light-years
from our own. It is the most luminous pulsar known, by at least a factor of 10,
and it radiates predominantly at X-ray energies greater than 2 kiloelectronvolts.
Its period is 0.7 second, which is half that of the next fastest binary pulsar.
Op!y two other binary pulsars are known.

Extreme ultraviolet radiation from four stars was positively detected by the
Extreme Ultraviolet Survey Experiment (MA-083). Two of the stars are very
strong sources of EUV radiation; they are very hot, nearby white dwarf stars
HZ 43 and Feige 24. Although these stars were previously known by means of
their visible radiation, their extremely high temperatures (approximately
100 000K) were not previously known. The star HZ 43 was also detected by the
Soft X-ray Experiment, which confirmed the high temperature. The soft X-ray
preliminary results imply a temperature as high as 150 000K, as compared with
the EUV result of 110 000K. There is thus no doubt that HZ 43 is the hottest white
dwarf known.

EARTH ATMOSPHERE

The space application of absorption spectroscopy as a technique for measur-

ing the very tenuous abundances of the atomic constituents of the Earth atmosphere
at spacecraft altitudes was suceessfully pioneered by the Ultraviolet Absorption

1-2
(UVA) Experiment (MA-059). The results compare excellently with results
obtained previously by less direct means:
UVA results Previous results

2.5 billion oxygen atoms/era 3 2.3 billion oxygen atoms/era 3

6 million nitrogen atoms/cm 3 5 to 6 million nitrogen atoms/em 3

The comparison is _ncouraging for the continued development of an expanded

absorption spectroscopy concept for application in the Space Shuttle Program,
in which a greater number of constituents may be measured over a greater portion
of the atmosphere.

The layering of aerosols in the stratosphere was successfully measured by

the Stratospheric Aerosol Measurements Experiment (MA-007). The concentration
of aerosols was 1.5 to 2 times greater in the Northern Hemisphere than in the
Southern Hemisphere, and the peak concentration of the layers occurred at an
altitude of 19 to 20 kilometers in the Northern Hemisphere (somewhat lower in the
Southern Hemisphere). This was the pioneering space application of the solar
extinction technique for monitoring atmospheric particulates. The technique,
which uses appropriately filtered photometers to measure the extinction of infrared
sunlight as it passes through the atmosphere during orbital sunrise and sunset,
is being developed to monitor molecular constituents (such as ozone) as well.

The absorption spectroscopy and the solar extinction methods are complemen-
tary. Eventually, they may be used for long-term monitoring of the atomic, molec-
ular, and particle composition of the atmosphere.

EARTH OBSERVATIONS

An extensive northward extension of the Red Sea rift system was successfully
identified and recorded during the Earth Observations and Photography Experi-
ment (MA-136). The Red Sea rift system branches into three well-established
fault lines from a point situated north of Beirut. The photographs led to the inter-
pretation that the primary motion of the Arabian subplate is counterclockwise
rotation about the branch point of the fault lines. The Arabian subplate was pre-
viously believed to be translating eastward. This is the first observational detec-
tion of rotational plate motion.

The crew also detected and photographed an extensive system of internal

ocean waves off the western coast of Spain. The wavefronts were approximately
60 kilometers long, were parallel to the coastline, and were apparently not
associated with any islands. The wavelength was approximately 2 kilometers.
Detection of the waves was very dependent on the Sun angle and look angle; the
waves appeared suddenly and disappeared shortly thereafter. The detection of
internal ocean waves is an example of how rapid crew reactions can be utilized to
great advantage.

1-3
 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS PROCESSING

The static-column method of electrophoretic separation of mixtures of differ-

ent live cells into zones of like cells was successfully demonstrated by the Electro-
phoresis Technology Experiment (MA-011). This experiment marks the first time
that all three phases of a complete electrophoresis operation (preflight cell preser-
vation, microgravity processing, and postflight cell preservation) were successfully
addressed. Additionally, a commercial firm participated in the experiment to inves-
tigate the enhancement of urokinase production over that obtainable by ground-based
methods. Urokinase is an enzyme with major potential application for future treat-
ment of persons with thrombotic conditions. Urokinase is cultured from a particular
type of kidney cell, and the objective of this experiment was to isolate pure samples
of that type cell to be used as starters for the culturing process. The objective was
successfully achieved, as evidenced by enhanced urokinase production from labora-
tory cultures of the ASTP samples. A significant spinoff from this experiment has
been achieved in connection with the attempt to separate different types of lympho-
cytes. The electrophoresis attempt was unsuccessful (the cells lost viability before
they could be processed); however, in preparation for the experiment, sterilization
techniques were developed that may eventually permit family members of leukemia
victims to donate blood years in advance of its intended use rather than requiring
them to donate with sometimes less than 2 days' notice, as is the current practice.

SOLID MATERIALS PROCESSING

The Multipurpose Electric Furnace (MA-010) was used to conduct several

experiments. The ASTP experiment on Crystal Growth From the Vapor Phase
(MA-085) completed an experiment begun on Skylab (M-556) in which greatly
enhanced growth rates (7 to 10 times the ground-based rates) were obtained for
crystals being grown from the vapor phase. The Skylab experiment demonstrated
that no existing model for vapor transport phenomena is adequate for microgravity
conditions. The ASTP experiment completed the parameter variations for the
experiment and yielded crystal growth rates of 3 to 4 times those of ground-based
rates. Preliminary analysis indicates the existence of thermochemical effects in
vapor transport that become dominant in microgravity conditions.

The Interface Marking in Crystals Experiment (MA-060) successfully used a

complex laboratory technique to reveal the changes in speed with which a solid/
liquid interface travels during a solidification process. The purpose was to
correlate the mierosegregation of materials that occurs at the interface with the
interface speed. The interface speed was determined to increase continuously
during the solidification. Correlation with microsegregation is currently under
analysis.

1-4
 2. MISSION DESCRIPTION
S. N. Hardeea

ABSTRACT

The Apollo-Soyuz mission was the first manned space flight conducted jointly
by two nations. The United States and the U .S .S .R. achieved a substantial degree
of success in (1) obtaining flight experience for rendezvous and docking of manned
spacecraft and developing a docking system that would be suitable for use as a
standard international system, (2) demonstrating in-flight intervehicular crew
transfer, and (3) conducting a series of science and applications experiments. The
Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft, with minor exceptions, were similar to those flown on
previous missions, but a new Apollo module, the docking module, was built specif-
ically for this mission. The mission started with the Soyuz launch on July 15, 1975,
followed by the Apollo launch on the same day. Docking of the two spacecraft
occurred on July 17, and joint operations were conducted for 2 days. Both space-
craft landed safely and on schedule; the Soyuz landing in the U.S .S .R. occurred
on July 21, and the Apollo landing near Hawaii occurred on July 24. Twenty-
eight science experiments were performed during the mission.

INTRODUCTION

The first international manned space flight, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
(ASTP) (fig. 2-i), was highly successful. The primary objectives of the joint
U. S.-U. S.S .R. project were to test systems for manned spacecraft rendezvous and
docking that would be suitable for use as a standard international system and to
demonstrate crew transfer between spacecraft. An additional objective was to con-
duct a program of science and applications experimentation. Joint and unilateral
experiments that provided data and experience in the fields of Earth resources,
Earth gravity, Earth atmosphere, astronomy, solar science, life sciences, and
space processing were conducted. (The arrangement of these experiments within
this report is given in the Table of Contents.) Some of these experiments were
conducted in pioneering fields. For example, the first measurements of atomic
nitrogen in the Earth atmosphere at orbit altitudes were made, and a search for
discrete sources of 5- to 100-nanometer (50 to i000 angstrom) extreme ultraviolet
(EUV) radiation outside the solar system was made for the first time. In addition,
space science awareness was promoted through extensive commercial television
(TV) broadcasting and filming of flight experimentation and through in-flight
science demonstrations.

aNASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.

2-1
 SPACECRAFTDESCRIPTION

An overview of the two spacecraft and the docking module (DM) is shown in
figure 2-2, and the ASTP experiment locations are shown in figure 2-3.

Apollo Spacecraft Description

The Apollo spacecraft used for this mission was similar in most respects to
those employed to ferry crews to and from the Skylab space station, but it differed
in some significant aspects that will be pointed out in this discussion. The signif-
icant differences among four generations of Apollo spacecraft are summarized in
table 2-I.

Command and service module.- The Apollo command and service module
(CSM) flown on the Apollo-Soyuz mission was closely similar to the command and
service modules used for the Skylab flights, but some modifications were made to
fit mission needs. Additional controls for the docking system and special CSM-to-
DM umbilicals were added together with experiment packages and their controls.
Also, the steerable high-gain antenna used for deep-space communications during
the Apollo lunar missions but not needed for the Skylab missions was reinstalled on
the Apollo-Soyuz command and service module. The antenna was used to establish
a relay link with Applications Technology Satellite 6 (ATS-6) in synchronous orbit
to provide communications with the Mission Control Center for 55 percent of each
orbit.

Docking module.- The doeking module was basically an airlock that permitted
the crewmen to transfer between the two spacecraft, which had different internal
pressures and atmosphere constituents. The docking module had docking facilities
on each end that enabled rigid coupling of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft and was
a cylindrical pressure vessel with an internal diameter of 1.42 meters and an over-
all length of 3.15 meters between the docking interfaces.

The principal external attachments to the docking module were a Doppler

transmitter antenna for the Doppler Tracking Experiment, an ultraviolet spectrom-
eter for the Ultraviolet Absorption Experiment, a docking target that enabled the
Soyuz crew to observe the Apollo docking approach through the Soyuz periscope,
three very-high-frequency (VHF) antennas, three adapter mountings, a vent
housing, and four gas storage tanks. The external and internal arrangements of
the docking module are shown in figure 2-4.

Soyuz Spacecraft Description

The Soyuz spacecraft consisted of three modules, which are discussed in the
order of their proximity to the Apollo spacecraft when docked.

The orbital module, which provided the Soyuz portion of the compatible
docking system, was used for work and rest by the crew during orbit. The module
contained a side hateh for crew entry before launch, a forward hatch for crew

2-2
transfer to and from the docking module, and an aft tunnel for crew transfer to the
descent vehicle. Two windows were provided: one forward of the side hatch for
earthward viewing, and the other on the opposite side of the module for outward
viewing.
The descent vehicle, with the main controls and crew couches, was occupied
by the cosmonauts during launch, dynamic orbital operations, descent, and landing.
The instrument assembly module, which contained subsystems required for
power, communications, propulsion, and other functions, was located at the aft end
of the Soyuz spacecraft. Two sets of winglike solar battery panels were mounted
180° apart on the exterior of the module.

TRACKING AND COMMUNICATIONS

Flight control personnel maintained contact with the Apollo and Soyuz space-
craft through the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN). This network
consisted of a complex of fixed ground stations, portable ground stations, specially
equipped aircraft, and an instrumented ship. The mission was supported by 14
Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network stations, as well as by a U .S .S .R. network
consisting of 7 ground stations and 2 ships. Communications opportunities with
the use of the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network alone encompassed 17 percent
of the mission time; but, for the first time, an Applications Technology Satellite
that increased the total communications coverage to 63 percent was employed
(fig. 2-5). The increased coverage with the ATS-6 was of significant importance
to several science experiments. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project communications
are shown schematically in figure 2-6.

NARRATIVE FLIGHT SUMMARY

Launch and Rendezvous Maneuvers Phase

The Soyuz spacecraft, manned by Alexei A. Leonov, commander, and Valeri

N. Kubasov, flight engineer, was launched from the Baykonur, Kazakhstan, launch
complex at 12:20 GMT on July 15, 1975. It was launched in a northeasterly direc-
tion and was inserted into a 186- by 222-kilometer orbit at an inclination of 51.8°.
On the fourth orbit after lift-off, the first of two maneuvers to circularize the Soyuz
orbit at 223 kilometers was initiated. The second circularization maneuver occurred
on the 17th Soyuz orbit.
Seven and one-half hours after the Soyuz launch, the Apollo spacecraft,
manned by Thomas P. Stafford, commander, Vance D. Brand, command module
pilot, and Donald K. Slayton, docking module pilot, was launched from the NASA
John F. Kennedy SpaceCenter in a northeasterly direction and was inserted into a
149- by 168-kilometer orbit, also with an inclination of 51.8°. One hour fourteen
minutes after lift-off, the Apollo command and service module was separated from
the Saturn-IVB stage, and the crew began the transposition and docking procedure

2-3
to extract the docking module from the launch vehicle. Although these operations
were generally normal, the removal of the docking probe was hindered by a mis-
routed pyrotechnic connector cable. A corrective procedure given to the crew was
used successfully to remove the probe, and extraction was completed at 22:24 GMT.
After performance of an evasive maneuver to avoid recontact with the launch vehi-
cle, a circularization maneuver at the third apogee, and additional phasing and
plane correction maneuvers, the first day of maneuver activities was concluded for
both crews.

Before the end of the day, several science experiment operations were per-
formed. The Zone-Forming Fungi (ZFF) Experiment, which had been photographed
at 12-hour intervals beginning July 13, 1975, was again photographed at 12:30
Soyuz ground elapsed time (GET). Simultaneously, the Biostack Experiment was
activated for approximately 12 hours of operation. The first Geodynamics Experi-
ment data take was initiated at 15"12 GET and continued through the next three
ATS-6 passes by the Apollo spacecraft. Major mission events and data collection
periods are shown in figure 2-7.

The second day was devoted primarily to predoeking checkout activities,

rendezvous maneuvers, and science experiments. The first biostack data take
was eon_luded at 25- 38 GET, and the killifish experiment was initiated at 27:18
GET. Earth observations activities were initiated after starting the killifish experi-
ment and extended into the period of Ultraviolet Absorption (UVA) Experiment
lamp burn-in, which started at 27:40 GET. Multipurpose furnace experiment
preparations were also made during the lamp burn-in period, and the ultraviolet
absorption crew optical alinement sight calibrations were made. After another
Geodynamics Experiment data take, multipurpose furnace operations were started
with the Surface-Tension-lnduced Convection Experiment cartridges. Simulta-
neously, the Electrophoresis Experiment (EPE) was prepared and operated; the
Extreme Ultraviolet Survey, Helium Glow (HeG), and Soft X-Ray Experiments were
checked out; several geodynamics data takes were made; and zone-forming fungi
photographs were taken. Unfortunately, a malfunction developed in the Soft X-Ray
Experiment after only i0 minutes of normalcy during the initial operation of the
experiment on the second day of flight. However, good data were obtained again,
intermittently, during the sixth through eighth days of flight.

Joint Phase

Docking occurred on the 36th Soyuz orbit and the 29th Apollo revolution. The
time of docking was 51 hours 49 minutes Soyuz GET on July 17, 1975. The Apollo
and Soyuz spacecraft remained docked for approximately 2 days.

After docking, hatch 1 was opened, and several transfers of both crews,
television tours of both spacecraft and of the United States and the U .S .S .R., a
news conference, and official ceremonies were conducted. The Surface-Tension-
Induced Convection Experiment in the multipurpose furnace was continued during
this period, and the collection of microbial samples for the Microbial Exchange Ex-
periment was accomplished by the two crews. The multipurpose furnace was shut
down at 58:05 GET and was reinitiated for the U .S .S .R. Multiple-Material Melting
Experiment at 58:45 GET.

2-4
 Several other science experiments were conducted during this first docked
phase. The Zone-Forming Fungi Experiment was photographed again; several
Earth observations and geodynamics data takes were made; the Microbial Exchange
Experiment was conducted; the U .S .S .R. multiple-material melting was concluded;
and the zero-g processing of magnets in the multipurpose furnace was conducted.

After the two spacecraft had been docked for nearly 44 hours, the first un-
docking was performed normally, and the joint Artificial Solar Eclipse Experiment
was performed. A second docking was then performed at 96:14 GET to test the
docking system with the Soyuz docking system active.

Final undocking was at 99:06 GET, after which the Ultraviolet Absorption
Experiment was conducted to conclude the joint phase of the flight. The Apollo
spacecraft began stationkeeping 18 meters ahead of the Soyuz spacecraft. The
Apollo spacecraft then was maneuvered to a 150-meter displacement out of the Soyuz
orbital plane. At 99:40 GET, a 10-minute data take was performed as the command
and service module swept through a 30 ° are at the 150-meter radius from the Soyuz
spacecraft. Similarly, a 500-meter out-of-plane data take was made starting at
101:18 GET. After the 500-meter data take, the command and service module was
positioned back into the Soyuz orbital plane, and an in-plane final evasive maneuver
was begun at 102:22 GET.

During the 150-meter data take, no reflected signal was detected by the
spectrometer. Assessment of the problem by ground personnel indicated a contam-
inated Soyuz side reflector or possible locking of the star tracker onto a different
light source. Therefore, the Soyuz aft reflector was used for the 500-meter data
take.

Soyuz Deorbit and Landing

The Soyuz deorbit maneuver was performed at 141:50 GET. The reentry
vehicle was brought to a safe landing in Kazakhstan at 10:51 GMT on July 21, 1975,
after a flight of 142 hours 31 minutes.

Apollo Orbit Continuation Phase

The Apollo spacecraft continued in orbit for approximately 5 days after sep-
aration from the Soyuz spacecraft. Following the ultraviolet absorption joint phase
data takes, one revolution of Apollo out-of-plane data was obtained and a spacecraft
test roll maneuver of 360 ° was performed to measure resonant fluorescence back-
ground and ambient atmosphere gas pileup. The experiment was shut down at
107:07 GET.

The multipurpose furnace zero-g processing of magnets was concluded at

106:50 GET, and the Halide Eutectic Experiment was initiated in the furnace at
109:20 GET. In the interim, zone-forming fungi photographs and Earth observa-
tions were made; the Crystal Growth Experiment (CGE) was initiated; and a raster
scan for the extreme ultraviolet survey was made. After several Geodynamics Ex-
periment data takes and several Earth observations, the extreme ultraviolet experi-
ment was started. The Crystal Growth and Zone-Forming Fungi Experiments were

2-5
then examined and photographed before the Helium Glow Experiment scans were
made. Helium glow data-take periods consisted of sweeping the 15° field of view
across regions of the celestial sphere by rolling the Apollo spacecraft about the
longitudinal axis. Several excellent roll scan data takes were made. The killifish
observations were again made during this period.

Extreme ultraviolet and helium glow scans, Earth observations, geodynamies

data takes, and crystal growth and zone-forming fungi observations were continued
at intervals; the multipurpose furnace Crystal Growth From the Vapor PhaseExperi-
ment was conducted; and the Biostack Experiment was turned on at 132:00 GET.
The Electrophoresis Technology Experiment was initiated at 147:30 GET and was
shut down at 152:10; it was started again 18 hours later. The Stratospheric Aerosol
Measurements (SAM) Experiment operations were initiated at 154:30 GET, and
shutdown occurred at 158:00 GET. The multipurpose furnace Interface Marking in
Crystals Experiment was also conducted during this period, as was the Monotectic
and Syntectic Alloys Experiment.

During revolution 109, an extreme ultraviolet finding of special significance

was made when an intense EUV source was discovered. This discovery was the
first known detection of a cosmic source of extreme ultraviolet radiation. The Light
Flash Experiment (LFE) was also initiated during revolution 109. The unmanned
portion of this experiment started at 179:13 GET, and the manned portion was
initiated during the following revolution. These times were selected so that the
two data-take periods would include passage through the South Atlantic Anomaly
and would be descending passes (i.e., from northwest to southeast) to provide
data at the maximum available geomagnetic latitude and to provide South Atlantic
Anomaly data. Periodic zone-forming fungi, geodynamics, crystal growth, Earth
observations, helium glow, killifish experiment, soft X-ray, and electrophoresis
technology operations were also conducted during this period.

The docking module was jettisoned at 199:27 GET to prepare for the Doppler
Tracking Experiment, which required a 300-kilometer separation of the command
and service module from the docking module. After jettison, the Apollo crew
photographed the docking module and then maneuvered the command and service
module to the same orbit as the docking module at a range of 300kilometers. The
data-take period began at 204:20 GET and continued for approximately 14 hours
with intentional command and service module attitude changes during the interim.
During these 14hours, periodic crystal growth, zone-forming fungi, geodynamics,
and Earth observations operations were continued.

Apollo Deorbit and Landing

The Apollo deorbit maneuver was performed at 224:17 GET, and, after a
flight of 217hours 28 minutes, the command module landed approximately 1.3 kilo-
meters from the target point. The time of splashdown was 21:18 GMT on July 24,
1975. The commandmodule assumed the Stable II attitude for approximately
4.5 minutes after splashdown. The crew remained in the command module during
recovery operations and were onboard the U.S.S. New Orleans approximately
41 minutes after splashdown.

2-6
 After shipboard ceremonies, during which the crewmen appeared to be in
good condition, it was learned that they had been exposed to oxidizer vapors for
several minutes when an arming function and a manual backup function were over-
looked during the entry phase of the mission. The crewmen were immediately given
intensive medical care. The necessary changes in medical examination schedules
and the therapy given the crew potentially affected the Cellular Immune Response
Experiment and the Polymorphonuclear Leukocyte ResponseExperiment. These ex-
periments were complementary experiments that were conducted by preflight and
postflight blood sampling and analysis. Despite this impact, scientifically useful
results were obtained in these experiments.

2-7
 TABLE 2-I.- SIGNIFICANT APOLLO SPACECRAFT CONFIGURATION DIFFERENCES

System Area of difference Mission

ASTP aApollo 11 to 14 bApollo 15 to 17

Skylab

Command module

Electrical power Lunar module umbilicals X X

system Skylab tunnel umbilical
Docking module umbilicals
Drag-through umbilical

Experiments Stowable X X
Coldplate mounted

Television Cameras and monitors X X

Video tape recorder

Communications Speaker box

ATS-6 equipment

Environmental Extravehicular activity X

control system (ECS) capability

Displays and Experiments X X

controls Docking module X
Compatible docking system X
ATS-6 communications x

Stowage Apollo Block II X X

Skylab
Modified Skylab x

Service module

Experiments Scientific instrument module! X X

Lunar sounder X
Doppler tracking receiver X
Remotely COntrolled doors X
Extravehicular retrieval
capability

Service propulsion Propellant utilization gaging X X

system system (flight)
Propellant utilization gaging X X
system (ground)
Four propellant, two pres- X X
surant tanks
Two propellant, one pres- X X
surant tank

Environmental Heaters deactivated (e) X

control system Coldplates for experiment X
cooling and ATS-6
equipment

aLunar-landing missions.

bLunar-landing missions with expanded scientific data return capability.

CECS radiator heater motor switches placed in open position before launch.

2-8
 TABLE 2-I.- Concluded

System Area of difference Mission

ASTP I Skylab aApollo 11 to 14 bApollo 15 to 17

Service module - concluded

Reaction control Propellant storage module X X

system (RCS) RCS quad heaters X X

Thermal protection Increased cork insulation X X

dAdditional cork insulation X

Communications Rendezvous radar X

transponder
ATS-6 power amplifier system
High-gain antenna x

Electrical power Two fuel cells x

system Three fuel cells x x
Descent batteries x
Extra water tank x
Increased cryogenic storage x
capacity
Return enhancement battery x

Spacecrafi adapter

Panels Jettisonable X x x
Deployable X

Structural Lunar module x X

support Docking module X

SLunar-landing missions.

bLunar-landing missions with expanded scientific data return capability.

dFor long-duration RCS firings.

2-9
 e

Figure 2-1 .- Pictorial s u m m a r y of Apollo-Soyuz m i s s i o n .

2-10
 Compatibledockingsystem /

"_, ,,

,, Soyuzspacecraft

..... "-Docking module

_" "'"Apollo spacecraft

Figure 2-2.- Apollo Soyuz rendezvous

and docking configuration.

MA-048 Soft X-Ray MA-048, MA-083, and - MA-136 EarthObservations

"', MA-088 axis / 1/" axis (hatch window)

MA-088 HeliumGlow, , (SectorI axis), ,/4 / /MA-O07 Stratospheric Aerosol

"", ", ">/ / /4 Measurementsaxis

O,, emeOV,
" rve,/,/ """",'..._",'_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__ / ._
,r, ,tsi
nOow,,
w, Dockingmodule

High-_in antenna ............ ",,,

.///_. an.d"-.
MA-_I2_8 ",, ""MA-OlOMultipurpose Furnace

trMA;08ganDn_Pt
ePnl
enr
a ///" +_, _MA'OSg axis ',
g ./" v . -
(usedalso for ,-'" ", MA-059 Ultraviolet Absorption
MA-128 Geodynamics)/ ',,
Orbital module
, ', ("Experiment apparatusinside
/ / ', | spacecraf_
," / ",, | MA-Ol| Bectrophoresls
,,_._,_ MA-059retroreflectors ', | MA-014 Electrophoresis
/ _ \ ,;;_;", ',, / MA-(_P8Crystal Growth
/, _ ,_'_..-'::_ ; "._ AR-O02 MicrobialExchange
_ _ ,,"/___ _._ :_.$_' | MA-11T/Biostack
"" "_'_- .... Instrument / MA-14/Zone-Forming Fungi
MA-148 axis.. _ _ _I ,_m'_JJJ_JJ,_/] assembly / MA-I06 Light Flash
+Xv _ _ _ }J_ _ modue / MA-032 Leukocyte
._ [ ",%/,-:-_. / MA-O31Cellular Immune Response
/-'/ :_ _ ' '__olar pane, _, IW-151 Crystal Activation

N_-148 Artificial Solar Eclipse.,"

""" /
I 'Descentvehicle
+Zv

Figure 2-3.- ASTP experiment mounting locations.

2-11
 -ZA6
VHFIFM antenna 131 I l_ppler antenna,, External plumbing/
I Cabinvent ',,, wiring cover
', \
i

br

-YA6 "21 _ 2!°

° ! (i_.
?
!

,[,,_" ',,\ cover(2)

Oxygen storage
Dockingtarget" Ultraviolet
spectrometer storage
tank 12)
Note: tank12)
A6 - Apollo
structural
coordinates Spacecraft/launch-vehicle-
FM = frequency
modulation adapterattachmentfittings (3)

(a) Exterior.

Nitrogen storagetank _2),, Stowagelocker",

,Oxygenstoragetank 12)
/
s
a
Compatibledockingsystem\ /

\
\ .-- Cosmonaut
..-'"" junction box

Hatch) ..... "..... ;

"'Equipment
Cabin vent module

Spacecraft/launch-vehicle-
adapterattach point (3) -_VHFIFMantenna (3)

(b) Interior.

Figure 2-4.- Docking module.

2-12
 STDNonly
8 percent

ATS-6 and
g percent

No signal
37 percent

ATS-6 only
46 percent

Figure 2-5.- Communications with

command and service module for
24-hour period.

ATS-6 Apollo

S-band (2256,20//.4MHz) I

1
U.S. voice
U.S. TV
U.S. data
U.S.S.R. voice
p
C-band

U.S. voice IS-band (2287.5,

2272.5,2106.4MHz)
U.S.
U.S.
U. S.
IV
data
S.R. voice
[ U.S. voice, TV, data
U. S.S.R. voice

VHF

U.S.S.R. TV
U.S.S.R. data
VHF/AM (259.
7, 296.8 MHz) VHF/FM (121.7.5
MHz) U.S.S.R. voice
U.S. voice U. S. S.R. voice
U.S.S.R. voice U.S. voice

I Landline and satellite

U.S. voice
U.S.S.R. voice
U. S./U. S.S.R. TV
U. S.IU. S. S.R. telephone
U. S.IU. S. S.R. telegraph

/ /
Note: MCC-H = Mission Control Center-Houston
MCC-M = Mission Control Center-Moscow
AM = amplitude modulation

Figure 2-6.- Apollo-Soyuz communication overview.

2-13
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2-17
 3. SOFT X-RAY OBSERVATION

EXPERIMENT MA-048

S. Shulman, a G. Fritz, a D. Yentis a R G. Cruddace a

H. Friedman, at W. Snyder,b and R. C. Henry b

ABSTRACT

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Soft X-ray Experiment was designed to observe
celestial X-ray sources in the energy range from 0.1 to 10 kiloelectronvolts. The
instrument that was used in the experiment obtained energy and fast-timing data to
characterize both the spectrum and the variability of known X-ray sources. Data
were obtained on approximately 12 sources. During the mission, the instrument
developed an intermittent high-voltage discharge problem that resulted in the loss
of approximately 75 percent of the anticipated data, including the scans intended
for mapping of the low-energy diffuse X-ray background.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) Soft X-ray Experi-
ment were to study the spectra of a large number of known celestial X-ray sources
in the range from 0.1 to 10 kiloelectronvolts, to search for periodicities and other
variability in these sources, and to more precisely map the soft X-ray diffuse
background. Celestial X-ray sources have been observed from rockets and satel-
lites for approximately a decade, and more than 200 sources have been located. Fig-
ure 3-1 is a map of the sky in galactic coordinates showing the sources located by
the Uhuru small astronomy satellite (SAS-1). The concentration in the galactic plane
indicates a class of sources within the galaxy, and the uniform distribution at high
latitudes indicates a class of extragalactic objects.

The objective of spectral measurements in the range from 0.1 to 10 kiloelec-

tronvolts is twofold. First, detailed comparison of the spectra of many sources
would provide the capability to classify X-ray sources more precisely in terms of
the X-ray emission mechanism and the relevant physical parameters such as size,
density, temperature, magnetic field strength, and relativistic particle content.

aNaval Research Laboratory.

bjohns Hopkins University.

_Principal Investigator.

3-1
Second, the low-energy parts of the spectra (less than 2 kiloelectronvolts) are af-
fected by absorption in the intervening interstellar material. A measure of the ab-
sorption can be used to establish a fairly precise distance scale for the X-ray
sources. The distances in turn yield the absolute luminosities and the relationship
to other features of galactic structure such as the spiral arms.

The search for periodicities and fast-time variability was conducted by re-
cording the counts in 3-microsecond intervals for three broad energy bands. The
objective was to search for new pulsars (presumably rotating neutron stars) and
for other types of sources where intensity variations on a fast-time scale might pro-
vide information on the source structure, size, and emission mechanisms.

The third objective of the experiment was to map the soft X-ray background.
At energies of approximately 0.25 kiloelectronvolt, there is an observable diffuse
emission from all directions in the sky. Figure 3-2 is a map obtained from data
taken during an Aerobee rocket flight. To map a significant portion of the sky dur-
ing the 5-minute flight, a wide field of view (10° by i0 °) and a rapid scan rate were
used. As a result, the statistical precision of the map is poor, and the minimum
contrast features that can be detected are quite bright. The increased observing
time available with the ASTP instrument provided the opportunity to use a 4° by 4°
field of view and to obtain approximately 10 times as much data in each resolution
element. With increased resolution, an attempt is being made to determine the
origins of the soft X-ray diffuse background.

INSTRUMENT DESCRIPTION

The X-ray instrument is a large-area proportional counter very similar to

those that have been flown on sounding rockets by several groups. The proportional
counter detects individual X-ray photons when they interact in the detector gas.
This interaction produces photoelectrons that drift toward a high-voltage anode
and produce secondary electrons. In the high electric field region near the anode,
the secondary electrons initiate an electron avalanche, which produces an electronic
pulse that can easily be amplified and detected. In the proportional counter (as
opposed to the Geiger counter), the total charge in the avalanche pulse is propor-
tional to the original number of secondary electrons; thus, information about the
energy of the detected X-ray is preserved.

The detector gas is a standard mixture of 90 percent argon and 10 percent

methane (P10 gas) at 111 457.5 N/m 2 (1.1 atmospheres). The detector anodes are
nominally operated at 2700 volts, and the instrument contains a feedback system to
adjust this voltage to keep the gain constant during variations in detector tempera-
ture. The gas is contained by a 2-micrometer polycarbonate window that requires
an elaborate support structure to withstand the 111 457.5-N/m 2 (1.1 atmosphere)
pressure. This thin window is necessary to permit the detection of X-rays in the
0.1- to 2-kiloelectronvolt energy range: these X-rays would be absorbed by more
conventional window materials such as 50-micrometer beryllium. Aluminum honey-
comb is part of the window support structure and also provides the instrument col-
limation that gives a circular field of view with a full-width half-maximum (FWHM)

3-2
response of 4° . The effective area for X-ray detection is 1200square centimeters.
The front face of the detector, including the honeycomb and support ribs, is shown
in figure 3-3.

Because a thin window is required for the low-energy X-ray observations, a

gas supply is required to replenish gas that escapes through small pinholes in the
window. Typical leak rates into vacuum range from 10to 100cm3 Pa/min (10 to
100cm3 atm/min). A 30.5-centimeter (12 inch) diameter reservoir tank was incor-
porated into the experiment and was pressurized to 17 237kN/m 2 (170. 115 atmos-
pheres), approximately 35 days before launch. With this gas supply system, the
detector could also be completely emptied and refilled by astronaut commandto re-
move atmospheric contaminants that diffused into the detector before launch. The
gas tank is a prominent feature in the rear view of the instrument shown in figure
3-4.

The electronic design of the instrument is shown in figure 3-5. There are
two sets of anodes in the detector, one for X-ray data and one for the veto of
charged particles. Each set has a separate preamplifier and discriminator. A data
pulse is accepted and analyzed only if no pulse is detected within a few microsec-
onds in the vet_ section. Data pulses that are accepted are then pulse height ana-
lyzed, and the pulse height is stored for telemetry readout. The analysis is accom-
plished by a 9-bit analog-to-digital (A-D) converter that uses a successive approx-
imation scheme. Each pulse height is also sorted into one of three energy bins for
accumulation in the 3-microsecond fast-timing bins. The electronics are mounted
on the rear of the detector as shown in figure 3-4.

The crucial parameters of gain and resolution were measured during labora-
tory calibrations. These parameters are required to determine the spectrum of
X-rays incident on the detector. The detector response is convolved with the inci-
dent photon spectrum to give the counts observed in each pulse height bin of the
spectral data. Mathematically, this is described as follows:

N(V1,V 2) = E2=G(V2) dE j T(E') A(E') R(E',E) N(E') dE'

EI=G (V1) 0

where N is the counting rate, V 1 and V2 are the boundaries of the pulse-height
channel, T(E') is the window transmission as a function of energy, A(E') is the
gas absorption as a function of energy, R(E' ,E) is the resolution function, N(E')
is the incident photon spectrum, and G(V) is the pulse-height gain function. The
functions T and A can be calculated from measurements made at a number of dif-
ferent laboratories. The gain G(V) and the resolution function R(E' ,E) are de-
termined by laboratory calibrations with monochromatic X-rays incident on the de-
tector. The peak in the spectral data yields the gain, and the shape of the spectral
data yields the resolution function. At most energies, the resolution function is

3-3
Gaussian; however, at low energies, a Poisson function gives a better fit because
the parameters must all be greater than zero.

The gain calibration is given in figure 3-6. Energy is plotted as a function

of channel number rather than channel voltage. The instrument gain is linear to
within 10 percent over the entire range from 0.1 to 8 kiloelectronvolts. A signifi-
cant nonlinearity of approximately 10 percent is noticeable at the higher energies.
The resolution function averaged over the entire sensitive area of the detector at an
energy of 5.98 kiloelectronvolts (MnK) is shown in figure 3-7. The FWHMof the
function is approximately 27 percent. The FWHMat any single point in the detector
is considerably better (approximately 20 percent), but slight gain variations from
point to point broaden the average resolution. The FWHMresolution is plotted as a
function of energy in figure 3-8.
A quick in-flight calibration was provided by two radioactive sources mounted
on rotary solenoids, which could be switched into the detector field of view by astro-
naut command. The housings for these assemblies are shown mounted to the end
ribs in figure 3-3.

The flight window was installed on the detector in April 1975. The leak rate
measured in vacuum was approximately 3 cm3 Pa/min (3 cm3 arm/rain). This rate
remained stable through testing, installation, and launch. No degradation was ob-
served during the flight.

IN-FLIGHT ANOMALIES

The X-ray experiment was activated together with the other scientific instru-
ment module (SIM) bay experiments approximately 35 hours after launch. Several
minutes after the initial activation and calibration, an excessively high count rate
was noted in the lowest spectral channels. This pattern of several minutes of normal
operation followed by a period of high count rates was observed several times dur-
ing the mission. The problem apparently was caused by a high-voltage breakdown.
Problems with high-voltage breakdown in proportional counters have been evident
in all programs using these detectors. In addition to the usual problems of compo-
nent failures and potting breakdowns, the gas gain region of the detector amplifies
any discharge or breakdown caused by sharp points, metal chips, or inadequate
spacing of elements. The following paragraphs give a brief operating history for
the flight.

The X-ray experiment was operated on day 5 during the raster scan for the
Extreme Ultraviolet Survey (EUV) Experiment. The count rates went full scale, and
a gas purge was scheduled in anticipation of a possible instrument problem. After
purging, the instrument was operated on the sixth day of flight, and 25 minutes of
satisfactory data were obtained before the problem reappeared. On day 7, a test
was performed in which the instrument was operated with the high voltage on for
2 minutes and then off for 2 minutes. The instrument operated properly for approx-
imately 3 of the 5 minutes during which the high voltage was on. The experiment
operation procedure for day 8 was revised to incorporate the 2-minute-on mode of
operation, and at least 30 more minutes of satisfactory data were obtained.

3-4
 On days 8 and 9, an engineering test was performed in an attempt to deter-
mine the cause of the instrument malfunction. At the end of the data take on day 8,
the instrument was left in a "contingency powerdown" mode, which evacuated the
gas volume of the detector. The detector was allowed to pump down to a hard vac-
uum overnight, and, on day 9, the high voltage was turned on with no gas in the
detector. No counts at all were observed for 30 minutes or longer. This result in-
dicated that the malfunction occurred in the gas gain volume of the detector. High-
voltage potting, power supplies, and the other high-voltage components external to
the gas volume of the detector were thus eliminated as possible causes of the
malfunction.

The high voltage was turned off, the detector gas volume was refilled to a
nominal pressure of 111457.5 N/m2 (i. 1 atmospheres) and the high voltage was
activated again. The detector malfunction reappeared in approximately 2 minutes,
thus reaffirming the conclusion that the malfunction occurred in the gas volume of
the detector.

The available data are currently being interpreted to hopefully obtain a better
understanding of this malfunction. Several hypotheses have been suggested, and
some laboratory tests may be needed to determine whether the characteristics of the
problem can be reproduced. At present, however, no simple hypothesis convinc-
ingly explains both the intermittent nature and the preponderance of low-energy
spectral counts.

Another instrumental anomaly occurred during the flight when a calibration

source stuck in the field of view of the detector. The problem first occurred during
the initial activation on July 21. The calibration source retracted after several mo-
mentary applications of power by the astronauts; however, the source was observed
in the field of view again several orbits later, apparently because of inadvertent
crew operations. No further efforts were madeto dislodge the source because of
the astronaut workload and the number of changes that would have been required
to the Flight Plan.

In contrast to the high-voltage breakdown, the calibration source was viewed

as a relatively minor problem. In analyzing the data, most of the X-ray counts
caused by the calibration source can be subtracted because they occur in a narrow
spectral range. (The source was iron-55, which emits MnK X-rays at an energy
of 5.9 kiloelectronvolts). The subtraction, however, does introduce some addition-
al statistical uncertainties into the results.

PRELIMINARY DATA 1

Analysis of the X-ray experiment data has been slowed considerably by the
high-voltage breakdown problem because considerable care is required to find the
times during which the detector was functioning properly. Extensive real-time
mission replanning was required. Without this coordinated effort, the scientific
return would have been far less than was achieved.

1Also see section 1.

3-5
 The spectral data are first plotted as shown in figure 3-9. Each plot gives
the count rate in a certain X-ray energy band as a function of time. Each point rep-
resents an integration of 2. 784seconds, the spectral data accumulation time. The
high-voltage problems are readily identifiable as places where the 0.18- to 0.28-
kiloelectronvolt count rates average more than 10 000 counts/2.784 sec. To
thoroughly examine the good low-energy data, the data must be replotted on a
greatly expanded scale. The data from figure 3-9 are shown replotted in figure
3-10. Note that the X-ray source Cygnus X-2 is more readily apparent in the 0.5-
to 2-kiloelectronvolt plot. A detailed spectrum of the source can also be obtained
from the data as shown in figure 3-11. The incident spectrum that gives the best
fit to the data is also shown.

One of the most exciting observations was made during the final orbit of
prime data. Both the EUV telescope and the soft X-ray instrument were pointed at
HZ 43, a white dwarf. Both instruments detected the object in their respective
energy ranges. From the EUV measurements, the spectrum appears to be that of a
black body with a temperature of 100 000 K. The X-ray count rate in the lowest
energy range, 0.18 to 0.28 kiloeleetronvolt, is shown in figure 3-12. (The occa-
sional spikes appear to be due to a milder form of the high-voltage breakdown. )
At the time the astronauts began maneuvering the instruments away from the target,
a marked decrease in the count rate is seen. The counts attributable to the source
can be found by subtracting the background level (dotted line) from the source
level (solid line). The result is approximately 10 counts/sec. This count rate
appears to be consistent with the upper range of black-body temperatures derived
from the EUV data, which was approximately 150 000K.

3-6
 Galactic North Pole
90”

Figure 3-1. - A map of 2- to 10-kiloelectronvolt X-ray sources as determined by

the Uhuru satellite.

90”
Galactic South Pole
“Source designations from t h e catalog.

Figure 3-2. - A map of diffuse 0.25-kiloelectronvolt X-ray emission from a

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) rocket observation.

3- 7
 Figure 3-3.- Front view of the ASTP Figure 3-4. - Rear view of the ASTP
X-ray detector. X-ray detector with the electromag-
netic interference shield removed.

Pulse
stretcher converter
Compressor
7 bits
3 Accumulator
memory
-
Enable
Data
anodes
Preamplifier +Discriminator- Compressor 3-psec
accumulator
Telemetry

4-l-
1

c 3-pseC
Veto accumulator
-
anodes
-
- Preamplifier iscrirninator
4 3-rseC
accumulator

Figure 3-5. - Simplified block diagram of the detector electronics.

3- 8
k-
_4
6

T
K --7 Mn - manganese

In - indium 8O
Si - silicon
x
._/ Ti -aluminum
AI - titanium
,C K F - fluorine
/J
..... SiK B - boron
,--____AI K C - carbon 6O
,____F K --
i i I I I I I I I
o i® 3® 400
Pulse-height channel no.

40
Figure 3-6.- Laboratory gain calibra- g
tion of the ASTP detector.

2O
5OOO

Calibration
Mn K 5.98 keY
I I I
Z 4 6
Energy, keY

Figure 3-8.- Detector resolution as a

function of energy calibration.
FWHM
27 percent

I000

0 I I
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Pulse-height channel no.

Figure 3-7.- Laboratory calibration

spectrum of the Mn K X-ray line at
5.98 kiloelectronvolts.

3-9
 5OOO0
High-voltage breakdown.....

_,o

o 250

d
E t3

41 _ _ ...A.---_, - -_

"._ oo

OL _...... . Cygnus X-2

2 . High-latitude electrons

0 80 160 240 320

Bin number (2.784
seclbin)

Figure 3-9.- Count rates as a function of time during the flight.

}5°°° I I I I l I ' l I I

_ I , nln, Iln.. JL_,.._

.._JL-.._
"\\,\, [

"_ I _ ..Cygnus )(-2 .High-voltage discharge precursor I

o 4
& JU ,-- LB. __
....... J
..do
'_e.4

0
2OO

_F
80 160 240 320
Bin number (2.784 sec/bin)

Figure 3-10 .- Replotted count rates as a function of time during the flight.

3-10
 .5

dN
dE . AE-lexp [.o.(E) N H - E/kT
.4

% t
A =1.6 [

8.2 T =4.6x 107 K j_

.l
NH =i'l_ '

I I I I I I III I I ] t I I III

.l .2 .5 1 2 5 10
Energy,keV

Figure 3-ii.- Observed spectrum of

Cygnus X-2.

3OO

.m

._250

I I I I I I I I
2000 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 8O
Binnumber (2.784
seclbin)

Figure 3-12.- Count rates as a function of time during the observation of the
white dwarf HZ 43 (0.18 to 0.28 kiloeleetronvolt).

3-11
 4. EXTREMEULTRAVIOLET SURVEY

EXPERIMENTMA-083
S. Bowyer, at B. Margon, a M. Lampton,aF. Paresce,a and R. Stern a

ABSTRACT

A grazing incidence telescope sensitive to radiation in the 5- to 100-nanometer

(50 to 1000angstrom) band was flown in the Apollo service module. On l0 nighttime
revolutions, the commandand service module was maneuvered to point the instrument
at 30 different stellar targets for periods of 1 to 20 minutes, thus constituting the
first sensitive search for extreme ultraviolet radiation from nonsolar sources. Sev-
eral hours of supplementary data were also obtained during nighttime orbits when
other experiments in the scientific instrument module bay were operating.
Preliminary analysis of a small fraction of the total data indicates the definite
detection of a strong source of extreme ultraviolet radiation during observations made
during revolution 109. The source is located in Coma Berenices at a = 13h13m,
8 = +29°. Positive detections have been madein the 17- to 62-, 11.4- to 15-, and
5.5- to 15-nanometer (170 to 620, 114to 150, and 55 to 150 angstrom) wavelength
bands. The intensity is 4 pW/m2 (4 X 10-9 ergs/cm2sec) in the 17- to 62-
nanometer (170 to 620 angstrom) band. The suggested optical identification is the
white dwarf HZ 43. If this association is correct, the star has the highest tempera=
ture of any known white dwarf. Regardless of the optical identification, however,
this object is the first nonsolar source to be detected in the extreme ultraviolet band.

INTRODUCTION

Astronomical observations of nonsolar sources in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV)

region of the electromagnetic spectrum (10 to 100 nanometers (100to 1000angstroms))
are of profound significance for studies of stellar evolution, stellar atmospheres,
and the interstellar medium. The existence of stars producing predominantly ioniz-
ing radiation (wavelengths less than 91.2 nanometers (912 angstroms)) has been
postulated to explain the ionization state of the interstellar medium. Such stars
might represent a very hot phase of stellar evolution (refs. 4-1 and 4-2). Effective
surface temperatures greater than 20 000 K have been observed, for example, among
O stars, among white dwarfs of classes DAn and DAwk, among the subdwarf OB stars
(ref. 4-3), and among the ultraviolet (UV) excess objects observed from the Euro-
pean TD-1A satellite (ref. 4-4). A major deterrent to previous attempts at celestial

auniversity of California at Berkeley.

tPrincipal Investigator.

4-1
EUV observations has been the opacity of the interstellar gas resulting from photo-
electric absorption by neutral hydrogen and neutral and singly ionized helium. How-
ever, recent spectroscopic studies of interstellar matter toward nearby stars (refs.
4-5 to 4-7) indicate that in many directions neutral hydrogen concentrations are as
low as 0.01 to 0.1 atom/era3. Then, the absorption cross sections given in refer-
ence 4-8 indicate that direct EUV observations of sufficiently hot stars should be
possible to distances of 20 to 100parsecs.

Preliminary surveys at EUV wavelengths have been made from sounding

2
rockets and have set upper limits of approximately 10-10 W/m2 (10-7 ergs/cm see)
for sources in limited regions of the sky (refs. 4-9 to 4-11). However, significant
constraints on stellar emission models would require improvements in sensitivity of
perhaps two orders of magnitude. The Apollo-Soyuz mission offered the opportunity
to make extended observations of numerous eandidate stars with an EUV telescope
that had the requisite sensitivity. Ten nighttime orbits were used to obtain data on
30 preseleeted stars, 1 planet, and the EUV background radiation. A preliminary
analysis of quick-look data has indicated that one target exhibited a particularly
intense EUV flux. A seeond target was also detected at a statistically significant
level above the background. Computer processing of the production data will make
weaker flux level targets also detectable.

EQUIPMENT

The EUV telescope (ref. 4-12) consisted of a 37-centimeter-diameter grazing

incidence mirror assembly, a continually rotating (10 rpm) six-position filter wheel,
and a pair of channel electron multiplier detectors. A schematic view of the instru-
ment is shown in figure 4-1.

The parabolic optics were fabricated from aluminum coated with a nickel alloy
and then overcoated with a fine layer of gold. The filter wheel included an opaque
filter that permitted nearly continuous monitoring of the detector background during
the mission. The field of view of the instrument was circular with selectable diame-
ters of 2.5 ° or 4.3° full width at half maximum obtained by commanding either detec-
tor into the focal position. The detailed construction of the detector modules is de-
scribed in reference 4-13. The detector not at the focal position was also monitored
to establish further the stability of the background count rates. Count rates from
both detectors were telemetered each 0.1 second together with the filter wheel posi-
tion and other auxiliary information.

The entire system was calibrated in the laboratory with collimated radiation
at numerous wavelengths between 4.4 and 265nanometers (44 and 2650 angstroms).
Absolute intensities were established by using National Bureau of Standards-
calibrated vacuum-photodiode secondary standards above 20 nanometers (200 ang-
stroms) and propane proportional counters below 20 nanometers (200 angstroms).
The various filters, in combination-with the efficiency characteristics of the mirror
assembly and detector, defined the wavelength bands illustrated in figure 4-2. The
detailed response of the system is summarized in table 4-I. The filters and their
bandpasses at 10 percent of peak transmission, the energy-integrated effective area,

4-2
or grasp G = fA(E)dE, and the effective energy E f EA(E)dE
table 4-I. e = G are given in

The experiment was mounted to a shelf in bay 1 of the service module (SM).
A protective cover enclosed the instrument assembly at all times when the experi-
ment was not in operation. At appropriate times in the Flight Plan, the erew activa-
ted a switch in the command module (CM) to open the cover. The remaining experi-
ment controls consisted of a POWER ON/OFF switch and a two-position detector-
selection switch. Both switches were loeat_d in the CM and operated by the crew.

The observing procedure consisted of opening the experiment cover, waiting

10 seconds to permit the ambient pressure in the SM bay to vent to vacuum, and then
turning the instrument power on. The erewmember then selected the appropriate
deteetor to ensure that the proper channel multiplier was always in the focal plane.
The filter wheel operated automatically and continuously whenever the instrument
power was on.

The telescope was oriented at preseleeted targets by using the spacecraft

command module computer (CMC) for guidance and orientation and by using the
normal Apollo reaetion control system thrusters for maneuverability to point the
instrument line of sight at the desired position on the celestial sphere for predeter-
mined lengths of time. The typical target observation sequence consisted of spend-
ing equal amounts of time pointing at a target and at two background points located
3 ° on each side of the target. Any statistically significant differences between the
average count rates when observing target and background are then attributable to
EUV emission from the object under study. Target observations lasting from 1 to
20 minutes were executed.

RESULTS 1

The EUV telescope functioned perfectly during the entire mission. The back-
ground count rates remained low and reproducible, and analysis of quick-look data
shows no evidence of degradation in instrument sensitivity from the laboratory-
measured values.

On revolution 65 at 108 hours 26 minutes ground elapsed time, a preplanned

raster scan maneuver was executed using a special erasable memory program in the
CMC. This maneuver consisted of slewing the telescope in a zigzag pattern back
and forth across a star of known brightness in the far UV (-130 nanometers (-1300
angstroms)) where the barium fluoride filter has maximum sensitivity. Because the
target position is known in celestial coordinates, a comparison of the time history of
the barium fluoride count rates during this maneuver with the known command and
service module (CSM) attitude enables the calculation of the actual (in-flight) aline-
ment of the experiment with respect to the CM inertial measuring unit. This infor-
mation could then be used to reeompute CSM pointing data for mission targets to

1Also see section 1.

4-3
compensate for any changes in alinement from the nominal values caused by vibra-
tion or thermal stresses. However, analysis of the revolution 65 raster scan data,
obtained on the stars I Aql and K Aql, indicated, to an accuracy of 0.3 ° , that no
change from the nominal alinement occurred.

Observation of the targets proceeded normally with occasional small deviations

from the observing list caused by time-line anomalies. The rationale for target
selection is discussed in reference 4-12. A list of the targets actually observed ap-
pears in table 4-1I. This list is composed of 30 distinct targets. Seven targets
were observed twice during the mission, one target was observed three times, and
one target was observed during an extended crew sleep period while the spacecraft
was in a fixed inertial attitude. During the mission, considerable real-time planning
enabled additional high-quality science data to be obtained. For example, on day 4
of the mission, the American Association of Variable Star Observers advised that the
dwarf nova SS Cygni had undergone an optical outburst. As a result, additional ob-
servations of this target were obtained on revolutions 80 and 105.

The most interesting target data examined thus far were obtained on revolu-
tion 109. As part of the observing schedule, the ultrasoft X-ray source in Coma
Berenices (refs. 4-14 to 4-16) was observed for 7 minutes starting July 22, 1975, at
22:26 GMT. After taking background data for 1 minute, a 3° spacecraft roll maneu-
ver brought the center of the instrument line of sight to a point 1 ° north of the in-
tended target. Thus, the target was just at the edge of the 2° field of view of the
instrument. Several roll and pitch motions of approximately 0.5 ° resulted from space-
craft motion within the attitude dead-band box and moved the field of view off and on
the source. Finally, additional sky background data were obtained 3 ° off the target.

During these maneuvers, obvious increases and decreases in the detector

count rates were immediately recognized. A plot of the count rate as opposed to time
is shown in figure 4-3 for the 5.5- to 15-, 11.4- to 15-, 17- to 62-, 50- to 78-, and
135- to 154-nanometer (55 to 150, 114 to 150, 170 to 620, 500 to 780, and 1350 to
1540 angstrom) bands with each point representing the average count rate during an
0.8-second time interval. Also shown is the count rate in the opaque filter position,
which indicates that the observed instrumental background remained steady at 0.6
count/see.

A crude estimate of the spectral energy distribution of an object can be made

by dividing the observed count rate in each band by the appropriate energy-
integrated effective area. Such an estimate is exact for continua having constant
photon fluxes per unit frequency. Listed in table 4-I are the observed background-
subtracted count rates for the Coma source and the estimated continuum fluxes, both
raw and corrected for atmospheric attenuation at Ee based on the Committee on
Space Research International Reference Atmosphere 1965 model 2 reference atmos-
phere, appropriate for the observing conditions. The total energy flux in the 17-
to 62-nanometer (170 to 620 angstrom) band is approximately 4 pW/m 2 (4 × 10 -9

ergs/cm 2 sec).

These intensities have been plotted as a function of wavelength in figure 4-4.

Also shown is the 4.4- to 16.5-nanometer (44 to 165 angstrom) detection and 1 kilo-
electronvolt upper limit reported in reference 4-16. The data appear compatible and

4-4
support the identification of the EUV object with the Comasoft X-ray source. This
figure clearly indicates that the spectrum peaks in the EUV band at approximately
30 nanometers (300 angstroms).

A more precise description of the spectrum can be provided by using the

observed count rates to constrain parameters of emission models. The simple con-
tinuum models chosen for these calculations had photon number per unit energy
functions of the following forms: power law, N(E) = AEn exp (-NHO); exponential,
-E E -1
N(E) =AE -I exp (_--_)exp (-NHa); and blackbody, N(E)= AE2[exp (_-_-)-1]
exp (-NHa). In each case, the energy-dependent attenuation cross section per
hydrogen atom a has been taken from reference 4-8 with normal abundances,
no ionization, and no molecular hydrogen.

The collected data can be satisfactorily fit by any of these trial spectra pro-
vided that the free parameters are appropriately chosen. Figure 4-5 shows the de-
rived parameter constraints for these models. In each case, contours are drawn at
2
the _min + 6.25 level appropriate for 90 percent statistical confidence with three
free parameters (ref. 4-17). These constraints are compatible with, but much
stricter than, the parameter regions derived from the soft X-ray rocket data given
in reference 4-16.

Positional information on this source can be derived from the fact that, as the
spacecraft pointing varies, the count rates are occasionally interrupted. Telemetered
data on the CSM aspect have been combined with in-flight data on the experiment
alinement to obtain four independent position zones for the source. These zones
define a commonregion that is shown in figure 4-6 superposed on the relevant
star field.

The Small Astronomy Satellite-3 observations reported in reference 4-15 have

given a positional error box for the soft X-ray source that is compatible with the
EUV position and is also shown in figure 4-6. It is highly probable that one object
is responsible for the soft X-ray and EUV emissions. It has been suggested (ref.
4-15) that the soft X-ray object is the hot white dwarf HZ 43 at a(1950) = 13h14.0m,
8 (1950) = +29022' . This object is also marked on figure 4-6, and the EUV position
is compatible with this suggestion.

If this identification is correct, it is of interest to determine whether any of

the simple EUV spectra in figure 4-5 are compatible with the optical brightness of the
star HZ 43. Magnitudes for HZ 43 have been published in reference 4-18 and are
given as V = 12.86, B = 12.76, and U = 11.62where V, B, and U are brightnesses in
the standard astronomical photoelectric system. The power law and exponential
spectra, if extended to visible wavelengths, would give magnitudes much redder
and brighter than observed. However, the blackbody spectra would be compatible
at -----
110000 K. If this simple model is correct, the stellar radius is 7800D100 kilo-
meters, where D100 is the distance to the star in units of 100parsecs, and the corre-
2
sponding luminosity is 17 D100 L Q, where LQ is the solar luminosity,

4-5
3.83 X 1033ergs/sec. These parameters are in reasonable agreement with white
dwarf models. Although these data do not uniquely require a blackbody stellar spec-
trum, with this explanation and identification, HZ 43 has the highest temperature of
any known white dwarf.
Additional observations obtained on revolution 109indicate the probable de-
tection of EUV radiation from an additional target. Although detailed aspect data
are still being reduced, it appears that the source may be the M-dwarf star Proxima
Centauri. Detections appear in the 5.5- to 15-nanometer (55 to 150angstrom) band
and possibly the 11.4- to 15-nanometer (114 to 150angstrom) band. Both detections
are at an intensity substantially less than the Comasource.

Data from targeted observations on revolutions other than 109have not been
processed but will have sensitivity similar to that described previously. In addi-
tion, a substantial volume (several hours) of supplementary data was obtained by
the EUV telescope while it was being used with the Helium Glow Detector or the Soft
X-ray Experiments. These data will be processed to search for discrete sources of
EUV radiation and to derive information on the spectrum, intensity, and isotropy of
the ultrasoft X-ray/EUV cosmic diffuse background radiation. The data are the most
extensive ever obtained on the latter problem.

SUMMARY

All the primary goals of the EUV Survey Experiment were achieved. Data were
obtained on 30 different targets belonging to a variety of different classes of stars.
Extensive and sensitive data on the EUV background radiation were also acquired.
Preliminary analysis of the data indicates the detection of at least one strong source
of EUV radiation, which is the first nonsolar source to be detected in the EUV band
and proves the feasibility and value of astronomical observations at the wavelengths
indicated in this report.

4-6
 REFERENCES

4--1. Hills, J. G.: An Explanation of the Cloudy Structure of the Interstellar Me-
dium. Astron. &Astrophys., vol. 17, 1972, pp. 155-160.

4--2. Rose, W. K. ; and Wentzel, D. G.: Ultraviolet Stars and the Interstellar Gas.
Astrophys. J., vol. 181, 1973, pp. 115-123.

4--3. Greenstein, J. L. ; and Sargent, A. I.: The Nature of Faint Blue Stars in the
Halo. II. Astrophys. J. Supp. Series, vol. 28, no. 259, 1974, pp. 157-210.

4--4. Carnochan, D. J.; Dworetsky, M. M.; Todd, J. J.; Willis, A. J.; and Wilson,
R.: A Search for Ultraviolet Objects. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, A,
vol. 279, 1975, pp. 479-485.

4--5. Rogerson, J. B.; York, D. G.; Drake, J. F.; Jenkins, E. B.; Morton, D. C.;
and Spitzer, L.: Spectrophotometric Results From the Copernicus Satellite.
III. Ionization and Composition of the Intercloud Medium. Astrophys. J.
(Letters), vol. 181, 1973, pp. L110-L115.

4--6.
Bohlin, R. C.: Copernicus Observations of Interstellar Absorption at Lyman
Alpha. Astrophys. J., vol. 200, 1975, pp. 402-414.

4--7.
Dupree, A. K.: Ultraviolet Observations of Alpha Aurigae From Copernicus.
Astrophys. J. (Letters), vol. 200, 1975, pp. L27-L31.

4--8.
Cruddace, R.; Paresce, F.; Bowyer, S.; and Lampton, M.: On the Opacity
of the Interstellar Medium to Ultrasoft X-rays and Extreme Ultraviolet Radia-
tion. Astrophys. J., vol. 187, 1974, pp. 497-504.

4--9. Riegler, G. R. ; and Garmire, G. P.: Observations of the Extreme Ultraviolet

Nightglow. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 79, 1974, pp. 226-232.

4-10. Henry, P.; Bowyer, S.; Cruddace, R.; Lampton, M.; and Paresce, F.: An

Extreme Ultraviolet Search of the Galactic Anticenter Region. Bull.

American Astron. Sot., vol. 6, no. 4, part I, 1974, p. 446.

4-11. Henry, P.; Cruddace, R.; Paresce, F.; Bowyer, S.; and Lampton, M.: An
Extreme Ultraviolet Search of the North Galactic Polar Region. Astrophys.
J. ,vol. 195, 1975, pp. 107-110.

4-12. Margon, B. ; and Bowyer, S.: Extreme Ultraviolet Astronomy From Apollo-
Soyuz. Sky and Telescope, vol. 50, no. i, 1975, pp. 4-9.

4-13. Hoshiko, H. H.: Helical Channel Multiplier Package Design for Space Instru-
mentation. Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 46, no. 3, 1975, pp. 331-332.

4-14. Hayakawa, S.; Murakami, T.; Nagase, F.; Tanaka, Y.; and Yamashita, K.:
Transient Soft X-ray Sources. Proc. IAU/COSPAR Symposium on Fast
Transients in X- and Gamma-Rays, XVIIIth Plenary Meeting of COSPAR
(Varna, Bulgaria), May 1975.

4-7
4-15. Hearn, D. R. ; and Richardson, J.A.: New Soft X-ray Source. IAU Circulars,
no. 2890, June 17, 1975.

4-16. Margon, B.; Malina, R.; Bowyer, S.; Cruddace, R.; and Lampton, M.: An
Ultrasoft X-ray Source in Coma Berenices. Astrophys. J. (Letters), vol.
203, 1976, pp.L5-L8.

4-17. Margon, B.; Lampton, M.; Bowyer, S.; and Cruddace, R.: Soft X-ray
Spectroscopy of Three Extragalactic Sources. Astrophys. J., vol. 197,
1975, pp. 25-29.

4-18. Eggen, O. J.; and Greenstein, J. L.: Spectra, Colors, Luminosities, and
Motions of the White Dwarfs. Astrophys. J., vol. 141, 1965, pp. 83-108.

4-8
 _ v
8
E

._ _ _ v

_ v

.,,e

_ V V

o
o

r_
[

= _ _ •

o_

o
•" _ _ ,._ I_ 't_

4-9
 TABLE 4-II.- TARGETS OBSERVED BY THE ASTP EUV TELESCOPE

Revolution Target

72 EV Lae, AE Aqr, NGC 7293, s Eri

73 VW Cep, DQ Her, 70 Oph, a PsA

8O EV Lae, SS Cyg, DQ Her, e Oph, a Cen

88 a CMa B

89 NGC 6853, PSR 1929, a Aql, UV Cet, Feige 24

9O SS Cyg, 61 Cyg, BD +24 ° 4811, Jupiter

94 HZ 29, i Boo, Prox Cen

105 SS Cyg, BD +24 ° 4811

108 Wolf 424, a Cen, Z Cha, VW Hyi, UV Cet

109 CP 1133, HZ 43, Prox Cen, PSR 1451, _ Hyi

113 to 117 Wolf 424

4-10
 ._; ,ha.
-Detector
drive
motor

in

housing

'Electronics
Alinement .,'"" _
#
mirror,"

Figure 4-1.- A schematic diagram of the EUV telescope.

4-11
 100

10

p /;\_ ",i !

1.0 ,. !
--
.....
....
Parylene N
Beryllium/parylene
Aluminum plus carbon
./
I
':i/t
! /I 1 ,
A _ e .
.... Tin

_.4"-i ! "-,! "!

I I
I I i
2 3 4 5 7 l0 20 30 50 70 100
riO) (20) (30) (40) (50) (70) (100) (200) (300) (500) (700)
Wavelength, nm (A)

Figure 4-2.- Effective area of the EUV telescope as determined by laboratory

calibration data. (The response of the barium fluoride bandpass, which
was used primarily for instrument alinement determination, is given in
table 4-i. )

4-12
 60 ,

.."" (counts divided by 15)

I _i!_'_ Aluminum plus carbon

50 "

l _, l , ',l V,A,,
; ', t I,.;I ,.,
• " l III I _,

t I II _t Y '

/I ri I i a ,

";_ ;_ , :, j Il \

Beryllium'"'r!
'_[l'!,Vr_,_!, '_' 3 _ " " '_'
I
• A _
!
I
"!_A /!
iil./i
" Vii
" i
kJ
_i
i/
v
i,i!
,! i
U " !_ i_ m . .

/11 _,' ,"V "-' _%'

I I I I l

(a) Aluminum plus carbon, parylene N, and beryllium.

g
8
6O

5O !_ . Tin (counts divided

- ..--"" by 30)
k'"

V',-,j\,,

3O -- I 9 _1\
I .Barium fluoride _ "'_ _ A

20
I,_ '_ _.,. "
Ill ,'"
10

%aque r,,,,,

I I I I I I I I 1
22:22 22:24 22:26 22:28 22:30 22:32 22:)4 22:_ 22:)8
July 22, 1975,GMT

(b) Tin, barium fluoride, and the opaque filter.

Figure 4-3.- The EUV data obtained during a portion of revolution 109. The
trends in the aluminum and tin band passes are due to the spatial variations
in the geocoronal foreground radiation. This behavior was repeated on
numerous orbits. The barium fluoride count rates are dominated by the
occasional observations of known blue stars.

4-13
 Photon energy, eV

1001° I I I I loo
I I I I ,op

lO

::,-,
¢11
c
o_

.]

.01 tl i I I I I I I I I I I I

1000 _100 10 l O.
(10 000) (1000) (100) riO) (1)

Wavelength, nm (A/

Figure 4-4.- Spectral intensities de-

rived from the EUV data on the
source in Coma Berenices. Soft X-
ray data (ref. 4-16) are also shown.

4-14
 19.5 -

19.5

19.0 -
E

19.0

..J

18.5 - Blackbody

18.5

18.0 I I 18.0 I I 1 I
4.5 5. 0 5.5 -13 -11 -9 -7 -5
Logtemperature, K Photon index

(a) Blackbody and exponential (b) Power law spectra contour.

contours.

Figure 4-5.- Contours of constant )2 for the fits of blackbody, exponential,

2 +6 25
and power law spectra. Each contour has been drawn at the Xmin "
level appropriate for 90 percent statistical confidence with three adjustable
parameters (ref. 4-17).

4-15
 ..
O+I

°
o

• .

%-

• • •
o

0 ++ • o

.o

.o

E .°

• o

• o
• ."

• ,Q

Q
la

o. • •

B • !,

Figure 4-6.- Positional error box for the EUV source in Coma Berenices derived
from the revolution 109 data (solid line). The broken line is the error box
for the soft X-ray source observed from Small Astronomy Satellite-3 (ref.
4-15). The white dwarf HZ 43 is also marked in the center of the photograph.
Enlargement is from the blue Sky Survey plate (copyright by the National
Geographic Society- Palomar Observatory Sky Survey; reproduced by per-
mission of the Hale Observatories).

4-16
 5. INTERSTELLAR HELIUM GLOW

EXPERIMENT MA-088

S. Bowyer, at J. Freeman, a F. Paresce,a

M. Lampton,a and B. Margon a

ABSTRACT

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Interstellar Helium Glow Experiment (MA-088)

studied the motion of helium in the local interstellar medium as that medium passed
through the solar system to determine several poorly known properties of the local
interstellar gas. The instrument used was a photometer sensitive to two solar
extreme ultraviolet spectral lines that are resonantly scattered by helium gas. The
instrument surveyed the entire celestial sphere during a series of slow, rolling
maneuvers by the Apollo spacecraft. The equipment operated properly, and usable
data were obtained.

INTRODUCTION

Most knowledge of the structure and properties of the interstellar medium

(ISM) has been obtained by observations with radio telescopes and optical telescopes
that average the properties of the ISM over distances of 1018 meters or more. Meas-
urements averaged over these distances do not permit the study of smaller scale
variations in the ISM or the determination of the properties of the ISM in the immedi-
ate vicinity of the Sun. Furthermore, these measurements have left considerable
doubt about fundamental ISM parameters such as density, speed, and temperature.

As the Sun moves through the local ISM, the motion of gas atoms in that
medium is affected by the pressure of sunlight and by solar gravitation. The
resulting patterns of gas motion and distribution are determined not only by the
effects of these two forces but also by the initialconditions of temperature, velocity,
and density that the gas possessed before entering the solar system. The primary
goal of the helium glow experiment was to determine those initialconditions by
observing the local distribution of interstellar helium gas over the entire sky.

auniversity of California at Berkeley.

tprincipal Investigator.

5-1
 BASIC THEORY

Motion of the ISM Near the Sun

Axford, Blum and Fahr, Holzer and Axford, Wallis, and Johnson (refs. 5-1
to 5-5) have described the dynamics of the local ISM as it passes through the solar
system. If the interstellar gas is sufficiently cold that the thermal speeds of gas
atoms are negligible compared to the bulk speed of the gas with respect to the Sun,
then the number density of a specific atomic species at a given point in the solar
system may be determined as follows.
Let V be the bulk speed of the distant ISM with respect to the Sun, G be
the gravitational constant, M be the solar mass, and _ be the absolute value of
the ratio of the pressure of sunlight to the force of gravity on a gas atom.
Let C = V2/[GM(1 - _t)].

In any plane containing the Sun and the bulk velocity vector of the distant
ISM, choose polar coordinates r and _/, with the Sun at r = 0 and with _ = 0
pointing toward the direction from which the ISM approaches. Each point (r,_/)
in this plane is the intersection of two gas atom orbits. Atoms moving in these
two orbits will have angular momentumper unit mass

sin _/+ (-1) j+l[r2sin2_/ 4- 4r(1- C cos _)12" 1 (5-1)

where j = 1,2.

Let bj = pj/V be the impact parameters corresponding to the two orbits.

Let _0 be the rate at which atoms of the selected species are ionized by sunlight
at a distance from the Sun equal to the radius re of the Earth orbit. Let

r i = _0re2/V, and let N be the number density of the gas atoms in question, far
from the Sun.

Now choose spherical coordinates (r,e,(9) suehthat o<e<u and

0___(9 ___2u, with the Sun at r=0, with e = 0 pointing toward the approaching
ISM, and with (9 = 0 arbitrarily chosen. For these coordinates, the number den-
sity of the gas atoms in question is

(5-2)
n(r,e,(9) = Z 1

j=l 4r(1 - cos e)]

r sin e [r2sin2e U J
5-2
where 0j = 0 if pj _0, and 0j = 2_- 0 if pj < 0.
If _ is less than 1 (as is the case for helium), equation (5-2) diverges as 0
approaches _. This divergence is a straightforward consequence of neglecting
the thermal motions of the gas atoms; in this case, the orbit of every atom crosses
a line drawn outward from the Sun in the direction toward which the gas moves.
Blum, Pfleiderer, and Wulf-Mathies (ref. 5-6) have described a modification to
equation (5-2) for 0 near _ by which gas thermal speeds that are nonzero but
that are still small compared to V are properly considered. They find that
near 0 = _, the gas density has a maximum the detailed shape of which depends
on the gas temperature. Variations in equation (5-2) that are due to larger gas
thermal motions and to such other effects as nonionizing collisions involve more
elaborate analyses, such as those of Danby and Camm (ref. 5-7) and Wallis
(ref. 5-8), and detailed numerical modeling of the gas motion. Discussion of these
topics is beyond the scope of this preliminary report. A detailed discussion of
current theory of the behavior of the local ISM as it flows through the solar system
can be found in reference 5-9.

Photometric Observations of the Gas

The Sun emits strong, broad spectral lines at 30.4 and 58.4 nanometers that
are resonantly scattered by singly ionized helium and neutral helium, respectively.
A general formalism describing the radiation in the ISM is well established (ref.
5-10). An observer viewing the gas through a spectral filter that transmits all of
one of these lines would see I photons per second per square meter per steradian,
where I is given by

(v ,s)p (s)nj (s)dv ds (5-3)

I=_/s /v F(v's)aj
j=l

The outer integral is taken along the ray from the observer toward infinity
along the observer's line of sight. Points along this ray are specified by their
distance s from the observer. The inner integral is taken over frequency v,
between limits sufficiently far from the line center to allow for the combined effects
of solar line width, thermal-Doppler line broadening, and Doppler shifts due to
radial motions between the Sun and the gas and between the gas and the observer.

The quantity F (v ,s) is the flux of solar photons having frequency v at a

point P (s), which is s away from the observer on the line of sight. It is given by

5-3
in which xF0 is the total solar photon flux in the spectral line of interest at the
radius r of the Earth orbit, a is the standard deviation of the Gaussian profile
e
of the solar line, r(s) is the distance from the Sun to the point P(s), and v 0 is
the frequency at the line center. In equation (5-3), the quantity aj (v,s) is the
scattering cross section per atom at frequency v and point P(s), given by

aj(v,s)-4S0me------_*f*_--V
qe
2 1
-
.__1_I ex p
_-- Av /
(5-5)

in which qe is the absolute value of the electron charge, a 0 is the permittivity

of free space, me is the electron mass, c is the speed of light, and f is the
oscillator strength for the transition in question.

Furthermore, the quanity AV is a measure of thermal broadening of the

scattered line:

Av =v0 2_ _T (5-6)
c_ m

where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the gas temperature, and m is the

mass of one gas atom. The quantity v_ is defined

(5-7)
v0 v0 + V r,j(s)
C

at the point P (s).

in which V r ,j (s) is the radial velocity of an atom on orbit j

The quantity p(s) is

(5-8)
p(s)= 3{1 + cos2 [0 (s)]l

in which e (s) is the angle included between the Sun, the point P (s), and the
observer.

Equation (5-3) may be numerically integrated to give the fluxes produced by

various theoretical models of the ISM.

5-4
 The Problem of the Terrestrial Geocorona

Observations of the local behavior of interstellar helium are complicated by

the presence of substantial concentrations of neutral helium and singly ionized
helium in the Earth geocorona, retained respectively by the terrestrial gravitational
field and the magnetic field. This helium also scatters solar radiation of wave-
lengths 58.4 and 30.4 nanometers, respectively. The local concentrations of helium
extend to several Earth radii above the surface. Therefore, even if the observer
is located within the Earth shadow (viz, nighttime), fluxes scattered from the
geocorona will still be observed. If the observer's line of sight happens to point
down the axis of the Earth shadow, these fluxes will be minimized; but even then,
they will not necessarily be zero because photons may scatter twice, as is shown
in figure 5-1, and thereby reach the observer from outside the shadow. In any
case, only a small portion of the celestial sphere can be viewed by looking down
the shadow.

The 58.4-nanometer flux scattered from the geocorona can be eliminated

easily. The average geocoronal temperature of 103K (ref. 5-11) corresponds to a
helium thermal speed of approximately 2 kin/s, which yields approximately 0.6-
picometer thermal-Doppler broadening of the scattered 58.4-nanometer line at full
width half maximum. On the other hand, the bulk speed of the local ISM with re-
spect to the Sun is 5 to 20 km/s (ref. 5-9) and the orbital speed of the Earth is
30 km/s. Hence, there are large solid angles, the configuration of which varies
throughout the year, within which the radial velocities of local interstellar helium
with respect to the Earth are several tens of kilometers per second. These veloc-
ities correspond to Doppler shifts in the 58.4-nanometer line of several picometers,
or many times the width of the geocoronal line. Therefore, a gas absorption cell
containing neutral helium at an appropriate column density will absorb the geo-
coronal 58.4-nanometer flux while transmitting most of the flux scattered from the
local ISM.

A detailed calculation shows that a column of helium 0.1 meter long at a

temperature of 300K and a pressure of 130N/m2 absorbs more than 99 percent of
the geocoronal flux over a band approximately 3.5 picometers full width, centered
on the 58.4-nanometer line. The width of this absorption band is sufficient to
block the geocoronal 58.4-nanometer line even when that line is also Doppler
shifted by the 8-km/s speed of a spacecraft in low Earth orbit.

If the observer does use a gas absorption cell, equation (5-3) must be
modified to include a third integral, taken over the cell transmission as a function
of radial speed between the observer and the gas.

EQUIPMENT

The helium glow detector (HGD) onboard the Apollo spacecraft during the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flight is shown in figure 5-2. The unit was approxi-
mately cubical, 0.35 meter on each side, and had a mass of 23kilograms. It was
mounted below the bay 1 shelf of the service module, close to the instruments for
the soft X-ray and extreme ultraviolet survey experiments, as shown in figure 5-3.

5-5
A small door in the spacecraft skin protected the instrument during ascent and dur-
ing the in-flight venting of liquids and gases and was opened by the astronauts
for observations. The HGD consisted of three main subassemblies: the detector
(including the helium gas system), the electronics, and the instrument housing
and mechanical structures.

Detector Subsystem

The detector subsystem was composed of four similar channels, each of

which detected photons by means of a channel electron multiplier. Channels 1
and 3 were identical, as were channels 2 and 4. Channels 1 and 3 observed the
58.4-nanometer radiation through helium gas absorption cells. Each cell was 0.10
meter long and was capped with two thin metal filters, one tin and one aluminum.
Layers of these elements a few hundred nanometers thick are transparent in the
extreme ultravio!et (EUV) spectral region, and the particular combination of
filters used defines a bandpass approximately 10 nanometers wide, containing
the 58.4-r_anometer line.

Each gas absorption cell was alternately filled with helium to a pressure of
approximately 130N/m 2 and evacuated. The pressure cycles of the two cells were
exactly out of phase, so that one cell was full when the other was empty. Each
cell was equipped with a thermocouple-type pressure gage and with a thermistor
for measuring temperature.

Figure 5-4 is a schematic diagram of the helium gas subsystem. Helium was
supplied to the cells from a tank at a pressure of approximately 6000kN/m 2. The
gas flowed through a master solenoid valve to a regulator, where the pressure was
reduced to approximately 10 kN/m 2. The gas then flowed through adjustable
needle valves into small transfer manifolds. To pressurize either gas cell, the
cell fill valve was opened briefly, releasing into the cell the gas in the transfer
manifold plus a small amount that leaked through the needle valve. The transfer
manifold volume was chosen to contain insufficient helium to fill a cell to design
pressure, and the needle valve was adjusted until the total amount of gas re-
leased produced the correct pressure.
Detector channels 2 and 4 observed the 30.4-nanometer radiation. The
bandpass for this wavelength was defined by a single thin filter, composed of a
layer of aluminum and a layer of carbon. Each of the four channels had a field
of view of approximately 15° full width at half maximum.

Electronics Subsystem

The HGDelectronics subsystem is shown schematically in figure 5-5. Timing

and synchronization were controlled by the central control logic subsystem, which
was itself synchronized to the spacecraft 1.0-hertz clock. The power system con-
verted spacecraft 28-volt direct-current (dc) power into various regulated low
voltages for electronics subsystems and into regulated high _oltages for the channel

5-6
electron multipliers. To minimize single-point failures, each detector had an
independent high-voltage power supply (HVPS).

The amplifier (A) system for each detector channel accepted signals as small
as 10-14 coulomb at a maximum random rate of 105seconds-1 To stay within a
reasonable threshold level for the discriminator, a 10Xinterstage amplifier was
used. A pulse pair resolution of 1.0 microsecond ensured that statistical counting
losses remained below 10 percent, even at the maximum count rate.

The compressor and register for each channel accepted serial event pulses
from the discriminator and produced an 8-bit output word representative of
the number of events detected in each 0.1-second accumulation interval. The
binary word was then converted by the digital-to-analog (D-A) converter to an
analog voltage compatible with the Apollo telemetry system. The output voltage
was updated every 0.1 second in synchronization with the sampling of that voltage
by the telemetry system.

Data compression was necessary because the 8-bit word employed by the
telemetry system allowed only 256 distinct output signals, whereas the event rates
from the detector ranged as high as 104per sampling interval. The system chosen
produced an output word that varied approximately as the logarithm of the detector
count rate.

Several "housekeeping" voltages, measuring various performance parameters

of the instrument, were also sampled and telemetered. The parameters were gas
absorption cell pressures, average absorption cell temperature, gas storage tank
pressure, and a current measurement reflecting the condition of the high-voltage
power supplies.

Mechanical Structures

Major mechanical structures of the instrument included instrument housing

and covers, gas absorption cells, collimators for detector channels 2 and 4, detec-
tor housings and mountings, helium plumbing and control mechanisms, and elec-
tronics subassemblies. Figure 5-6 shows a general view of the instrument, with
the cover removed.

Calibration

Careful calibration of the HGD was vital for successful interpretation of the
data telemetered from orbit. A complete calibration facility was established at the
University of California. It included a vacuum chamber large enough to contain
the instrument, a grazing-incidence monochromator, several sources of EUV
radiation, reference diodes calibrated by the National Bureau of Standards, ion
and electron guns, and such supporting equipment as pumps, manipulators,
collimators, laminar flow benches, and dehumidifiers.

The sensitivity of each of the 4 detector channels was measured at approxi-

mately 20 wavelengths from 25.6 to 143.5 nanometers. Extreme ultraviolet light

5-7
was provided by a gas discharge lamp using argon, helium, hydrogen, and neon
to provide strong spectral emission lines (ref. 5-12).

The shape and angular response of the sensitive area of each detector was
determined by shining a narrow monochromator beam into the entrance pupil
while tilting and translating the HGD with a manipulator. In this way, a detailed
map of the detector response was produced.

The behavior of the gas absorption cells was studied by recording the detec-
tor response with the cell full while the monochromator wavelength was slowly
swept across the 58.4-nanometer spectral line. The observed response agreed
well with the response calculated from theory.
Intense sources of ions and electrons were used to verify that the detectors
would not respond to tl_e high fluxes of charged particles in the Earth ionosphere.
Various combinations of visible light and ultraviolet light were shined into the
vents and viewports of the instrument to make certain that photoemission of elec-
trons from internal sources would not cause false counts.

Ground-Support Equipment

The ground-support equipment for the HGD was composed of electrical

checkout equipment (ECE), a helium fill apparatus, and shipping containers. A
schematic diagram of the ECE is shown in figure 5-7. This apparatus simulated all
the inputs to the HGD from the spacecraft and sampled the HGD output voltages
in the samemanner as the spacecraft telemetry system. It also sampled many
additional housekeeping voltages, which were not telemetered during flight, as
an aid to ground testing and calibration of the instrument. The apparatus was
housed in a portable chassis that was approximately 0.7 meter long on each side.
It was used for initial testing of the HGD by the manufacturer, for calibration and
further testing at the University of California, and for final installation and
checkout in the spacecraft at the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center.

The helium fill apparatus was used to service the helium tank in the HGD.
The fill apparatus contained a large cylinder of high-pressure, high-purity helium,
plus the regulator, valves, hoses, and plumbing necessary to purge the HGD tank
and fill it to its operating pressure.

Design Philosophy

A great deal of technology and experience from previous space missions was
available for design of the HGD. Approximately 70 percent of the electronic cir-
cuits used in the HGD and its ground-support equipment had been previously
developed, tested, and produced for other programs, including the Atmosphere
Explorer Satellite and the Skylab Apollo telescope mount SO55Aspectrophotohelio-
graph. Somemechanical components, such as the HGDhelium tank and the instru-
ment shipping containers, were Government-furnished equipment from earlier
Apollo missions.

5-8
 To reduce drafting and manufacturing costs and to facilitatemaintenance,
the HGD was designed with a high level of interchangeability of parts. For
example, the electronics modules containing the channel electron multipliers were
interchangeable, as were the gas filtercells and the collimators. Furthermore,
the design similarities between the HGD and the instrument for the EUV survey,
which had the same Principal Investigator, made possible the design of a single
ECE unit to support both instruments.

FLIGHT OPERATIONS

The HGD and its protective door were controlled by switches and circuit
breakers in the Apollo command module. When data were to be taken, the astro-
nauts opened the door, waited a few moments to allow the pressure in the instru-
ment area to drop from approximately 0.1 to 1.0 N/m 2 (door closed) to 0.001 N/m 2
or less (door open), and turned on the helium glow experiment power. The short
wait before activation was necessary to avoid possible corona discharge from the
high-voltage electronics at pressures greater than 0.1 N/m 2.

The astronauts also controlled a switch that could interrupt the flow of
helium to either gas absorption cell. This switch would have been used if declining
tank pressure or corona discharge had indicated a leak in either gas cell. Corona
discharge would have been detected as a very high spurious count rate in one or
more detectors.

The HGD was pointed at selected areas of the sky by maneuvering the space-
craft. These maneuvers were carefully and elaborately planned before the flight
and consisted mostly of slow rolls about the spacecraft long axis, with that axis
pointing in a specified, fixed direction. In the course of many such rolls, the HGD
surveyed most of the celestial sphere, with particular attention given to the region
in which the pronounced helium density increase mentioned previously was pre-
dicted to occur. At the time of flight, that region was approximately 30 ° from
the side of the Sun opposite the Earth, as shown in figure 5-8; therefore, because
of perspective, the region was less than 30 ° from the Sun in the spacecraft sky.
Particular attention was also given to the patch of sky, approximately 30 ° in
diameter, that can be viewed while looking down the shadow cast by the Earth in
the geocorona, as shown in figure 5-1. These latter observations provided
especially significant data from the 30.4-nanometer detectors.

Data useful for in-flight checks of instrument calibration and sensitivity to

unwanted wavelengths of light were taken while the instrument viewed the Earth
and the horizon. Finally, at the last turnoff of the HGD, the instrument was
intentionally operated with the door closed, in a successful attempt to doublecheck
the background count rate with no light at all reaching the detectors.

5-9
 DISCUSSION

The instrument operated satisfactorily. One 30.4-nanometer detector failed

during the flight, but adequate data in that channel were returned throughout the
mission by the other 30.4-nanometer detector. One 58.4-nanometer detector
exhibited a somewhat high background rate. Data taken during in-flight calibration
checks seemto indicate that these extra counts could be satisfactorily explained by
degradation of the metal filters and consequent increased sensitivity to Lyman-alpha
radiation at a wavelength of 121.6 nanometers. Possibly, much of the data from this
channel will be usable; in any case, the other 58.4-nanometer detector worked well
and returned satisfactory data.

Detailed reduction of the scientific data requires taped records of spacecraft

position and attitude while the data were being taken. Computer programs for the
prediction of observed count rates as a function of ISM parameters, using equa-
tions (5-1) to (5-8) and associated limits, have been developed. Comparison of
such predictions with the distribution of helium glow actually observed during the
flight will clarify the ISM parameters involved in the predictions.

One interesting possibility for extracting additional information from the data
deserves mention. The 58.4-nanometer count rate seen with the gas cell empty is
the sum of the contributions from the ISM and the geocorona. The rate seen with the
cell full includes no geocoronal term. Thus, the ratio of the rates seen with the
cell full and with the cell empty is a lower bound for the value of that same ratio
that would have been seen with no geocoronal flux present. The no-geocorona
cell-full count rate can be predicted by a modification of equation (5-3), and the
no-geoeorona predicted ratio can be calculated. This ratio turns out to be a
moderately sensitive indicator of the dispersion in radial speeds of helium along
the line of sight, whether caused by thermal motions, collisions, or turbulence.
A lower bound on the ratio may thereby possibly provide additional insight into
the dynamical state of the local interstellar medium.

SUMMARY

The goals of the helium glow experiment were to observe the patterns of
concentration of interstellar helium as it flows through the solar system, and to
deduce therefrom several uncertain properties of the local interstellar medium.
A four-channel extreme ultraviolet photometer, sensitive at spectral lines of neutral
and ionized helium, mapped the sky from orbit during the Apollo-Soyuz Test
Project flight. The instrument used helium gas absorption cells to eliminate from
the observations any contribution due to photons scattered from neutral helium in
the Earth geoeorona. The experiment operated satisfactorily, and adequate usable
data were produced.

5-10
 REFERENCES

5--1. Axford, W. I.: The Interaction of the Solar Wind With the Interstellar Medium.
Solar Wind. NASA SP-308, 1972, pp. 609-660.

5--2.
Blum, P. W.; and Fahr, H. J.: Interaction Between Interstellar Hydrogen
and the Solar Wind. Astron. & Astrophys., vol. 4, no. 2, 1970,
pp. 280-290.

5--3. Holzer, T. E.; and Axford, W. I.: Interaction Between Interstellar Helium
and the Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 76, no. 28, Oct. 1971,
pp. 6965-6970.

5--4.
Wallis, Max K.: Local Hydrogen Gas and the Background Lyman-Alpha
Pattern. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., vol. 167, Apr. 1974,
pp. 103-119.

5--5. Johnson, H. E.: Backscatter of Solar Resonance Radiation -- I. Planet. &

Space Sci., vol. 20, no. 6, June 1972, pp. 829-840.

5--6.
Blum, P. W.; Pfleiderer, J. ; and Wulf-Mathies, C.: Neutral Gases of
Interstellar Origin in Interplanetary Space. Planet. & Space Sci., vol. 23,
no. 1, Jan. 1975, pp. 93-105.

5--7. Danby, J. M. A.; and Carom, G. L.: Statistical Dynamics and Accretion.
Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., vol. 117, 1957, pp. 50-71.

5--8.
Wallis, Max K.: Collisional Heating of Interplanetary Gas: Fokker-Planck
Treatment. Planet. & Space Sci., vol. 23, no. 3, Mar. 1975, pp. 419-430.

5--9.
Fahr, H. J.: The Extraterrestrial UV-Background and the Nearby Inter-
stellar Medium. Space Sci. Rev., vol. 15, Feb. 1974, pp. 483-540.

5-10. Paresce, F. ; and Bowyer, S.: Resonance Scattering From Interstellar

and Interplanetary Helium. Astron. and Astrophys., vol. 27, 1973,
pp. 399-406.

5-11. Jacchia, L. G.: Revised Static Models of the Thermosphere and Exosphere
With Empirical Temperature Profiles. SAO-SR-332, Smithsonian
Institution Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, Mass., 1971.

5-12. Paresce, F.; Kumar, S.; and Bowyer, C. S.: Continuous Discharge Line
Source for the Extreme Ultraviolet. Appl. Opt., vol. I0, no. 8, 1971,
pp. 1904-1908.

5-11
 . .. . . . . . . .' - . .
. . . . .
, . . Geocorona . . . . .
. .. . . '
. . . . . . . .

. . . .
', ' L----'-i.L-A--A-
, . ' Possible photon trajectory , ,'

. . . .. . ,
. . . . . .. .
. . . , . . . . .
. . . ' _
. . . . . . . .
, . ' . . . . . . . '.
'
. . . . . .
. , . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure 5- 1.- The Earth geocorona ,

showing the shadow of the Earth and
a multiply scattered photon that
could reach an observer from the
shadow. Figure 5-3. - The interior of the Apollo
scientific instruments bay 1. The
HGD is mounted below the shelf at
the lower left.

Master
Transfer manifold--------
Q
'Needle
4' /valves

relief valve----

,ri -- Transfer
.. ., manifold

_/-

Solenoid valves::**:. Gas cell

'
-.-- -

.-
Figure 5-2 The helium glow detector. --..-Vent
The four large holes are the view-
ports for the four photometer chan- Figure 5-4. - Schematic diagram of the
nels. HGD gas subsystem.

5- 12
 [ .. +
m
D-A converter

Collimator

- Test I D-A converter +

To
spacecraft
Collimator 10
Pressure monitor sampleslsec
analog

Absorption . D-A converter

Temperature

\
I .. ""..."..
Absorption

monitor

Counter
reset
Regulator

Analog
M Housekeeping telemetry
monitors channels
14
Gas system
28 V dc

Figure 5-5. - Schematic diagram of the HGD electronics subsystem.

Figure 5-6. - The HGD with cover re-

moved. Left r e a r , helium tank; left
front , electronics modules; right
rear , detector housings (only three
visible).

5- 13
 I Pulse generator I

Atte n uator r'--I

re, enc
H
r .... 7

Pulse shaping
adjuster Oscillator network

HVPS Test connectors

On/Off

-- Filter wheel
manual step _

__c'-,-'----i_--"
1
Spacecraft si mulator I

Normal/background mode __ '

I =
ECE low
voltages
Redundant detector ,
I
commands
EUV survey

On/Off I
Gas system A I
t t t Helium glow
I experiment
I
commands
Gas system B _ On/Off I _"
I power supply
Low -voltage .-- I
Instrument I
powe r
Ammeter On/^ff I

i _,-v°c__' "----"
120
28 V dc
V ac power supply QV) Voltmeter I
_I I =
I

I 1 pulse/s
._ 1.O-pulsels J I
oscillator ] I
J

1
Data readout
I

Function I I
selector I I housekeeping
switches I I data
Analog

converter Channel
selector
Printer f

A-D
A-°
converter
switches analog data
10 samples/sec

Figure 5-7.- Schematic diagram of the ground-support electrical checkout

equipment.

5-14
 dD
Earth

Lineof maximum Sun

heliumdensity

Motionof
distant ISM

Figure 5-8.- The Sun, the Earth, and

the local ISM velocity vector at the
time of flight. The helium density
concentration occurs along the dashed
line downstream of the Sun.

5-15
 6. ARTIFICIAL SOLAR ECLIPSE

EXPERIMENT MA- 148

R. T. Giuli, a M. D. Jenness,a A. N. Lunde, a and K. A. Young a

ABSTRACT

On July 19, 1975, the Apollo spacecraft successfully occulted the solar disk
from the field of view of a camera mounted in the Soyuz spacecraft while performing
a spacecraft separation maneuver to permit the outer solar corona to be viewable
by the Soyuz camera. The camera operated automatically, and 55 frames were
developed for scientific analysis.

INTRODUCTION

The Artificial Solar Eclipse Experiment is one of the five experiments that in-
corporated joint activities between the U.S. and U.S .S .R. crews during the Apollo-
Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. In this U.S .S .R.-proposed experiment, the
Apollo crew was responsible for performing the required spacecraft maneuvers and
for photographing the eclipse shadow on the Soyuz vehicle, and the Soyuz crew was
responsible for photographing the corona. As agreed, the U.S.S.R. investigators are
responsible for the scientific analysis of the experiment and publication of the scien-
tific results within 1 year after the ASTP mission. This preliminary report contains
a description of the experiment background, equipment, and operations.

BACKGROUND

The solar corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun. Whereas the Earth at-
mosphere extends above the Earth surface to a distance of less than 1 Earth radius, the
solar corona extends to many solar radii. The inner corona is about 1 million times
fainter than the bright surface of the Sun, and the outer coronal regions are hun-
dreds to millions of times more faint. Thus, to observe the structure of the extended
corona, the intense radiation coming directly from the surface of the Sun must be
excluded from view, and the corona must be observed against as dark a background
as possible. Both of these conditions occur during a natural, total solar eclipse, in
which the Moon occults the Sun and significantly reduces the intensity of the local
daylight. An artificial eclipse of the Sun above the Earth atmosphere may reduce
the daylight much further and permit the most extensive possible detection of the

aNASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.

6-1
corona. The ASTP Artificial Solar Eclipse Experiment provided this opportunity on
July 19, 1975, at approximately noon GMT. The objective of this experiment was
to detect the extended region of the corona by photographing it from the Soyuz space-
craft against the black space background while the disk of the Sun was occulted by
the Apollo spacecraft.

EQUIPMENTAND OPERATIONS

The artificial solar eclipse was effected by separating the Apollo from the
Soyuz shortly after orbital sunrise in such a way that Apollo occulted the Sun from
view of the orbital module (OM) hatch window. Apollo backed away from Soyuz
toward the Sun to a separation distance at which the apparent diameter of Apollo was
about 2 solar diameters. Apollo totally occulted the Sun during the separation ma-
neuver, and Soyuz performed automatic sequence photography in the solar direction
during the entire separation maneuver.
Before orbital sunrise, the Soyuz crew set up a camera on the inside of the
closed OM hatch window. The 50-millimeter camera had a 90-millimeter focal length
lens with no filter. The photographs were taken in "white" light over the wavelength
range of approximately 400to 750nanometers. A mechanized magazine containing
highly sensitized Kodak 2485 film was mounted to the back of the camera. On the
outside of the hatch window, the Apollo crew deployed a U .S .S.R. light baffle de-
signed to minimize the amount of scattered and reflected light that entered the optical
path of the camera. The Soyuz crew retreated to the descent module, and the Apollo
crew retreated to the commandmodule (CM). The Apollo crewmen oriented the docked
spacecraft with the longitudinal (X) axes alined to the Sun-spacecraft direction, as
depicted in figure 6-1. At 75 seconds after orbital sunrise, the Apollo undocked and
coasted for 15 seconds. The undocking occurred at 95: 43:20 ground elapsed time
(GET), or 12:03:20 GMT, July 19. At position 2 (fig. 6-1), the reaction control
system (RCS) of the Apollo spacecraft was fired in the four-jet mode for 3 seconds
to back away (minus-X direction) from the Soyuz spacecraft. A second coast period
of 12 seconds was followed by another four-jet, RCS, minus-X firing (position 3,
fig. 6-1). The two-thrust sequence was adopted to expedite achieving the desired
separation rate of approximately 1 m/see, while respecting thermal constraints asso-
ciated with RCS gases impinging on the Soyuz spacecraft. At 4 minutes after un-
docking, the separation of the two spacecraft was approximately 220meters, at which
time the Apollo fired the RCS (four-jet) in the plus-X direction for 16 seconds (fig.
6-1, position 5) to return to Soyuz. During the entire separation time, the space-
craft maintained attitude hold with both X-axes alined in the solar direction. The
sequence of events is listed in table 6-I, and the views from the Soyuz hatch window
at the beginning and end of the 1-m/see separation phase are given in figures 6-2 (a)
and 6-2(b), respectively. The field of view from Soyuz (fig. 6-2) was determined
by the light baffle; the vignetting in the Earth direction was intended to minimize
the light that entered the optical path of the Soyuz camera from the illuminated cres-
cent of the Earth beyond the terminator. The Soyuz camera operated during the
entire separation phase in an automatic sequence of exposures of 0.1, 0.3, 1, 3, and
10seconds. Each cycle lasted 27seconds, and the cycles were repeated continuously.

6-2
 Also during separation, the 16-millimeter Apollo data acquisition camera (DAC)
was mounted in a CM window to view along the Apollo plus-X axis. The 75-millimeter
focal length lens of the DAC automatically operated at 12 frames/see, exposing SO-242
color film at 1/125 second. The purpose of the DAC photography was to monitor the
motion of the umbra on the Soyuz spacecraft. The DAC photographs reveal that the
edge of the umbra did not reach the Soyuz docking ring until 120to 150seconds
after undoeking. The light baffle was not apparent in the photographs, but the
Apollo crew reported seeing the edge of the umbra reaching the light baffle at approx-
imately 170seconds after undocking.

In mid-November, the U. S. S.R. submitted a mission report to the U.S. Tech-

nical Director that contained the following statement:

Photography of the solar corona and "atmosphere" around the

Apollo spacecraft began at 95: 43:41 GET (21 seconds after undoeking).
The process of photography lasted 12 minutes 47 seconds. Preliminary
analysis of the pictures and telemetry data showed that all the equip-
ment involved in the experiment functioned nominally.

125frames were taken in the process of the artificial solar eclipse

experiment; 23 of them were exposed during the time from undocking
to the crossing by the spacecraft of the dawn terminator plane. This
portion of the orbit was chosen in accordance with procedure as the
primary one.

The frames taken during the time from terminator crossing to

280 seconds [referred to undocking] are practically exposed by the
illuminated Earth reflected from the Apollo CM cone. The frames taken
from 280 seconds through 440 seconds (24 frames) contain scientifie
information.

Approximately 442 seconds after undocking, the Soyuz space-

craft drifted from the shadow madeby the Apollo. Therefore, the
conditions of artificial solar eclipse were disturbed from that moment.

Before redocking (starting from 630 seconds), the conditions

of artificial solar eclipse were restored. The last eight frames gave
additional scientific information. Thus, 55 frames suitable to be de-
veloped were taken during the experiment.

A great deal of scientific data on the solar corona (within the

limits of 25 through 50 solar radii) and atmosphere around the space-
craft was obtained. Absolute photometric calibration of the obtained
data was made with the reference to _ CMi and y Gemstars and
Mercury; many frames contain the images of these bodies.

Of great importance was an experimental confirmation of the

effectiveness of a new method for research of the solar corona and
"atmosphere" around spaceships. Detailed analysis of experimental
data coupled with the Apollo RCSduty cycle and record of the Soyuz
darkening conditions will be made later.

6-3
 TABLE 6-I.- SEQUENCE OF EVENTS FROM FIRST UNDOCKING TO

SECOND DOCKING

GET Event description

95:42:05 Orbit sunrise

95: 43:20 Delta-V of 0.10 m/sec along Soyuz minus-X axis and 0.05 m/sec
along Apollo minus-X axis because of spring-release mechanism

95: 43:35 Apollo performs first 4-jet, minus-X, 0.38-m/sec separation

maneuver (initiated after a 15-sec coast period) along line of
sight to Sun direction and maintains inertial attitude hold

95: 43:38 RCS engines cut off

95"43:50 Apollo performs second 4-jet, minus-X, 0.50-m/sec maneuver

after a 12-sec coast period; range, 9.6 m

95:43:54 RCS engines cut off; range, 12.8 m; range rate, 1.03 m/sec

95: 47:20 Apollo achieves 220-m separation distance from Soyuz and performs
a 2-m/sec, 4-jet, plus-X RCS maneuver to null the separation rate
and return the Apollo vehicle to the redocking position

95: 47:36 RCS engines cut off

95: 50:58 Apollo achieves a relative range <17 m and performs a 1-m/sec,
4-jet, minus-X RCS maneuver to null the closing range-rate
component

6-4
 Apollospacecraftattains 220-m separationdistance,
and a 2-m/sec plus-X maneuver is performedto
return to Soyuz spacecraft.. /

,," ,Terminatorcrossing
Secondminus-X ApolloRCS maneuver
/' //

/' ," First minus-X Apollo RCS maneuver

Sun vector "'-.
9

Apollo achieves docking ..Orbit sunrise

range andterminates .....
closingmaneuvers.........

Numerical values shown

indicatethe following
Apollodata:

Long.. deg Relative range, m

1. 272.9 0
2. 281.9 2.2
3. 283.4 9.7
Earth 4. 293.g 133.0
5. 30(18 220.0
6. 314.8 16.8

Figure 6-1 .- Artificial solar eclipse orbit profile during the 57th revolution of
the Apollo spacecraft and the 65th orbit of the Soyuz spacecraft.

o
15o-15° -I0
I° -5
I° 0I 5°
I I0°
I 1515° 15°-15° "lO°l -5° 0 5° I0° 15_5°
I I I I

10° 10° lO° 10°

CM front
_Vignetti ng: Vignetting.
,/ _ _ 0 percent Opercent
5° 5° _///7//7///////////////////////////////////////////// 5°
_////////////_/_// __/_/////////////÷ 5°
/ ¢'_ /',,"_'_'_ _ \ 50percent 50percent
y///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
- 1 _ -_-ou_.] I 100percent 0 0- CMfront ._ lOOpercent 0

_5o - -- _5 ° .5 ° -5 °

/_ w//////////////////////z
-I0° -lO°
-10° -10°

-15° I I z J J -15° -15° t I I I I -15°

-15° -10° -5° 0 5° 10° 15° -15° -10° -5° 0 5° 10° 15°

(a) 12.8 m from Soyuz. (b) 220 m from Soyuz.

Figure 6-2 .- View of the Apollo spacecraft after the second RCS burn as seen
from the Soyuz spacecraft. The field of view is 30 ° with the Sun in the
center of the view.

6-5
 7. CRYSTAL ACTIVATION

EXPERIMENT MA- 151

J. I. Trombka, at E. L. Eller, a R. L. Schmadebeck, a C. S. Dyer, b

R. C. Reedy,C D. W. Barr,Cj. S. Gilmore,C R. J. Prestwood,C

B. P. Bayhurst,C D. G. Perry,CA. R. Smith,dR. C. Cordi,d

R. H. Pehl,dj. S. Eldridge,eE. Schonfeld, f and A. E. Metzger g

ABSTRACT

The Crystal Activation Experiment consisted of two sample packages that were
flown in the command module and returned to Earth for analysis of the radioactivity
induced in them during the flight. The objective of the experiment was to define the
background caused by detector activation that interferes when gamma radiation is
measured in the 0.02- to 10-megaelectronvolt range from Earth orbit. These meas-
urements, together with accelerator beam activation measurements and theoretical
calculations, will be used to estimate this background for future or planned experi-
ments. To aid the calculations, metals selected for their cross sections for specific
neutron and proton energies were included in the samples in addition to the germa-
nium and thallium-activated sodium iodide (NaI (T1)), which are the usual detectors
for low-energy gamma-ray measurements.

Preliminary results show that the activation of the NaI (T1) crystal was a fac-
tor of 3 below that from a similar measurement on Apollo 17. The identification of
certain species and the level of activation observed show an important contribution
from the interactions of thermal and energetic neutrons produced as secondaries in
the spacecraft. That the activation was reduced by only a factor of 3 compared
with the Apollo 17 experiment, despite the geomagnetically shielded orbit, possibly
indicates more efficient secondary neutron production by the more energetic cosmic
rays.

aNASA Robert H. Goddard Space Flight Center.

buniversity of Maryland.

CLos Alamos Scientific Laboratory.

dLawrence Berkeley Laboratory.

eoak Ridge National Laboratory.

fNASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.

gNASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

tprincipal Investigator.

7-1
 INTRODUCTION

Significant background components to X-ray and gamma-ray measurements

performed in space can be attributed to X-ray and gamma-ray emission induced in
the spacecraft surrounding the detector and within the detector itself. Varying
detector-spacecraft geometries (such as those obtainable with an extendable boom)
can provide an indication of the spacecraft contribution, but in-flight measurements
cannot separate the cosmic-ray-induced detector background from counts caused
by the external photon flux.
Previous measurements were made on an NaI (T1) crystal flown on Apollo 17.
For that flight, the activation was mainly induced by cosmic-ray protons and by sec-
ondary neutrons produced in the spacecraft material. Because of the low-altitude
Earth orbit on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission, the Apollo-Soyuz
spacecraft was exposed to a proton flux that was less intense. However, the pro-
tons had a higher average energy and therefore could have been more efficient in
producing secondary neutrons. Neither the particle flux inside the spacecraft nor
the cross sections for production of radioactive isotopes in the detector materials
are well known. Therefore, in addition to Nal (T1) and germanium detector crys-
tals, the sample package included a number of metals that have good cross sections
for specific energy ranges of neutrons and protons.

SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND

One of the major difficulties in measuring 0.02- to 10-megaelectronvolt gamma

radiation from space lies in distinguishing the radiation emitted by cosmic and plan-
etary sources from the high rate of background gammaradiation produced by
cosmic-ray and trapped-proton interaction with the spacecraft and the detector
materials. Of these effects, the most difficult to isolate is the delayed decay of a
radioactive nucleus produced by a spallation interaction within the detector ma-
terial. These effects particularly complicate measurements of the diffuse sky-
background gammaradiation in a spectral band that could contain important infor-
mation on cosmology and the role of antimatter in the universe. The experimental
confusion and theoretical possibilities have been recently reviewed by Horstman,
Cavallo, and Moretti-Horstman (ref. 7-1). It is evident that advances in the field
require improved knowledge of local activation effects and optimization of detector
design and location against such a background.
Radioactive background has been observed in all cosmic gamma-ray experi-
ments that have been carried into regions of trapped radiation such as in the Orbit-
ing Space Observatory (OSO) series of spacecraft. Such effects have been success-
fully explained (ref. 7-2) by a model proposed by Dyer and Morrill (ref. 7-3) in
which the direct proton interactions in scintillators lead to radioactive spalled nuclei,
the decay products of which are indistinguishable from an external gammaray.
The work by Dyer and Morrill and that by Fishman (ref. 7-4) demonstrated that
similar interactions due to cosmic rays could also cause contamination, and this has
been verified by the gamma-ray NaI (T1) spectrometers carried onboard Apollo 15
and Apollo 16 (ref. 7-5). As a result, an identical crystal was flown and returned
on Apollo 17. Application of the spallation-activation calculation to those results

7-2
showed that the level of activation was considerably enhanced by significant fluxes
of secondary neutrons produced in the heavy spacecraft by cosmic-ray proton
interactions (ref. 7-6). Results from activation packages flown on Skylab (ref.
7-7) also showed the presence of secondary neutrons but indicated less thermaliza-
tion of this flux than that indicated by the Apollo 17 data.

For these reasons, it was considered important to include an activation package

onboard the Apollo-Soyuz spacecraft to obtain further data from near-Earth orbit.
In that orbit, part of the primary eosmic-_rayflux was shielded by the Earth's mag-
netic field. The very low Apollo-Soyuz altitude minimized trapped-proton effects,
although further calculations are required before their contribution can be con-
sidered negligible.

EQUIPMENTAND EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE

The two assemblies shown in figures 7-1 and 7-2 were flown in the command
module of the Apollo spacecraft during the Apollo-Soyuz mission. An Nal (Tl)
crystal (fig. 7-1) physically identical to those flown on the Apollo 15 and 16
missions was used in this experiment. This assembly did not include the photo-
multiplier, the proton antieoineidence mantle, and the thermal shield that were
used during the Apollo 15 and 16 missions, but it was identical to the assembly
used on the Apollo 17 mission. Thus, direct comparison of the results from the
two missions can be made. The detector was a 7- by 7-centimeter right-cylindrical
crystal, hermetically sealed in a steel cylinder with a glass plate at one end.
Magnesium oxide was used as an optical reflector inside the crystal assembly
exeept at the glass window. This assembly made possible the simple procedure
for optically coupling the crystal to a photomultiplier tube after flight. The second
assembly (fig. 7-2) consisted of a 724-gram sample of high-purity germanium; a
small intrinsic germanium detector 32 millimeters in diameter by 8.75 millimeters
thick, with a 0.12-millimeter layer of indium on one face; and 100-gram foil disks
of yttrium (Y), scandium (Sc), and depleted uranium (U) sealed in a cylinder iden-
tical to that used for containing the NaI (T1) crystal. The lid of the container in this
second assembly was made of 55 grams of titanium rather than steel.

Before the mission, background counts were taken on all materials in the lab-
oratories where postflight low-level counting was anticipated. After splashdown,
the flight (i.e., activated)NaI(Tl) was returned to the recovery ship and optically
mounted on a photomultiplier tube, and pulse height spectra were obtained. The
erystal counting was started approximately 2 hours after atmospheric entry of the
command module. Befo.re splashdown, a control (unactivated) crystal was opti-
eally sealed to the samephotomultiplier tube, and the background was determined
in the steel shield.

A 10.2- by 10.2-centimeter NaI (T1) detector was used to measure the gamma-
ray emission flux from the Nal (T1) crystal and from the germanium after removal
from its eontainer. These measurements were also performed inside the steel
shield, starting approximately 1.5 hours after atmospheric entry of the command
module. Counting continued for 4 hours onboard the recovery carrier.

7-3
 The detectors, bulk germanium, and foil disks were then returned to labora-
tories in the United States for further counting. The intrinsic germanium detector
was returned to the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory where the detector material
was mounted on a cryostat, cooled, and low-level-counted. The foil disks and the
steel container were delivered to the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory for analysis.
The Nal (T1) crystals and the bulk germanium material were taken to the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, where the internal Nal (T1) measurements were continued,
and lithium-activated germanium (Ge(Li)) and low-level coincidence spectra were
accumulated on both materials. High-resolution Ge(Li) spectra were also taken of
the bulk germanium at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.

RESULTS

Recovery Ship Measurements

The internal Nal (T1) spectrum taken onboard the recovery ship approximately
4 hours after splashdown is compared with the equivalent data from the Apollo 17
experiment in figure 7-3. The radionuclides identified from the Apollo 17 data are
shown. Although the statistics are poorer, the Apollo-Soyuz data have the same
general shape and are lower in intensity by a factor of approximately 3. The bulk
germanium data did not show any identifiable lines but indicated a low-energy
excess consistent with the presence of gallium-67 (67Ga) identified in the data
taken at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

The detector was successfully brought into operation on the first attempt
and showed the samenoise and resolution characteristics that had been observed
during preflight tests. Counting commencedat the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
approximately 24 hours after splashdown.
The earliest spectra showed some excess count rates in continuum regions up
to at least 1000kiloelectronvolts, and perhaps as high as 2000 kiloelectronvolts;
however, counting statistics will severely limit the quantitative results that can be
obtained from these spectral distributions. Simple hand analysis indicated deeay
with (probably) more than one half-life, in the few-tens-of-hours range, but
definitely shorter than the 78-hour half-life of 67Ga.

The prominent X-ray peak at approximately 10kiloelectronvolts (fig. 7-4)

shows a composite decay curve that has been graphically resolved into two compo-
nents, appropriate to 78-hour 67Gaand 12-day germanium-71 (71Ge). Identifica-
tion of 67Gais conclusive, based on the aforementioned evidence, the decay of a
93-kiloelectronvolt gammaray with a single half-life of about 80 hours, the decay
of a gammaray with apparent energy of about 195kiloelectronvolts (the sum of the
185kiloelectronvolt gammaray and the X-ray) having approximately the same

7-4
half-life, and the delayed-coincidence results described in a later paragraph. Iden-
tification of 71Geis also considered conclusive, although it is based on less evi-
dence, namely observation of the appropriate energy X-ray peak, which decays
with (nearly) the 71Gehalf-life.

Identification of the 78-hour half-life radionuclide 67Gawas confirmed from

early spectra using delayed-coincidence measurements. In 67Gadecay, the
lowest level (93 kiloelectronvolts) in the stable daughter zinc-67 (67Zn) has a
half-life of 9.3 microseconds; thus, the gammaray that de-excites this level is
almost always delayed in time with respect to emission of zinc fluorescent X-rays.
Delayed-coincidence analysis was performed, using the X-ray events to generate
a gate delayed 9 microseconds and of 27-microsecond width. A delayed-coincidence
spectrum acquired during 2175minutes of data aec.umulation that started 4 days
after splashdown shows only the 93-kiloeleetronvolt peak and a scattering of
lower energy partial absorption events. No events were stored in any of the 1420
channels above the peak region. This spectrum cannot be reconciled with any
decay scheme other than that of 67Ga"

The most recent data indicate the appearance of at least two'X-rays at

energies below 10 kiloelectronvolts, which may indicate the presence of 65Zn and
one (or more) of the long-lived cobalt isotopes 56Co, 57Co, and 58Co.

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

The metal foil disks arrived at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 23 hours
after splashdown. Analysis of the exposed foils was conducted as follows.

1. The scandium disk was nondestructively counted for 46Scto determine

the thermal neutron-capture product.

2. Neptunium-239 (239Np) was chemically separated from uranium and

counted to determine the epithermal neutron-capture product.
3. Molybdenum-99 (99Mo) was also chemically separated to measure the
fission component.

4. The yttrium disk was dissolved and analyzed for 87y, an energetic
neutron- and proton-induced reaction product, and for zirconium-89 (89Zr), a low-
energy-proton reaction product.
5. The titanium lid was chemically processed for scandium radionuclides
produced by 1- to 20-megaelectronvolt neutrons.

6. The stainless steel can was nondestructively analyzed for activities pro-
duced from iron.

7-5
 Preliminary results are as follows. The thermal neutron flux was 0.26
neutron/era 2 see and the epithermal neutron flux was 0.004 neutron/cm 2 sec.
Energetic neutron and proton fluxes were much lower than previously observed on
Apollo and Skylab missions. The neutron plus proton flux on this mission as deter-
mined from the 238U(n ,f)99Mo reaction was a factor of 3 to 4 less than that observed
in the Skylab mission by solid-state track detectors. A limit on the fast neutron
(1 megaeleetronvolt) flux of 2 neutrons/cm 2 see was established from the absence of
positive results for the high-energy activation reaction. These preliminary results
will be tentatively correlated with the neutron spectra from the track detectors
flown onboard the Apollo-Soyuz spacecraft.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory and NASA Lyndon B. Johnson SpaceCenter

Direct measurements of induced radionuelides were made by optically sealing
a photomultiplier tube to the activated NaI (T1) crystal. Pulse height spectra of the
internal response were obtained beginning approximately 26 hours after splash-
down. Such measurements are continuing to characterize the long-lived components.
Indirect measurements of the induced radionuclides were madeby using Ge(Li)
detectors and a large anticoincidence-shielded NaI(T1) spectrometer in the low-
level facility at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ref. 7-8).
Preliminary results from the low-level spectrometer system (4_ system)
yielded positive identification of iodine-124 (1241), 1261, and 24Nain the NaI flight
detector. Tentative identification of 22Nawas also made, but verification must
await refinement of the spectral analysis. Semiquantitative disintegration-rate
values are approximately one-third to one-half those found in the Apollo 17 experi-
ment (ref. 7-6)for 1241, 1261, and 24Na.

Gamma-gammacoincidence data on the germanium experiment from the 4_

system indicated the presence of at least one short-lived positron-emitting radionu-
clide. Decay-curve analysis of the positron-positron coincidences yielded a half-
life value of 29 hours. The early measurements also show apparent gamma-gamma
coincidences of 0.5 with 0.8-megaeleetronvolt photon and of 0.8 with 1.4-
megaeleetronvolts photon. The radionuelide most closely fitting these characteris-
tics is arsenic-72 (72As), a 26.0-hour positron emitter with a 0. 834-
megaeleetronvolt gammaray in coincidence with its major positron branch. The
positron-positron counting rate corrected to splashdown is approximately 2.7
counts/min with a corresponding system background of 0.1 eount/min. At 41 days
after splashdown, the positron-positron counting rate was only 50 percent above
background. Detailed analysis of Ge(Li) spectra shows a tentative identification
of 67Ga, a 78-hour radionuclide that decays by electron capture.

7-6
 DISCUSSIONOF APOLLO-SOYUZRESULTS

Both internal and external monitoring of the NaI crystal show an activation
spectrum similar to that shown by the Apollo 17 crystal but at approximately one-
third the intensity. Gallium-67 has been positively identified in the intrinsic
germanium as well as in the external counting of the bulk germanium. Germanium-
71 has been tentatively identified internally and 72As, externally.

The quantities of all positively identified radionuclides are considerably in

excess of prediction based on preliminary estimates of the cosmic-ray fluence.
Compilations of trapped-proton fluences for orbits similar to that of Apollo-Soyuz
(222-kilometer altitude, 51.8° inclination) indicate that this contribution to the acti-
vation should be very small. However, exact orbital integrations are required to
assess this component, particularly in view of the possible 72As identification,
indicative of low-energy (p ,xn) interactions.

At present, the most probable explanation of these results is a considerable

flux of secondary neutrons produced in the heavy spacecraft, as was the case on
Apollo 17 (ref. 7-6). A considerable flux of thermal neutrons is again shown by
the 24Na result and the scandium activation. The relatively low epithermal neutron
flux determined from the uranium foil disk is consistent with the low 128I:24Na
ratio found in the Apollo 17 crystal. To produce the other species presented here,
-2 -I .
an energetic (20 to I00 megaeleetronvolt) neutron flux of about 2 cm see is
required.

The reduction of activation between Apollo 17 and Apollo-Soyuz is less than

preliminary estimates of the reduction of primary cosmic-ray intensity due to geo-
magnetic shielding, possibly indicating the increased efficiency of the more ener-
getic cosmic rays in producing secondary neutrons. However, further work is
required to define the exact cosmic-ray and trapped-proton fluences before this
conclusion can be made with great certainty.

The production of secondary neutrons in heavy spacecraft and their efficient

thermalization in Apollo modules again emphasize the necessity for developing codes
to assess neutron production and transport, and demonstrate that gamma-ray spec-
trometers are best used far removed from heavy material.

The calculations used here will be improved by comparison with controlled

monoenergetic irradiation experiments, which will also yield important information
on the short half-life radionuclides missed by such return procedures.

7-7
 REFERENCES

7-i. Horstman, H. M. ; Cavallo, G. ; and Moretti-Horstman, E. : La Rivista del

Nuovo Cimento, vol. 5, 1975, p. 255.

7--2. Dyer, C. S.; Dunphy, P. P.; Forrest, D. J.; and Chupp, E. L.: Proceed-
ings of the 14th International Cosmic Ray Conference, 1975, p. 3122.

7-3. Dyer, C. S. ; and Morrill, G. E.: Contribution to the Background Rate of a

Satellite X-Ray Detector by Spallation Produets in a Cesium Iodide Crystal.
Astrophys. & Space Sci., vol. 14, no. 1, 1971, pp. 243-258.

7-4. Fishman, G. J.: Cosmic-Ray Effects on Diffuse Gamma-Ray Measurements.

Astrophys. J., vol. 171, 1972, pp. 163-167.

7--5. Trombka, J. I.; Metzger, A. E.; Arnold, J. R.; Matteson, J. L.; et al.:
The Cosmic Gamma-Ray Spectrum Between 0.3 and 27 MeV Measured on
Apollo 15. Astrophys. J., vol. 181, 1973, pp. 737-746.

7-6. Dyer, C.; Trombka, J. I.; Schmadebeck, R. L.; Eller, E.; et al.: Radio-
activity Observed in the Sodium Iodide Gamma-Ray Spectrometer Returned
on the Apollo 17 Mission. Space Sci. Instrum. 1, vol. 3, 1975.

7-7. Fishman, G. J.: Neutron and Proton Activation Measurements from Skylab.
AIAA/AGU Paper 74-1227, Nov. 1974.

7-8. Eldridge, J. S.; O'Kelley, G. D. ; Northcutt, K. J.; and Schonfeld, E.:

Nondestructive Determination of Radionuclides in Lunar Samples Using a
Large Low-Background Gamma-Ray Spectrometer and a Novel Application
of Least-Squares Fitting. Nucl. Instr. & Meth., vol. 112, 1973,
pp. 319-322.

7-8
 I Resilient
Glass _ 7.625cm packing
-- 7.048cm_
0.635 cm L._6.985 cm
-I 0.25cm
1
Intrinsic High-purity -- 1

Magnesi
oxide I,_
_---- 6.985 cm_'_m
Na (T) .
1
6.985 cm
0.25
cm I germanium
detector
t
germanium
andpacking
4_80.
cm 8.493cm

0.160 cm-.- ....._II _ ._ ',', Nal (TI) l.Ocm "-- _ ._--.._.--_"

- - "-z-' 0.|_ cm _
"'-... IIT---'-I.._UL cm_, 9.334cm
,
Spring

assembly....
T_',,
.....

I,i
III

II 0.86 cm
0.25cm
_
t
Resilient
packing
=-====l==_=,_

I--I
"

3.04cm
',"Uranium
'Yttrium
__ i ,,_
0.58 cm

0.2.5
cm

7.736 cm _

Figure 7-1.- The Apollo Nal (T1) crys- Figure 7-2.- Sample package showing
tal assembly. location of metals and intrinsie ger-
manium detector.

7-9
 1000--

x x ./1231
X"
X X
x * Apollo-Soyuzdata
x x x Apollo17 data

xX :o X
100
X X • : Xx

•x x " * XXxxxXxxxx .lllln 121Te 124, 1261

i
X X IL • _ j/ /s , ii z

• x p" *'_ xXx xxx X'xxx

_ x _ ," x X_x_xXX _Xx x x _x
"_,"x " s,." 'X'x,
xx"x Xx
Z" .'.N °. %_I'_ , XXxxx
• • • • _ X,j(
• *• • •_ •• •• • Xx _x_Xx
• • • • • _ q_- --••0 XxXX^ ^ X-
•ca• _e_" • .... "..@ .., .. ,X _,XWxX

• : . • . ** • • • • . ooeodD . • X X XXx XXxxX x

10 • _,'6 . "•'-,.
• "% • _ x"xx xxxXX
X
• J°ee • o•
X
* ..'..
• o I° • • *:* .,.'"
o• o• ° •

l ] I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I i I I l I l I

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520
Channel (~2. 5 keVlchannel)

Figure 7-3.- Comparison of Apollo 17 and Apollo-Soyuz internal NaI(TI) spectra

taken 4 hours after splashdown.

10 2 -
=I0 keY

-_10 z
E
i:.:::.::-..."
• OOoo oe• a•

• • • • o• • • ooo •eoo • •

Figure 7-4.- Internal germanium spec-

eB•o4m t •
• • oo• • o
trum showing doublet structure of
10-kiloeleetronvolt peak contributed
= L A l_-._ I
l0 ° 80 I00 120 140 160 180 200 220 by 67Ga and 71Ge (440-minute count
Channelnumber time at 0. 066 keV/ehannel).

7-10
 8. ULTRAVIOLET ABSORPTION
EXPERIMENTMA-059

T. M. Donahue,a# R. D.. Hudson ,b# j . Anderson ,a

F. Kaufman,C and M. B. McElroy d

ABSTRACT

The Ultraviolet Absorption Experiment performed during the Apollo-Soyuz

mission involved sending a beam of atomic oxygen and atomic nitrogen resonance
radiation (130.4 and 120.0 nanometers), strong unabsorbable oxygen and nitrogen
radiation (135.6 and 149.3 nanometers), and visual radiation, all filling the same
3°-wide field of view from the Apollo to the Soyuz. The radiation struck a retrore-
flector array on the Soyuz and was returned to a spectrometer onboard the Apollo.
Lock on the retroreflector was maintained by the visual light and a star tracker.
The density of atomic oxygen and atomic nitrogen between the two spacecraft was
measured by observing the amount of resonance radiation absorbed when the line
joining Apollo and Soyuz was perpendicular to their velocity with respect to the
ambient atmosphere. By allowing the Apollo spacecraft to drift at fixed ranges of
150, 500, and 1000meters through an arc of _+15 ° with respect to the perpendicular
to the velocity vector, the temperature of the gas was obtained; i.e., the Doppler
line profile was scanned. Information concerning oxygen densities was also ob-
tained by observation of resonantly fluorescent light. The absorption experiments
for atomic oxygen and atomic nitrogen were successfully performed at a range of
500meters, and abundant resonance fluorescence data were obtained.

INTRODUCTION

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) Ultraviolet Absorption (UVA) Experi-

ment provided an opportunity for the realization of a technique devised to permit
the measurement of atmospheric species concentrations. This experiment involved
the application of the most reliable and specific laboratory technique available for

auniversity of Michigan.
bNASA Lyndon B. Johnson SpaceCenter.
CUniversity of Pittsburgh.
dHarvard University.
#Co-Principal Investigator.

8-1
measuring the concentration of a given gaseous species -- atomic absorption spec-
troscopy. This method is probably the most reliable available tool for quantitative
analysis if the cross sections or oscillator strengths for absorption are known, if
proper precautions are taken to ascertain the frequency dependence (or line shapes)
of light sources and absorbers, if optical properties of the measuring devices are
measured, and if corrections are made for absorption by other species (or impuri-
ties). A complementary technique, the quantitative observation of resonance
fluorescence in which atomic or molecular species scatter resonance radiation from
a light source into a detector, is a powerful one and was used in the ASTP UVA
experiment. The species chosen for detection and measurement were neutral
atomic oxygen (O) and neutral atomic nitrogen (N). The first was selected for
several reasons.

1. Strong resonance light sources are available that produce radiation in

the resonance triplet at 130.2, 130.5, and 130.6 nanometers, hereafter referred to
as 130.4-nanometer radiation.

2. The absorption cross section or oscillator strength of O for the energy-

state transition producing or absorbing this radiation (3P2,1,0 3S1) is accurately
known.

3. Although O is the most abundant atmospheric species at the experiment

altitude (225kilometers), to detect the species cleanly in a mass spectrometer is
difficult because of its propensity to recombine into molecular oxygen (O2) upon
colliding with the walls of a spectrometer ion source. At lower altitudes, this
recombination has caused difficulties that leave the actual density of O near 120
kilometers uncertain by a factor of 5 or more. At an altitude of 225kilometers, the
uncertainty is probably not very great, but it is interesting to attempt to verify
other measurement methods by a new one or to prove the new method by compari-
son with ground truth.

Atomic nitrogen was interesting because, as of a year or so ago, the direct

measurement of this species in the thermosphere had probably not yet been per-
formed successfully. A satellite mass spectrometer result (ref. 8-1) obtained at
an altitude of 400kilometers suggested that the partial pressure of N exceeded that
of molecular nitrogen (N2) , but the result was flawed by low mass resolution. A
rocketborne mass speetrometer result by Ghosh and others (ref. 8-2) suggested
that, at an altitude of 185kilometers, the density of N was 6 percent that of N2 , al-
though Hickman and Nier (ref. 8-3) showed that this is an upper limit.

The problems in measuring atomic nitrogen mass spectrometrically are similar

to those of obtaining atomic oxygen measurements but are more serious because the
density ratio of N to N2 in the thermosphere is small. The N2 can be dissoeiatively
ionized in the spectrometer ion source; like O, N is highly reactive and can recom-
bine not only to form N2 on instrument chamber walls but can form other compounds
such as NO.

8-2
 PRINCIPLEOF THE UVA EXPERIMENT

The principle of the UVA measurementwas to produce fairly well collimated

beams of 130.4- and 120.0-nanometer radiation (resonance for O and N), and 135.6-
and 149.3-nanometer radiation (forbidden lines of O and N that are very weakly
absorbed by these species). The forbidden line radiation originated in the same
sources as the resonant line radiation and hence defined the beam geometry, the
refleetivity, and the transmission of the optical instrument for the resonance
radiation independently of resonance absorption. The light was produced by
radiofrequency-driven lamp sources and collimated by mirrors on the Apollo space-
craft. The light beams illuminated an array of corner reflectors mounted on the
Soyuz spacecraft at a known distance x from the Apollo UVA light source. Thus,
the portion of the beam striking the retroreflectors returned to a collecting mirror
near the Apollo collimating mirror. From this mirror array, the radiation was fo-
cused on the entrance slit of a 0.75-meter Ebert-Fastie scanning spectrophotometer
by an auxiliary mirror. The spectral range from 120.0 to 149.3 nanometers was
scanned every 12 seconds through 1.5-nanometer ranges eentered on 120.0, 130.4,
135.6, and 149.3 nanometers. The bandwidth of the spectrometer was approxi-
mately 1.15 nanometers. The spectrometer was a modified backup unit for the one
used on the Apollo 17 experiment (ref. 8-4).

In its simplest terms, the principle of the UVA experiment is illustrated in

figure 8-1. A known flux of resonance radiation F is radiated into a solid
angle _. At a distance x from the source, the irradianee is F/_x 2. If the
refleetivity of each surface of the retroarray is r and the retroarray surface area
is A, an amount of radiation r3FA/_x 2 is returned to point O and passes through
a well-defined and limited region determined by the shape of the collimating mirror,
the shape of the corner reflectors, and the geometry of the retroreflector array.
Essentially, light from each point on the collimating mirror that strikes a given
retroreflector returns through a region of the same shape but twice the linear
dimensions of the corner reflector. The pattern of light sent from a point source
to a corner reflector that is a distance x from the source and back to the source
is analogous to the pattern of light sent fromthe point source to a hole in an opaque
sereen at a distance x of the same shape as the reflector and then on through the
aperture to a screen that is a distance 2x from the source. If a fraction of this
returned light f is sent to a spectrometer having a throughput QT, where Q is
the quantum efficiency and T is the transmission, the counting rate R of a
detector in the spectrometer will be

R = r m(FA/_x2)e-2°xnfQT (8-1)

where m is the number of reflections, six in the present case; o is the mean
absorption cross section; and n is the attenuation coefficient. Obviously, r is
assumed to be the same at each surface for a given wavelength.

8-3
 The flux F of 130.4-nanometer radiation was 5 X 1013photons/see into a
solid angle of 0.75 steradian. Typical values for the other terms in the equa-
tion are as follows.

r= 0.75

m=6

A = 55 square centimeters
f=0.2

T=0.2

Q = 0.12 electron/photon
- -13
= 10 square centimeter
Thus

R _- 3 X 1012x-2e -2_xn (8-2)

The unattenuated counting rate R0 is 3 X 1012x -2 , or 3 X 102 sec-1 even at a range

of 1 kilometer. It was assumed that the minimum absorption that could be detected
was 10 percent; i.e., e-2axn = 0.9, or xn = 2 X 1012cm-2 Thus, at 100meters,
an absorber density of 2 X 109cm-3 should be detectable and, at 1 kilometer, a
density of 2 X 107 cm-3 should be detectable. In this case, the counting rate will be
270counts/see, compared with the unabsorbed rate of 300 counts/sec.

In an experiment such as this, the spacecraft velocities are greater than the
average thermal velocities of the gas particles at 1000K (by a factor of 8 for
oxygen). Hence, the frequency of the lamp signal will be shifted far away from the
absorption frequency of the atoms by the Doppler effect if the light is radiated in
the approximate direction of the Apollo velocity vector. It is therefore necessary
to conduct the experiment with the vector between the spacecraft nearly perpendic-
ular to the spacecraft velocity vectors. A simple calculation shows that, if the angle
between the direction of emission of the light signal and the Apollo velocity vector
were 78° with the two spacecraft 100meters apart, the absorption by 4 X 109 atoms/
cm3 of oxygen would be only 30 percent compared to 82 percent if the angle were
90° . This effect could, however, readily be turned into an advantage if the ex-
periment were performed in such a way that one spacecraft (for example, Apollo)
slowly drifted past the other at a fixed range and the angle between them varied
through approximately 30° centered on the normal to the orbital velocity vector.
The reasons are twofold. First, it would not be necessary to determine by some
independent measurement when the angle of observation was 90° to the direction

8-4
of the relative wind. This information would automatically be determined as the
point at which the counting rate became minimum. Second, the change in counting
rate with angle would define the Doppler line shape of the absorbing atom. Hence, the
functional form of this variation would enable measuring the temperature of the ab-
sorbing atoms.

In practice, it is necessary to consider the fact that the light flux F varies
with wavelength _. for each fine structure component of the resonance lines, and
that the absorption cross section a is also a function of wavelength. Thus, the
term Fe-2anx in equation°(8-1) must be replaced for each fine structure compo-
nent by

i_F i (k)exp [-2xnc (k) ] dh (8-3)

where F i(_) depends on the effective lamp temperature TL and c(k) values depend
on the gas temperature T G. When there is no relative motion between source and
absorber, the functional form of F(_) may be written

1/2 2 2
(8-4)
(mc2/2_kTL_oi21 exp I-me2( _ -_Oi)_2kTLkoi ]

where k0i is the line center wavelength of the i-th fine structure component, m is
the atomic mass of the gas species, e is the speed of light, and k is the Boltzmann
constant. When u is the component of the atmospheric velocity along the light
beam in the coordinate system in which the Apollo vehicle is at rest, o (k) becomes

(8-5)
o 0 exp 2 2
I-mc2 I( k- k0_-uk01
2kTGk 0 e

Finally, because the spectrometer does not resolve the fine structure components
in the spectrum, it is necessary to sum over fine structure components to obtain
the predicted counting rate.

R = ZR i (8-6)

The spectral parameters for the gases involved in this experiment are shown in
table 8-I.

8-5
 Figures 8-2 (a) and 8-2 (b) show the counting rates as A function of spacecraft
separation when u = 0 for atomic oxygen and atomic nitrogen, respectively, at
typical gas concentrations. Figures 8-3(a) and 8-3(b) show, for various values of
T G , the variation in atmospheric transmission as a function of the angle between the
direction of observation and the perpendicular to the wind velocity vector in the
coordinate system in which the Apollo spacecraft is at rest. The lamp output (inte-
grated over wavelength of all spectral components) is assumed to be 1013 photons/

sec for the oxygen 130.4-nanometer triplet and 3 X 1012 photons/sec for the nitrogen
120.0-nanometer triplet.

A practical complication is introduced in performing this experiment because

the resonance radiation in the emitted beam can be scattered resonantly by the gas
to be studied. Some of this radiation will be emitted in a direction to enter the
spectrometer slit, although it is a relatively small amount of the total scattered
light because the scattering is virtually isotropic. If one considers the light
traveling in a certain direction from the light source (treated as a point source) and
calls the number of photons crossing unit area per second at a distance x from the
source I L (k), the number of these scattered per second will be

IL(X)no(k)expr-2n/o(X)dx']d_. dx 2 (8-7)
L j

where x 0 is the distance from the light source at which the outgoing beam crosses
the spectrometer field of view. To evaluate the actual counting rate due to these
scattered photons, it is necessary to evaluate the overlap of the outgoing beam with
the effective spectrometer field of view. For example, the field of view is filled
gradually and not abruptly at a distance x0 along the beam. This evaluation is
being conducted for the instrument actually flown. A reasonable approximation
for the counting rate from resonance fluorescence RF is

FAMAsMAsr3QT 7 -_'f (8-8)

I L (X)n (x)o (X) exp

x0 0

where A M = the lamp collimating mirror area (3.3 by 5.7 centimeters)

ASM = the area of the collecting mirror (5.5 by 3.7 centimeters)

A S = the area of the spectrometer slit (0.2 by 5.7 centimeters)

8-6
 p = the focal length of the collecting mirror (16.5 centimeters)

x 0 = 75 centimeters

The contribution of resonance fluorescence under the same conditions assumed in

the absorption calculation is shown in figure 8-2. The fluorescence contribution
varies with the angle between direction of observation and velocity vector and
reaches a maximum where the transmitted light reaches a minimum; i.e., when
the wind velocity component in the direction of observation is zero. The resonance
fluorescence contribution to the observed counting rate as a function of time (or
angle) must be evaluated independently so that it can be subtracted from the total
counting rate to obtain the contribution due to transmitted (or absorbed) radiation
alone; also to be subtracted are background signals from airglow.

The heart of the experimental apparatus is the Apollo 17 Ebert-Fastie spec-

trometer. It was equipped with a new grating drive cam that rotated the grating
to scan from 129.65 to 131.15 nanometers in 2.5 seconds, from 119.25 to 120.75
nanometers in 4.5 seconds, from 129.65 to 131.15 nanometers again in 2 seconds,
from 134.85 to 136.35 nanometers in 1.25 seconds, and from 148.55 to 150.05 nano-
meters in 1.25 seconds. The light output of each lamp was pulsed with a pulse du-
ration of 0.1 second; the sequence was the O lamp alone, the N lamp alone, and
both lamps off.

The resonance lamp light sources, the retroreflector array, and the optical
transmitting and receiving systems had to be designed around the spectrometer in
such a way as to maximize the signals received. The spectrometer choice was
governed by availability and by the schedule for experiment preparation. The
instrument has an entrance slit of 0.2 by 5.7 centimeters, with an f/5 collecting
aperture corresponding to a solid angle of 12 ° by 12 ° . The ultraviolet lamps have
a i-centimeter source diameter and emit into a solid angle of approximately 56 ° full
width, or 0.74 steradian. The flux from each lamp is collimated by a mirror placed
12 centimeters from the lamp. Because the source diameter in the lamps is 1 centi-
meter, the beam leaves the collimating mirror with a spread of approximately 5° .

In designing the corner reflector array, it was necessary to consider that

the optimum diameter of the mirror that focuses the returned light on the spectrom-
eter slit equals the width of an individual corner reflector. The corner reflectors
must be packed efficiently into an array of convenient diameter. The arrangement
adopted was a 10-centimeter array diameter, and each reflector was 3.3 centimeters
wide (fig. 8-4). In this case, the focusing mirror diameter was 3.3 centimeters,
and the mirror was placed 16.5 centimeters from the slit to fill the slit aperture
laterally.

The geometry of the optical transmitting and collecting system is defined in

figure 8-5. Light originating from a point on a collimating mirror will return from
the corner reflector and pass through a region centered at that point on the mirror
but twice as large in linear dimensions as the corner reflector (neglecting diffrac-
tion effects). For example, light originating from point x on mirror O in figure
8-6 will return through the 6.6-centimeter dashed-line region (hexagonal). It
is reasonable to put the collecting mirror in the space bounded by the collimating
mirrors and allow the dimensions to be 3.3 by 5.7 centimeters. The contribution

8-7
to the collected light originating from point x is then the shaded overlap of the
collecting mirror and the hexagonal area 6.6 centimeters in diameter and centered
at point x. The size of the return beam from all points on the collimating mirror O
is shown by the broken line. The collecting mirror must be protected from stray
light coming from the lamps by means of baffling because the most intensely illumi-
nated region is that adjacent to the collimating mirror.

Figure 8-7 shows how the fluorescence and transmitted signals should vary
with wavelength around 130.4 nanometers. This calibration was done by convolut-
ing the previously computed signal intensities in each of the three components of
the oxygen triplet with the spectrometer slit function. The latter was assumed to
be triangular with a full width of 1.15 nanometers at half maximum. The ease shown
is for an Apollo-Soyuz separation of 100meters, an oxygen density of 4 × 109 cm-3,
a lamp temperature TL of 600 K, and a gas temperature TG of 1050K. The curves
are normalized. The difference in wavelength at the peak occurs because most of
the transmitted signal is in the weaker 130.5- and 130.6-nanometer components,
whereas most of the fluorescence signal is from the 130.2-nanometer line.

A third light source was incorporated in the apparatus to provide bright

visual light illuminating the same field of view as the ultraviolet sources. The
collimating lamp, marked "Visible" in figure 8-6, provided input to a star tracker
with output in the spacecraft to indicate to the astronaut whether the retroreflector
array was being illuminated by the lamp beams, and, more importantly, whether
the retroarray was in the spectrometer field of view (_+0.35 ° in pitch). A backup
to the star tracker was provided by the crew optical alinement sight (COAS),
through which the retroreflector could be seen. The COASwas provided with a
reticle marked in degrees in the pitch and yaw directions.
A door was provided that was closed when data were not being taken. The
inside surface of the door was blackened. However, small reflecting cylinders,
one for each of the ultraviolet sources, were fitted in the door. These cylinders
provided a meansof in-flight calibration. The counting rate as a function of grating
position was obtained with the flight unit during thermal-vacuum (TV) checks of
the instrument for comparison with calibration runs made during flight.
The reflectivity of the retrorefleetors was measured as a function of wave-
length. The transmission T of the full receiving system, the external opties, and
the telescope was also measured at the Johns Hopkins University with the coopera-
tion of W. G. Fastie. The quantum effieiencies of the detectors Q for both flight
and backup units were also measured. Pertinent data are shown in tables 8-II
to 8-V.

The flight lamps and backup lamps were calibrated to determine the flux of
photons emitted. For this calibration, a monochromator and a double ionization
chamber (for the 120.0- and 130.4-nanometer lines) were used, and a measurement
of the photocurrent in the monochromator detector (for the 135.6- and 149.3-
nanometer lines) was made. The data obtained for the flight lamps were redueed to
absolute intensities by comparison with similar measurements made with the same
system on another lamp that had been absolutely calibrated at the University of
Pittsburgh. The detector used at Pittsburgh to calibrate the standard lamp had

8-8
been calibrated by a measurement of its response to radiation at the four wave-
lengths in question emitted from a beam of O and N atoms of known density excited
by electron impact. The flux from the flight lamp is given in table 8-1II.

The effective lamp temperatures TL were also measured at the University

of Pittsburgh by measuring the absorption" of their resonance radiation by a column
of atoms of known concentration at a temperature of 300 K. The surprising result
was that typical effective temperatures for the oxygen lamps were very large, from
2200 to 3700K. The high temperature is presumed to be caused by the presence
of many atoms that have been dissociatively_ excited from O2 into high radiating
states of O, and have cascadedinto the resonantly radiating state before undergoing
many collisions. This was not the case for the nitrogen lamps. The flight lamp
temperatures were 2500 K for the oxygen lamp and 400 K for the nitrogen lamp.
The UVA experiment was mounted on the Apollo docking module with the field of
view forward (plus-X axis).

RESULTS1

The first exercises of the UVA experiment began when the lamps were turned
on at 27:00 ground elapsed time (GET) on Wednesday, July 16, 1975. The counting
rate as a function of cam position closely reproduced that obtained with the door
closed in the last thermal-vacuum tests before the apparatus left the laboratory
(table 8-IV). At 28:30 GET, the cover was opened and the spacecraft was pointed
toward the star Vega. The purpose of this exercise was to calibrate the COASand
to test the star-tracker system designed to lock the field of view on a target. Dur-
ing this test, the obtaining of resonance fluorescence signals in the oxygen 130.4-
nanometer channels was verified. One problem was discovered, however; the star
tracker indicated lock while the COASindicated star movement from 3° to the right
to 2.5 ° to the left. This difference occurred because a spacer was inserted between
the lens and aperture of the star tracker to increase the size of the light spot on the
photocathode and thereby to change the slope of the star-tracker response curve.
This change moved the focal point approximately 0.25 centimeter in front of the
aperture and enlarged the star-tracker field of view to the limits of the star-tracker
tube, 5.5 °, due to vignetting. To avoid operating with the retroreflector out of the
field in yaw (even though the star tracker indicated it was in the field), the chart
on the COASreticle was marked at +1.5° and the crew was instructed to prevent
straying of the retroreflector image beyond these limits. In fact, the crew was
asked to keep the retroreflector as near as possible to the center of the COAS.

Five additional data-taking exercises were performed. After the final undock-
ing on July 19, 1975, the Apollo vehicle assumed a stationkeeping position 18 meters
ahead of the Soyuz vehicle as the two spacecraft approached the morning terminator.
The UVA power was turned on at approximately 98:55 GET, 30 minutes before the
first observational exercise, to permit stabilization of the lamps and the photomul-
tiplier tube. During this period, calibration data were obtained using the door
reflectors. Table 8-1V presents results for comparison with those obtained during

1Also see section 1.

8-9
the final thermal-vacuum tests conducted at the Applied Physics Laboratory of
Johns Hopkins University. The counting rates during flight were approximately
0.8 those obtained on the ground. This effect can be attributed to use of the detec-
tor head from the backup unit to replace that of the flight unit on the launch pad
shortly before flight because of an electronics problem. A comparison of the
ground-test product of QT values for the two units (table 8-IV) shows that the
ratios are about the same as the flight to ground-based counting rate ratios. At
99:25 GET, the Soyuz crew activated circuits to unlatch covers over the Soyuz ret-
roreflector arrays. Two arrays were mounted on top of the vehicle, one facing up-
ward and the other facing starboard. A third array was mounted on the rear of the
spacecraft facing aft. The Apollo crew verified with binoculars that the covers on
the top-mounted retroreflectors had opened. (If the starboard array had not opened,
a contingency plan would have permitted a Soyuz yaw so that its aft-mounted retro-
reflectors could be used in the experiment.) Power to the UVA was briefly turned
off while the door of the instrument was opened after the terminator had been
passed. (The powerdown precaution was necessary so that large flashes of light
would not damage the detectors as the door was being opened or closed. ) Beginning
18 minutes before the data-gathering run, the Apollo vehicle moved out of the
orbital plane (fig. 8-8) until it was 150 meters from the Soyuz vehicle and oriented
so that the retroreflector could be illuminated. At this time, the angle between the
perpendicular to the Soyuz velocity vector and the Apollo vehicle was 15 ° . The
Apollo vehicle then was maneuvered through a 33 ° circular arc sweep passing through
the normal to the velocity vector while the crew attempted to keep the retroreflector
illuminated following procedures described previously. Both the star-tracker output
and the COAS observations indicated that a lock was obtained. A problem occurred
during the first several minutes of the run because the Soyuz flashing beacons and
orientation lights were not extinguished. After the data-taking maneuver (lasting
10 minutes) was completed, the Apollo vehicle returned to a stationkeeping position
50 meters from the Soyuz vehicle but facing in the direction of motion, as the Soyuz
yawed 180 ° to face the Apollo.

For reasons still not understood, no clearly identifiable reflected ultraviolet

radiation was detected during this pass. There was a strong 130.4-nanometer
signal that was almost surely resonance fluorescence, but there were no counts
above background in the 135.6-, 149.3-, or 120.0-nanometer channels. The Apollo
crew reported that both the Soyuz window and the retroreflector were illuminated,
and two possible explanations for failure were considered. One was that the reflec-
tivity of the retroreflector had been seriously degraded during the flight. The other
was that a window reflection was registered by the star tracker as a reflection from
the retroreflector. The second explanation is not consistent with the fact that,
through the COAS, an illuminated retroreflector was seen centered in the field of
view. It was decided, therefore, not to risk using the side-looking retroreflector
during the scheduled run at 500 meters separation but to request performance of a
Soyuz 90 ° yaw maneuver to enable use of the aft-looking reflector.

The procedure followed during the 500-meter data take was very similar to
that described at 150 meters (fig. 8-9). It occurred during the next eclipse period.
Calibration data with the door closed were obtained starting at 100:30 GET (about
35 minutes before the run). The Apollo vehicle maneuvered, as shown in the
figure, to a position 500 meters from the Soyuz vehicle out of the orbital plane and
15 ° behind. The Apollo vehicle then executed a circular sweep through 32 °
(-15 ° to +17 °) in a horizontal plane that contained the Soyuz vehicle; the maneuver

8-10
required 10 minutes. Very early in this maneuver, clear indication was obtained
in all UV channels that reflected radiation was being received by the UVA spectrom-
eter. Reflected data were received (as indicated in the 135.6-nanometer channel)
throughout the sweep. Figure 8-10 is an example of the strip-chart records show-
ing a complete spectral scan taken during the sweep for comparison with a spec-
trum obtained from the UVA door just before the sweep (fig. 8-11). The observed
ratio of the counting rates at 130.4 and 135.6 nanometers was 5.7 + 0.5 from
101: 17:38.13 to 101: 17:40.25 GET. (The sweep began at 101: 17:37 GET.) The
" ° .-

ratio obtained from the door (after correction for the reflectivity of the door) was
5.72. The ratio of 130.3 to 135.6 nanometers obtained during the run is shown in
figure 8-12. There was an anomaly during the run; the 135.6-nanometer counting
rate dropped by a factor of 5.5 from a plateau of about 250 counts to about 45 counts
between 101: 17:39.37 and 101: 17:41.49 GET. It remained at 45 counts thereafter.
A similar effect occurred in the 149.3-nanometer channel. These anomalies are
being analyzed. Because the returned 130.3-nanometer signal contains a strong
component of resonance fluorescence and because time and spacecraft attitude have
not been correlated, there are no reliable estimates of O or N densities currently.

During the warmup period for the next eclipse pass, the signals reflected
from the door were normal during the first several minutes; this observation
indicates that no change in the lamp output, coUimating mirror reflectivity, or
receiver QT was responsible for the drop in signal during the second part of the
500-meter pass. However, the calibration signal dropped by a factor of approxi-
mately 4 in all channels during the last several minutes of the warmup period and
remained low after the door was opened for the 1000-meter data take. As shown in
figure 8-13, these data were obtained in the orbital plane during separation of the
Apollo and Soyuz vehicies. The upward-looking retroreflector was used, and the
range varied from 800 to 1300 meters during the sweep from +15 ° to -15 ° with the
vertical.

Some reflected signals were detected, although the retroreflector was only
in the field of view sporadically. Use of the COAS and the star tracker was very
difficult because bright moonlight was illuminating the top of the SCSTuz spacecraft.
An attempt was made to use the COAS to keep the Apollo vehicle pointed toward the
Soyuz beacon and navigation lamps instead of trying to lock on the retroreflector as
in the out-of-plane observations.

After the Apollo departed the neighborhood of the Soyuz, two resonance ex-
ercises were performed. During an eclipse phase, the Apollo X-axis was oriented
normal to the orbital plane and one full orbit (from 105:10 to 106:46 GET) of
resonance fluorescence and airglow background data was obtained. This exercise
was followed during the next eclipse phase (from 106:55 to 107:10 GET) with an
observation of the resonance fluorescence signal obtained with the Apollo X-axis
still oriented normal to the orbital plane and with the ApoLlo vehicle executing a
slow roil through 360 ° . The purpose of this exercise was to determine the variation
in population of thermal oxygen atoms between the ram side of the docking module
and the lee side (fig. 8-14). The atoms near the aperture consist of ambient undis-
turbed atmosphere and atoms that have been scattered from the vehicle. Obviously,
the higher densiW wiLl be on the ram side of the vehicle. Some of the atoms striking
the vehicle will have become thermalized, and then reflect. Some will recombine
and become 0 2 molecules. The recombining fraction should be determinable from

8-11
the data obtained, because the 130.4-nanometer fluorescence signal was found to
depend strongly on the roll orientation.

It is too early in the analysis of data to report O or N densities measured dur-

ing this experiment. However, it can be stated with confidence that the data are
sufficient to determine those densities.

REFERENCES

8--1. Philbrick, C. R.; and McIsaae, J. P." Measurements of Atmospheric Compo-

sition Near 400 KM. Space Research XII, vol. 1, Aeademie-Verlag (Berlin),
1972, pp. 743-749.

8--2. Ghosh, S. N.; Hinton, B. B.; Jones, L. M.; Leite, R. J.; et al.: Atomic
Nitrogen in the Upper Atmosphere Measured b_ Mass Spectrometers. J.
Geophys. Res., vol. 73, no. 13, July 1968, pp. 4425-4426.

8--3. Hickman, David R. ; and Nier, Alfred O.: Measurement of the Neutral Compo-
sition of the Lower Thermosphere Above Fort Churchill by Rocket-Borne
Mass Spectrometer. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 77, no. 16, June 1972,
pp. 2880-2887.

8--4. Fastie, William G. ; Feldman, Paul D. ; Henry, Riehard C. ; Moos, H. W. ;

et al _.: A Search for Far-Ultraviolet Emissions From the Lunar Atmosphere.
Science, vol. 182, no. 4113, Nov. 1973, pp. 710-711.

8--5. Lin, Chorng-Lieh; Parkes, David A.; and Kaufman, Frederick: Oscillator
Strength of the Resonance Transitions of Ground-State N and O. J. Chem.
Phys., vol. 53, no. 10, Nov. 1970, pp. 3896-3900.

8-12
 0

u_

I--,,I
0

E_
Z 0
0 0
0

..c:
0

Z 0

4 .i--I
E_
0
0 0
r_
0 0

0 _d

0
_ 0
,< o m
.p,.l

0 i 0 0 rJl
0
r_
r_ X

oo _ a
F_
o _ o
@,I _ I

.p.I

c_ 0_
< ¢_
b
_ M
°_-,I

r_
J II II II II

I
o o o
I
QO
0
*P.I

r_
<

r_ m

8-13
 TABLE 8-11.- PRODUCT OF QUANTUM EFFICIENCY AND TRANSMISSION

QT FOR FLIGHT AND BACKUP UNITS

Wavelength, nm Backup unit QT Flight unit QT

130.4 0.0258 0.0307

120.0 .0129 .0264

130.4 .0272 .0397

135.6 .0258 .0311

149.3 .0151 .0172

TABLE 8-III.- FLIGHT LAMP FLUXES INTO 0.74 STERADIAN

Flight lamp Wavelength, nm Flux, photons/see

O 130.4 I0.4XI013

135.6 1.78

N 120.0 .634

149.3 1.45

8-14
 OF,,4

E_ o(3'
Z ._

rJ I
L_- _ _1
0 _ _
0

E_
E_
= , o_. °_

L) 0

r_ 0
o
8
r_
g "g4 '_
0
Z •

I
0
Z I
0
o._ oo _-_ _ L_
_1 O0 L_ _D _11
_'_ L'_ L_ _'_ I_

L_ !,,,,4 L_- _ _'_

_>.
0
I

e
I

,_ _ _1_ _D

8-15
 "-Retroreflector

(amp

Figure 8-1.- Basic geometry of the

UVA experiment.

10 7 =

10 5

I06

Reso

•-_ 5 fluorescence\\\\\
'u 10 -__signal
\\\\\
levels _\\ ^ 3
-- ....[01 = 8 x lOv cm °
........"--'--_-.-"

--......... ......
o=

IO4---
.............
_.______.__..
xlOgcm-3 Resonance
fl uorescence
signal levels

10 2
\\
\
\ iN]-0 cm-3
",,|NI - I x 108 cm -3
"IN] 3 x 107 cm -3 t
I x 107 cm -3 ......._L

lO 2! [O]'2[:'lO:_cm-_'-_.n__'3 "
I I I Illill " I I I I_"_JlllV_'"l ]_
I I I I]ll 101
lO 10 2 10 3 10 4 101 102 I0 3 10 4
Distance between spacecraft, m Distance between spacecraft, m

(a) Oxygen atoms. (b) Nitrogen atoms.

Figure 8-2.- Spectrometer signal as a function of spacecraft separation distance.

8-16
 1.0

Oxygenatoms f o _'_'.
.9 x - 100m _,,o _ o,oS
[0] - 4xlOgcm -3 •r /ss °-
TL - 600K / ,/ s"
.8 - 130.Onto /s //o

//;
.7 /// lOcm
.t---r?- .... T G - 700K
f [_" ...... T G - ]050K
.6 //sO0- ....... TG - 1400K
e-
.o ///
"_ .5

i--

.4

.3

.2

.l

l I l I I I
3 6 9 12 15 18
Observationangle 8, deg

(a) Oxygen atoms.

l.O Figure 8-4.- Arrangement of mirrors

in the retrorefleetor array.
x - lO00 m
.9 [N]Nitrogen atoms
3 X 107
• cm-3 /_
TL -600K
_S/sJ

.8 k = 120.0 nm S_//ss
c
.o_
L._/.-._,'
.......... TG -700 K
• _e"

"_ .7 ............... TG - 1050 K

L-
b--"

.6 *--- ................ TG 1400 K

.5

.4 I I I I L I I
3 6 9 12 15 18 2l
Observationangle O, deg

(b) Nitrogen atoms.

Figure 8-3.- Variation of atmospherie

transmission as a funetion of the
observation angle.

8-17
 Spectrometer _ Lamp _,_

collecting _ collimating _ _" _...../

To "'..... ,,
mirror __ _
spectrometer _// ,_. 3°
Tocorner reflector

I/t_/i/,,
/ Ii
Fromcorner reflector
• |

I /

Baffles"-"- 3° D
Tocorner reflector

'

Figure 8-5 .- Schematic diagram of optical transmitting and collecting system.

I' 9.9cm
_- 1.0
I
I' Ox_en Nitrogen

lcm
i

_
--3. 3 cm---_

.__J_ [:"-I 3. 3.cm---_

_=._ ._
U_

c_
/ rns
i L ,.!col
i .2
li "'.. I _Z '_ .4
_t_L_ ._-_,__/
-.i"
// ',\
Visible _- 0 I 1 I
129.0 130.0 131.0 132.0
.... Return beamdimensionsfrom single point on lampmirror Spectrometerwavelength, nm
----- Return beamdimensionsfrom entire lampmirror

Figure 8-7.- Transmitted and resonance

Figure 8-6.- Geometry of return beam fluorescence signals as a function of
from the retroreflector array. spectrometer wavelength setting.

8-18
 V

' Behind

t_,/
i I_ ,_

,I I _ /

, / i \/
Ahead
ind

Figure 8-8.- Illustration of the 150- Figure 8-9.- Illustration of the 500-
meter out-of-plane data take. The meter out-of-plane data take; V is
symbol V represents the velocity velocity vector.
vector.

8-19
 d
c,

k
Q,
c,

E"
I
0
0
v)

M
.-ck
7
a

8-20
8-21
 2.0

.o_

.m ,m

1.0

0 I I I t I I I I I J
101:17:37.1 101:17:38.1 101:17:39.1 101:17:40.1 101:17:41.1 101:17:42.1 101:17:43.1 101:17:44.1 101:17:45.1 101:17:46.1 101:17:47.1
GET,hr:min:sec

Figure 8-12 .- Ratio of the 130.3- to 135.6-nanometer signal during the

500-meter data take.

1400-

_ Veloci._ vector
1200

I000

(a) Ram side.

,3
_400

Velocity vector
200

Apollo _,50m separation,,,_l /

above
0
Apollo
below

2O0
Apollo Apollo
ahead beh nd I
40_ I I I I I

lO00 80O 600 400 200 0 200 400

Horizontal distance,m (b) Lee side.

Figure 8-13.- Illustration of the 1000- Figure 8-14 .- Collecting aperture

meter in-plane data take; V is orientation on Apollo docking
velocity vector. module.

8-22
 o STRATOSPHERIC AEROSOL MEASUREMENT

EXPERIMENT MA-007

T. J. Pepin at and M. P. McCormick b

ABSTRACT

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement Experiment

was flown to demonstrate that direct solar occultation measurements by photometers
and photographs can be used for defining stratospheric aerosol concentrations.
Supporting ground-truth data were provided by laser radar and balloon-borne dust-
sonde. Initial results show a significant difference in aerosol concentrations be-
tween the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

INTRODUCTION

This experiment was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of remotely sens-

ing aerosols in the stratosphere from a low-orbiting manned spacecraft. Increasing
interest in the stratosphere has led to the investigation of methods for remote sens-
ing from Earth-orbiting satellites. Information gained from the Stratospheric Aero-
sol Measurement (SAM) Experiment performed during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
(ASTP) mission will be used in the design of remote-sensing equipment for future
satellite missions.

The instrument used for making these stratospheric aerosol measurements

consisted of a photometer and associated electronics that provided a signal to the
command module (CM) telemetry system. A Hasselblad data camera (HDC) equipped
with special infrared (IR) film and filter was used to photograph the sunset and sun-
rise events. The experiment technique involved directly measuring solar intensity
(photometer) and Sun shape (photographs) in the spectral region centered at ap-
proximately 0.84 micrometer. Immediately before satellite night, as the spacecraft
approached the shadow of the Earth, the line of sight to the Sun passed first through
the upper layers of the stratosphere and then steadily down into the lower layer of
the troposphere. During the 1.5 minutes (approximately) required for the instru-
ment line of sight to pass through the lower 150 kilometers of the atmosphere, the
solar intensity was recorded by the photometer, and solar disk shape changes were
recorded in photographs. The same set of measurements was made at satellite
dawn as the spacecraft emerged from the shadow of the Earth.

auniversity of Wyoming.
bNASA Langley Research Center.

tPrincipal Investigator.

9-1
 The total extinction coefficient was obtained from the variation of the solar
intensity as a function of total airmass distributed along the line of sight. At the
effective wavelength of the photometer and the photographic system, the extinction
was principally produced by the atmospheric aerosols; the measurements are being
used to determine the aerosol concentration.

To verify the performance of the SAMExperiment, ground-truth data were

acquired by a balloon-borne aerosol optical counter and a ground-based laser radar
(lidar) system. The balloon-borne counter was flown from the Richards-Gebaur
Air Force Base Oat. 39° N, long. 95° W) near Kansas City, Missouri, at the same
time and place of the ASTP second sunset SAM. The lidar measurements were also
made from Richards-Gebaur Air Force Base on Earth nights bracketing and during
the second sunset SAM.

THE SAM INSTRUMENT

The photometer (fig. 9-1) used for the SAM Experiment utilizes a pin diode
detector having a 10° field of view (FOV), which was used to look at the Sun
through the CM window at a wavelength centered at approximately 0.84 micrometer.
The detector was used in the photovoltaic mode to detect the solar signal, and sam-
ples were taken at a rate of 10 samples/sec using a 12-bit analog-to-digital conver-
ter. The signal output of the converter was recorded and transmitted by the CM
data system.
The photometer was equipped with a projection sight system consisting of a
post whose shadow was projected onto a grid that could be observed by the astro-
naut to ensure that the photometer system was properly alined with respect to the
Sun. The instrument also included a green light to verify that the power was
properly connected and a switch that the astronaut could activate to send a known
signal over the telemetry system to verify proper installation of the photometer in
the CM.

CAMERA SYSTEM

The photographic portion of the experiment consisted of a series of timed IR

photographs of spacecraft sunrises and sunsets taken through the CM window with
an HDC. The 250-millimeter focal length (12.5 ° by 12.5 ° FOV), f/5.6 lens was fitted
with a quality glass IR filter capable of obtaining at least three orders of magnitude
blocking in the visible and the ultraviolet. Kodak multispectral IR aerial film
(ESTAR-AH base) SO-289 was used in two 70-millimeter Hasselblad magazines.
Each magazine contained film for 50 frames with an additional 1 meter reserved for
sensitometric calibration exposures. The HDC had a self-contained battery power
supply for shutter activation and film advance. An onboard intervalometer provided
a contact closure to the HDC every 2.5 seconds during the experiment to trigger the
camera automatically. Timing with SAM data was to be provided by an audio chan-
nel of the spacecraft tape recorder.

9-2
 THE BALLOON-BORNE"DUSTSONDE"

Figure 9-2 is a schematic drawing of the University of Wyoming balloon-

borne dustsonde used in this program for the ground-truth in situ aerosol measure-
ment that was made from the Richards-Gebaur Air Force Base. The mode of opera-
tion of the dustsonde is described in the following discussion.

Air sampled on balloon ascent and parachute descent is pumped at approxi-

mately 0.75 liter/rain in a well-defined stream through the focal point of the con-
denser lens in the 2.5-liter scattering chamb_erwhere individual particles scatter
light into the microscopes. The light pulses that can be observed with the micro-
scopes are detected and amplified by the photomultipliers. By pulse-height dis-
crimination and careful laboratory calibration with aerosols of known size and index
of refraction, the integral concentration of aerosol particles larger than 0.3 micro-
meter and 0.5 micrometer in diameter can be determined.

Two photomultipliers were used to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio by re-

quiring coincident events from the two detectors. The background noise for the
system was mainly due to Rayleigh scattering from the air molecules in the chamber
at low altitude and from cosmic-ray scintillation in the photomultiplier glass at high
altitudes. The background was measured approximately every 15 minutes during
the flight by passing filtered air through the chamber. For the system used in the
Kansas City flight, the background was negligible above a 10-kilometer altitude.
Corrections for the background have been used below this altitude. The dustsonde
was also equipped with a rawinsonde temperature element for recording the atmos-
pheric temperature profile.

LIDAR

Ground-based lidar measurements were used as part of the ground truth for
the experiment. Generally, laser radars operate in the following manner. A Q-
switched laser emits a pulse of nearly monochromatic light approximately 30 nano-
seconds in duration. Molecules and suspended particulate matter (aerosols) scatter
and/or absorb this radiation as the pulse propagates through the atmosphere. A
small portion of this light is scattered directly back toward the laser. A receiver
composed of mirrors and/or lenses collects this backscattered radiation and diverts
it onto a photodetector the output of which is measured as a function of elapsed time
after laser emission, or range. The backscattered energy incident on the photode-
tector is examined spectrally at or near the laser output wavelength with color
filters, interference filters, or spectrometers. This enhances the signal-to-noise
ratio by reducing unwanted background radiation and determines whether elastic
or inelastic techniques will be used.

The lidar measurements for the SAMexperiment were provided by the Langley
Research Center (LaRC) 122-centimeter (48 inch) laser radar system (fig. 9-3),
which consists of two temperature-controlled lasers (ruby and neodymium-doped
glass) mounted on either side of an f/10 cassegrainian-configured telescope com-
posed of a 122-centimeter (48 inch) diameter, f/2, all-metal primary and a 25.4-
centimeter (10 inch) diameter secondary. The output from the detector package is

9-3
recorded by a high-speed data acquisition system. Analog signals are amplified and
bandwidth limited, digitized at a 5- or 10-megahertz rate with 8-bit accuracy, and
recorded on magnetic tape. A 16-bit-word storage eomputer is used to control the
data acquisition system and to process the data. An X-band microwave radar, co-
incident with the laser system axis, is used to ensure safe operation in the atmos-
phere. A rotating shutter reduces laser fluorescence after Q switching. The entire
system is mobile and can scan in elevation and azimuth at a slew rate of 1°/see.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS

The SAMExperiment was designed to observe four events. In the 95th revo-
lution, measurementswere made of a sunset observation off the coast of New Jersey
(lat. 39° 10' N, long. 72° 45' W)1 and of a sunrise observation over the Indian Ocean
off the coast of Australia (lat. 43° S, long. 99° 55' E). In the 96th revolution, a
sunset observation was taken over Kansas City, Missouri (lat. 38° 57' N, long. 95°
06' W), followed by a sunrise observation over the Indian Ocean (lat. 42° 55' S,
long. 77° 39' E). The SAMphotometer was used to obtain radiometrie measurements
during each of these four events. Preliminary inversions of the data for two of the
events are shown in figure 9-4. Because the final spacecraft ephemeris was only
recently received, these data may shift in altitude or be extended in altitude when
the final analysis is complete. Notice that the total extinction is greater in the
Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. This difference in aerosol
content is believed to be due to the injection of material from the Volean de Fuego
in Guatemala (lat. 14.5° N) that erupted in Oetober 1974. The general meridional
circulation of injected mass into the atmosphere would normally be northward at this
time of the year. This movement reverses in the summer with the buildup of aero-
sols in the Southern Hemisphere. This was just beginning at the time of the ASTP
mission. The slight difference in altitude of the peak extinction is believed to be
due to seasonal differences in the height of the tropopause.

Photographs were made of the first sunrise and the second sunset with the
HDC. Figure 9-5 is a composite of several of the photographs taken during the first
sunrise and shows the observed refracted images of the solar disk superimposed on
a grid showing the horizon and tangent altitudes of the Earth. These photographs
confirm that, at spacecraft altitude, the refracted image of the Sun must be a factor
in the design of future solar occultation experiments.
Ground-truth data were obtained with the Wyoming dustsonde and the LaRC
lidar. Data from the Kansas City balloon flight (lat. 38.8° N, long. 94.7° E)
launched on July 21, 1975, at 23:58 GMT are shown in figures 9-6 and 9-7. Figure
9-6 presents the measured temperature profile, and figure 9-7 presents the measured
aerosol concentration for particles larger than 0.3 micrometer in diameter. The
LaRC lidar system was used during the nights of July 21 and July 22 to obtain laser

1Theseare the geometrie coordinates of the tangent point of the 0-kilometer

high-grazing ray to the Sun.

9-4
backscatter measurements of the stratospheric aerosols above Kansas City. Fig-
ure 9-8 shows the backscatter ratios 2 obtained during one of these measurements
made above Kansas City on July 22 at 04:51 GMT. Note the agreement in the altitude
of the peak aerosol concentration obtained by three different techniques.

CONCLUSIONS
3

The SAMExperiment was performed by the ASTP crewmen as planned. The

experiment demonstrated that solar occultation is a viable remote-sensing technique
for measuring the vertical concentration of stratospheric aerosols. The solar photo-
graphs corroborated the refraction model needed for future solar oceultation experi-
ments. The inversion process that was used to reduce the SAM data was confirmed
by the agreement with the ground-truth lidar and dustsonde measurements, and
these data show that the solar occultation, lidar, and dustsonde data agree in alti-
tude distribution. In addition, the inversions from the SAM Experiment show a
significant difference between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres in the peak
aerosol concentration, with the Northern Hemisphere having a factor of at least I. 5
greater than that of the Southern Hemisphere.

2Backscatter ratio is the ratio of total observed backscatter to the Rayleigh

backscatter.
3Also see section 1.

9-5
Figure 9-1.- The photometer used for
making stratospheric aerosol meas-
urements.

Exhaust

Figure 9-2 .- Schematic drawing of the University of Wyoming dustsonde used

for ground- truth measurements .

9-6
Figure 9- 3 . - The NASA Langley Re- <O - 4 lo-*
search Center 122-centimeter (48 Total extinction, km-'
inch) lidar system.
Figure 9-4.- Inverted SAM data of ex-
tinction a s a function of altitude,
Event 1 (lat; 39O10' N , long.
72O45' W) was measured at sunset
(07: 04 GMT) on July 22, 1975.
Event 4 (lat. 42O55' S , long.
77O39' E ) was measured at sunrise
(02: 14: 39 GMT) on July 22, 1975.

ot I I I I 1 I 1 I
-2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 125 I5 17.5
Time, sec

Figure 9-5 .-
Composite of photographs
taken during the first sunset. I

I
9-7 i
 5OO 5O0
(5) . 35 (5)

1ooo
(I0)

i I
I

% 150)

lOOOO L_
(I00)

20 _
(2001

50 000
(500) 5
50 000
(.500) 5 21m9
100 000 0
(1 000) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
100 000
(zoool__53
-333 -313 -293 273 293 Aerosol concentration, particles/cm 3 >0. 3 _m diam
(-80) (-60) (-40) (-20) (0) (20)
Temperature,
K (°O Figure 9-7.- Measured dustsonde aero-
sol concentration (>0.3 _m diameter)
Figure 9-6.- Measured temperature above Kansas City, Missouri. Cur-
profile above Kansas City, Missouri. ved lines indicate moving ratio.

60_ 0

5O

4O

20

Cirrus cloud

10

Figure 9-8.- Lidar aerosol profile taken

I I 1 I
2 3 4 5 above Kansas City, Missouri, on
Backscatterrat_ July 22, 1975, at 04:51 GMT.

9-8
 10. EARTH OBSERVATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHY

EXPERIMENT MA- 136

Farouk E1-Baz at and D. A. Mitchell a

ABSTRACT

The Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab missions showed that orbiting astronauts can
provide valuable data composed of visual observations and photographs. For this
reason, the primary objectives of the Earth Observations and Photography Experi-
ment of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project were to photograph various terrestrial struc-
tures and to use the capabilities of man as a trained observer in visually studying
Earth features and phenomena. Man's special capabilities include the sensitivity
of the eye to subtle color variations and the speed with which the eye-brain system
can interpret what is seen and select targets for photography.

Real-time astronaut observations constitute a useful complement to orbital

photographs and greatly aid in their interpretation. Targets for mapping and
hand-held photography were selected on the basis of their value to specialists
in the Earth sciences including geology, oceanography, desert study, hydrology,
meteorology, and environmental science.

INTRODUCTION

Background

The experiences of the Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab Programs proved that
scientifically interesting features can be selected and photographed by observers
in space. Photographic records of these programs include a plethora of valuable
scenes taken from orbital altitudes, both from Earth orbit (e.g., refs. 10-1 to 10-4)
and from lunar orbit (e .g., refs. 10-5 to 10-7).

During the Apollo Program, it became apparent that the orbiting astronauts
could see more than what was recorded on film. To test this capability, plans
were made, beginning with the Apollo 13 crew, to train Moon-bound astronauts to
make visual observations. However, because the Apollo 13 mission was aborted,
the first attempt at making visual observations from lunar orbit was made on
Apollo 14. The results were encouraging (ref. 10-8), and a program was developed
for the systematic acquisition of scientifically relevant data on Apollo 15 (refs. 10-9
and 10-10), Apollo 16 (refs. 10-11 and 10-12), and Apollo 17 (refs. 10-13 and

aNational Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.

tprincipal Investigator.

10-1
10-14). Emphasis was placed on the command module pilot (CMP) of each Apollo
mission because he spent more time in lunar orbit than did his crewmates. Also,
premission training and data acquisition were limited to the field of lunar geology
during the Apollo missions.

The Skylab Program provided the first opportunity to pursue a systematic

visual study of the Earth. However, this study was done only on the last of three
missions, Skylab 4. Because of the nature of the Earth, the Skylab visual obser-
vations program included geology, oceanography, hydrology, meteorology, etc.
(ref. 10-15). The long duration of the mission (84 days) allowed repeated observa-
tions of the same area and during different seasons. Observations on Skylab 4 and
their documentation with photographs proved to be a very worthwhile effort and
resulted in significant findings (ref. 10-15). During the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
(ASTP), selected features of interest from the Skylab Earth observations program
were reexamined and viewed from a different altitude, 2 years later in time.

Visual Observation Team

To assist in the planning and implementation of the ASTP Earth Observations

and Photography Experiment, a team of experts in the fields of geology, ocean-
ography, desert study, hydrology, meteorology, and environmental science was
assembled. The Earth observations team (table 10-I) was composed of 42 individ-
uals, including the Principal Investigator (PI) and 12 Co-Investigators (Co-I). The
responsibilities of this team of experts and support personnel were as follows.

1 To collect and compile problems to be solved in support of ongoing

research in the Earth sciences.

2. To evaluate and select achievable goals based on experience and level of

crew training.

3 To recommend and pursue a training program of mutually acceptable

procedures and sites.

4 To identify Flight Plan requirements and tools necessary to achieve the

obj ectives.

5 To support the mission operations for nominal and contingency flight

plans.

6 To report the results and the possible applications to future space flight.

Earth Observation Sites

The primary objective of the ASTP Earth Observations and Photography

Experiment was to use the Apollo and Skylab experiences in acquiring photographs
of specific Earth features, processes, and phenomena and in making visual obser-
vations from orbit to complement photographic data. Visual sightings are needed
because the extensive dynamic range and color sensitivities of the eye cannot be
matched by any one film type and also because, in special cases, on-the-scene
interpretations of obscured features and phenomena are necessary.

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 To achieve the primary objective, both photographic mapping and visual
observation sites were included in the Flight Plan. A total of 11 mapping sites
(table 10-II) and 12 visual observation sites (fig. 10-1) were selected. The 12
visual observation sites were chosen according to geographic localities and included
60 specific targets of prime scientific interest (table 10-III). This method of target
identification made it possible for both planners and astronauts to easily discuss
and locate targets selected for scientific investigations.

Crew Training

One of the main objectives of the Earth Observations and Photography Experi-
ment was to utilize the capabilities of man as a trained observer in orbit. In
accordance with this goal, an extensive training program consisting of classroom
sessions and flyover exercises was initiated 1 year before the mission.

Classroom training was conducted by Earth scientists from various disci-

plines. These specialists briefed the astronauts on the types of Earth features
they would observe from orbit. The first lectures on geology, hydrology, ocean-
ography, desert studies, and meteorology consisted of background on theory and
familiarization with terminology. Subsequent lectures were scheduled on the basis
of crew interest. Other sessions, conducted mainly by the Principal Investigator,
covered (1) operational procedures and viewing conditions and constraints and
(2) groundtrack familiarization and specific photographic and observational
requirements. The crew received approximately 60 hours of classroom training
during 20 sessions. A schedule of the training sessions is given in table 10-1V.

The flyover exercises were designed to give the astronauts practical

experience in target acquisition and site selection and to familiarize them with the
types of features they would observe from Earth orbit. The astronauts were also
able to practice verbalizing about and handling onboard equipment, including
cameras, lenses, the color wheel, and the tape recorder. Each flyover exercise
consisted of a predetermined flight route with a visual observations book designed
for that particular flight and similar to the one to be used during the actual mission.
Seven high-altitude flyover exercises (table 10-V) were planned over areas of the
United States. The California flyover was repeated twice and the Florida flyover
once for a total of 10 flyover exercises. During these flights, the astronauts
observed both sites scheduled for observation during ASTP and examples of the
various types of ocean features and landforms they would view from Earth orbit.

These flyovers were valuable in showing the astronauts how to select the
optimum conditions for observations and photography. For example, they found
that sunglint was especially important in observing ocean features such as currents,
eddies, and internal waves. On land, high Sun angles were best for observing
color variations, whereas a low Sun angle enhanced relief and facilitated observa-
tions of faults and sand dunes. The flyover exercises gave the crew valuable
practice in making visual observations and acquiring photographs.

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 METHODSAND TECHNIQUES

Photographic Systems

Three types of imaging systems (video, cameras, and scanners) have been
successfully used in Earth-orbital surveys. The ASTP photographs of observation
and mapping sites were made with a video tape recorder (VTR), a 70-millimeter
Hasselblad reflex camera (HRC), a 70-millimeter Hasselblad data camera (HDC),
a 35-millimeter Nikon camera (with exposure control), and a 16-millimeter data
acquisition camera (DAC).
The 70-millimeter HDCwas usually bracket mounted and could accept both
60-millimeter and 100-millimeter lenses. An intervalometer was used, and the
frequency of frame usage was calculated to provide stereoscopic coverage with
a 60-percent overlap. The HDC was equipped with a reseau plate to improve
geometric accuracy and to allow the construction of controlled photomosaics. In
general, the photographs obtained with the HDC are excellent, with the exceptions
of a few short segments of unplanned photography that were out of focus and one
mapping pass over the northeastern United States in which the wrong lens was
used.

In addition to mapping strips, photographs of approximately 60 observation

sites were madeusing either the hand-held HRC with the 50- or 250-millimeter lens
or the HDC. However, most of the visual observation targets were photographed
with the HRC. The HRC has a single lens reflex mechanism that allows the astronaut
to see what he is photographing. The crew reported that light loss through the
250-millimeter lens made it difficult to locate the target and to center it within a
frame. However, all photographs taken with this lens are excellent. The 16-
millimeter DAC was used to acquire photographic data over the western Sahara and
to provide a sequential film of color zone transitions in the largest sand sea in the
world.

Real-time television transmissions were also scheduled, and images of the

daylight portion of revolution 124over the Pacific Ocean were recorded on the VTR.
These color television images of the Earth are potentially capable of providing new
data in poorly studied areas and in areas such as the Pacific Ocean, which is too
vast for conventional oceanographic surveys. They can give scientists an astro-
naut's perspective of target acquisition and tracking and also provide imagery that
can possibly be reformatted for stereographie and radiometric analysis.

Thirteen magazines of color film were used for the scheduled mapping sites
(type SO-242) and observation targets (type SO-368). The SO-368film was
specially coatedwith the equivalent of a Wratten 2A filter to improve the color
sensitivity of the film by eliminating the effects of short wavelengths. Two maga-
zines of type 2443 color infrared film were also used to facilitate identification of
features such as volcanic rocks and red tide blooms.

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 Visual Observation Aids

The human eye-brain system is similar to a camera in that it has a lens and
an iris, it generates images with good resolution and geometric fidelity (the
resolving power of the unaided human eye is 0.0003 radian or approximately 0.60 °
(ref. 10-9)), and it is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation in the visible region.
Under laboratory conditions, the eye is estimated to be able to distinguish 1 X 7.56
color surfaces, a precision that is 2 to 3 times better than most photoelectric
spectrophotometers (ref. 10-16).

The eye can easily distinguish subtle color variations to a greater extent
than any commercially manufactured film, but the brain cannot recall these after a
given period of time has elapsed. Real-time calibration of desert and water colors
was achieved by the use of a two-sided color wheel composed of carefully selected
Munsell colors (fig. 10-2 and table 10-VI). These colors can be compared to the
photographs to apprise users of the color sensitivity and fidelity of the film.
However, the crew indicated that it was sometimes difficult to make good compari-
sons because variable lighting conditions inside the spacecraft often resulted in
the color wheel being in the shade.

To assist in the acquisition and location of visual observation targets, the

use of 20-power binoculars was originally planned_ However, after the crew tested
the binoculars during flyover exercises, a change was made to use a 16-power
monocular. The crew believed the monocular would provide a more convenient
means of checking the eye's resolution and of locating targets. During postmission
evaluation, the astronauts indicated that the usefulness of the spotting scope was
curtailed by the speed with which a target passed outside their field of view.

The principal onboard aid was the "Earth Observations Book." This book
was divided into three major sections. The first section contained (1) a time line
summarizing the visual observation tasks and mapping camera configurations and
(2) a stowage list and a review of operational procedures. Information in the second
section pertained to specific visual observation targets and was arranged according
to site numbers. For each site, there was a summary page with a map showing
revolution groundtracks followed by a page (one for each target) that included
specific questions, appropriate diagrams and photographs, and camera settings.
The last section was a reference appendix that included maps of the distribution of
volcanoes, ocean currents, July cloud cover, etc., and diagrams of various Earth
features such as drainage patterns, ocean phenomena, dune types, and faults.

Flight Planning

Earth observations and photography mission tasks required approximately

12 hours of crew time. These tasks were planned during 24 revolutions and
assigned to specific crewmembers. The task assignments for the mapping sites
and the visual observation targets are listed in table 10-VII.

Planning for the ASTP mission also included simulations of real-time

activities. The Earth observations team participated in three mission simulations
to practice interaction with other Mission Control Center personnel and with the

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crew. These proved to be very useful exercises because the need existed for
verbal communications with the astronauts during the mission. The Earth
observations team supported the mission and was in contact with ground-truth data
collection parties on a 24-hour basis throughout the mission.

RESULTS

Ground-Truth Data

During the real-time operations of the ASTP mission, the largest air, sea,
and ground support team of any manned mission collected ground truth to expedite
the postmission interpretation of orbital observations and photography (fig. 10-3).
This support included the acquisition of metric and multispectral photography by
high-altitude aircraft. Aerial photography was acquired simultaneously during
several ASTP photographic passes to link ground-based studies with Earth-orbital
observations. Ocean research vessels obtained data on sea surface temperatures,
salinity, water color, current directions, and cloud types and heights. On land,
ground-truth teams collected data to support geological, hydrological, and desert
research projects in India, Guatemala, Mexico, the United States, and Egypt. A
summary of the reported support operations follows.

ANZUS Eddy (site 11D).- The Australian ship Bombard, stationed in the
Tasman Sea, surveyed the warm water ANZUS (Australia-New Zealand-United States)
Eddy. Oceanographic data indicated that the nearly circular eddy was 145 to
160 kilometers in diameter with surface temperatures 2 ° warmer than the sur-
rounding water. Ship personnel also reported a cumulus cloud formation over the
center of the eddy and a number of trawlers fishing for tuna within the eddy.

Caribbean (site 7G).- To support crew observations and photography of

the extent of organic acid outflow from the Orinoco River, the Bellairs Research
Institute of McGill University sponsored three cruises from the island of Barbados
on July 21, 22, and 23. Observations and measurements were made of sea state,
water color, sea surface temperature, salinity, chlorophyll content, cloud cover,
and wind speed and direction.

Eg_ypt (sites 9E and M7).- For the revolution 71 mapping pass over Egypt,
geologists from the Ain Shams University in Cairo will provide ground-truth data
to be used in support of a photogeological investigation of the Western Desert of
Egypt. Field work will be carried out at Abu R_wash, Oweinat Mountain, and the
Faiydm, Bahar_ya, and Far_fra Oases (fig. 10-4). Ground investigations include
detailed mapping, characterization of the structural and topographic setting, and
studies of desert erosion patterns and grain transportation. The major objective is
to use the geological data in verifying color zonation and other features recorded
on the ASTP film.

England (sites 6A and 6B).- The Royal Air Force flew a 3-day sequence
over ocean waters off southern Ireland and England. Expendable bathythermo-
graphs (XBT's) were dropped from the planes to provide data on water temperature
as a function of depth.

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 Gulf of Mexico (site 5A).- The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration (NOAA) research vessel Virginia Key made a transect of the Gulf of Mexico
from Miami to the Yucatan peninsula and obtained data on the location of the Gulf
Loop Current. Approximately 20 NOAA ships were also stationed around the
Mississippi River Delta.

New Zealand (site 1).- The Royal New Zealand Air Force flew P-3 airplanes
along th-ere_n i-7 gro'undtrack starting from East Cape, New Zealand, then
north-northeast over the Pacific Ocean to obtain photographic data and to plot cloud
types and heights. A New Zealand Navy research vessel made a transit along the
same line and acquired oceanographic data, including water temperatures and sound
velocity measurements.

Strait of Gibraltar (sites 9K and 9J).- The U.S. Navy research vessel Kane
obtained oceanographic data along a line paralleling the revolution 73 groundtrack
from the Canary Islands to Spain. These data were obtained to support crew
observations of a current boundary extending north and south off the western coast
of Portugal. The Navy also flew a P-3 aircraft along this line dropping XBT's.
East of the strait in the Mediterranean Sea, the carrier U.S.S. Kennedy obtained
oceanographic and meteorological data.

United States (sites 2A, 4A, 4B, 5B, 5E, and 5F).-Several high-altitude
flights were flown over the United States with a B-57 aircraft based at the NASA
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center and a U-2 aircraft based at the NASA Ames
Research Center. Metric and multispectral photography was obtained with a metric
RC-10 camera and a multispectral Vinten System A camera. Sensor data are pro-
vided in table 10-VIII. Photographic coverage was acquired over the East Coast
(coastal areas of New York, Massachusetts, and Maine), Florida (coastal areas),
the northwestern United States (Washington, Idaho, and Oregon), and the south-
western United States (from Kingman, Arizona, to Santa Maria, California).

In addition to the aircraft support, ocean research vessels made measure-

ments in the Gulf Stream and along the New England coast. The U.S.S. Preserver
collected data in the Gulf Stream north of Jacksonville, Florida, on the distribution,
size, and velocities of eddies. The ship also released four drifting buoys that had
transmitters to the Nimbus-F satellite. The buoys were positioned about once a day
throughout the mission and provided data on current direction and velocity.

In New England, two Bigelow Laboratory research vessels (the Bigelow

and the Challange) made a traverse of the Gulf of Maine from Portland to the
Bay of Fundy and also southward to Cape Cod. Data were obtained on the size,
shape, and location of red water patches due to toxic phytoplankton and included
measurements of sea surface temperature, salinity, chlorophyll content, and water
color. In addition to the red tide observations off the coast of Maine, support ships
and sampling stations of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts acquired water color,
salinity, and biological content data. A high chlorophyll content in the coastal
waters off New England was reported and was possibly the result of abnormally
heavy rains carrying an increased amount of biota into the sea.

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 Mission Data

A total of 11 mapping passes and 60 visual observation sites was scheduled.

Only one mapping pass was canceled (on revolution 15/16) because of problems in
the Flight Plan. Approximately 20 percent of the 100planned observations of the
60 sites were not performed because of bad weather, making the overall success
measure of the experiment approximately 80 percent. The summary results of the
photographic mapping sites and the visual observation targets are given in
tables 10-1Xand 10-X, respectively.

DISCUSSION

The quality of photographic data obtained in previous Earth-orbital surveys

has firmly established their value as basic tools in the evaluation of terrestrial
features and in the reconnaissance of remote locations. Before the _STP mission,
several types of photographic systems were successfully used in spacecraft. On
the Skylab missions, the Earth resources experiment package included a multi-
spectral array of six cameras (with various film/filter combinations in the visible
and infrared) as well as a high-resolution Earth terrain camera.
Two of the more obvious advantages of such orbital systems over aerial
photography are the large regional coverage and the speed with which data can
be obtained. These advantages facilitate the preparation of base maps because
mosaics of large areas can be rapidly prepared with orbital photographs. The
ASTP planning for visual observations and photography utilized these advantages
to their maximum. For example, several mapping passes were scheduled over
areas where general land surveys (including a classification of terrain, mineral
resources, and land use) are either nonexistent or inadequate. Targets were also
selected for photography in oceans and deserts, where size and inaccessibility
make conventional surveys impractical.

The large regional coverage of orbital photographs also provides a more

efficient method for the observation of large-scale phenomena, such as color tran-
sitions within deserts and ocean currents. Orbital photographs have a greater
perspective and are useful in the study of broad distributions and regional
structure; two examples are major fault zones (such as the San Andreas system
and the Levantine Rift) and snow cover and drainage patterns (as in the Cascade
Mountains). One other advantage is the stability of spacecraft as a platform for
Earth-looking photography. Variations in velocity and attitude are minimal and
flightpaths can be determined with great precision. The following is a discussion
of someof the ASTP tasks and results in the fields of Earth science selected for
emphasis on this mission.

Geology
Geological investigations on the ASTP mission included observations of
major active fault zones, river deltas, volcanoes, and astroblemes (ancient impact
scars). Studies of global tectonic patterns were madeby observation and photog-
raphy of somemajor areas of continental crustal fracturing. One of these areas

10-8
was the Levantine Rift, a fault complex formed as a result of the motion of the
Arabian subplate. The crew was asked to observe the northern extensions of this
rift and to obtain photographs necessary to an understanding of the locations and
mechanisms of displacement. Excellent photographs were obtained of the entire
area (e.g., fig. 10-5). The photographs support the theory that motion of the
Arabian subplate is counterclockwise drift rather than eastward rotation. Astronaut
observations of the area provided additional data:

The one thing I noticed was that if you look at the 9Gmap
[fig. 10-6], the dotted line on the left up near the end of it,
makes a bend to the left and follows a new tectonic line or
fault which goes along parallel to the Turkish coast. In
other words, the one on the left, number i, goes up . . . and
then makes a left turn and parallels the Turkish coast. Two
seems to be obscured and it just ends in a lot of jumbled
country up somewhere slightly beyond where the number 2
is, and it seemsto end right in this jumbled area. Three, I
could trace clear up to a river which - I'll have to see a map
later. But I could trace the faults out, going rather eastward.
You could see them through the valley silt, clear up to a
river which must be inland in either Syria or Turkey. So
the overall pattern of these is a fan; three going, almost
eastward, and one bending finally to the north, and two
going to the northeast. (CMP)

Photographs of river deltas were also acquired. In the geologic record,

deltaic sediments are often a source of natural gas and oil accumulation; an under-
standing of the growth of deltas might have applications in the future development
of these resources. Several major river deltas were photographed, including the
Orinoco (fig. 10-7), Rhone, Nile (fig. 10-8), Fraser, Danube, and Yellow Rivers.
These photographs will be compared with previous orbital photographs in an effort
to document the rate and direction of growth of modern deltas.

A study was also made of astroblemes, or ancient impact scars, to increase

knowledge of the interaction of the Earth and meteoritic bodies and to locate new
areas for possible economic exploitation. Photography of this type of feature was
obtained in Libya near the Kufra Oasis (fig. 10-9). Resolution was excellent. The
central dome and ghost ring of one known feature, the BP structure, were easily
recognized. Another circular feature, possibly a twin site, was also identified.

Oceanography

In the field of oceanography, a study was made of major ocean features such
as eddies, currents, and internal waves. Because large areas can be rapidly
surveyed, the global view of oceans from space is especially useful. As previously
stated, extensive ground-truth data collection (fig. 10-3) was coordinated with

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photographic passes to aid in postmission data interpretation. Areas of prime
scientific interest include the following.

Area Interest

Coral Sea Interaction of currents with the Great Barrier Reef

Eddies in the Coral Sea

ANZUSEddy Support of an Australian-New Zealand-United States

oceanographic study of a 200-kilometer-wide eddy
east of Sydney, Australia

Caribbean Sea Ocean currents and their relation to fisheries

Eddies and their relation to the Gulf Stream

Gulf of Mexico Development of the Gulf Loop Current

Eddies and currents in the Yucatan Channel

Mediterranean Sea Observation and photography to support oceano-

graphic study by U .S. Sixth Fleet research team
Effects of reduction of freshwater from the Nile River

Investigations of these features will provide a better understanding of dynamic

ocean phenomena and will have potential applications to trade, shipping, and the
identification of environmental parameters affecting fisheries.

The crewmen remarked that the ease with which oceanographic targets were
discerned was a function of several factors; Sun glitter was identified as the most
influential parameter. For example, the following remarks concerned the visual
identification of internal waves west of the Strait of Gibraltar (fig. 10-10):

I was looking for all these things and suddenly they popped out
within a second right there. Just suddenly when the Sun angle
changed, everything was there, the waves and the boundary were
all there and we just snapped a series on them. But before that,
there was nothing but just solid blue water and then they just
suddenly popped . . . You have to be ready and the Sun angle
has to be just right. And it's there for just a short period of
time and then it's gone. (ACDR)

A study was also made of red tide occurrences off the New England coast.
The crew was informed during the mission that support ships off the coast of Maine
had located a zone of discolored water near the mouth of the Damariscotta River.
This area was observed by the crew, and the DMP later reported:

Per ground request we just shot a few frames here up through

the New England area ending on magazine CX-10 with frame 35.
Trying to pick up the red tide around Boothbay, and we did see
a lot of red coloration in the water there. However, some of it

10-10
 looked to me like it was coming out of the river mouths and is
really sediment. And I hesitate to term it red tide. Weshot
some pictures; maybe we can psych it out later.

Examination of the returned photographs suggests that the DMPphotographed the

area of the Bay of Fundy (fig. 10-11). This area shows the samefeatures that were
expected around Boothbay Harbor, mainly discolored reddish water caused by
sediments from coastal rivers.

To aid oceanographers in the identification and location of ocean features,

the crew was asked to provide the ground-elapsed time (GET) when a target was
observed. However, during the postmission debriefings, the crew indicated that
time was probably insufficient to identify the exact location of an observed ocean
site because they could see such a broad area.

Desert Studies

Deserts occupy nearly one-sixth of the Earth's land masses, but first-order
surveys of most desert regions are inadequate. Size, remoteness, and inaccessi-
bility make conventional aerial surveys impractical and costly. Photographs
acquired from space, however, can provide reliable data that are useful in the
preparation of base maps and in the evaluation of eolian landforms. Orbital images
of large areas can be rapidly acquired for the construction of mosaics and for
distribution analysis of large-scale phenomenasuch as color variation and sand
dune patterns. As part of the ASTP investigation of deserts and arid lands, visual
observations and photography of the following types of features were scheduled.

Feature Interest

Eolian landforms Dune shape, size, and distribution

Dune patterns and their relation to topography,
wind, moisture, and vegetation

Desert color Color transitions within a homogeneous desert

Comparison of equatorial desert color with that of
high-latitude deserts

Processes of Land use

desertification Evolution of dune patterns and effect on
in the Sahel cultivation

Excellent photographs of deserts in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Australia,

and Argentina were acquired. Photography over the Sahara is extensive and
includes two mapping passes over Algeria, Chad, Libya, and Egypt; a strip of
16-millimeter photography over the western Sahara; and numerous hand-held
photographs. This photography will be used in an investigation of eolian geomor-
phology primarily to evolve a classification scheme for deserts in North Africa. In

10-11
addition, a mosaic to be constructed from the mapping photography of Egypt will
be used in a study of the Western Desert of Egypt by a team of geologists from Ain
Shams University, Cairo.

Synoptic photography and astronaut observations also provided valuable

information on desert color. Deserts often contain a significant amount of iron
compoundsthat, because of weathering, oxidize into red-colored ferrous oxides.
Photography of color zonation within a desert where the sand is derived from the
samesource (e.g., fig. 10-12) can be used to determine relative age. The crew
used the color wheel to calibrate variations in the color of North African sand seas.
During photography of the western Sahara with the 16-millimeter DAC, the DMP
madethe following observation:

Wediscovered a large expanse of fairly homogeneous sand desert.

No obvious dune patterns . . . We're now coming to the rocky
volcanic hills of the northeast edge of the big sand desert. Some
very red sand to the north. In fact, it looks almost like a massive
parabolic sand dune, black with red sand behind it. And we're
coming up on a large band of very black barren-looking hills with
great red areas interspersed between them . . Okay, and at
119:50, we're coming up into a couple of areas where the dunes
are now a little better defined; they look like old domes. They're
certainly not stars and they're not linear either. And we get
farther into the north, there is a little linear pattern, but it's
mostly of dome appearances, very homogeneous.

Excellent photographs of the Simpson Desert in Australia were also obtained

(e.g., fig. 10-13). Visual observations were made on several passes over the area,
and the crew was able to identify dune patterns and desert color.

We're going over the Simpson Desert right now. And it's just
fantastie. It's got dunes in it, looks like they are very long,
and they look like road tracks, there are so many of them - like
hundreds of parallel road tracks, it's just plain spectacular. (CMP)

Yeah, and the long red streaks are matching about color 10, I
would say on [the color] wheel and some of those long sand
streaks, could have either gone to the 9, between 9 and 10, about
like 9A. (ACDR)

In Argentina, the crew photographed a little-known dune field (fig. 10-14)

and made visual observations of dune shape and the relation of the dune field to
the surrounding topography. The following is an excerpt from the discussion of
this occurrence during the postmission crew debriefings.

10-12
 ACDR Okay, it's right over the edge of the Andes Mountains . . .
And you could really see how they were crescents; it looked
like occasionally maybe the head of the crescent would wash
out, and it would tend to be a linear one with lineations on
the side. There are all those other little crescents up on
the left. That was the area that you wanted me to look at?

PI Yes, that's the only one that we thought existed. We didn't

know that there were two dune fields.

ACDR I'd remembered that there was some type of linear feature.
There were two rays. One was on this edge down here,
which is nearly linear. But the big thing was those huge
crescents; then something else linear caught my eye. I
see what it is now, those very minor ones in the center
left part of the picture.

Co-I This is a particular variety that I haven't seen anywhere

else. I have seen a lot of varieties of this generally
crescentic dune pattern, but nothing where you have
these linear dunes superimposed right on the crescent
and they're oriented in this way. That's totally unlike
anything I have ever seen anywhere else, so this really
is the prize picture as far as desert dune observations
went.

ACDR On that little field up there, it's just the way the boundary
was very well defined, as opposed to the other where this
kind fades out into like a dry lake bed.

Co-I One of the things that is very obvious is the relationship

between the edge of the alluvial fan and the beginning of
the dune fields; it's very, very sharp. That's not a very
red dune field, is it?

ACDR No, it'snot.

Co-I Does it look about like the ones you see in the southwestern
United States in terms of color?

DMP I would say so. We had a fairly early morning light.

ACDR I think it's close. We have early morning light there and
low Sun angles. It didn't have the redness like the
Simpson does or anything like that.

Hydrology

Hydrological investigations included photography of snow cover and drainage

patterns as well as visual observations of glaciers, firn lines, and closed water
basins. Mapping of snowpack distribution is important in the estimation of the

10-13
volume of water reaching drainage systems for use in irrigation and the control of
floods. Targets for snow cover photography included the Cascade Mountains in
the northwestern United States (fig. 10-15), the Andes Mountains in South America,
and the Himalaya Mountains in southern Asia. Coverage of the Cascades and
Andes was acquired; however, the Himalayan photography was not successful
because of cloud cover.

Visual observations of glaciers and firn lines were also scheduled to test
the limits of the eye's resolution. The crew was successful in distinguishing firn
lines and remarked that this was a function of both texture and color. The following
remarks were made during the postmission debriefings.

CMP The best case, I believe, was in the Alberta-British

Columbia area. I very easily saw a firn line on one big
glacier up there.

PI How did you make the distinction? Why do you think

you were able to see that? Because of color or texture?

CMP Texture and color and even shininess, you might say.
Surface texture, I guess.

PI The ice being more gray?

DMP Kind of a gray compared to pure white.

ACDR Yes, it goes from white to gray. And the firn line
wasn't just a straight line; it was kind of jagged. It
wasn't a clear line.

DMP But I thought I could see texture down below it also,

that sort of looked like flow patterns going parallel
with the glaciers.

A study was also made of major lakes including Lake Chad, the Great Salt
Lake, Lake Eyre, and the Caspian Sea. Lake Chad, once one of Africa's largest
lakes, lies in the Sahel region between the savanna land and the sandy desert.
To the northeast, it is bounded by fossil dunes; from the south, tropical rivers
flow into the lake, bringing sediment and freshwater. The rapid decrease in lake
size has been attributed to three factors: the influx of sand from the Sahara, the
accumulation of sediments deposited by inflowing rivers from the south, and the
evaporation of surface waters.

The possibility that Lake Chad might eventually dry up presents a problem
because the southern part of the lake is biologically productive and rich in fish.
The ASTP photography will be compared to Skylab data to determine the rate of
change in the size of Lake Chad. Many more dunes are now visible within the lake
(fig. 10-16).

10-14
 The ASTP photography of the Great Salt Lake in the United States will also be
compared to Skylab imagery. Construction of a railroad causeway in 1956has
essentially divided the lake into two basins. Almost 90 percent of the lake's inflow
now enters the southern half, resulting in a rise in water level and a decrease in
salinity in that half. Conversely, waters in the northern basin have become
oversaturated with salts and minerals. This change in salinity is easily detected
from orbit because the presence of different types of algae has given each half a
different color. These factors have had a serious effect on both the ecology of the
lake region and industrial development.

Meteorology

Meteorological investigations were made in a study of cloud features and

tropical storms. Photography of cloud features includes B6nard cells, K_rm_n
vortices, mountain waves (rotor clouds), atmospheric bow waves in the lee of
islands, and cumulonimbus buildups. The crew also obtained photography of a
developing tropical storm in the Caribbean Sea. The following is an excerpt of
real-time observations over the storm:

It doesn't seem to cover so much area, but it does have a rather

swirling "V" appearance. I don't see an eye, but I can see where
an eye would be. (CMP)

Photographs and visual observations will help meteorologists develop com-

puter models of hurricanes and tropical storms. Stereophotographs of a dissipating
storm were also taken and will be used in making a three-dimensional stereoscopic
model of the storm to help decipher its "topography." The stereoscopic model in
turn will affect theoretical models of storm development and dissipation. Excellent
photography of thunderstorms was also acquired and will be used in studies of
severe storm development (fig. 10-17).

Unusual photographs of large-scale intersecting cloud streaks were obtained

(fig. 10-18). During postmission debriefings, the crew reported that these features
were too large to be contrails and had a wedge-shaped appearance:

DMP We saw an awful lot of contrails over the North Atlantic

and it's nothing like that. They just don't get that big.

CMP Contrails were lines; these are wedges practically.

QUERY Remember from Skylab, when they took a picture and

they thought it was the hot air coming from a ship going
through a very low scattered deck about like that, and
there was a plume going right across the apparent trend
of the clouds. Do you think that maybe that was this
same thing?

CMP It's a possibility, I suppose, but at the time it looked

natural.

10-15
 Environmental Studies

Environmental investigations included photography of sources of atmospheric

and water pollution and potential sites for sea farming. The crew recognized and
observed several different sources of atmospheric pollutants, both manmade and
natural. These sources included volcanic plumes, duststorms in the Sahara and
the U.S.S.R., brush fires in Africa, oil fires in the Middle East, ship trails, and
contrails. Astronaut observations were useful in determining the extent and geo-
graphic locations of these features.

Sources of water pollution include suspended sediments, oil spills, and

organic compounds. The occurrence of two types of water pollution was documented
with photography of the Orinoco River Delta (fig. 10-7). In addition to sediments,
the Orinoco River outflow includes a high concentration of humic compounds that
result in the discoloration of the ocean waters for hundreds of kilometers. The
ASTP information, combined with real-time ground-truth data collection, will allow
a better understanding of this phenomenon and its effect on local fisheries.

In cooperation with the International Maritime Commission, observations

of oil slicks in North Atlantic ship routes were planned, but cloud cover and the
lack of sunglint prevented the acquisition of data. However, observations were
made and photographs were taken of oil slicks in the Mediterranean Sea and the
Persian Gulf.

The crew was also asked to observe and photograph several areas designated
by Jacques Cousteau as potential sites for "sea farming." Three sites were sched-
uled in real time and included the Adriatic Sea, the waters south of Cuba, and the
Strait of Georgia.

CONCLUSIONS

Preparation and execution of the ASTP Earth Observations and Photography

Experiment was a highly rewarding experience. The many hours spent in training
the crew, both in flyover exercises and in the classroom, brought significant
results that attest to the value of man in space flight. The astronauts are enthu-
siastic about their contributions, and the participating scientists have a consider-
able amount of new data to be interpreted and analyzed. This analysis will further
our vistas in numerous fields of Earth science.

From the results of this experiment, several conclusions can be drawn in

regard to the most tangible scientific results and the role of man in space.

Tangible Scientific Results

Evaluation of the scientific return of ASTP observations of the Earth has just
begun. It is difficult, at this stage, to determine the most significant contributions.
The following are only examples of what has been learned in the considered fields
of Earth science.

10-16
 Geology.- Although many fault systems were studied from orbit, the obser-
vations and photographs of the Levantine Rift zone are most prominent. Three
major faults were traced to their northernmost extremities where very little was
known about them. These faults appear to branch out in north and northeast
directions. Branching appears to start at a pivot point for the counterclockwise
rotation of the Arabian crustal subplate relative to the African crustal plate. This
indicates that fractures in that zone are not simply the result of a rip-apart motion
but a complex rotation of the entire Arabian peninsula. The results of detailed
mapping of these faults from the ASTP data will add significant insight into the
tectonic regime of the Middle East.

Oceanography.- One of the most significant ASTP findings establishes that

ocean features such as eddies and internal waves are more common than previously
thought. The ASTP crew also established that viewing direction, as well as Sun
angle, is extremely significant in observing internal waves. Viewing conditions
will be thoroughly documented to allow better planning and preparation for similar
activities in the future.

Deserts.- Perhaps the most significant contribution of the experiment is that

the ASTP data will help define (i) relative ages of desert areas based on color and
(2) direction of desert growth using sand dune patterns in North Africa. The
implications of these results, particularly to the Afri'can drought problem, include
the ability to distinguish, from photographs, areas of recent desert formation and
to establish the directions of desert growth. Also, two new unique patterns of dune
morphologies were observed: star dunes atop linear dunes in the Gobi Desert and
a fish-scale pattern of dense sand dunes overlain by thin linear dunes in Argentina.

Hydrolo_.- Snow cover over the Cascade Mountains was photographed on

separate days to permit studies of melt patterns. These photographs will also be
compared to previous images of the same area to establish trends in snow accumu-
lation and melting for hydrological projects.

Meteorology.- The most significant result in the field of meteorology appears

to be the photography of a developing storm northeast of Florida and of a dissipating
storm over the Atlantic Ocean. Stereoscopic models of these storms will be studied
to improve theoretical models of tropical storm development and dissipation.

Environment.- The outflow of the Orinoco River into the Atlantic Ocean was
described, and the observations were documented with photographs. In addition
to sediments, the Orinoco River outflow includes an unusually high concentration of
humic compounds that result in the discoloration of the ocean waters for hundreds
of kilometers. The ASTP information combined with real-time ground-truth data
collection will allow a better understanding of this phenomenon.

Role of Man in Space

From the ASTP experience, the following conclusions may be made.

1. Man in space can help design instruments or film to be used on unmanned

probes. An example is the use of a color wheel to establish the actual range of
visible colors of deserts and oceans.

10-17
 2. A trained observer is probably essential to the study of features and
phenomenacharacterized by transient visibility. An example is internal waves
that are visible only under very restricted conditions.
3. An observer in orbit can make immediate interpretations that significantly
contribute to solving the problem under investigation; for example, the explanation
of the tectonic setting of the Levantine Rift area.

4. A human observer is essential if the purpose of the study is to explore the

unknown. A trained observer will scan an entire region and select targets for
photography that will draw attention to the significant aspects.
5. From the information learned about deserts on this mission, it is concluded
that much more can yet be attained from orbital surveys in this field. Desert study
will also be important in comparative planetological studies; many of the features
of Mars are similar to those of the Earth's deserts.

6. Earth observations and photography tasks require a flexible platform

where viewing angles and interior lighting conditions can be controlled. The design
of instrumentation should allow control of imaging systems by the observer.

7. For the successful performance of Earth observations tasks, the observer

must be well prepared and well trained. The exercise must be pursued systemat-
ically; otherwise, significant features and phenomena may be overlooked.

10-18
 REFERENCES

10-1. Earth Photographs From Gemini III, IV, and V. NASA SP-129, 1967.

10-2. Earth Photographs From Gemini VI through XII. NASA SP-171, 1968.
i0-3. Cortright, Edgar M., ed.: Exploring Space With a Camera. NASA SP-168,
1968.

10-4. Lowman, Paul D., Jr.: The Third Planet. Weltflugbild. Reinhold A. Muller
(Zurich, Switzerland), 1972.

10-5. Musgrove, R. G.: Lunar Photographs From Apollos 8, 10, and 11. NASA
SP-246, 1968.

10-6. Kopal, Zdenek: A New Photographic Atlas of the Moon. Taplinger Publishing
Co. (New York), 1971.
10-7. EI-Baz, Farouk: New Geological Findings in Apollo 15 Lunar Orbital Photog-
raphy. Proceedings of the Third Lunar Science Conference, vol. 1, MIT
Press (Cambridge, Mass.), 1972, pp. 39-61.
10-8. E1-Baz, Farouk; and Roosa, S.A.: Significant Results From Apollo 14 Lunar
Orbital Photography. Proceedings of the Third Lunar Science Conference,
vol. 1, MIT Press (Cambridge, Mass.), 1972, pp. 63-83.
10-9. E1-Baz, Farouk; and Worden, A. M.: Visual Observations From Lunar Orbit.
Sec. 25, Part A, of the Apollo 15 Preliminary Science Report. NASA
SP-289, 1972.

10-10. E1-Baz, Farouk; Worden, A. M.; and Brand, V. D.: Astronaut Observations
From Lunar Orbit and Their Geologic Significance. Proceedings of the
Third Lunar Science Conference, vol. 1, MIT Press (Cambridge, Mass.),
1972, pp. 85-104.

10-11. Mattingly, T. K.; E1-Baz, Farouk; and Laidley, Richard A.: Observations
and Impressions From Lunar Orbit. Sec. 28 of the Apollo 16 Preliminary
Science Report. NASA SP-315, 1972.

10-12. Mattingly, T. K.; and E1-Baz, Farouk: Orbital Observations of the Lunar
Highlands on Apollo 16 and Their Interpretation. Proceedings of the Fourth
Lunar Science Conference, vol. 1, MIT Press (Cambridge, Mass.),
1973, pp. 49-56.

10-13. Evans, R. E.; and E1-Baz, Farouk" Geological Observations From Lunar
Orbit. See. 28 of the Apollo 17 Preliminary Science Report. NASA
SP-330, 1974.

10-19
10-14. E1-Baz, Farouk; and Evans, R.E.: Observations of Mare Serenitatis From
Lunar Orbit and Their Interpretation. Proceedings of the Fourth Lunar
Science Conference, vol. 1, MIT Press (Cambridge, Mass.), 1973,
pp. 139-147.

10-15. Kaltenbach, J. L.; Lenoir, W. B.; McEwen, M. C.; Weitenhagen, R. A.;

and Wilmarth, V. R., eds.: Skylab 4 Visual Observations Project
Report. NASA TM X-58142, 1974.

10-16. Committeeon Colorimetry: The Science of Color. The Optical Society of

America (Washington, D.C.), 1963, p. 129.

10-20
 TABLE 10-I.- EARTH OBSERVATIONS TEAM

Name
Discipline Affiliation

J. R. Apel Oceanography National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)

J. C. Barnes a Snow mapping Environmental Research and Tech-

nology, Inc.

P. G. Black a Meteorology NOAA

G. Borstad Oceanography Bellairs Research Institute, McGill

University, Canada

C. S. Breed a Deserts Museum of North Arizona and U.S.

Geological Survey (USGS)

N. S. Brill Red tide Commonwealth of Massachusetts

W. J. Campbell a Hydrology University of Puget Sound

R. Citron Short-lived phenomena Smithsonian Institution

J. Cousteau Sea farming Cousteau Society

R. Dietz a Marine geology NOAA

L. Dunkelman Atmosphere University of Arizona and Goddard

Space Flight Center (GSFC)

F. EI-Baz b General Smithsonian Institution

G. Ewing Oceanography Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute

R. K. Holz Demography University of Texas at Austin

W. A. Hovis Oceanography GSFC

R. C. Junghans Environment NOAA

J. L. Kaltenbach Skylab results Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC)

W. B. Lenoir •Skylab results JSC

N. H. MaeLeod Deserts and Agriculture American University

G. A. Maul a Oceanography NOAA

M. C. McEwen Skylab results JSC

E. D. McKee a Deserts USGS

S. McLafferty General Smithsonian Institution

D. A. Mitchell General Smithsonian Institution

J. A. Murphy General Smithsonian Institution

W. R. Muehlberger a Geology University of Texas at Austin

aco-Investigator.

bprincipal Investigator.

10-21
 TABLE 10-I.- Concluded

Name Discipline Affiliation

K. M. Nagier Weather patterns NOAA

D. K. Odell Oceanography University of Miami

D. M. Pirie Oceanography Army Corps of Engineers, California

P. R. Pisharoty a Hydrology Indian Space Research Organization

(ISRO), India

D. E. Pitts Color Science University of Houston

R. O. Ramseier Hydrology Department of the Environment,

Canada

J. W. Sherman Meteorology NOAA

L. T. Silver a Geology California Institute of Technology

R. E. Stevenson a Oceanography Scripps Institute of Oceanography

F. M. Suliman Deserts College of Education, Qatar

G. A. Swann Geology USGS

V. R. Wilmarth Skylab results JSC

R. Wolfe General Smithsonian Institution

S. P. Vonder Haar Oceanography University of Southern California

C. Yentsch a Red tide Bigelow Laboratory, Maine

M. Youssef Deserts Ain Shams University, Egypt

aco-Investigator.

10-22
 TABLE 10-II.- PHOTOGRAPHIC MAPPING SITES

Site Name Objective

M1 Gulf Stream The Gulf Loop Current and the Gulf Stream
from eastern Florida to its confluence with
the Labrador Current

M2 New Zealand The Alpine Fault in South Island and the

coastal waters between _he two islands and
north of North Island

M3 Southern California Coastal waters off California, the San

Andreas Fault system, and the Mohave
Desert

M4 Himalaya Mountains Ocean features in the Indian Ocean and

Arabian Sea, the flood plain of the Indus
River, drainage patterns, and snow cover
in the Himalayas

M5 Arabian Desert The Afar Triangle, dune patterns in Ar-Rub

A1-Khali, and coastal processes at Doha,
Qatar

M6 Australia Dune patterns and erosional features in the

Simpson Desert, the Great Barrier Reef,
and eddies in the Coral Sea

M7 African drought Vegetation and land use patterns in the Sahel,

desert colors in northeastern Africa, the
Nile River Delta, and the Levantine Rift

M8 Falkland Current The Falkland Current and its confluence

with the Brazil Current east of South
America

M9 Sahara Vegetation and land use patterns in the Sahel,

desert colors and dune patterns in the
Sahara, and the coastal waters off Tripoli

MI0 Northern California Coastal waters off northern California and

subsystems of the San Andreas Fault

MII New England Eddies and gyres in the Gulf of Mexico, the
Mississippi River Delta, Chesapeake Bay,
and coastal waters off New England

10-23
 TABLE 10-IH.- VISUAL OBSERVATION TARGETS

Site no. Target Site no. Target

1 New Zealand Southern South America

8A Falkland Current
Southwestern United States 8B Chilean Andes
8C Dune field
2A Southern California 8D Paran_i River
2B Baja California 8E Circular structures
2C California Current
2D Great Salt Lake
2E Guadalaj ara Africa and Europe

9A Afar Triangle
Weather Belt 9B Arabian Peninsula
9C Guinea Current
3A Cloud features 9D Desert colors
3B Tropical storms 9E Oweinat Mountain
3C Hawaii 9F l_/ile Delta
3D Kuroshio Current 9G Levantine Rift
9H Niger River Delta
9I Algerian Desert
Northern North America 9J Tripoli
9K Strait of Gibraltar
4A Snow peaks 9L Alps
4B Puget Sound 9M Danube Delta
4C Superior iron 9N Anatolian Fault
4D Sudbury nickel 90 Volcanics
9P Bioluminescence

Eastern North America

10 Africa and India
5A Gulf of Mexico
5B Gulf Stream 10A Great Dike
5C Labrador Current 10B Somali Current
5D Central American 10C Arabian Sea
structures 10D Himalaya Mountains
5E Florida red tide 10E Takla Makan Desert
5F New England red tide
5G Chesapeake Bay
11 Australia

Northern Atlantic IIA Playas

lIB Coral Sea
6A Oil slicks IIC Simpson Desert
6B London lID ANZUS Eddy

Northern South America 12 Antarctican ice

7A Humboldt Current 12A Icebergs

7B Nazca Plain
7C Internal waves
7D Peruvian desert
7E Orinoco River Delta
7F Galapagos Islands
7G Caribbean Sea

10-24
 TABLE 10-IV.- CLASSROOM TRAINING

Date Subject Lecturer

Aug. 5, 1974 Plan for Earth observations F. E1-Baz

and photography

Aug. 16 Global tectonics and astroblemes R. Dietz

Oct. 10 Background, terminology, and S. P. Vonder Haar

Skylab 4 results (oceanography)

Oct. 18 Snow and ice J. C. Barnes,

W. J. Campbell, and
R. O. Ramseier

Nov. 6 Southwest U.S. tectonics L. T. Silver

Site selection procedures F. E1-Baz

Nov. 15 Ocean currents and eddies G. A. Maul

Sites for observation R. E. Stevenson and
G. Ewing

Dec. 3 African rift system and Central W. R. Muehlberger

America

Dec. 20 Deserts and sand dune patterns E. D. McKee and

C. S. Breed

Jan. 7, 1975 Cloud features and tropical P. G. Black

storms

Jan. 31 Groundtracks and sites F. E1-Baz

Mar. 5 Onboard site book F. E1-Baz

Mar. 18 Visual observation sites F. E1-Baz

Mar. 19 Ocean observation tasks Oceanography Team

Apr. 1 Groundtracks and sites F. E1-Baz

Apr. 9 Groundtracks and sites F. E1-Baz

May 20 Review of observation tasks F. E1-Baz

June 2 Review of observation tasks F. E1-Baz

June 20 Review of observation tasks F. E1-Baz

July 8 Review of observation tasks F. E1-Baz

July 13 Review of observation tasks F. EI-Baz

10-25
 TABLE 10-V.- FLYOVER EXERCISES

Flyover Observation targets

Houston to Los Angeles Texas coastal plain

Karst topography
Basin and range topography
Volcanic features
Sonora and Mohave Deserts (site 2A)
San Andreas Fault system (site 2A)

California San Andreas Fault (site 2A)

Garlock Fault (site 2A)
Desert varnished hills (site 2A)
Sand dunes in the Algodones Desert
Ocean features in waters off California (site 2A)

Gulf Coast Coastal sediments

Mississippi River Delta
Gulf Loop Current (site 5A)
Red tide off the western coast of Florida (site 5E)

Florida Gulf Stream (site 5B)

Red tide (site 5E)

East Coast Gulf Stream (site 5B)

Sediment and pollution in Chesapeake Bay (site 5G)
Internal waves
Sand dunes on Cape Cod
Red tide off Massachusetts and Maine (site 5F)

Southwestern United States Dune patterns at White Sands and Great Sand
Dunes National Monuments
Circular structures in the San Juan Mountains
Copper mines

Northwestern United States Fault systems in northern California (site 2C)

Metamorphic foothills of the Sierra Nevadas
(site 2C)
Snow-covered peaks in Washington (site 4A)
Blue Glacier and Southern Cascades Glacier
Sediments in Puget Sound

10-26
 TABLE 10-Vl.- MUNSELL COLOR DESIGNATIONS a

OF THE ASTP COLOR WHEEL

Color Desert colors b Color Ocean colors c

wheel no. wheel no.
A A B

1 2.5R 6/6 2.5R 7/8 28 10BG 4/4 10BG 5/6

2 2.5R 5/8 2.5R 6/10 29 10BG 5/4 10BG 6/6

3 5R 4/10 5R 5/12 30 10BG 6/4 10BG 7/6

4 5R 5/8 5R 6/10 31 2.5B 6/6 2.5B 710

5 5R 6/6 5R 7/8 32 2.5E 5/6 2.5B 6/0

6 7.5R 6/6 7.5R 6/8 33 2.5B 4/6 2.5B 5/8

7 7.5R 5/8 7.5R 6/I0 34 5B 4/4 5B 5/6

8 7.5R 4/10 7.5R 5/12 35 5B 5/4 5B 6/6

9 10R 4/8 1OR 5/I0 36 5B 6/4 5B 716

I0 10R 5/6 10R 6/8 37 7.5B 6/6 7.5B 7/8

II 10R 6/4 1OR 7/6 38 7.5B 5/6 7.5B 6/0

12 2.5YR 7/6 2.5YR 8/8 39 7.5B 4/6 7.5B 5/8

13 2.SYR 6/8 2.5YR 7/I0 40 10B 4/8 10B 5/10

14 2.5YR 6/10 2.SYR 6/12 41 10B 5/6 10B 5/8

15 5YR 5/6 5YR 6/10 42 10B 6/6 10B 6/8

16 5YR 6/6 5YR 7/8 43 2.SPB 5/6 2.5PB 6/8

17 7.5YR 6/6 7.5YR 7/8 44 2.5PB 4/6 2.5PB 5/8

18 7.5YR 5/8 7.5YR 6/10 45 2.5PB 3/6 2.5PB 4/8

19 10YR 5/6 10YR 6/I0 46 5PB 3/8 5PB 4/10

20 10YR 6/6 10YR 7/8 47 5PB 4/8 5PB 5/10

21 10YR 7/4 10YR 8/6 48 5PB 5/6 5PB 6/8

22 2.5Y 8/6 2.5Y 8.5/6 49 7.5PB 5/8 7.5PB 6/10

23 2.5Y 8/4 2.5Y 7/4 50 7.5PB 4/10 7.5PB 5/12

24 7.5YR 8/4 7.5YR 7/4 51 7.5PB 3/10 7.5PB 4/12

25 2.5YR 8/4 2.5YR 7/4 52 5P 2.5/4 5P 3/10

26 7.5R 8/4 7.5R 7/4 53 5RP 2.5/4 5RP 3/6

27 2.5R 8/4 2.5R 7/4 54 5R 2.5/4 5R 3/4

aEach designation indicates hue, value, and chroma in the form H V/C. Hue is
divided into 10 groups (red, yellow-red, yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green,
blue, purple-blue, purple, and red-purple); each group is further subdivided by use
of numerals (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 for the ASTP color wheel). Value is specified on
a numerical scale from 1 (black) to 10 (white). Chroma is indicated numerically
from 0 to 12 (for the ASTP color wheel).

bsee fig. 10-2(a).

CSee fig. 10-2 (b).

10-27
 TABLE 10-VII.- MISSION TASK ASSIGNMENTS

Revolution Mapping tasks Visual observation tasks

Site Crewmember Site Crewmember

(a) (a)

15 M1 ACDR 5A, 5B, 5C DMP

17 M2, M3 DMP 12A, I, 3A, 2A, 4C, 5C CMP

39 M4 DMP 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E DMP

40 M5 DMP 9A, 9B DMP

42 8A, 3A, 9H, 9I, 9J DMP

45 5D, 5A, 5E, 5F, 5C DMP

46 2E, 4D CMP

64 M6 ACDR 11C, llB, 3A CMP

71 M7 DMP 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 9G CMP

72 M8, M9 ACDR 12, 8A, b9H, b9I, bgj DMP

73 3A, 9K, 9L ACDR

74 7B, 7C, 6A, 6B ACDR

78 3C, 4A DMP

79 11A, 11B, 3A DMP

88 8B, 8C, 8D, BE, 3A, 9K, 9L ACDR

90 5D, 5A, 5E, 5G, 5F, 5C, 6A, 9P DMP

104 7A, 7D, 7E ACDR

106 3B, 2B, 2E, 4D CMP

107 MIO CMP 2C, 2D CMP

108 3C, 4B CMP

123 11D DMP

124 4A, 4C, 41) CMP

134 7F, 7G, 6A, 6B, 9M, 9N, 9P ACDR

135 Mll DMP 3B, 5A, 5G, 5F, 6A, 9L, 90, 9P CMP

aACDR, Apollo _mm_der; DMP, docking module pilot; CMP, command module pilot.
bDAC.

10-28
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10-29
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10-30
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10-31
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10-40
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10-42
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10-43
 10-44
~
(b) Eastern Hemisphere.

Figure 10- 1.- Concluded.

10-45
i

- -
(a) Desert colors.
Fig1 re 10-2.- Color wheel used for assigning desert and ocean colors during
the ASTP visual observations. The color chips are from the Munsell color
system (see table 10-VI) , and their grouping resulted from testing during
flyover exercises.

10-46
 (b) Ocean colors.

Figure 10-2. - Concluded.

10-47
 ' "_ I I
)_1_1 " Ll__snowcover- " _ I Channel_"# r .J ..................
,_,b__ tt f_ _.:_,e_,and'----I--r'.'_._ _ _ 'SRO
,'_ I .... I . I., red tide ., _ ,"
I / SouthernCahfornia_ _ /_. le [ Z._:__.__^. I-,alayas,,
-I I / I I I I_l" t'='f=_-Flor=daredhde_b[ral(°! A_ua(ar_ "- :_..c'"
_ I / .I I !._: (.._E1._L Gibraltar -'_ _ []-L_
i0 Kuroshio Current Big Bend, Texas _._._1_ it=,... /l Western_ _ l]_
_IX- i "*- l [ Guf'ofMelxco'"_'--/--__ Eastern l -_-- Desertof'_--i_)_

"_I I I I I _ L._I-_ "--,,._,bbeao

_ _g_,tZ__
_raban

--_

I c__
/__,,ANZUS

I _ New
Eddy ,1 Guatema'a
zealandI I I I/Jl
_ ,_'Se,--
I1'-11
I I I "_1 _:_"-[-(South Pacific) I I I) 21 I I I I I

L IL i i ,zlI It I
0 Aircraft support I SRO - Indian Space Research Organization
[] Oceanography support ( aircraft support )
Ground support

Figure 10-3.- World map illustrating locations of support efforts of the ASTP
Earth Observations and Photography Experiment.

10-48
 MED ITERRANEAN SEA

Matr_l_

Suez

Sinai
Peninsula
+ Siwa Oasis Oasis_

WESTERN DESERT!!i::i::iiiiii

Oasis

ya Oasis _DESERT
.:Jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!ii
._iiiiiiliiii!ii!iiiiiiiiii
.:_i_ii_iiiiiiliiiii!ii!iii RED SEA
.:_!ii_iiiiii_iiiiil_iiiii!i
+ Dakhla Oasis

_iiiiiiiiii!!!iiiiiiiiiiii_: + Kh_rga Oasis

iiiil_iiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiii_:
iiiiliiiil_iiiiii!iiiiiiii_:
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiil_iiii!ii!ii + B_ris

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil!i_'
Aswan
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!i!!'l
iiiiiiiiiiiiiii_:'
iliiii_:'

,.Oweinat Mountain
/"
/s

/
22
24 28 32 36
Longitude, deg E

Figure 10-4.- Sketch map of Egypt showing the extent of photographic coverage
(dotted area) by the mapping camera on revolution 71 (solid line). A support
team from the Ain Shams University in Cairo will provide ground-truth data
from the Oweinat Mountain area; the Far_fra, Bahar_ya, and Faiyum Oases;
and the Abu R_wash region.

10-49
 Figure 10-5. - The southern part of the Levantine Rift, extending from the Dead
Sea to the Sea of Galilee, is distinguished by the linearity of the Jordan River
Valley (arrow). To the north, a "fan shaped" complex system of arcuate
faults characterizes the rift. One prominent fault parallels the Syrian coast
and then makes a noticeable bend to the northwest (AST-9-564).

10-50
 LEVANTINE RIFT

1. O B T A I N 3 STEREO PHOTOGRAPHS O F THE ARCUATE TERMINATIONS OF THE LEVANTINE R I F T .

2. CAN YOU D I S T I N G U I S H RELATED GROUPS OF FAULTS?
3 . WHERE I S THE NORTHERNMOST TERMINATION OF T H I S FAULT COMPLEX?
REV 71 : CM3/SILVER/250/CX12(f8,1/500) 3FR,[RECORD LAST FR NO: PAGE 41
Figure 10-6. - One page from the Earth Observations Book (visual observation
target 9G) that was used by the crew to visually study the Levantine Rift
area.
10-51
 Figure 10-7. - The deep-brown color of the Orinoco River outflow is caused by
both sediments and humic compounds. This turbid water was observed by
the crew farther north than the island of Barbados (AST-21-1685).

10-52
Figure 10-8.- The Nile Delta is an excellent example of a triangular-shaped
arcuate delta. Patterns of surface texture and boundary layers, easily seen
in the Sun's reflection, possibly result from a density difference between the
freshwater from the Nile and the more saline water of the Mediterranean Sea
(AST-9-558).

10-53
Figure 10-9.- The Kufra Oasis, in the lower half of the photograph, is charac-
terized by circular irrigation patterns. T o the north, two faint rings (arrows)
are possible astroblemes (AST-16-1244) .

10-54
(a) The Atlantic Ocean appears homogeneous with no visible ocean features in
this oblique photograph looking toward the Strait of Gibraltar (AST-27-2365).

Figure 10-10.- The Strait of Gibraltar.

10-55
0)The change in Sun angle in this photograph taken shortly after figure 10-10 (a)
has made a number of features visible. Orbital photography of the oceans
has revealed that the occurrence and magnitude of internal waves is greater
than expected. The internal waves in this photograph are approximately 50
to 60 kilometers long (AST-27-2367).

Figure 10- 10.- Concluded.

10-56
Figure 10-11.- In this photograph of the Bay of Fundy , the red water color
is probably due to the deposition of red clays by inflowing rivers. There
is a fairly heavy sediment load in the bay; high tidal activity maintains
water turbulence (AST-1-67).

10-57
 .-
Figure 10-12 This vertical photograph was taken with the mapping camera
over the Western Desert of Egypt. A sharp color change marks the bound-
ary between the younger, yellow sand sea to the north and the older,
orange-red desert associated with the Gilf el Kebh region in the lower part
of the photograph (AST-16-1247).

10-58
Figure 10- 13. - The color difference between the dark-red Simpson Desert
and the yellow Western Desert of Egypt in figure 10-12 is readily apparent.
The radiating linear dunes in this photograph, described by the crew as
"hundreds of parallel road tracks ,'*seem to constitute the characteristic
dune pattern in this region (AST-16-1133).

10-59
 Figure 10-14.- In this excellent photograph of a little-known dune field in
Argentina, the transition between the alluvial fan at the base of the moun-
tain and the dune field is very sharp. The general dune pattern is cres-
centic with a superimposed secondary linear pattern. To the east of the
dune field is a smaller field, the existence of which was previously un-
known (AST-27-2340).

10-60
Figure 10-15. - This photograph of the July snow cover was taken over the
Cascades in the State of Washington. Snowpack distribution is being
mapped to estimate the volume of water reaching drainage systems for use
in irrigation (AST-19-1540).

10-61
 Figure 10-16. - In this photograph of Lake Chad, the number of emergent
dunes within the lake attest to the fact that the lake was once considerably
larger. However, various factors, such as the influx of sand from the
Sahara, have contributed to a significant decrease in its size (AST-9-550).

10-62
Figure 10- 17.- This photograph of an unusual cumulonimbus convective
system was taken along the western coast of Mexico over the Gulf of
California (AST-9-545).

10-63
 Figure 10- 18. - The unique, wedge-shaped linear features in this photo-
graph taken over the Pacific Ocean west of southern California are signif-
icantly larger than contrails. Their mode of formation is not yet under-
stood (AST-1-42).

10-64

I
 11. DOPPLER TRACKING

EXPERIMENT MA-089

G. C. Weiffenbach at and M. D. Grossi a

ABSTRACT

The Doppler Tracking Experiment was designed to test the feasibility of im-
proved mapping of Earth gravity field anomalies by means of the low-low satellite-
to-satellite tracking method. All prescribed data have been retrieved and are cur-
rently being reduced and analyzed. Baseline data taken while the docking module
was still attached to the command and service module indicated that the equipment
operated satisfactorily. The efficacy of the two-frequency ionospheric-correction
method has been demonstrated, and preliminary reduction of a data sample has
successfully removed extraneous signatures down to the 50-millihertz level, where
the rotational motion of the docking module is revealed. Photographs of the docking
module, taken shortly after jettison, show that its rotation was stable.

INTRODUCTION

Interest has recently focused on mass density anomalies with scale sizes of
100 to 700 kilometers in the subcrustal region of the Earth, the asthenosphere. It
is likely that these anomalies are important factors in the physics of the mantle and
plate tectonics and in the reconstruction of important aspects of the evolution of
the Earth, such as continental drift. Small-scale anomalies near the surface of the
Earth have been studied for many years by means of surface gravimetry; and large-
scale anomalies, greater than 2000 kilometers, have been investigated for almost
20 years by observing artificial-satellite orbit perturbations. The spacecraft-to-
spacecraft Doppler Tracking Experiment conducted by the Smithsonian Astrophys-
ical Observatory (SAO) during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission was
designed to determine gravity features having an intermediate horizontal scale of
250 to 1000 kilometers. The ASTP mission was particularly suitable for this experi-
ment because it provided two platforms with a controlled separation within the same
orbit at an altitude low enough for enhanced sensitivity to these short-wavelength
gravity anomalies.

asmithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.

tPrincipal Investigator.

ii-I
 The experiment consisted of measuring, by means of a phase-coherent, dual-
frequency, very-high-frequency link, the relative velocity, or Doppler shift, be-
tween the docking module (DM) and the command and service module (CSM). Both
orbiting at a height of 220 kilometers, these two modules had an initial separation
of 317kilometers which increased to 475kilometers by the end of the data take.
From their relative-velocity data, localized anomalies in the Earth gravitational
field can be measured with a threshold sensitivity of better than 0.15 mm/sec2 (15
milligals). The geometric range-rate error induced by the ionosphere can be re-
moved by applying the dual-frequency (162 and 324megahertz) correction.

A seeondary goal of the experiment was to measure the integrated electron

concentration and other ionospheric properties along a radio path between the CSM
and the DM, and between the DM and the ground.

THEORY

Measuring the Earth Gravity Field

The structure of the Earth gravity field has been of considerable scientific
interest for some time because it provides one of the few available clues to the in-
ternal distribution of mass in the Earth. The recent development of the plate-
tectonics hypothesis has placed added emphasis on the need for information on
specific features in the gravity field that have horizontal wavelengths of 100to
700kilometers.

Evidence from studies of seismic-wave propagation shows that the outer por-
tion of the Earth consists of (1) a high-velocity zone, the lithosphere, which gen-
erally includes the crust and uppermost mantle, has significant strength, and is ap-
proximately 50 to 80 kilometers thick under the oceans and somewhat thicker under
the continents; (2) a low-velocity zone, the asthenosphere, which is a layer of low
effective strength on a geologic time scale and extends from the base of the litho-
sphere to a depth of several hundred kilometers; and (3) the lower remaining por-
tion of the mantle, the mesosphere, which may have strength and is relatively pas-
sive in tectonic processes.

The plate-tectonics concept is based on the observation that large blocks or

plates of the rigid lithosphere, some thousands of kilometers in horizontal extent,
appear to be moving ("floating" on the yielding asthenosphere) with respect to one
another at average long-term rates of approximately 1 to 15 cm/yr (ref. 11-1). One
manifestation of this plate motion is continental drift. Most large earthquakes, vol-
canic activity, mountain building, and tsunami generation, plus some terrestrial
mineral resources, are located at the boundaries of the lithospheric plates. In fact,
nearly all large-scale geological and geophysical phenomena occurring on the Earth
surface appear to be intimately related to this global pattern of plate motions. Thus,
the subject of plate tectonics is of much scientific and practical interest. However,
no satisfactory theory of the mechanisms producing plate motion is currently avail-
able. It is very probable that both thermal convection and chemical convection in
the asthenosphere are involved in some way; most current theories include one or
both processes. However, there is little question that knowledge of the density

11-2
field in the upper portion of the Earth, to a depth of 700kilometers or so, would be
of considerable importance in determining the basic mechanisms underlying plate
motion.

The distribution of mass within the Earth uniquely determines the external
gravity field. Hence, measurements of the external gravity field contain informa-
tion on the density field, although the external field does not define the unique in-
ternal mass distribution. Generally, a density anomaly within the Earth will pro-
duce a lateral variation in the external gravity field of a scale comparable to the
depth of the anomaly. Thus, the density field within the upper mantle at depths of
100 to 700 kilometers will generally be reflected in horizontal variations of the grav-
ity field having wavelengths of 100 to 700 kilometers. These results indicate that
measurements of intermediate-wavelength (100 to 1000 kilometer) features in the
gravity field will be fundamental to advancing the understanding of plate tectonics.

The intermediate-wavelength structure of the Earth gravity field is interest-

ing for another reason. The surface of the ocean contains topographic signatures
of current systems, eddies, storm surges, tsunamis, barometric loading, etc., all
of which are of considerable practical importance. There is great interest in devel-
oping methods for maintaining frequent surveillance of these phenomena over the
ocean. One very promising approach is to map the topography of the ocean with
satellite-borne radar altimeters. The third Geodynamics Experimental Ocean Satel-
lite, launched by NASA in April 1975, has such an altimeter. However, the mean-
sea-level surface also contains the topographic imprint of the Earth gravity field;
i.e., the geoid. Geoid undulations must be mapped and removed from the measured
ocean topography before it will be possible to uniquely identify the signatures of
oceanographic parameters. All the previously mentioned oceanic features have
topographic structures with significant lateral components in the range I00 to 1000
kilometers. The estimated geoid accuracy needed for this purpose is 10 centimeters
in geoid height.

Measuring the Earth gravity field has been a continuing occupation of geod-
esists for many years. The traditional method has been to use gravimeters at
fixed locations in land areas and on ships, submarines, and, more recently, air-
craft. This method provides accurate measurements of the detailed structure of
the gravity field, particularly on land. However, surface gravimetry has several
deficiencies: the cost and time involved in covering large geographic areas (par-
ticularly in rough terrain), the reduced accuracy of gravimeters on mobile plat-
forms, and the loss in accuracy of large-scale gravity variations synthesized from
gravimeter data.

More recently, the structure of the gravity field has been calculated using
orbital dynamics from accurate tracking of artificial satellites. Because satellite
orbits are uniquely determined by the forces acting on the satellite and because
gravity is by far the dominant force, the gravitational force can be inferred from the
observed orbits and an appropriate orbit theory. This orbital-dynamics approach
has been used successfully to measure the large-scale structure of the gravity field
with considerable accuracy. However, the orbital-dynamics approach is not suit-
able for measuring intermediate- or short-wavelength gravity-field features. Spe-
cifically, spherical-harmonic terms of a degree higher than 20 are impractical, both
because of the rapidly increasing complexity of the theory and its computer mecha-
nization and because of the need for many more satellites in different orbits. Thus,

11-3
this method is restricted, for practical reasons, to gravity features having horizon-
tal wavelengths greater than 2000kilometers.

The Gravity Field From Satellite-to-Satellite Velocity Measurements

Another method using artificial satellites can be used to measure intermediate-

sized gravity features. Used in the SAO Doppler Tracking Experiment, the method
is based on calculating the gravitational force acting on a spacecraft directly from
changes in its measured velocity. Figure 11-1 is a simple diagram of this method;
it pictures a satellite in Earth orbit. The density of the model Earth is assumed to
be homogeneous except for an excess mass M at some point under the orbit. As
the satellite approaches M, the added gravitational force exerted by M will accel-
erate the satellite. As the satellite moves away from M, the corresponding retard-
ing force will reduce the satellite velocity. By measuring the time history of the
velocity variation during the period when the satellite is under the influence of
M, the size, position, and magnitude of the excess mass M can be deduced. This
approach was used to discover and measure lunar mascons (ref. 11-2).

Of course, the actual situation for the experiment is more complex, not only
because of the internal mass distribution of the Earth and its effects on the satellite
trajectory, but also because the velocity of the satellite must be measured from
another satellite. A detailed analysis of more realistic cases has been reported by
Schwarz (ref. 11-3).

From surface-gravimeter data for the United States, Schwarz constructed

arrays of 1° by 1°, 2 ° by 2 °, and 5 ° by 5 ° gravity anomalies and computed the theo-
retical range-rate variations that would be observed between two spacecraft in orbit
over these simulated gravity fields. Orbit altitudes of 200, 300, and 700 kilometers
and satellite-to-satellite separations of 200 to 600 kilometers were used in various
combinations. Noise was added to the computed range-rate data. Schwarz then in-
verted the process to determine the accuracy with which the simulated gravity anom-
alies could be recovered from the computed, noisy, range-rate (Doppler) data.

The results of Schwarz's computer experiments are briefly summarized as

follows.

1. The structure of the gravity field can be determined from measurements of

the variations in range rate between two spacecraft in the same nominal orbit.

2. The lateral scale of the shortest wavelength gravity feature that can be
recovered using this method is approximately equal to the orbital altitude.

3. The accuracy of the recovered gravity anomalies is approximately 0.1 ram/

2
sec (10 milligals), for an accuracy of 0.5 mm/sec (1 standard deviation) in range
rate between the spacecraft, where each measurement is averaged over 16 to 32
seconds.

4. The ephemerides of the two spacecraft need not be determined to high

accuracy; orbit errors as large as 1000 meters have little effect on the solutions.

11-4
 Schwarz's computer experiments suggest rather convincingly that the ASTP
Doppler Tracking Experiment should produce accurate determinations of gravity
anomalies having horizontal wavelengths in the range of 300to i000 kilometers over
those geographic regions for which measurements are obtained. The lunar-mascon
experiment confirms this conclusion even though the geometry was somewhat dif-
ferent because one of the "spacecraft" terminals was located on the Earth.

Useful data can be obtained when the spacecraft are within line of sight of
each other, when the line between them lies above the troposphere, and when their
separation is greater than 200kilometers. It is important to note that gravity field
information is obtained only for geographic regions in which Doppler measurements
are made. The scientific usefulness of the experiment thus depends on the geo-
graphic coverage.

The accelerations produced by atmospheric drag and radiation pressure on

the spacecraft contribute to the measured range rates and thus constitute systematic
errors in the determination of the gravity field. The acceleration caused by radia-
tion pressure was computed for solar flux incident on the side of the spacecraft. In
this case, the area-to-mass ratio is approximately 0.02 cm2/g. The pressure ex-
erted by direct solar radiation was taken as 0.45 × 10-9 N/cm2 (4.5 × 10-5 dyn/cm2);
therefore, the resulting acceleration is approximately 1 X 10-6 cm/sec2 , which is
negligible.

The acceleration produced by atmospheric drag a was computed for the case
in which the spacecraft velocity vector is parallel to its long axis, with an effective
area-to-mass ratio A/m of 0.005 em2/g. The following equation was used.

Cd A 2
a- 2 m pv (11-1)

where the drag coefficient Cd is 2, p is the atmospheric density, and v is the

spacecraft velocity. When p = 2.8 X 10-13 g/cm 3 at an altitude of 200kilometers,
an acceleration of 0.0084 ram/see2 is obtained. For the 10-second averaging time
of the Doppler observations, the velocity change is thus 0. 084mm/sec for each data
sample period.

If drag accelerations are reasonably smooth, as is expected, it should be pos-

sible to separate the gravity variations satisfactorily even at a spacecraft altitude of
200kilometers. Alternatively, the drag forces appear small enough that they can be
modeled to sufficient accuracy. However, the drag effects are large enough that
they must be computed accurately by using the measured orbital and altitude motions
of both spacecraft.

11-5
 Ionospheric Studies Using Satellite-to-Satellite Doppler Data

If a radiofrequency (RF) Doppler link is used between two spacecraft to ob-

tain range-rate data, information about the electron concentration between the spaee-
craft can be obtained. In fact, the effects of the ionosphere must be identified be-
fore accurate range rates can be determined. Consequently, a secondary goal of
the Doppler Tracking Experiment is to analyze the resulting ionospheric information.
In addition, it should be possible to probe traveling ionospheric disturbances with
the satellite-to-satellite link and to detect the boundaries of turbulent regions of
the ionosphere.

The analysis of the ionospheric information is an extension of well-known

methods (differential Doppler and Faraday rotation) of measuring the integrated
electron concentration and other properties of the ionosphere along a radio path be-
tween a terminal moving within or above the ionosphere and a station on the ground.
Before artificial satellites were flown, these techniques were used in suborbital
rocket flights to measure ionospheric parameters (refs. 11-4 and 11-5). Since 1957,
much information based on the use of multifrequency Doppler links between satel-
lites and ground stations has been published (refs. 11-6 to 11-14).

A fundamental problem in space-to-ground Doppler links is that the differen-

tial Doppler shift between two coherent, harmonically related frequencies is con-
nected to the time derivative of the columnar electron content and not to the columnar
content itself. This difficulty can be removed if simultaneous measurements are
made of Faraday rotation. When Faraday rotation is not observed, the problem is
not adequately determined, and inversion of differential Doppler data into columnar
content strongly depends on the presence of horizontal gradients in that region of
the ionosphere swept by the space-to-ground radio path while the spaeeborne ter-
minal is in motion.

The ASTP Doppler Tracking Experiment measured horizontal gradients be-

tween two spacecraft in the same orbit.

In the case of a probe transmitting at frequency o_ 1 through the ionosphere

with a receiver on the ground

r (t)

(11-2)
_l(t ) =_f nl(r)dr
0

11-6
when the spacecraft is at a height r(t). The symbol _ denotes the phase shift
imparted to the transmitted signal due to passage through the ionosphere, and its
time derivative is

r (t)

41 (t) -- (°ld
e _t- f nl(r) dr (11-3)
0

where c is the velocity of light in free space, n (r) is the index of refraction at
height r, and • is the frequency shift due to ionosphere passage. The change of
the phase path with time is due in part to the spacecraft motion and in part to tem-
poral changes of the index of refraction along the vertical path between the space-
craft and the ground. If there are no temporal changes along the path and the space-
craft is assumed to be at height r0 at time to, the resulting equation is

1(to) = (°1 i:(to) nl(rO) (11-4)

If there are temporal changes, equation (11-3) becomes

_l(tO)
coI
= -_ - I (to)nl(rO) +
0
an I (r)
at d rl (11-5)

where the term

r(t) anl(r)
dr

represents the temporal variation of the columnar refractivity in the entire vertical
path between the spacecraft and the ground.. If this temporal variation is not
determined, the inference of n l(r 0) from _l(t0) will be erroneous.

11-7
 Whenthe effects of the Earth magnetic field and the collision frequency on the
index of refraction are disregarded, equation (11-4) can be rewritten as

(11-6)

where _/ is the electron density and e and m are the charge and the mass of the
electron, respectively; 2_e2/m = 1587.6, if N is expressed in electrons per cubic
meter and if coI is expressed in radians per second. From equation (11-4), the
local index of refraction, and hence the electron density, can be determined at the
spacecraft height by monitoring the received Doppler shift and by knowing, inde-
pendently, the velocity of the spacecraft and the frequency radiated. With a single
frequency, it is necessary to know these two parameters very accurately. However,
by adding a second frequency _o2 , the equation of the differential Doppler shift in
the spacecraft-to-ground link, when temporal changes are neglected, becomes

_
8_ = _l(t) co2 _2(t)

r (t)

dr
_°I
Ic dtd / [nl(r)-n2(r)
0

__° 1
e r(t0) Inllr0) - n2(r011 (11-7)

If the refractive effects of the Earth magnetic field and the collision frequency are
disregarded, the results are

=_ r(t0) 2_e2N (11-8)

8@ _°1 _°°12 - °_22_
c m ¢o 12¢o2 2 /

Equation (11-8) indicates that the contribution to the measurement error arising
from an error in estimating the link frequencies is virtually eliminated.

11-8
 Equation (11-6) indicates that an error in frequency contributes directly to
the error in _l(t0). However, equation (11-8) shows that the error in frequency
must now be multiplied by the quantity (n 2 - 1)/_012, which is usually very small.
For instance, if COl/CO2 =n= 2 and if co I=2_X 300X 106 rad/see, then (n 2- i)/

_°12 = 8.6 × 10 -19; therefore, the influence of the frequency error in the overall

error of _l(t0) is eliminated.

When the spacecraft trajectory is not vertical, other analytical expressions,

which have already been developed by several authors, must be used. For the case
in which horizontal gradients of the electron content are negligible, the following
can be written (ref. 11-8).

8 (t)=a o cos os s s cOSes/ j

where the velocity component Zs corresponds to the transmitter height zs

(measured along the local vertical z) and Ns is the local value of the electron con-

centration at that height; q_s is the angle of incidence at the source measured from
the loeal vertical z. The parameter

z
S

N dz (ii-i0)
z S
0

is the mean value of the integrated electron concentration in a column having a cross
section of 1 square centimeter. The coefficient a 0 is

a02e
I 1 1
In figure 11-2, rs denotes the time-dependent radius vector joining the
point of observation O to the moving source C, which is assumed to be approach-
ing the observer and located at height z s. The radial, horizontal, and vertical

11-9
velocity componentsof the source are denoted, respectively, by rs (along the
line of sight), xs, and Ys and zs.
In the general case, the electron concentration can be written as

(11-12)

where (fig. 11-2)

R=R0+z

x = ROe (11-13)

y = R0X

and (z,e,X) is a variable coordinate in a spherical orthogonal coordinate system

along the wave-propagation trajectory joining the point of observation (0,0,0) and
the point (Zs,e s,Xs) at which the transmitter is located at time t; these points are
denoted by O and C, respectively, in figure 11-2. The difference in the Doppler
frequency shifts for the two coherent radio waves can then be written in the form

R (t)
S
dz
(11-14)
d f
8(_(t) = a0 _- N (x,y,z,t) cos q_(t)
Ro

If certain conditions are satisfied, as in the Doppler Tracking Experiment,

the results (ref. 11-8) obtained will be

8_ = a 0 [ Ns
Zs
cos Cps
+ Nx
s
+
sl ]
co_ }Ps
- NyYs
- N (11-15)

When the further simplifying assumption is made that the medium is plane parallel
(i.e., neglecting Earth sphericity), the various parameters of equation (11-15)
(ref. 11-8) are defined as follows.

ii-I0
 Z Z
S S

- _ 1 /'Ndz+
1 / aN
Nx zs _)_ zs sin q)0 cos q)0 _ z dz
0

Z
S

_ 1 f aN z dz
Ny z s cos q_0" b-_ > (ii-i6)
0

Z
S

Nt c°1 q)0 _T dz

Even in the planar approximation, the problem is inadequately determined.

The difficulty is partly alleviated in this experiment by the fact that the DM-to-CSM
dual-frequency link measures the quantity _N/_x (the horizontal gradient in the
orbital plane) at the ASTP orbital height.

co__£1
85 = $1(t) - co2_;2

M CSM

C°l a n I (x) dx - n 2 (x) dx (11-17)

c at LDM

Assuming the two spacecraft remain at a constant separation (have a relative velocity
of zero), the results obtained will be

CSM

85 Col
DM
/ a [n l(x) - n 2(x) ]0x -_- dx (11-18)

ii-II
By neglecting the refractive effects of the Earth magnetic field and the collision
frequency, equation (11-18) can be rewritten as follows.

/ 2 2\ CSM
°_1 2_e 2 I_1 - ¢°2 _ f _N
(11-19)
8_=_-- _ _-o-_2Z2- _ /D_M _-_ _ dx

where Dx/bt is known from orbital-mechanics considerations and aN/Dx can

therefore be obtained from the measured values of 80 in the DM-to-CSM path.
Before it can be used in equation (11-16), however, DN/Dx must be known all
along the vertical z. In fact, what is needed is the function

S (DN/Dx) (z) dz
0

and not just DN/Dx at the ASTP orbital height of 220 kilometers. Therefore, a
model must be constructed of (DN/ax) (z) in the lower ionosphere, with the con-
straint of satisfying both the value measured at 220 kilometers by the DM-to-CSM
link and a value equal to zero measured at the bottom of the ionosphere. A linear
variation of the gradient between these two values thus seems to be an acceptable
assumption.

In the DM-to-CSM link, the transmitting antenna is linearly polarized and the
receiving antenna is circularly polarized. Therefore, the Faraday rotation (rotating
Doppler) phenomenon cannot be observed.

EQUIPMENT

The two major Doppler Tracking Experiment components are the transmitter
(fig. 11-3), located on the DM, and the receiver (fig. 11-4), complete with the
Doppler processor, located on the CSM. Each weighs approximately 7 kilograms.

The transmitter consists of a highly stable crystal oscillator, frequency mul-

tipliers, amplifiers, and a diplexer. The diplexer combines the two frequencies
for transmission from a single antenna. Figure 11-5 is a block diagram of the trans-
mitter. To save battery power for the operational phase of the experiment, the
transmitter was powered directly from the spacecraft during the 50-hour warmup
period required by the oscillator. The frequency of the oscillator is set for 5.06
megahertz. Its excellent stability (1.5 parts in 1012, over both 10- and 100-second
averaging intervals) is preserved by carefully insulating it from environmental
changes. A single multiplier chain multiplies, amplifies, and filters the oscillator

11-12
output and drives a power divider. One power-divider output drives the 162;
megahertz input of a diplexer; the second power-divider output is frequency-
doubled, then drives the 324-megahertz diplexer input. The diplexer provides
input isolation and filtering. At least i00 milliwatts of output power is delivered to
the dual-frequency antenna at each of the two frequencies.

The receiver, shown in block diagram form in figure 11-6, provides a Dop-
pler output that is compatible with transistor-to-transistor logic for each input
frequency to the processor. The frequency and phase variations of the 162- and
324-megahertz inputs are retained through the use of second-order phase-lock
loops. Thus, the receiver outputs are actually bandpass-filtered and constant-
amplitude replicas of the input signals, translated from 162and 324megahertz to
1 kilohertz. The choice of 1 kilohertz as the center frequency for the processor
represents a compromise between a desire for high accuracy, which means a low
frequency, and the need to avoid the ambiguity that could result if the Doppler
signal shifted this frequency negatively by more than 1 kilohertz. Because the
maximum anticipated Doppler shift is approximately 350hertz, a 1-kilohertz center
frequency leaves an adequate margin without significantly degrading the attainable
measurement accuracies.

The receiver is powered internally by means of de-to-de converters, regula-

tors, and filter circuitry. Less than 50 watts of spacecraft power is required to
operate both the receiver and the experiment tape recorder.

Both the transmitting and the receiving antennas are dual-frequency units.
The former is a vertical monopole that acts as a quarter-wave antenna at frequencies
of 162 and 324 megahertz. At 324megahertz, an inductor near the midpoint of the
antenna isolates the top section from the bottom section; at 162 megahertz, the in-
ductor acts as a small loading coil. The receiving antenna is approximately 1 meter
square and contoured to fit against the side of the service module. It is a strip-line
conformal array in which tuned stubs are used to couple its sections at 162 mega_
hertz and to isolate the sections at 324megahertz.

A 5.0-megahertz reference frequency input to the synthesizer and the timing

reference for the Doppler processor are supplied by an oscillator that is identical,
except for its frequency, to that in the transmitter. The synthesizer, having out-
put frequencies, derived by frequency multiplication and division, that are phase
coherent with the reference, provides all local-oscillator injections and phase-
detector references. When required, bandpass filters are used to obtain outputs
of sufficient spectral purity.

A diplexer at the receiver input divides the single input from the dual-
frequency antenna into two channels. A preamplifier and a mixer follow the
diplexer. These stages have a noise figure of less than 8 decibels and a first
intermediate-frequency (IF) image-rejection capability of greater than 60 decibels.
For each channel, a second IF image-rejection capability of at least 60 decibels is
achieved by means of a crystal filter. The first IF amplifier includes two automatic-
gain-controlled stages, and the second includes four active filters with amplitude
limiting at each stage. The second IF amplifier is followed by sine and cosine phase
detectors and filters; the first develops the loop filter voltage fed to the voltage-
controlled oscillator (VCO), and the second provides both the automatic-gain-
control voltage for the first IF amplifier and a lock/out-of-lock signal to the Doppler

11-13
processor. The VCO module output fed to the first mixer is derived by multiplying
and filtering the output of a crystal VCO having a frequency of 22.5 megahertz.

If an out-of-lock signal is received, the processor responds by supplying the

phase-detector module with one signal to change the phase-lock-loop bandwidth
from 5 to i00 hertz and another signal to inject a sweep voltage into the loop. The
difference between the sweep (_+5 and +_2.5 kilohertz at 324 and 162 megahertz, re-
spectively) and the expected Doppler shift allows for changes in the central-voltage-
to-frequency transfer characteristics of the oscillator. When lock is acquired, the
signal voltages change state, the sweeping voltage is removed, and the loop band-
width is restored to 5 hertz.

The processor receives Doppler frequency information from the receiver,

extracts the desired information, and records and stores this information simulta-
neously on two tape recorders in the CSM (fig. 11-7). The Doppler frequency
averaging interval counted by the processor is shown in figure 11-8. A 10-second
counter identifies the time instants t 0, t 2 = t O + 9.996 seconds, _ = t O + 10 sec-

onds, t_ = t 2 + 10 seconds, etc. The points tI and t 3 are determined by the first

positive-going zero crossing that occurs after times t O and t 2, respectively. For

each channel, an associated vernier up/down counter is enabled at time t O and

counts the number of 1-microsecond clock pulses observed before it is disabled at
time t 1. It is enabled again at time t 2, when it down-counts the number of clock

pulses in the interval t 2 - t 3. Simultaneously, zero-crossing counters count the

number of positive-going zero crossings in the interval tO - t2 for each channel.

These time counts and zero-crossing counts constitute the raw data associated with
each observation interval. The counters are reset and the entire process begins
!

again at time tO.

The average frequency f observed during a processor cycle can be deter-

mined from these tape-recorded data by dividing the number of zero crossings Z
by the observation time.

= Z (11-20)
9.996 - At

where At represents the contents of the vernier counter. Because the zero-
crossing counters and the vernier counters are 15 and 13 bits wide, respectively,
an unambiguous measurement of any Doppler frequency shift less than or equal to
-+750 hertz is ensured.

The Doppler processor also performs other functions. For example, it moni-
tors lock/out-of-lock signals from the receiver. If an out-of-lock condition occurs,
the processor reestablishes lock status and loads out-of-lock data into a format that
can be detected during subsequent data reductions. In addition, the Doppler proc-
essor supplies 324-megahertz phase-lock status information to the astronauts by

11-14
means of a panel meter, and supplies that information plus frame numbers to telem-
etry. Based on this phase-lock status information, spacecraft maneuvers can be
performed to regain 324-megahertz lock if required. (If the 324-megahertz channel
is locked, the 162-megahertz channel probably also is locked, because of its higher
signal-to-noise ratio.) From the telemetered frame number, the tape-recorded data
can be correlated with the position of the CSM/DM pair relative to the Earth. In
another function, data on roll, pitch, and yaw rates of the CSM are received by the
processor and tape-recorded to enable compensation for the effect of the CSM motion
on the Doppler shift during data reductior_. Finally, 7-bit parity words are gener-
ated by the processor as a protection against substitution and synchronization
errors.

Every 10 seconds, a data word is formatted by means of a random-aceess

memory, shift registers, a frame counter, and a microprogramed controller. This
data word consists of the number of zero crossings and the At values for both the
162-megahertz and the 324-megahertz channels, plus information on roll, pitch,
and yaw rates and parity. After 73 words have been stored as a frame, the frame
number is appended and the data are serially transferred to the tape recorders at
a 972-hertz bit rate through a biphase encoder. Approximately 5.2 seconds of re-
cording is required per frame.

RESULTS

The experiment produced 108 Doppler data frames, each containing 73 data
words; each data word is a 10-second sample of an integrated Doppler shift. The
total data span was 21 hours 54 minutes. The CSM/DM separation occurred during
data frame 16. The CSM orbital changes, to attain the intended 300-kilometer CSM/
DM separation, ended with data frame 40. The prime data take included frames 40
to 108; thus, the prime data span covered 13 hours 47 minutes, or approximately
nine orbital revolutions.

The CSM Doppler receiver lost lock twice during the prime data take (shown
in the plot of Doppler signals from the prime data take): once over eastern Siberia,
where ground transmitters having the same frequency used in the experiment are
known to be operating, and once during an incorrect CSM maneuver, which turned
the CSM Doppler antenna away from the DM line of sight. (The maneuver was in-
tended to aim the high-gain unified S-band (USB) antenna at Applications Tech-
nology Satellite 6 after a sleep period. )

To avoid occultation of the transmitting antenna by the DM, that antenna was
mounted parallel to the planned axis of rotation (the Z-axis). In a series of slightly
more than 100 frames of 16-millimeter motion picture film taken by the astronauts
showing the DM shortly after separation, the DM appears to be rotating as predicted
at a rate of approximately 1.0 rpm about the Z-axis. Some precession is seen,
which was probably caused by undetermined separation forces and enhanced by
the near equality of the moments of inertia about the Y-axis and the Z-axis.

Two hundred and thirty-five passes of DM tracking support were arranged

with the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA). The transmitter frequencies for the ex-
periment were selected specifically for compatibility with the DMA tracking network

11-15
so that an accurate DM orbit could be calculated. The USB tracking of the CSM re-
sulted in data that will be used by SAO for computing a CSM orbit. By means of
spacecraft telemetry, SAO has accurate times for the start of several data frames;
these times provide a correlation between the Doppler data and the orbital position
of the spacecraft.

Doppler data taken before CSM/DM separation were intended to give measure-
ments of relative (transmitter compared to receiver) oscillator stability and a check
of correct operation of the flight hardware. When the two spacecraft are docked,
neither Doppler shift nor ionospheric effects can occur. Thus, the time variation
in the sequence of 10-second integrated-frequency measurements at each frequency
is a measure of the stability of the transmitter oscillator relative to that of the re-
ceiver oscillator. The difference between simultaneous 324- and 162-megahertz
observations is a test of the balance of the flight circuitry.

The 324-megahertz data for the time before separation are plotted in figure
11-9. Figure 11-10 is an expanded plot of the 3 X 10-10 frequency shift visible in
figure 11-9 2000 seconds after the start of the data take. It is clear that the two
channels track closely; therefore, the frequency shift must be attributed to one of
the two oscillators. A shift of this kind is not unusual in a crystal oscillator that
has not attained its designed operating temperature; the shift probably results
from the inadvertent turnoff of the Doppler transmitter for an interval of 10 minutes
after the 50-hour warmup period and before the start of the data take. The
-11
4 X 10 excursion at 10 000 seconds, just before separation (fig. 11-9), may be
the result of vehicle spinup, which applies a small gravitational load to the oscilla-
tor crystals. The slope of the curve in figure 11-9 between 3000and 9000 seconds
indicates a relative drift of 1.6 X 10-9 per day between the transmitter and the re-
ceiver oscillators. This drift is sufficiently small to be considered insignificant.

Before separation, the fluctuations between successive Doppler data points

had a root-mean-square value of 3 × 10-12 , which is slightly better than the level
obtained in preflight tests. The differences between simultaneous frequency meas-
urements for the 324- and 162-megahertz channels have a root-mean-square
value of 4 X 10-12, which againis consistent with preflight test results.

In summary, the frequency measurements made while the CSM and the DM
were rigidly attached indicate that the flight hardware for this experiment was op-
erating properly, with the exception of a 250-second oscillator excursion of
-10
3 X 10 Such an excursion is not likely to have been repeated during the prime
data take some8 hours later.

Figure 11-11 illustrates the clear Doppler signatures of DM jettison and CSM-
orbit-adjust rocket firing. The 1.40-hertz step change in frequency corresponds
to a 1.30-m/sec initial separation velocity.

Figures 11-12 and 11-13 display the Doppler data acquired during the prime
data take. These data have been corrected for ionospheric propagation effects. A
comparison of these graphs with figures 11-14(a) to 11-14(d) illustrates the efficacy

11-16
of the two-frequency ionospheric correction; the large (as great as 6 hertz peak to
peak) ionospheric signals of figure 11-14 are absent from figures 11-12 and 11-13.

The large, nearly sinusoidal oscillations shown in figure 11-12 have a period
identical to the spacecraft orbital period and are the result of differences between
the CSM and the DM orbits. The fact that these oscillations diminish in amplitude
and show an increasing departure from a sinusoid indicates that the difference be-
tween the two orbits varied with time and very likely resulted from atmospheric
drag, which would affect the two spacecraft differently because of their different
area-to-mass ratios. These orbit differences will be verified by using the USB
tracking data to calculate an accurate CSM orbit for comparison with the DM orbit
derived from the DMA tracking network data.

Figure 11-13 displays a sample of the ionosphere-corrected data with long-

period (orbital) variations removed to permit an examination of short-period noise.
The short-period variations are attributed to DM rotation. Because this effect was
anticipated, the DM transmitting antenna was positioned to be parallel to, but offset
from, the DM rotation axis. It appears that the actual antenna offset is essentially
zero. However, the photographs of the DM taken just after separation show a pre-
cession of the DM spin axis of approximately 20 ° , which would generate a periodic
Doppler modulation at the DM rotation rate with a peak-to-peak amplitude of approx-
imately 70 to 80 millihertz (fig. 11-13). A fast Fourier analysis is being performed
to identify all frequency components that may be present in the Doppler data. This
analysis will provide a positive identification of all periodic components generated
by DM rotation.

The preliminary results for the second.ary goal of the Doppler Tracking
Experiment are as follows. The traces of 80 obtained after the orbit adjustments
show quite large excursions q as great as 6 hertz peak to peak q on successive
orbits. This value is approximately 10 times greater than any simulated value ob-
tained from the average ionospheric model. However, if an averaging interval
equal to that used in the simulation were applied to the measured 80, the amplitude
variation would be of the same order of magnitude. Differential Doppler measure-
ments for four consecutive revolutions are shown in figures 11-14(a) to 11-14(d).

Calculations to accurately establish the CSM orbit have not yet been per-
formed. Until the baseline length and directions have b.een more precisely deter-
mined, it is difficult to assign visible features of the 80 record to known or ex-
pected ionospheric, conditions. It does appear, from examining the periods be-
tween peaks in 80, that the baseline is somewhat shorter than the nominal 300
kilometers. It also appears that traveling ionospheric disturbances were repeatedly
intersected by the DM/CSM Doppler baseline.

11-17
 REFERENCES

ii-i. Isacks, Bryan; Oliver, Jack; and Sykes, Lynn R.: Seismology and the New
Global Tectonics. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 73, no. 18, Sept. 15, 1968,
pp. 5855-5899.

11-2. Muller, P. M.; and Sjogren, W. L.: Mascons: Lunar Mass Concentrations.
Science, vol. 161, no. 3843, Aug. 16, 1968, pp. 680-684.

11-3. Schwarz, C. R. : Gravity Field Refinement by Satellite to Satellite Doppler

Tracking. NASA CR-117404, 1970.

11-4. Jackson, John E.; and Seddon, J. Carl: Ionosphere Electron Density
Measurements With the Navy Aerobee Hi Rocket. J. Geophys. Res., vol.
63, no. 1, Mar. 1958, pp. 197-208.

11-5. Seddon, J. C.: Propagation Measurements in the Ionosphere With the Aid
of Rockets. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 58, 1953, pp. 323-335.

11-6. Alpert, Ya. L.: A Method for Investigating the Ionosphere With Artificial
Satellites. Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, vol. 64, 1958, p. 3.

11-7. Alpert, Ya. L.: On the Results of Ionosphere Investigations With the Help of
Coherent Radio Waves Emitted by Satellites. Space Research V, Proceed-
ings of the Fifth International Space Science Symposium, D. S. King-Hele,
P. Muller, and G. Righini, eds., North-Holland Publishing Co. (Amster-
dam), 1965, pp. 652-686.

11-8. Alpert, Ya. L.: Radio Wave Propagation in the Ionosphere. The Ionosphere.
Second ed. Vol. I, Consultants Bureau (New York), 1973, pp. 61-77.

11-9. Alpert, Ya. L.: On Radio Methods of Ionospheric Investigations by Means of

Coherent Radio Waves Emitted by Satellites. Paper presented at COSPAR/
URSI Symposium on Beacon Satellite Investigations of the Ionosphere Struc-
ture and ATS-6 Data (Moscow), Nov. 1974.

Ii-i0. Garriott, Owen K.: The Determination of Ionospheric Electron Content and
Distribution From Satellite Observations, Part 1. Theory of the Analysis.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, no. 4, Apr. 1960, pp. 1139-1150.

ii-ii. Garriott, Owen K.: The Determination of Ionospheric Electron Content and
Distribution From Satellite Observations, Part 2. Results of the Analysis.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, no. 4, Apr. 1960, pp. 1151-1157.

11-12. De Mendoza, F.: Ionospheric Studies With the Differential Doppler Tech-
nique. Radio Astronomical and Satellite Studies of the Atmosphere, J.
Aarons, ed., American Elsevier (Amsterdam), 1963, pp. 289-312.

11-18
11'13. Misyura, V. A. ; Solodovnikov, G. K.; and Migunov, V. M.: Gradients
of the Integral Electron Content in the Ionosphere. Geomagn. & Aeron.,
vol. 4, 1964, pp. 872-874. (Primary source--Geomagn, i Aeronomiya,
vol. 4, 1964, pp. 1124-1126.)

11-14. Tyagi, T. R.: Determination of Total Electron Content From Differential

Doppler Records. J. Atmos. Terrestrial Phys., vol. 36, July 1974,
pp. 1157-1164.

11-19
 Satellite

Velocity
){s>O
increase F._'/__ Velocity

Ys

Figure 11-1.-Velocity changes associ-

ated with a gravity anomaly.

Figure 11-2.- Schematic diagram of

terms used in equations (11-12) to
(11-16).

Battery ....

Dual -
frequency
multiplier -.

"'.Crystal
oscillator

Figure 11-3.- The Doppler tracking transmitter.

11-20
 Receiver
electronics -.

m_: Indtira_
'_aa_et, j'I"'I

Figure 11-4.- The Doppler tracking receiver.

11-21
 Amplifier,
i X2 multiplier _ O. lW
324 MHz
X2162 MHz
multiplier
0.1W

I oscillator
.asterII ,.0_.,z[Bu,feramp,i,ier.l
V _I
_1×'m°'tiplier
I X4 multiplier I

Battery !

Figure 11-5.- Block diagram of the transmitter.

I I
Doppler signal

I amplifier
RF

at 324 MHz

IF El Phase I
amplifier
(at 36 MHz) amplifier _ comparator ]
(at 13 kHz)
I kHz
324 MHz MHz
t3 kHz To Doppler

18 MHz Bandwidth = 1. 5 kHz 6.5 kHz processor

m

1 kHz

amplifier amplifier comparator

Phase I
(at t8 MHz)
(at 6. 5 kHz)

__tppler signal

162 MHz

Figure 11-6.- Block diagram of the receiver.

11-22
 Control of Control of shift
taperecorder register buffer

Oopp,e.rI Dopp,erpu,se 1 1 To pulse code

_1__a_ : _](n m_r unter C I telemetry

Z_ ] U of pulses (framenumber
and phase-lock
I liln a given time basel
I I status)
Vernier counter Control of random- Phase-lock
access memory information
I Shift Random-

l -MHz register memory St ift _ Biphase

clock buffer access
(5120-bit .__ regi
capacity) _ter ] I encoder i i
Tape

Dopplerr--
_= Vernier counter
Frl ne I recorder
signal [ -_1 Dopplerpulse I --T-- cou ter
162 MHz "_] counter [
1
Frame 1 (730-sectime-
timer J basegenerator)
!

1
9.996-sec
from and lO-sec
master time-base
5 MHz [__
oscillator generator

II
I
Figure 11-7.- Block diagram of the Doppler processor.

"1
10 sec

9. 996sec

1
L/
to tl t3 to t_

Figure 11-8.- Counting interval of the Doppler proeessor.

11-23
 90O

• o-

oo %%e_, o

• -• :... .'..
85O • . ..........-.;.;,t, .•
• • e e * •

"": ;.. . .:_"

E e¢% • oooi e

o. o

{Z
": .•....;•..... • ". "%" ,.,,%

t a-
l .. ..

3 x 10-11 j
CSM/DM separation
8O(
-1-

..-•- .-.
%
I I ? i i I I I I J t 1
7500 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 12 000
Time, sec

Figure 11-9.- Initial 11 000 seconds of 324-megahertz Doppler data• Vertical

scale shows the output of the receiver Doppler processor with a 1020-hertz
instrument bias subtracted•

11-24
 9OO

324 MHz

850
oooooooo ]62 MHz
Y:

/ _L
E

u_

8OO

• o / 3_-Ii

750
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time,sec

Figure ii-I0.- Expanded plot of frequency shift seen shortly after start of the
data take. Vertical scale shows the output of the receiver Doppler processor
with a 1020-hertz instrument bias subtracted.

11-25
 21-
1.4-Hz step= 1.3Omlsec

19
CSM propulsion
L ..... .....
CSMI DM separation
17

15
L
3 x 10.9

ll

°o

5 I I I I i I I I I
19:40 19:45 19:50 19:55 20:00 20:05 20:10 20:15 20:20 20:25
GMT, hr:min

Figure 11-11.- Doppler signatures of DM jettison and CSM-orbit-adjust rocket

firing. Vertical scale shows the output of the receiver Doppler processor
with a 1000-hertz bias subtracted (July 23, 1975).

23

Out
_L
of 3 X 10 -9
21

u_
l
17

15 I l I I I I I I I I I I I

01:00 02:00 03.00 04:00 05:00 06.00 07:00 08.00 09:00 I0:00 II:00 12:00 13.00 14:00
GMT, hr:min

Figure 11-12.- Doppler signals from prime data take, corrected for ionospheric
propagation effects. Vertical scale shows the output of the receiver Doppler
processor with a 1000-hertz bias subtracted (July 24, 1975).

11-26
 4OO

3OO
I
3 x 10 -1°
2OO
1
__ 100
E

-IOO

-20O 06:00GMT
i
i
i
-3OO i
i

-40O I I I I I I ' I I i I I I I I I I I I ,I I
48 OOO 48 500 49000 49 500 50 OOO
Time, sec

Figure ii-13.- Doppler data corrected for ionospheric propagation effects; long-
period variations have been removed (July 24, 1975).

11-27
 i

g,.

U- . L ..... A I
d

o
"7"

+ DIFF.

tlm:tlo= _z+41;imo
i_i_o l,,m_mmm if[m= tml+.+

(a) Revolution 129.

Figure 11-14.- Differential Doppler shift, which is due to the ionosphere, for
four consecutive orbital revolutions.

11-28
o

TIME (SEC)

+ BIFF.

(b) Revolution 130.

Figure 11-14.- Continued.

11-29
 8

N
:X:

64
5

+ DIFF.

m l,m_um OlM= io17,

(e) Revolution 131.

Figure 11-14.- Continued.

11-30
8

B
vIv v+ +v I
+ OIFF.

mlu_o _ SI_ Io17.5z3

(d) Revolution 132.

Figure 11-14.- Concluded.

11-31
 12. GEODYNAMICS

EXPERIMENT MA- 128

F. O. Vonbun, at W. D. Kahn, a J. W. Bryan 9

a p "
E •
Schmid
W. T. Wells,b and T. D. Conrad b

ABSTRACT

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Geodynamics Experiment was performed to

assess the feasibility of tracking and recovering high-frequency components of the
Earth gravity field by utilizing a synchronous orbiting tracking station such as
Applications Technology Satellite 6. Gravity anomalies of 5 milligals or larger
having wavelengths of 300 to 1000 kilometers on the surface of the Earth are impor-
tant for geologic studies of the upper layers of the Earth crust. Two prime areas
of data collection were selected for this experiment. The first area is the center of
the African Continent, and the second area is the Indian Ocean Depression centered
at latitude 5 ° N and longitude 75 ° E.

Preliminary results show that the detectability objective of the experiment

has been achieved in both areas as well as in several additional anomalous areas
around the globe. Gravity anomalies of the Karakoram and Himalayan mountain
ranges, of ocean trenches, and of the Diamantina Depth are specific examples.
Further analyses are planned to demonstrate the usefulness of range-rate signatures
for recovery of gravitational anomalies and for determining the surface distribution
of the anomalies.

INTRODUCTION

The objectives of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) Geodynamics Experi-

ment were threefold.

1. To demonstrate the detectability of short-wavelength (i.e., 300 kilometers

and larger) features of the Earth gravity field

2. To evaluate the "high/low" satellite-to-satellite tracking (SST) concept

for geodynamics applications

aNASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

bWashington Analytical Services Center , Inc., Riverdale, Maryland.

tprincipal Investigator.

12-i
 3. To test the recoverability of short-wavelength features of the Earth gravity
field

This experiment was the culmination of an effort to utilize synchronous orbit-

ing tracking stations for NASA missions (ref. 12-1). The use of a low-orbiting
(approximately 230 kilometers) spacecraft, such as Apollo-rSoyuz, continuously
tracked by a synchronous satellite has, for the first time, led to the detection of
short-wavelength Earth gravity anomalies (ref. 12-2).

The Apollo-Soyuz spacecraft, flying in a low orbit, is particularly sensitive

to gravity anomalies. For example, the ratio of sensitivity to the 25th-degree terms
of the Earth gravity potential having a wavelength of approximately 1600 kilometers
is approximately 13 to 1 when going from a Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite 3 type
orbit (840 kilometers) to the lower Apollo orbit (230 kilometers). Thus, the ASTP
mission presented an excellent opportunity to test the SST concept. Normal satel-
lite perturbation methods used previously for computing the Earth gravity field can-
not be used for such short wavelengths because this would require a spherical
harmonic expansion to an order and degree of 120 or larger.

MATHEMATICAL METHODS

The gravitational field of the Earth is generally represented in terms of a finite

spherical harmonic series expansion having coefficients determined from a combina-
tion of satellite ground tracking data and surface gravimetric data. Such a limited
representation of the global geopotential does not adequately "model" local variations
in the gravity field because the short wavelengths of these local variations would
require a field expansion to a degree and order of approximately 100 to 200. This
is considered impractical if not impossible. However, rather small local gravity
anomalies are important for geologic investigations of the upper crust as well as for
1
studies of the ocean topography. This experiment provided an opportunity to im-
prove knowledge of the terrestrial gravitational field in localized areas by directly
measuring local gravity variations through detection of small velocity changes (1 to
10 ram/see) of the low-orbiting spacecraft. Before the gravity anomaly analyses are
discussed, some basic information about the tracking system will be presented. Fig-
ure 12-1 is a schematic of the Applications Technology Satellite 6 (ATS-6)/Apollo
communication links. The Apollo spacecraft was connected with Madrid by two
links: the ATS-6 link and a direct ground link. This provides a total loop for
the measurements that will be used to reduce the errors in the system. The
emphasis in this report is on the link from Madrid to ATS-6 to Apollo and back. Fig-
ure 12-2 depicts the range rates that were actually measured during the experiment.
The system was constructed to measure the total range rate between the ground sta-
tion (in this ease Madrid) and the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit. The total range
rate is the sum of the range rates between Madrid and ATS-6 f_l' ATS-6 and Apollo

1F. O. Vonbun, et al., "Sea Surface Determination From Space," Report

X-900-75-216, Goddard Space Flight Center, 1975.

12-2
r2' Apollo and ATS-6 r3' and ATS-6 and Madrid r4 (ref. 12-3). This analysis
concentrates only on variations of the range rate between Apollo and ATS-6 PA'
->
which is a dot product of the spacecraft velocity vector v and the unit vector
between Apollo and ATS-6 N0 as seen in figure 12-2.

PA =(_0. _) (12-1)

One of the first experiment tasks was to evaluate the noise characteristics of
the total system. An analysis performed before the experiment was the basis for a
predicted range-rate noise level of approximately 0.05 cm/sec using a 10-second
integration time (fig. 12-3). The actual experimental range-rate noise level,
approximately 0.03 era/see, was lower than predicted. These values were obtained
using a small portion of an orbit to minimize possible orbit modeling errors. These
noise values have been rather consistent throughout all the experimental arcs
analyzed.

Two approaches were taken to test the detectability of gravity anomalies. The
first approach consisted of assuming a single mass anomaly Am and of computing,
in a simple analytical manner, the expected variation of the spacecraft velocity
AV due to this anomaly (ref. 12-2). The velocity variations in the radial and
horizontal components, respectively, are then

Am l+x AO
AV -
p m Vhoriz
2(1- x)2 1- I + x. Ae2
(i - x) 2

(12-2a)
+_x in Ae + 1+ (i -- x) 2 Ae

Av e = Vhori z (12-2b)
+x 2-2xcosAe

12-3
 R-d
where x = (R---'W'H)

Ae =vot

t - 0 to 150 seconds

R = radius of the Earth

d = anomaly depth

H = satellite altitude

Equations (12-2a) and (12-2b) assume that the spacecraft travels directly
over the anomaly and are only valid for variations in true anomaly of as much as
+5 °, which corresponds to approximately 1.5 minutes of flight time. The dashed
curve in figure 12-4 represents the radial velocity variation due to a 5-milligal
anomaly (4 ° by 4°). The size of the anomaly block is roughly twice the orbital
height and represents the area of sensitivity of a spacecraft in orbit to an anomaly
on the ground (ref. 12-4). Because of the extremely low noise in the data and the
actual geometry (i.e., the spacecraft was not directly over the mass and it was an
extended mass rather than a point mass), a second approach, using computer
simulation techniques, was necessary to improve the analytical results.

The dotted line in figure 12-4 depicts the result of the computerized analysis•
As shown in figure 12-2, the value _ is defined as (ref. 12-5)

= _'1 + _'2 + _3 + _'4 (12-3)

This is the range rate as actually measured at the Madrid Applications Technology
Satellite Ranging (ATSR) station• However, only the range rate between the Apollo
spacecraft and the ATS-6 spacecraft PA' which is the dot product of the spacecraft
-_ -_0
orbital velocity vector v and the unit vector p between Apollo and ATS-6, is of
interest (eq. (12-1)). The ATS-6 orbit is almost independent of any gravity varia-
tions because of its extreme height (36 000 kilometers) ; therefore, the range rate
between ATS-6 and Madrid can simply be subtracted from the measured range
rate. That is,

PA P - p(ATS-6/Madrid) (12-4)

which reduces to one the quantity needed for further analyses. This range rate is,
however, a function of the state vectors and the gravity field.

PA : f(XA'XATs'G) (12-5)

12-4
where XA and XAT S are the Apollo and ATS-6 state vectors, respectively, and
G represents the gravity field. The major aim in this experiment was to determine
the relationship between.surface gravity anomalies Ag and the Apollo/ATS-6
range-rate variations APA. Again, because only the variation in PA is of
interest, equation (12-5) is varied as follows.

DXA AxO + af aXATs 0 _f fDXA_

ApA _Df
_X--_ " _X----_A A _XAT S • _DXAT S _IXAT S + D--_A_--_JAG (12-6)

Also, A_A - (Av-_ 0 + A_p) • = observed-computed range rate.

The sensitivity coefficient (DXA/aG) is now contained in equation (12-6)

together with AG, and thus relates the actual measurements with the gravity poten-
tial variation AG. Because local anomalies are being observed over a very brief
time (as seen in fig. 12-2, approximately a few minutes), the first two terms on the
right side of the series expansion can be neglected. Thus, equation (12-6) reduces
to

A_A_ af /DXA_ (12-7)

This sensitivity coefficient can now be computed using Newton's equation of

planetary motion.

(12-8)
XA-DD_A-f(XA_ G)

Differentiating equation (12-8) with respect to G yields

aXA af aXA _}f

+ a'-'G (12-9)
bG aX A DG

12-5
Because (aXA/aG) is the variable to be determined, equation (12-9) can be rewritten
in the following manner, assuming interchangeability of differential operators; that
is

(12-10)
-_XA " _--G+

where V=U +T

U = the normal potential of the Earth gravity field in spherical harmonics

R
T = _-_- IIAg S (4) do
O

Ag = AG + AgLO C using AgLO C as the local average anomaly of a

block (4 ° by 4 ° , as an example)

T = the disturbing potential due to the anomalies Ag

R = the radius of a sphere having a volume equal to that of the spheroid

S (_/) = the Stokes function

= an element of surface area

Introducing U and T into equation (12-10)yields

D2 DX A _)2
(12-11)
= 2 _(U +T) _+DXAa G (U+T)

Equation (12-11) is now solved for the sensitivity coefficient (DXA/aG) by

numerical integration. Using equation (12-7), the computed sensitivity coefficient
is correlated and the relationship between A_A and AG is established. The fol-
lowing procedures were used in detecting the gravity anomalies.

12-6
 An orbit of one to one and one-half revolutions was computed for the Apollo
spacecraft using the Preliminary Goddard Solution 108 (PGS-108) gravity field and
all available tracking data (ground station as well as SST). From these Apollo
orbits, together with the ATS-6 orbit, the range rates PA between ATS-6 and
Apollo were computed. These computed range rates were subtracted from the actual
measured ones to yield the A_A shown in figures 12-5 and 12-6. These values of
APA are finite rather than zero because the gravity field, which would necessarily
include all the gravity anomalies, is not known to a very high accuracy. To obtain
more precise knowledge of the gravity field, of course, is the essence of this
experiment.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Experimental data were collected in the Eastern Hemisphere region where the
Apollo-Soyuz spacecraft was in range of the ATS-6 satellite, which is positioned
over the Equator at approximately longitude 35 ° E to perform the Indian Communi-
cations Experiment. The duration of each Apollo orbit visible to ATS-6 was
approximately 50 minutes, or slightly greater than one-half an orbital revolution.
To minimize atmospherically disturbed data, the actual SST data passes used were
limited to approximately 40 minutes. All data were successfully collected using the
ATS-6 spacecraft and the Madrid ATSR station as the prime ground station. Pre-
liminary results confirm that the range-rate noise of 0.05 cm/sec computed before
the experiment was improved by the experimental data, which show an average
noise of approximately 0.03 em/sec (fig. 12-3). Figure 12-7 shows the groundtrack
of Apollo revolution 115, which coincidentally passed over two anomalies in the
African area. The gravity variations shown resulted from the difference between
Goddard Earth Models 7 and 8 (GEM-7 and GEM-8). The even-numbered models
are constructed using ground and satellite data, whereas the odd-numbered models
are constructed only from satellite data. Thus, this difference reflects essentially
the surface gravity anomalies, which are somewhat filtered by the models. These
two anomalies have a variation of approximately +5 milligals. Figure 12-5 depicts
the theoretical variations of a 5-milligal anomaly (fig. 12-5Co)) and superimposed
model data (fig. 12-5 (c)) resulting in a total characteristic signature one would
expect. Figure 12-5(c) also depicts the observed radial velocity variations. A
fairly good agreement exists between the simulated and observed variations of the
radial component of the spacecraft velocity except for a time delay. The dashed
line shows the time-shifted simulated variation of _PA"

For this analysis, the PGS-108 field of order and degree of 25 was used. In
that particular case, the gravity anomalies of approximately 5 milligals extended
over 300 to 2000 kilometers and were actually observed because the wavelength of
the gravity anomaly and the resolution of this field are roughly compatible. Thus,
the usefulness of SST data for resolving anomalies of approximately +5 milligals on
the Earth surface is demonstrated.

The second test area (the Indian Ocean Depression) is shown in figure 12-8
using GEM-6 augmented with 1 ° by 1° surface gravity data. In figure 12-6(a), four
orbital passes (revolutions 8, 23, 83, and 113) are plotted. These orbits pass over

12-7
the Indian Ocean Depression as well as the Himalayan mountain range. Fig-
ures 12-6(b) to 12-6 (e) depict the actual measurement residuals obtained; that is, the
observed minus the computed values. Both the Indian Ocean Depression and the anom-
aly in the Himalayan area can easily be "seen" in the actual data. The shape of the
range-rate variations from the Indian Ocean Depression actually fits the expected
shape computed in a similar manner to those shown in figure 12-5. Detectability
of the gravity field perturbations has thus been demonstrated to be manifested in
the expected form of small spacecraft velocity variations. The peak values of these
variations could, in most cases, be closely correlated with anomalies shown on the
detailed map of the global geoid. Other features may have been detected but cannot
be verified at this time because of a lack of surface gravimetric data in these areas,
particularly in the southern portion of the globe. One may assume, however, that
the detected gravity signatures in the southern part of the Earth represent existing
anomalies that are not well known.

Orbit determination required for the proper analysis of the experimental

data involves the use of SST range-rate data together with direct ATS-6 tracking
data and unified S-band tracking data. The error analysis performed indicates
that one- and two-revolution arcs are superior for minimizing the effects of
unmodeled error in the detection and recovery of gravity anomalies. Longer arcs
seem to introduce larger errors because the influence of the Earth gravity field
errors on the orbit errors becomes more pronounced as the arc length increases.
Shorter arcs, however, also have rather large errors because not enough tracking
data are available. Thus, the use of one- to two-orbit revolutions for the analyses
seems to be a good optimum. Air-drag corrections have been used for Apollo-
Soyuz orbit determination. The SST data were used only during those periods
judged free of onboard propulsion activities. Because the antenna is separated
from the spacecraft axis by approximately 3 meters, any attitude motion (correction)
of the spacecraft (rotation of the spacecraft) is transformed into a range rate between
the Apollo-Soyuz spacecraft and the ATS-6 spacecraft. One could therefore quite
wrongly interpret a spacecraft rotation as a gravity anomaly. Detailed analysis of
attitude control has not yet been performed; however, attitude data are available
and will be used to further refine the range-rate residuals measured between the
Apollo-Soyuz and ATS-6 vehicles.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The high/low satellite-to-satellite tracking technique can be utilized for

Earth gravity anomaly detection. Anomalies having dimensions equal to or longer
than the height of the low spacecraft and having values of approximately 5 milligals
have been detected with a good 10:1 signal-to-noise ratio. The 0.05-era/see range
rate conservatively computed before the experiment was actually improved by the
measured noise of 0.03 cm/sec. For all the passes examined, it was possible to
correlate the measured range-rate residuals with known geoidal features of short
wavelength (approximately 300 kilometers). It was further demonstrated that the
range-rate signatures could be repeated orbit by orbit; thus, confidence in the
experimental data has been increased.

12-8
 REFERENCES

12-1. Vonbun, F. O.; and Mengel, J. T.: Tracking and Communications for
Planetary Manned Missions. J. Spacecraft & Rockets, vol. 5, no. 5,
July 1968, pp. 863-865.

12-2. Vonbun, F.O.: The ATS-F/Nimbus-E Tracking Experiment. Rotation of

the Earth, Paul Melchoir and Shigeru Yumi, eds., D. Reidel Publ. Co.
(Dordrecht, Holland), 1972, pp. 112-120.

12-3. Schmid, P. E.; and Vonbun, F. O.: The ATS-F/Nimbus-F Tracking and
Orbit Determination Experiment. 1974 IEEE Intercon Technical Program
Papers, 1974, pp. 34/6-1 and 34/6-2.

12-4. Schwarz, Charles R.: Gravity Field Refinement by Satellite to Satellite

Doppler Tracking. NASA CR-117404, 1970.

12-5. Bryan, J.: ATS-F/GEOS-C Satellite to Satellite Tracking Data Processing

Consideration. NASA TM X-70736, 1974.

12-9
 ATS-6 spacecraft

2.1GHz

2.25 GHz

Apollospacecraft
6 GHz

3.8 GHz

.3 GHz

__ ATSR/Madrid

STDNIMadri _' i !:T_ '::i::iiiiiiiii::::::::iiiiiii:i::.

_:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.............

Figure 12-1.- Schematic of the ATS-6/ApolIo communication links for operations

with ATS-6 in the Eastern Hemisphere. The ATS Ranging station is designated
ATSR; the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network station is designated STDN.

12-10
 ATS -6

_'4 rl

Apollo

Actually measured range rate

_= ;'1+ ;2 + ;'3+ ;4

Madrid

/
Required is only PA " _'0 ._"

Figure 12-2 .- Schematic showing range-rate measurement for the ATS-6 and Apollo
vehicles.

Predicted level

-- O. 05 cm/sec -_.
"I F • •
.
<3_].| I I I I I I I I & I I I I I I I I I

0 60 120 ].8O
Time, sec

Figure 12-3.- Tracking systems range-

rate noise characteristics measured
from Madrid to ATS-6 to Apollo-Soyuz
to ATS-6 to Madrid.

12-11
 5o

30
1.0--

20

I0

yica
curve 20

30
E
u

.Q.
<_
............. 5040 30 20 10 0 10 I 20I 30I 40I I
50 I
60 l
70 I 90
80
ff-*---F--_ E
Longitude, deg

(a) Groundtrack.

Slope

I I I 1.0
-1 i
"-02.0 -l.O 0 1.0 2.0 F 5toga! _5 mgal
Time t,rain , .

(a) Plot.

-1.Ol I I I I
7.91 8.00 8.08 8.17 8.25
GMT, hr

Spacecraftorbit...
Co) Independent computed range-rate
signatures due to each anomaly.

, [ 1.00

,.Ti
me shifled
,J I

Figure 12-4.-
(b) Schematic.

Analytical and computer-

So

"y
A _J "" Simulated
simulated range-rate signature for -1.00 I I I I I [ I i I I
a 4 ° by 4 ° , 5-milligal anomaly. 7.78 7.85 7.92 7.99 8.05 8.12 8.19 8.26 8.33 8.39 8.45
GMT, hr

(c) Comparison of observed and simu-

lated range-rate signatures. The
observed signature was based on
PGS-108 gravity field (degree and
order 25).

Figure 12-5.- Revolution 115 4 ° by 4°

anomalies simulation in Africa,
July 23, 1975.

12-12
 I t t t t I t I I I I I [ I I I 1 I I I I [ I I I I I I I [ I V I I I Ill I1i1 IIII II Ill lililfli lilll]lllll
8O
6O
-- _ 0
4O o Rev113--.

120
20 /) FO/_:/// Indian Ocean j..,,.r'7,j_,. -

4O

60

811

180 160 140 120 I00 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
W -" ', _ E
Longitude, deg

(a) Groundtrack.

6.0--

4.5
4.3

3.0

1.5
6°
I
2.6

.9
Himalayan
anomalousarea ://

0
.Q. -.9
<3 -I.5 <2

-3.0 alayan -2.6_ In daia:Oa_an! ___

J
anomalous
area
-4.5 -4.3-

-6.0
I I I I I -6.0 I I I I I
07:02 07:12 07:22 07:32 07:42 07:52 06:37 06:47 06:57 07:07 07:17 07:27
GMT, hr:min GMT, hr:min

(b) Revolution 8, July 16, 1975. (e) Revolution 23, July 17, 1975.

Figure 12-6.- Range-rate signatures of four revolutions in the Indian Ocean and
Himalayan areas.

12-13
 6.0
Himalayan
4.7

3.3
anomalousarea
°°I
4.5

3.0
i
2.0 1.5

.?
0
.0. ".7
,¢3 ,<3 -1.5
-2.0
-3.0
-3.3 Himalayan
anomalous
-4.5 -
-4.7 area
-6.0 I I I I I -6.0 I I I I I

05:18 05:28 05:38 05:48 05:.58 06:08 04:39 04:49 04:59 05:09 05:19 05:29
GMT, hr:min GMT, hr:min

(d) Revolution 83, July 21, 1975. (e) Revolution 113, July 23, 1975.

Figure 12-6.- Concluded.

12-14
 W+E
Longitude, deg

Figure 1.2-7.- Residual Earth surface undulations for the GEM-7 and GEM-8 models.
Contour interval is 5 meters. Times are Greenwich mean times on July 2 3 , 1975.

12-15
 Longitude, deg E

Figure 12-8.- Global detailed gravimetric geoid based on the GEM-6 Earth model and
loby losurface gravity data. Contour interval is 10 meters.

12-16
 13. QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATION OF LIGHT FLASH SENSATIONS

EXPERIMENT MA- 106

T. F. Budinger ,at C. A . Tobias ,a E . Schopper,b j . U. Schott ,b

R. H. Huesman,aF. T. Upham,aT. F. Wieskamp,CJ. M. Kucala,e

F. S. Goulding,a D. A. Landis ,a j. T. Walton,a and R. E. Walton a

ABSTRACT

Light flashes caused by the interaction of cosmic particles with the visual
apparatus have been observed by astronauts on all space missions since Apollo 11.
The character of these flashes and the mechanism whereby they are elicited have
been investigated both in flight and in ground laboratories for the past several years.

This Apollo-Soyuz Test Project experiment compared measurements of the

observer's visual sensitivity with measurements of the ambient radiation environ-
ment and with the frequency and character of the flashes observed. The data ob-
tained reveal a latitude dependence of the frequency of observed flashes. This
distribution of flashes is correlated with the distribution of cosmic particles with
stopping power _15 keV/_m in the eye. The interaction of dark adaptation, specific
ionization, and range of particles in the retina as factors in the visualization of par-
ticle passage is discussed.

INTRODUCTION

This preliminary report records the quantitative observations of the light

flash phenomenon seen by astronauts during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP).
The experiment was conducted during two revolutions and consisted of the correla-
tion of precisely reported visual phenomena noted by two astronauts with the mea-
sured and calculated cosmic particle environment near the astronauts' heads. This
was the sixth mission during which planned observations of the light flash phenom-
enon were made.

aLawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California at Berkeley.

buniversity of Frankfurt.

eLawrence Livermore Laboratory.

tprincipal Investigator.

13-I
 BACKGROUND

Astronauts on Apollo 11 and subsequent missions (including Skylab) have

observed randomly occurring visual phenomena that consist of the perception of
tiny, brief, starlike flashes of white light or pencil-thin streaks of light. These
observations were made when the interior of the spacecraft was darkened. Examples
of the types of phenomena seen are shown in figure 13-1, which is based on descrip-
tions by Apollo and Skylab crews as well as descriptions from Earth-based experi-
ments with accelerated charged particles. Not all of these visual effects were seen
during the ASTP mission. During the last six Apollo missions, and on a few occa-
sions during Skylab, crews made both scheduled and unscheduled observations of
the frequency and character of these events (refs. 13-1 to 13-6). These observations
can be summarized as follows. After approximately 17 minutes of dark adaptation,
tiny dots and thin streaks of white light were seen at frequencies of about 3 events/
min by astronauts during the translunar or transearth coast phases of the Apollo
missions or the polar part of Skylab orbits. Near the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA),
where the proton flux is 1000 times or more greater than in other parts of the orbit,
the frequency increased to about 15 events/min (ref. 13-6)for Skylab altitudes of
443 kilometers.

The Apollo 11 lunar module pilot first reported these visual phenomena, which
were predicted in 1952 by C. A. Tobias (ref. 13-7) who'hypothesized that astronauts
were likely to see flashes of light from cosmic particles when they were outside the
shielding provided by the magnetic field of the Earth. The site of action of these
cosmic particles, and whether cosmic particles actually caused the light flash phe-
nomenon, were subjects of conjecture in 1970 when this phenomenon was first re-
ported. Many known causes for luminous phosphenes exist, including ionizing
radiation, mechanical pressure, electrical currents, magnetic fields, stimulation
of the cerebral cortex, and central nervous system pathological conditions. For
example, flashes can be seen during stages of retinal detachment, and the retina is
sensitive to externally applied currents as small as 0.3 milliampere. In 1970, these
phenomena were believed to be caused by carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen nuclei
which traverse the spacecraft and the body at frequencies of 1 to 2 nuclei/min/cm 2
when outside the magnetic shielding of the Earth. Of continuing controversy is the
conjecture that the major mechanism for these visual phenomena is Cerenkov radia-
tion (refs. 13- 8 to 13-11).

In 1970, a series of experiments was undertaken to determine whether carbon,

nitrogen, and oxygen of approximately 300 MeV/amu and other ions with equivalent
ionizing characteristics could cause qualitatively the same phenomena seen by
astronauts. In a series of experiments using neutrons of 630 megaeleetronvolt
energy (ref. 13-12), neutrons of approximately 8 megaeleetronvolt energy (ref.
13-13), helium ions from the 467-centimeter (184 inch) cyclotron at 230 MeV/nucleon
(ref. 13-14), and nitrogen ions accelerated to approximately 260 MeV/nucleon at the
bevatron (ref. 13-15), ionizing particles with a stopping power of approximately
10 keV/_m or greater caused similar phenomena. These experiments demonstrated
that ionization or electronic excitation from cosmic particles could adequately account
for the light flash phenomenon. Cerenkov light is produced by particles with veloci-
ties greater than those used in the experiments just described; therefore, it was con-
eluded that whereas Cerenkov radiation might cause similar phenomena, it was not

13-2
the predominant mechanism. The exact mechanismwhereby the retina is stimulated
by ionizing particles at velocities below those necessary for emission of Cerenkov
light is still unclear. Experiments in which nitrogen ions were stopped in nine po-
sitions in the cerebral cortex have shown that the brain and the optic nerve are not
stimulated by ions (ref. 13-15). Possibilities are electronic excitation resulting in
near-ultraviolet (uv) radiation in the vicinity of the retina, ionization in a confined
region associated with delta rays around the ion track, or a shock wave phenomenon
from energetic charged particles passing through the tissue matrix.
The purpose of this experiment was to ascertain quantitatively the frequency,
character, latitudinal dependence, and identity of cosmic particles that cause the
light flash phenomenon. The ultimate objective was the assessment of radiation haz-
ards for long-term Earth-orbiting and interplanetary missions. The special features
of this experiment included measurement of dark adaptation, measurement of the
characteristics of the cosmic particle environment in the vicinity of the eye, and
continuous onboard accumulation of the light flash observations from astronauts and
particle detectors throughout one continuous revolution.

EXPERIMENTPROTOCOL

Two revolutions were devoted to this experiment. During revolution 110, the
silicon telescope-spectrometer was deployed for the measurement of the trajectory,
atomic charge Z, and velocity of cosmic particles with a stopping power of 10 keV/
_m or greater. During revolution 111, the Apollo commander and the command
module pilot made continuous observations of visual sensations while dark adapted.
The docking module pilot (DMP) operated the experiment control unit, which re-
ceived data from the silicon detectors as well as from silver chloride cadmium-doped
(AgC1(Cd)) crystals that were used to register particle tracks in four sectors of the
orbit corresponding to northern latitudes, equatorial latitudes, the SAA, and south-
ern latitudes.

The experiment commencedwith the detector-alone orbit according to the

Flight Plan at approximately 13:40 GMT on July 22, 1975. The manned orbit, revo-
lution 111, began according to the Flight Plan at approximately 14:45 GMT, at which
time the spacecraft was maneuvering to proper attitude because the attitude for revo-
lution 110 was not optimum. Approximately 10 minutes later, the observing crew-
members had reached dark adaption. The first light flash was reported at 15:00 GMT
at latitude 49° N when the spacecraft was approaching the northernmost point of the
orbit. At each event, a pushbutton signal from the observing astronaut was record-
ed on the digital tape and the verbal description was recorded on the onboard tape
recorder. The DMP switched the lighting for the AgCl(Cd) crystal compartments
according to the Flight Plan at 17, 39, and 54 minutes after commencementof revo-
lution 111. The experiment was terminated at 16:50 GMT. In accordance with the
Flight Plan, the digital tapes, voice tapes, detector boxes, and masks were returned
to the experimenters. The digital tapes were transported to the Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory (LBL) for analysis, and the AgCl(Cd) crystals were transported to
Frankfurt, Germany, where they had been produced and calibrated.

13-3
 EQUIPMENT

The hardware for the experiment consisted of two dark adaption masks, two
pushbuttons, two cosmic-particle detector boxes, and a control and power unit that
housed a data tape. The masks and pushbuttons were manned by two astronauts
and the control and power unit was controlled by the third astronaut, who monitored
the experiment (figs. 13-2 to 13-4).

Dark Adaption Masks

Each dark adaption mask was made of Lexan plastic approximately 2 milli-
meters thick and was fitted with a light-emitting diode (LED) behind a pinhole aper-
ture approximately 2 centimeters from one eye. The masks, held to the head by
straps, were fabricated from molds of each astronaut's head. The head molds were
made by the LBL group using techniques adapted from fabrication of similar molds
used for head positioning in radiotherapy of the pituitary gland. Plaster of paris
head casts were made from the molds. The Lexan masks were then made by press-
ing near-molten Lexan over these head casts. A foam rubber insert was used to
ensure a perfect light-tight fit, and each mask was then custom fitted to each crew-
member.

The effective brightness of the LED was controlled by the duration of a con-
stant voltage. The duration ranged from 5 microseconds to 1.7 milliseconds in six
different levels and produced the expected response on normal subjects in terms of
the rapidity with which each level of dark adaption was reached. Level 5 was
reached approximately 15 minutes after commencement of dark adaption.

Pushbuttons

Events noted by astronauts were recorded on digital tape by means of a hand-

held pushbutton switch.

Detector Boxes

Each of the two detector units contained AgC1 (Cd) crystals and a silicon solid-
state telescope-spectrometer. Each detector box was composed of two units. The
first unit (4.1 by 5.5 by 12.7 centimeters) was an aluminum housing in which there
were four compartments (each 1.84 by 3.5 by 2.75 centimeters) for AgC1 (Cd) crys-
tals and small lights. The AgC1 (Cd) crystals were 1- by 2-centimeter wafers 0.03
centimeter thick. Two crystals were placed in each compartment on either side of
two white 6-volt lights, which were filtered to give predominantly yellow light by
using 0.06-centimeter-thick Kapton plastic sheets between the lights and crystals.

The AgC1 (Cd) crystals are nuclear part{cle detectors developed in Germany
(ref. 13-16). They are similar to nuclear emulsions but have a unique property
that allows evaluation of the time at which a particle traverses the detector. A nu-
clear particle passing through the crystal leaves a latent track of dislocated elec-
trons and displaced silver or cadmium atoms. Within a few minutes, the migration

13-4
of electrons and atoms will return the crystal to its original condition. However, if
the crystal is exposed to visual spectrum photons, the latent track is fixed or stabi-
lized. Hours or weeks later, if the crystal is exposed to ultraviolet light, the stabi-
lized but still invisible tracks are developed, thus giving a permanent record of the
nuclear particle track. The distribution of residual silver around the track is re-
lated to the charge and velocity of the ion as well as to the intensity and spectrum
of the near-ultraviolet light used to develop the stabilized tracks. The time period
between implantation of a latent track and fading is a few minutes, but the period
between the time a stabilized track is made and fading is more than 1 week. Crys-
tals were loaded into each of four compartments so that the particle environment
could be measured in the four sectors of the orbit corresponding to the northern
latitudes, the equatorial latitudes, the SAA, and the remaining minutes of the orbit
over the Pacific Ocean.

The second unit (4.3 by 9.6 by 12.7 centimeters) of each detector box housed
the electronic detector, which consisted of two sets of silicon solid-state wafers.
Each set consisted of two individual wafers i. 7 centimeters in diameter and 0.03
centimeter thick. On each wafer were four active strips each 3 millimeters wide
separated by 0.5 millimeter. The telescope was made by rotating one wafer 90 °
from the other. This set of two wafers gave 16 possible combinations (4 by 4) for
particle position. The second set of two wafers was placed 1.5 centimeters from the
first set, and a 0.5-centimeter-thick copper energy degrader was placed between
the sets. This arrangement allowed measurement of the trajectory and energy loss
of particles passing through the telescope.

The accuracy of energy and trajectory measurements is 5 percent. From

these measurements, the most likely charge and velocity of the detected particle
can be deduced, using the curves of figure 13-5. The threshold for the device is
10 keV/_m.

Control and Power Unit

The control and power unit consisted of power distribution, logic circuits,
and a digital cassette tape recorder that received 16-bit word groups from the ob-
server pushbuttons and the silicon detectors. The word groups from the silicon
detectors contained information on the trajectory and energy loss of particles that
passed through the silicon detector. Elapsed time and detector selector switch po-
sition information were also recorded.

PROCEDURES FOR DATA REDUCTION

Descriptions of the events observed by the crewmembers were recorded on

the onboard voice recorder. The tapes were transcribed, and each event was re-
lated to the orbital position of the spacecraft. Events from the silicon detectors and
pushbuttons and the status of the control unit were read from the digital tape by a
specially constructed microprocessor. The pushbutton events and time marks were
related to the verbal reports. The energy and trajectory information is being re-
duced in terms of particle velocity and most likely charge Z (fig. 13-5).

13-5
 The AgC1(Cd) crystals were transported to Frankfurt, Germany, where they
had been produced and calibrated. These crystals are being analyzed for the abun-
dance of tracks that are related to protons, alpha particles, or heavier ions. The
data are further separated into categories of stopping power and direction.
The characteristics of the cosmic particle environment inside the spacecraft
were determined by converting the spectrum and abundance of particles outside the
spacecraft to the number of particles with various stopping powers and residual
ranges, using shielding data for 512sectors of solid angle around the spacecraft.
The shielding data were supplied by the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.
The input abundances from free space for Z > 3 were obtained from Webber
et al. (ref. 13-17), and the abundances for hydrogen and helium were obtained from
Smith et al. (ref. 13-18). The spectra were assumed to be the same as those for
carbon and oxygen, which were obtained from Juliusson (ref. 13-19). These free-
space abundances were converted to the abundance outside the spacecraft at a 225-
kilometer altitude using the spacecraft orbital parameters and B1 and L2 data ob-
tained from the 99-term field of Hendrieks and Cain (ref. 13-20) extrapolated to
1975. Vertical rigidity cutoffs were estimated by the empirical formula
P = 15.96 L-2"005 from Smart and Shea (ref. 13-21). The present spacecraft
e
orbit routine is based on the Flight Plan and assumed circular orbit because the
ephemeris data are not yet available.
The energy-range relationship was derived from an empirical formula that
gives range R as a function of kinetic energy:

(13-1)
z2\A/

where A is the atomic number, Z is the charge, and E is the kinetic energy in
MeV/amu.

For passage of ions through the spacecraft, aluminum shielding is assumed.

Thus, the constants are a = 2.811 X 10 -3 and _ = 1.775. The stopping power S
is given as

(13-2)

1Geomagnetic field strength.

2Distance from the center of the Earth in Earth radii.

13-6
Energy transfer in the eye is calculated using equation (13-2) and a = 1.88 X 10-3
and _ = 1. 802.

RESULTS

The distribution of visual events reported by astronauts is shown along the

track line in figure 13-6. Histograms depicting the frequency of events in time and
with respect to latitude are shown in figures 13-7(a) and 13-7(b). Because the
spacecraft transited latitudes for varying time intervals, normalization to equal
time intervals is shown in figure 13-7(c).

A total of 82 events was reported by the two astronauts (table 13-I). No in-
creased activity in the SAA and no graying of the darkened visual fields occurred.
The relative expected distribution of cosmic particles with stopping power of
greater than 15 keV/_m in the eye is superposed on the histogram of reported
events in figure 13-8.

DISCUSSION

The results of the light flash experiment indicate that the abundance of ions
that cause the light flash phenomena is minimal between latitudes 30 ° N and 30 ° S.
The frequency of light flash events between latitudes 30 ° N and 50 ° N and 30 ° S and
50 ° S is 25 times that noted in equatorial latitudes. There were no reports of in-
creased flash phenomena through the SAA, as might be expected from a Skylab 4
report of increased activity through the SAA (ref. 13-15). However, at the 225-
kilometer altitude of the ASTP spacecraft, the proton flux is much less than at the
Skylab altitudes, which were approximately 440 kilometers. Also, the shielding of
the Apollo spacecraft is greater than that of Skylab.

Through the SAA, the number of protons with a stopping power of 15 keV/_m
that would intersect the astronaut's eye was approximately 2 protons/min for each
eye under the shielding conditions of the Apollo spacecraft. The range of these
particles in the retina is approximately 100 micrometers. Based on the assumption
that protons with a stopping power of this energy will produce visual phenomena
and on the fact that two observers reported events at less than 1 event/rain through
the SAA, the efficiency is concluded to be approximately 10 percent. If the thres-
hold is 10 keV/_un, then the efficiency is reduced to 5 percent. The efficiency
should be a function of stopping power. Ground-based experiments with stopping
protons are being conducted to corroborate these observations.

The expected flux of heavy particles in the northernmost and southernmost

points of the orbits is 1 to 2 particles/min for each eye. Thus, the efficiency for
seeing high charge energy (HZE) particles is approximately 50 percent for the dark-
adapted eye. The abundance of heavy ions with various stopping powers is being
calculated as previously described. The efficiency and character of light flashes
should be a function of the stopping power and the velocity of the particle, because
the range of the effective radiation around the particle track will increase as the

13-7
velocity increases. Thus, a slow helium ion with a stopping power of 20 keV/_m
might give a thinner and less efficiently seen streak than an iron particle at the
same stopping power, because the distribution of delta rays is much greater in the
latter situation.

13-8
 REFERENCES

13-1. Chapman, P. K.; Pinsky, L. S.; Benson, R. E.; and Budinger, T. F.:
Observations of Cosmic Ray Induced Phosphenes. Proceedings of the
National Symposium on Natural and Manmade Radiation in Space (E. A.
Warren, ed.). NASA TM X-2440, 1972, pp. 1002-1006.

13-2. Budinger, T. F.; Tobias, C. A.; Lyman, J. T.; Chapman, P. K.; et al.:
Light Flash Phenomenon Seen by Astronauts. Proceedings of the Collo-
quium on Space Biology Related to Post-Apollo Program. ESRO, Paris,
France, 1971, p. 209.

13-3. Benson, R. E.; and Pinsky, L. S.: Visual Light Flash Phenomenon. See.
27, Part C, of the Apollo 16 Preliminary Science Report. NASA SP-315,
1972.

13-4. Pinsky, L. S. ; Osborne, W. Z.; and Bailey, J. V.: Visual Light Flash
Phenomenon. Sec. 27 of the Apollo 17 Preliminary Science Report.
NASA SP-330, 1973.

13-5. Pinsky, L. S.; Osborne, W. Z.; Bailey, J. V.; Benson, R. E.; and
Thompson, L. F." Light Flashes Observed by Astronauts on Apollo 11
Through Apollo 17. Science, vol. 183, no. 4120, Mar. 8, 1974,
pp. 957-959.

13-6. Pinsky, L. S.; Osborne, W. Z.; Bailey, J. V.; and Hoffman, R.A.: Light
Flashes Observed by Astronauts on Skylab 4. Science, vol. 188, no. 4191,
May 30, 1975, pp. 928-930.

13-7. Tobias, C.A.: Radiation Hazards in High Altitude Aviation. J. Aviation

Med., vol. 23, 1952, p. 345.

13-8. Fazio, G. G. ; Jelley, J. V. ; and Charman, W. N.: Generation of Cerenkov

Light Flashes by Cosmic Radiation Within the Eyes of the Apollo Astro-
nauts. Nature, vol. 228, no. 5268, Oct. 17, 1970, pp. 260-264.

13-9. McNulty, P. J.: Light Flashes Produced in the Human Eye by Extremely
Relativistic Means. Nature, vol. 234, no. 5323, Nov. 12, 1971, p. 110.

13-10. McNulty, P. J.; Pease, V. P.; Pinsky, L. S.; Bond, V. P.; et al.: Visual
Sensations Induced by Relativistic Nitrogen Nuclei. Science, vol. 178,
no. 4056, Oct. 13, 1972, p. 160.

13-11. McNulty, P. J.; Pease, V. P.; and Bond, V. P.: Visual Sensations In-
duced by Cerenkov Radiation. Science, vol. 189, no. 4201, Aug. 8,
1975, pp. 453-454.

13-12. Tobias, C. A. ; Budinger, T. F.; and Lyman, J. T.: Radiation-Induced

Light Flashes Observed by Human Subjects in Fast Neutron, X-ray, and
Positive Pion Beams. Nature, vol. 230, Apr. 30, 1971, pp. 596-597.

13-9
13-13. Budinger, T. F. ; Bichsel, H. ; and Tobias, C. A.: Visual Phenomena
Noted by Human Subjects on Exposure to Neutrons of Energies Less Than
25Million Electron Volts. Science, vol. 172, no. 3978, May 21, 1971,
pp. 868-870.
13-14. Tobias, C. A. ; Budinger, T. F. ; and Lyman, J. T.: Biological Effects
Due to Single Accelerated Heavy Particles - Problems of Nervous System
Exposure in Space. In Life Sciences and SpaceResearch XI (P. H. A.
Sneath, ed.). Academie-Verlag (Berlin), 1973, p. 233.

13-15. Budinger, T. F.; Lyman, J. T.; and Tobias, C.A.- Visual Perception of
Accelerated Nitrogen Nuclei Interacting With the Human Retina. Nature,
vol. 239, no. 5369, Sept. 22, 1972, pp. 209-211.

13-16. Schott, J.-U. : Eigenshaften von AgC1 (Cd)-Kristallen als Teilchenspur-

Detektoren. Ph. D. Thesis, Institut f_ir Kernphysik der Johann Wolfgang
Goethe-Universit_t Frankfurt Am Main, 1974.

13-17. Webber, W. R.; Damle, S. V.; and Kish, J.: Studies of the Chemical
Composition of Cosmic Rays with Z = 3-30 at High and Low Energies.
Astrophys. Space Sci., vol. 15, Feb. 1972, pp. 245-271.

13-18. Smith, L. H.; Buffington, A.; Smoot, G. F.; Alvarez, L. W.; and Wahlig,
M.A.: A Measurement of Cosmic-Ray Rigidity Spectra Above 5 GV/c of
Elements From Hydrogen to Iron. Astrophys. J., vol. 180, no. 3, Mar.
1973, pp. 987-1010.

13-19. Juliusson, E.: Cosmic Rays at Very High Energies. Vol. I, Proceedings
of the 13th International Cosmic Ray Conference 1974, pp. 373-377.

13-20. Hendricks, S. J.; and Cain, J. C.: Magnetic Field Data for Trapped-
Particle Evaluations. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 71, no. 1, Jan. 1, 1966,
pp. 346-349.

13-21. Smart, D. F. ; and Shea, M.A.: A Study of the Effectiveness of the

McIlwain Coordinates in Estimating Cosmic-Ray Vertical Cutoff Rigidities.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 72, no. 13, July 1, 1967, pp. 3447-3454.

13-10
 TABLE 13-I.- SUMMARY OF EVENTS

Track sector Stars Streaks Commas Total

Northernmost point of orbit to Florida a12 b6 2 20

Florida to Brazil 2 3 0 5

SAA 2 1 0 3

SAA to completion of orbit 27 16 ii 54

alncludes events expressed as supernova in figure 13-6.

blncludes events expressed as hotdogs in figure 13-6.

13-11
Short streak e e ht,l::ki
Light-tight mask
Light-emitting diode
,:
$
,,
-
!
6
I
1
II
Detector box
Si I icon telescope-sped rometer
AqCIKd) crystals

/ 7

Long streak
(thin line
of light) light points)

(wide line
of light)

J---Crystal detector selection

Spacecraft power
Dark adaption levels
Data recorder

Figure 13-1.- Reproduction of visual Figure 13-2 .- Experiment layout.

events noted in space and in
cyclotron experiments.

Figure 13-3.- Position of equipment in spacecraft.

13- 12
 Cosmic particle detector box

Dark adaption mask

J
i

Communication earpiece

Figure 13-4 .- Experiment hardware.

2.678 10

15oC

loo0

2
5
v; 500

-
L
0
c
V
0)
L

c
P)

g
& o
2
0)
c
u
E
2 150 -
.-
L

n
B
L
al
c
Y

_----
0 50 100 150 200 250 350 400 450 500
Total energy in first detector, MeV

Figure 13-5. - Relationship between silicon detector response, particle charge,

and velocity.

13-13
 July 22, 1975
Revolution 111

6oo
GMT

60° _-
150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0 30° 60° gO° 120° 150° 180° 150°
W--,----I-_ E
Longitude

Figure 13-6.- Orbit track and distribution of reported events.

a.

(a) Intervals of 3 minutes.

Figure 13-7.- Histograms of pushbutton events by time and latitude. Except for
a few cases, pushbutton events agree with verbal reports.

13-14
 14

12

" 10

® 8

" 4

50 40
] 30 20 I0 0 I0
o
20 30 40 50
,,,,
50 40 30 20 I0 0
,, I0 20 30 40 50
N: : --S S_ : -:N
Latitude, deg

(b) Intervals of 5 ° latitude.

'°I
4.5

"_ 4.0

i,.°_ I
"-,,,I
0 I I
I-I I I I I t I I I I
rlFl
50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
N_ : =-S S_ : =N
Latitude, deg

(e) Intervals of 5 ° latitude normalized by time intervals.

Figure 13-7.- Concluded.

13-15
 1.5

Cosmicparticles
/ >15 keVlFm

_I.0
/

.m

-_ .5

15:00 15:30 1_.00

GMT

Figure 13-8.- Superposition of relative

number of events with a stopping
power of >15 keV/_m on histogram
of reported events.

13-16
 14. BIOSTACK III

EXPERIMENTMA- 107

H. Bficker ,at R. Facius ,a D • Hildebrand, a G. Horneek, a G. Reitz, a

U. Scheidemann a M Sch/ifer a C Thomas a B Toth, a A. R Kranz a
E. H. Graul,bw. R_ther,bM. Delpoux, c It. Planel, c J. P. Soleilhavoup, c
C. A. Tobias d T Yang dE Schopper, aJ. U Schott a E Obst a
, • _ • • , • ,

O. C. Allkofer, e K. P. Bartholom/i, e R. Beaujean,e W. Enge, e W. Heinrich, f

H. Frangois, g 13. Portal, g R. Kaiser ,h j. P. Massu6, i R . Pfohl, i C . Jacquot, i

E. V. Benton, J and D. D. Peterson ]

ABSTRACT

The Biostack III experiment onboard the Apollo spacecraft during the Apollo-
Soyuz Test Project complemented the Biostack I and II experiments of the Apollo 16
and 17 missions• The objectives of these experiments were to study the biological
effects of individual heavy cosmic particles of high-energy loss (HZE) not available
on Earth, to study the influence of additional space-flight factors, to obtain knowl-
edge on the mechanism by which HZE particles damage biological materials, to get
information on the spectrum of charge and energy of the cosmic ions in the space-
craft, and to estimate the radiation hazards to man in space.

auniversity of Frankfurt•

buniversity of Marburg.

Cuniversity of Toulouse.

duniversity of California•

euniversity of Kiel.

fUniversity of Siegen.

gAtomic Energy Commission, Republic of France•

hMinistre de l'Industrie et de la Recherches, Paris, France.

iUniversity of Strasbourg.
Juniversity of San Francisco•

tPrincipal Investigator•

14-1
 For these purposes, the Biostack experiment includes a wide spectrum of
biological objects, and various radiobiologieal end points are under investigation.
Bacterial spores, protozoa cysts, plant seeds, shrimp eggs, and insect eggs were
included in the Biostack experiment packages together with different physical
radiation detectors (nuclear emulsions, plastics, silver chloride crystals, and
lithium fluoride thermoluminescence dosimeters). The biological objects in the
Biostack are stacked alternately between physical detectors of HZE particle tracks.
By using special arrangements of biological objects and physical track detectors,
individual evaluation of tracks was obtained that permitted the identification of each
penetrating particle in relation to the possible biological effects on its path. A
precision micromanipulator was developed that allowed the transfer of a single bac-
terial spore from the flight plates to the nutrient medium, thus permitting observa-
tion of the growth of known hit spores for changes in development, growth kinetics,
and cell morphology. The response of the different biological objects to space flight
and HZE particle bombardment varied in degree, presumably depending on the abil-
ity of the organism to replace the cells damaged by a hit. The results help to
estimate the radiation hazard to astronauts during long-duration space missions.

INTRODUCTION

The Biostack III experiment was designed to study the biological efficiency of
individual particles of galactic cosmic radiation that penetrate biologic matter during
space flight. Of special interest were the heavy (high atomic number) high-energy
(HZE) particles with a high loss of energy as the particles pass through material.
To determine this biological efficiency and to correlate the biological effect with the
energy deposition, layers of several biological species in resting states were
stacked alternately with various track detectors (fig. 14-1). The possible interac-
tion with other space-flight factors (e.g., weightlessness) can be recognized by
comparing the results of spacecraft-borne, balloon-borne, and accelerator-exposed
experiments.
The Biostaek Ill experiment onboard the Apollo spacecraft during the Apollo-
Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) complemented the Biostack I experiment of the Apollo 16
flight and the Biostack II experiment of the Apollo 17 flight. The Biostaek I and II
experiments have demonstrated several developmental disturbances and anomalies
in different biological objects (fig. 14-2).

The biological damageby a single HZE particle was shown to be significant.

The Biostaek experiments thus yield the basic data (ref. 14-1) that are necessary to
estimate the radiation hazards to man in space and that eontribute to the establish-
ment of radiation protection requirements for manned space flights.

The dose contribution of the HZE particles was only 0.5 percent of the total
space radiation dose. Therefore, the results of the observed radiation effects
required the development of new approaches to dosimetry. The objective of the
ASTP Biostaek experiment (Biostack III) was to confirm, complement, and enlarge
the results of the Biostack I and II experiments by applying improved and advanced
methods of localization and physical and biological evaluation, by performing
advanced experiments based on the Biostack I and II data, and by including addi-
tional biological specimens and radiation detectors. This experiment will contribute

14-2
to a more complete knowledge of the biological effectiveness of the highly structured
cosmic radiation. Furthermore, a comparison of the data of Biostack Ill with the
data of Biostaeks I and II will show the differences in radiation composition and the
relative biological effectiveness of the radiation inside and outside the geomagnetic
field. Generally, the viability of the flown biological objects did not appear to be
affected by any additional random space-flight factors. From these observations,
a scientifically profitable evaluation of the Biostack III experiment is anticipated.

CONSIDERATIONSON THE DOSIMETRYOF HZE RADIATION

The determination of the relative biological effectiveness of cosmic radiation,

and consequently the estimation of radiation hazards to man in space, requires an
appropriate dosimetric approach. In this respect, the entire cascade of events
following the impact in matter, not the primary composition of the cosmic radiation,
is of interest. Thus, there are two separate categories of action:

1. The quasi-homogeneous radiation, which is the total spectrum of electro-

magnetic radiation and the low-energy particle radiation. Conventional dosimetric
concepts are applicable to and valid for this category.

2. The highly structured radiation with high-energy deposition (HED)

events. These HED events are HZEparticle tracks, nuclear disintegration stars,
recoil particle tracks, high-energy jets, and fission fragment tracks. A common
characteristic of these events is that the main part of their energy is deposited in
such a small volume (track core diameters of a few nanometers) and in such a short
time (_I0 -13 see) that comparison with other types of radiation is not possible
(ref. 14-2).

Little is known about the action mechanisms of HED events on biological

objects. The highly organized and differentiated structure of biological material
complicates investigations in this connection. A total breakdown of lattice structure
by HED events can be verified only in inorganic crystals by electron microscope
investigations (ref. 14-3). Present knowledge about the interaction of HED events
with matter is restricted to ionization and excitation patterns within a limited dis-
tance from the particle trajectories (refs. 14-4 to 14-6) and cautious assumptions
about heat transfer and shock waves (refs. 14-7 and 14-8).

To appraise the hazards of cosmic radiation from HED events, dose equivalent
indices are inadequate, as already outlined in 1966by the International Commission
for Radiation Protection (ICRP) Task Group on Biological Effects of High Energy
Radiations (ref. 14-9) and in 1973by the National Academy of Sciences (ref. 14-1).
Recently, Schaefer (ref. 14-10) came to the conclusion that, in the absence of a
dosimetric system and considering the urgent need for recordkeeping on HZE parti-
cle exposure in manned space operations, all that can be done is to measure the
basic physical parameters of the exposure.

14-3
 To determine all the physical, chemical, and biological consequences of an
individual HZE particle penetration, a length of particle track is needed (for simple
statistical reasons) that exceeds system dimensions of commonradiobiological
procedures. Also, in the region where the classical dose concept becomes valid,
the question arises of what insight into biological consequences can be gained from
examining living organisms that have experienced a "shotgun volley."

In every experiment with HZE particles, the "dose" is proportional to the

density of particle tracks. The arguments can be refined using the stochastic dis-
tribution of specific energy to find the lower limit for the applicability of the quan-
tity "dose" (ref. 14-11). However, the trend is the same, and there is no choice.
To investigate the biological effects of HZE particles, it is necessary to use new
techniques: the Biostaek is one example. There is still the stochastic process of
energy deposition along and lateral to the track. By the Biostack techniques, the
sample space is reduced to individual specimens, which are affected with a high
probability by the passage of a particle. It is necessary to correlate the observed
effects with quantities determined by continuous model calculations, being well
aware that the stochastic process of energy deposition leads to a statistical variation
in the response of the biological specimen. The biological effects found in the
Biostaek I and II experiments were incurred at energy deposition levels of approxi-
mately 7 mJ/kg; 0.03 mJ/kg of this radiation was contributed by HZE particles.

EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES

Experiment Preparation

The Biostack III experiment consists of eight biological experiments (table 14-I)
and seven dosimetric experiments (table 14-II). For flight, the biological objects
(bacterial spores, plant seeds, and animal eggs) were arranged in monolayers, and
most were embedded in polyvinylalcohol (PVA). These layers were stacked between
track detector sheets so that (1) the particle tracks could be located in relation to
the biological objects and (2) the physical quantities of these particles could be deter-
mined. In principle, each biological experiment had the same arrangement
(fig. 14-3). The dosimetric experiments consisted solely of stacks of detector sheets.

The Biostack III experiment was contained in two cylindrical aluminum con-
tainers. Container A had the same design as the Biostack I and II experiments
(fig. 14-1, refs. 14-12 and 14-13) and enclosed a stack of 277 sheets of biological
and dosimetric experiments. Container B (fig. 14-4) was equipped with small
lamps, a filter system, and batteries. It contained a stack of silver chloride (AgC1)
crystals, which were illuminated by yellow light during flight to stabilize the
particle tracks. This stack consisted of two dosimetric experiments andtwo biolog-
ical experiments; some of the AgC1 crystals were covered with monolayers of bac-
terial spores and animal eggs (table 14-I). Container B also eonta/ned two detector
stacks for dosimetric investigations.

14-4
 Flight Performance

The Biostack IIIexperiment was stored in the R-1 compartment of the Apollo
command module, the same storage area as used for Biostack I and II onboard the
Apollo 16 and 17 spacecraft. The bottom of container A was directed toward space
and the flange toward the cabin. Container B was positioned conversely
(fig. 14-5). The backup units of the experiment were used as ground controls.
The ASTP mission duration was approximately 218 hours. After the flight, the
experiment was returned to Frankfurt. An external inspection of the Biostack
experiment revealed no damage.

New Evaluation Techniques

In addition to the postflight procedures used for Biostack I and II (refs. 14-12
and 14-13), four new techniques were developed and used: micromanipulation of
spores, pinpoint etching of plastic detectors, computer-supported track measure-
ments, and track decoration by copolymerization in plastics.

Micromanipulation of spores.- A high-precision micromanipulation procedure

was developed for the transfer of single bacterial spores, which are approximately
1 micrometer in length, from the flight layer onto the nutrient medium. The micro-
manipulation is carried out with an electromechanical device (fig. 14-6) driven in
three axes by high-precision step motors. The movement pulses can be adjusted
for duration and repetition rate, thus achieving steps smaller than 0.1 micrometer
and translation rates of approximately 1 _m/sec in the manual mode. Beginning
immediately after transfer, the development characteristics of the spores are
watched periodically until a colony is formed (fig. 14-7). This method permits
the observation of each spore near a particle track for changes in development,
growth kinetics, and cell morphology as well as for genetic information manifested
in its progeny.

Pinpoint etching of plastic detectors.- Pinpoint etching greatly improves

the accuracy of locating particle tracks in relation to biological objects. The side
of the detector that is covered with the biological objects embedded in PVA is
sealed, and the other side is etched. The etch cones obtained by the overall etching
are enlarged by etching the individual cones under microscopical control until they
almost reach the opposite side (fig. 14-8). The situation is then photographed.
After removing the biological objects around the calculated penetration point, e.g.,
by micromanipulating the spores (fig. 14-9(a)), the etching process continues
until the opposite side is reached; it is stopped immediately after the breakthrough
(fig. 14-9(b)). The situation again is photographed. The actual penetration point
can then be determined in relation to the mieromanipulated spores by superimposing
the two photographs. The only limits of accuracy are given by Abbe's theory of
the light microscope (approximately _+0.2 micrometer).

Each track can be evaluated with this new etching method. This is an advan-
tage for the ASTP Biostack III experiment, which encountered a smaller flux than
the Apollo 16 and 17 Biostack I and II experiments.

14-5
 Computer-supported track measurements.- The evaluation of the plastic
detectors is performed with a modified microscope; signal transducers allow the
automatic recording of local position in three orthogonal axes. Online processing
with a minicomputer results in several improvements compared to the method used
for the Biostaek I and II experiments. Measurement time is decreased. Appropriate
data handling facilitates further analysis such as programed reconstruction of com-
plete particle tracks or establishment of range/cone-length diagrams (needed for the
linear energy transfer (LET) calibration). A further improvement concerns the
determination of particle track location in the seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana. These
seeds may be treated as a good approximation of rotational ellipsoids. Their size
and orientation in three dimensions are determined together with the particle etch
cone. If a particle penetrates a given grain, the coordinates of the points of inter-
section with its surface are given in the system defined by the main axis of the
seed (fig. 14-10). Thus, it can be determined immediately whether the particle
has crossed internal structures (e.g., cotyledons, radicles, or stem-meristems)
because these structures can be recognized in the partly translucent seeds.

Track decoration by copolymerization in plastics.- After a polymer chain

exposure to HED events, chemically active sites, such as trapped radicals or
peroxidized elements, are formed along the tracks. By permeation with convenient
monomers, copolymerization occurs along the tracks. The copolymerized parts of
the tracks become visible when they are dyed with a fluorescent medium. Using
this method, an attempt was made to detect HED events completely inside the detec-
tor (without interference with the surface) in a nearly tissue equivalent material.

The special procedure used was developed by Monnin and Blanford

(ref. 14-14). Acrylic acid is copolymerized on cellulose triacetate (CTA) and dyed
with rhodamine B. Figure 14-11 shows an example of the fluorescent fission frag-
ment tracks obtained after irradiation with a californium-252 source.

Advanced Postflight Analysis

In a multiple factorial analysis, relations between parameters are detected

and condensed into factors; correlations among the factors are then calculated.
This analysis works even if colinearity among the parameters prevents the use of
standard statistical procedures, such as multiple regression or correlation analysis.
If the correlations between the factors and the parameters define the factors in an
unequivocal way, the factors can be interpreted causally. The results of the mul-
tiple factorial analysis of the Biostack II Bacillus subtilis data are shown in fig-
ure 14-12. The point plots on the left show the original biological variables as
functions of the physical parameters. The biological variables are condensed into
factor A, which can be named "biological activity" according to the fraction to which
the variables contribute to it. The plots on the right show the point plots of factor A
as a function of the factors containing the physical data. Factor B can be named
"particle characteristic ," and factor C contains an environmental quantity. Both
correlations A with B and A with C are now statistically significant with an error
probability of 0.05 for A with B and of less than 0. 001 for A with C. Two aspects of
this analysis should be discussed.

14-6
 First, the particles of LET350 that varied between approximately 1.8 and 5.5
GeV cm2/g contribute only to a small degree to the "explained" variance of the
biological factor. Second, the atomic number Z of the particle appears twice and
is the most important component in both factors because it contains the physical
characteristics of the event. This may indicate that, apart from the LET, a quantity
that depends on the square of Z has to be looked for, a quantity that is possibly
connected more directly to the biological effectiveness of these HZE particles. Alper
et al.1 recently reported that Z2/_2a2 (where _ is the particle velocity expressed
as a fraction of the speed of light and a is the distance between the particle path
and the center of the biological object) was a more appropriate parameter than LET
for interpreting results of the oxygen enhancement ratio for heavy ions, which is at
least consistent with the arguments mentioned previously. In the Biostack Ill experi-
ment, an attempt has been made to use multiple factorial analysis for all biological
objects.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Dosimetric Data

The total dose of the cosmic radiation was measured by thermoluminescence

dosimeters (TLD) in five different layers of the Biostack III experiment (table 14-III).
The tracks produced by HZE particles of cosmic radiation were counted in plastic
detectors. The uncorrected values of track density are shown in table 14-IV. A
preliminary integral LET1000 spectrum that depended on the measured particle
density was estimated (fig. 14-13).

From a first partial evaluation of the AgC1 detector foils 1-1 to 1-9, the flux

of particles with LET of approximately I0 MeV cm2/g is as follows:

All particles: 1500 _+100 particles/cm 2

Stopping protons: 50 particles/cm 2

Stopping alpha particles: 70 particles/cm 2

Number of disintegration stars: 3500 stars/cm 3 AgC1 or approximately

6300 stars/g

The first dosimetric data of Biostack III obtained from the plastic detectors were
compared with those of Biostack I and II (table 14-V). The values measured during
the ASTP Earth-orbital flight were essentially lower than those obtained during the
Apollo 16 and 17 lunar missions, which are in agreement.

1personal communication, 1975.

14-7
 First Biological Observations

The etching of the cellulose nitrate (CN) sheets, which carried monolayers
of biological objects, was performed by a specially developed procedure
(ref. 14-13). The CN sheets showed well-developed etch cones (fig. 14-14).
Determination of the localization of the tracks in relation to the biological objects is
in progress. In the Bacillus subtilis experiment, tracks with Z > 12 have been
selected; the point of their penetration through the spore layer has been determined
with an accuracy of +0.2 micrometer; and.the spores near this penetration point
have been evaluated in regard to changes in spore outgrowth, cell morphology,
and growth kinetics. The new techniques of pinpoint etching and micromanipulation
were applied and worked without complications. Deviations from normal develop-
ment have been observed; e.g., monstrous swelling during growth of the first
vegetative cell (fig. 14-15). Such anomalies have been reported to be produced
by X-rays or deuterons (ref. 14-15). A multiple factorial analysis, which will be
applied after the complete set of data is processed, will show the contribution of
HED events to such phenomena.

The analysis of the CN layers for the Zea mays experiment indicates that 52
of 79 seeds were hit by HZE particles with LEToo > 1.5 GeV/cm. The first one-fourth

of the flight seeds were planted approximately 90 days after the mission. No signif-
icant difference in seedling development between the flight seeds and the control
seeds has been observed. The germination is 94.28 percent in the flight group and
96.97 percent in the control group. The average length of the embryonic leaf is
52.39 millimeters for the flight seeds and 52.00 millimeters for the control seeds.
The average length of the first leaf is 115.42 millimeters for the flight group and
119.10 millimeters for the control group.

DISCUSSION

To determine the radiation hazards to man in space, theoretical calculations

based on dose equivalent indices are not sufficient (ref. 14-10). The quality factors
for HED events are mostly unknown, and their definition is very doubtful according
to theoretical considerations. There are many indications that the action of HED
events cannot be appraised by quality factors at all.

The Biostack experiment is a very effective and universal monitor of the

physical parameters of cosmic radiation and of the biological effects produced by
HED events of cosmic radiation during space flight. Although the Biostack technol-
ogy was developed for the special task of a space flight, theoretical considerations
endorse the use of the same experiment in ground-based accelerator experiments.
Based on statistics from several Biostack experiments (including space flight,
balloon, and accelerator experiments), an attempt will be made to find empirical
parameters (e.g., by multiple factorial analysis) to be used for radiation protection
guidelines. Conversely, predictions from established methods of radiation hazard
calculation (both empirical (Katz) and theoretical (Rossi, Kellerer) approaches)
can be compared with the Biostack results.

14-8
 The Biostack II results on the development of Artemia salina eggs (table 14-VI)
indicate that the biological importance of nuclear disintegration stars is comparable
to that of HZE particles. Even those flight eggs that were not affected by HZE
particles showed remarkable disturbances in development. The high level of
embryonic lethality in these eggs compared with the flight eggs penetrated by HZE
particles leads to the conclusion that the observed reduced emergence is a radiation
effect. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the 15 000 stars/cm 3 measured
in the adjacent emulsions permit the calculation of a "dose" contribution by stars in
Artemia salina eggs that is approximately the same as that of HZE particles.

The equivalence in rank of disintegration stars to HZE particles in regard to

biological efficiency (fig. 14-16) would be, if proved, a strong argument for the use
of pion (_-) beams in cancer therapy. Usual dose measurement (ref. 14-16) strongly
underestimates the star peak that covers the main part of the depth-dose peak of a
pion beam. The most probable reaction _- + 160---12C + 3 n (26 percent of the
reactions) can even be approached as occurring between multipronged stars and
a stopping HZE particle. The considerations are in good agreement with the relative
biological effectiveness (RBE) measurements for pions of Akojew and Jurow
(ref. 14-17).

For future biological experiments in space (e.g., Spacelab), simultaneous

measurement of HED events is recommended. For supersonic transport (SST)
travel, the stars as HED events have also been taken into account. Allkofer
(ref. 14-18) found the maximum of disintegration stars at an altitude of approxi-
mately 20 kilometers, which is the actual altitude of SST travel. The hazards to
embryos from stars are unknown.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Causal interpretations of effects found during space flight are possible only
if the influence of all known environmental factors is considered. The Biostack
experiments proved that significant radiation damage has resulted from the passage
of a single HZE particle (refs. 14-12 and 14-13). Some indications were found of
the comparable effectiveness of other HED events. In view of these results, the
influence of HED events may have to be incorporated into the interpretation of the
observed effects in space biological studies. This assertion is strengthened by the
assumed contribution of nuclear disintegration stars to biological radiation events
in space.

The question remains of how relevant to man are the effects that have been
shown to be produced by HZE particles in animal eggs, plant seeds, and bacterial
spores. Table 14-VII compares the radiation sensitivity of man with that of some of
the biological objects used in the Biostack experiments. Of this group, man is the
most radiosensitive object. The sensitivity of the hatching of the two groups of
insect eggs is of the same magnitude, but hatching of the Artemia salina shrimp
eggs is approximately 10 times more resistant. In these animal eggs, developmental
defects have been produced by a penetrating HZE particle. This confirms the

14-9
assumption that HZE-particle-induced damage might become manifest if nonreplace-
able cells are destroyed. In manned space flight, the primary concern would be
the nervous system, which consists of highly differentiated nonreplaceable cells.
Occurrence of sublethaUy damaged cells that could possibly produce late radiation
effects should also be considered. However, the risk to man from HZE particles
during spaceflight can be sufficiently lowered if the maximum possible shielding
against HZEparticle bombardment is ensured in the design and construction of
future space vehicles.

14-10
 REFERENCES

14-1. Grahn, Douglas, ed.: HZE-Particle Effects in Manned Space-Flight.

National Research Council, Radiobiological Advisory Council, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, D .C., 1973.

14-2. B_icker, H.; Horneck, G.; and Hildebrand, D.: Effects of Individual
HZE-Particles in the Biostack Experiment. Proceedings of the 4th Sym-
posium on Microdosimetry. Euratom EUR 5122 d-e-f, Sept. 1973, p. 1071.

14-3. Fleischer, R. L.; Price, P. B.; and Walker, R. M.: Tracks of Charged
Particles in Solids. Science, vol. 149, no. 3682, July 23, 1965,
pp. 383-393.

14-4. Paretzke, H. G.: Approaches to Physical Track Structure Calculations

and Comparison of Track Structure Calculations With Experimental
Results. Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Microdosimetry.
Euratom EUR 5122 d-e-f, Sept. 1973, p. 141.

14-5. Fain, J. : Energy Density Deposited by a Heavy Ion Around Its Path.
Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Microdosimetry. Euratom EUR
5122 d-e-f, Sept. 1973, p. 169.

14-6. Muga, M. L.: A New Model Describing the Energy Deposition Profile
Along the Path of a Heavy Ion. Paper presented at 5th International
Conference on Radiation Research (Seattle, Wash.), 1974.

14-7. Dessauer, Friedrich: Quantumbiologie; Eins_hrung in einen neuen

Wissenszweig. (Quantum Biology; An Introduction to the New Science.)
Second ed., Springer (Berlin), 1964.

14-8. Simmons, J. A.: Thermal Conductivity of Glycine. Nature, vol. 216,

Dec. 30, 1967, p. 1302.

14-9. Upton, A. C.; Chase, H. B.; Hekhuis, G. L.; Mole, R. H.; et. al.:
Radiobiological Aspects of the Supersonic Transport. Health Phys.,
vol. 12, 1966, pp. 209-226.

14-10. Schaefer, H. J.: Microdosimetric Structure of HZE Particle Tracks in

Tissue. NASA CR-141935, Apr. 1975.

14-11. Kellerer, A. M.: Microdosimetry and the Theory of Straggling. Biological

Aspects of Radiation Quality, International Atomic Energy Agency
(Vienna), 1968, pp. 89-103.

14-12. Bi_cker, Horst; Horneck, G. ; Reinholtz, E., Seheuermann, W. ; et al.:

Biostaek Experiment. Sec. 27, Part A, of the Apollo 16 Preliminary
Science Report. NASA SP-315, 1972.

14-11
14-13. B_icker, H.; Horneck, G.; Reinholtz, E.; R_ither, W.; et al.: Biostack
Experiment. Sec. 25 of the Apollo 17 Preliminary Science Report.
NASA SP-330, 1973.

14-14. Monnin, Michel M. ; and Blanford, George E., Jr.: Detection of Charged
Particles by Polymer Grafting. Science, vol. 181, Aug. 24, 1973,
pp. 743-744.

14-15. Donnellan, J. Edward, Jr.; and Morowitz, Harold J.: The Effect of
Charged Particle Irradiation on Germination of Bacillus subtilis. Radia.
Res., vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 1960, pp. 67-78.

14-16. Biomedical Applications and Dosimetry of Pions. Institute for Nuclear

Research (SIN), Zurich, Switzerland, Oct. 1973.

14-17. Akojew, J. G.; and Jurow, S. S.: The Molecular Principles of the Action
of High Energy Hadrones and the Results of Space Biological Investiga-
tions. Izvestija Academia Nauk, SSSR, Seria Biologiceskja. Nr. 1, 1975.

14-18. Allkofer, O. C.: Dosimetry at SST Altitude. Paper presented at 8th

International Conference on Nuclear Photography and Solid State Track
Detectors (Bucharest, Rumania), 1972.

14-12
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14-13
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14-14
 TABLE 14-III.- TOTAL DOSE OF COSMIC RADIATION

MEASURED BY TLD IN BIOSTACK III

Container Layer Position in Total absorbed: Mission absolute Mission dose

no. the container dose, mJ/kg dose, mJ/kg rate, _tJ/kg hr

Flight unit

A K1 Bottom 1.10 0.99 4.54

K7 Middle 1.21 1.10 5.04

K14 Top 1.35 1.24 5.69

B B1 Middle 1.15 1.03 4.72

B2 Bottom 1.13 1.01 4.63

Ground control

A L1 Bottom 11.3

L7 Middle 10.9

L14 Top 10.6

B B3 Middle 11.7

14-15
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14-16
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14-17
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14-18
 TABLE 14-VII.- SENSITIVITY OF DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL
OBJECTS TO X-IRRADIATIONa

Biological object Effect LD50, kJ/kg (krad)

Man Death 0. 004 (0.4)

Tribolium castaneum eggs No hatching .006 (.6)

Carausius morosus eggs No hatching .010 (1.0)

Artemia salina eggs No hatching .035 (3.5)

Bacillus subtilis spores No colony formation .900 (90.0)

Bacillus subtilis spores No outgrowth 1.600 (160.0)

aLethal dose producing the effect in 50 percent of the irradiated objects.

14-19
 (a) Photograph of components.

Cosmic ray particle/

(b) Schematic of part of a biologic unit

in fixed contact with the cellulose
nitrate (CN) sheets. Measurement
of the dip angle 6 is made to deter-
CN
I mine (1) the hit biologic object,
(2) the cone length L (to determine
energy loss), and (3) the residual
range R (to establish the particle
charge). The biological objects are
I I
embedded in polyvinylalcohol (PVA) .
CN
I A layer of polycarbonate (PC) sep-
arates the CN sheets at the top.

Figure 14-1.- Biostack I11 container A .

14-20
Figure 14-2. - Malformations of
Artemia salina induced by HZE
particles that penetrated their
eggs *

0Cellulose nitrate, 250 p m deep

Polycarbonate, 250 p m deep
Ilford nuclear emulsion (K5), 600 p m deep
llford nuclear emulsion (KZ), 600 p m deep
Biological layer (seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana in
polyvinyl alcohol). 400 p m deep

Figure 14-3. - Typical configuration

of biological objects and track de-
tectors in the Biostack.

14-21
 - BIOSTACK III/B

Figure 14-4.- Biostack I11 container B .

R-1 stowage locker \ Outside surface

of command module
1 Ablator: 1.8 cm thick, 513 kg/m3

2 Honeycomb:
Face sheet - 15-7 stainless steel, 0.020 cm thick
Core - 15-7 stainless steel, 1.229 cm thick;
cell diameter, 0.476 cm; cell wall, 0.0025 cm
Face sheet - 15-7 stainless steel, 0.020 cm thick
~

3 Insulation: TG 15000, 3.18 c m thick, 9.6 kg/m3

4 Honeycomb:
\
--- Face sheet -2014T6 aluminum, 0.025 cm thick
\ Core - 5052 H39 aluminum. 2.286 c m thick;
cell diameter, 0.476 c m cell wall, 0.0038 cm
Face sheet - 2014 T6 aluminum, 0.025 cm thick

Figure 14-5.- Stowage location of the Biostack experiment and structural

shielding of the Apollo command module.

14-22
Figure 14-6. - Manipulation equipment.

14-23
 Figure 14-7.- Manipulation and growth of a single Bacillus subtilis spore. The
spore to be removed is shown at the end of the needle in (a); the spore has
.
been removed in (b) Increasing incubation times to 250 minutes are shown
.
in (c), (d) , and (e), and the colony after 24 hours is shown in (f)

14-24
 Cover glass, ,Spores
;. Detector

Frad- 'Seal ring

-."$.- I
(plumule) '
4y Cotyledon
Figure 14-8. - Schematic of pinpoint
etching device.

' 'I

Figure 14-10.- Schematic of orthog-

onal -projections
- of Arabidowis L

thaliana seeds used for localization

of HZE particle penetration.

Figure 14-11.- Decorated fission frag-

Figure 14-9.- Demonstration of pin- ment tracks in cellulose triacetate
point etching. The focus is on the (polymergrafting) .
tip of the etch cone in (a) and at
the surface (spore layer) in (b).
The spore is shown after being re-
moved by manipulation and the
breakthrough of the etch cone in
(c) at low aperture and in (d) at
high aperture.
i

"E
• . ;.-.l.-. i-.._ • !""t"""*
pI

ooo..,00. • .o.
04o • o .°,,,

_o
:I:
percent _
" !i .,I ."i',
" =!1_i _. .:.... :'. i......".[........! : "" "__ • .?
'_ _ o: ° •

• eo cello oo •

...... r t/_
%
i.'..eo...
. )"--3'
o,°,4...._ •
oo

._c • l: 30"8percen
E / o•
"'lilt. .
e e ..._ ........ .'- • .°. • ; /
,.< • i: I:l .ll
: • : I i • /
• il -; :-:
"_.L':,I: • i. • ,_ ! li •
• ="H'"'_-." :_ • :-._-I .... 1"': FactorB
• eel - • (particlecharacteristic)
I o Z - 83.8 percent
LETs5• - 15.8 percent
LETs5o Z

Original parameters(standardized) Factor A - B

(a) Correlation of factor A with factor B.

•"_ .'-"'-I"
.-_:,__x..._..._..... :_
• :

1",
._
:
• :.::,

.....
:......,T.:...'..::,...:
; ""-'[" _';"
... °"

"
"i"ii"

1
':.'_'"'_'.: J. per_nt _
' .-".: "":
.: • \ •
....... •%, ....... _.
.= • \
E
•Oql•
...e..

eoi • \
_o
Factor C
•==.i L_ "',.._ ": i:" t:.. i :'.-
(environmental quantity)
b -'--_ • • ....."......
t .,:.'.;
% • 0 I
I
=_ • Z - 58.0 percent
Cell density - 32.6 percent
Probability of hit - 7. 8 percent
Probability of hit Cell density

Original parameters (standardized) FactorA - C

(b) Correlation of factor A with factor C.

Figure 14-12.- Multiple factorial analysis of Biostaek III results

(three-factor solution).

14-26
--
m
N
E
u
2 \ -\
\\ \ [-------Space
W
0
side ‘ Y

G
A
0
0

t
d
-
N

-5
VI
Y
U
Io
I-
L

Cabin

Figure 14-14.- Etch cones in a cellu-

lose nitrate detector covered with
Artemia salina eggs embedded in
polyvinylalcohol .

Restricted energy loss (LET,ooo - GeV cm2/g1

Figure 14-13.- Preliminary LET spec-

trum for Biostack I11 container A .
 (a) Monstrous swelling in cell. (b) Normal elongated cell.

Figure 14-15. - Deviation from normal development in Bacillus subtilis cells.

(a) Star in cellulose nitrate foil in @) Star in silver chloride foil in

Biostack 11. Biostack 111.

Figure 14-16.- Stars discovered in plastic detectors.

14-28
 15. ZONE-FORMINGFUNGI

EXPERIMENTMA- 147

T. D. Rogers , a G. R. Tay lor, bt andM. E. Brower a

ABSTRACT

Streptomyces (Aetinomyces in the U S S R ) levoris was used as an ex eri-

mental " -
mlero-orgamsm
" - _---_----
dumng
" " " " -_
the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project to study specific
P

biological considerations that may be influenced by space-flight factors. Preflight,

in-flight, and postflight growth rates of the cultures were compared by photograph-
ing the specimens at regular intervals.

Preliminary results based on visual comparison of the photographic data

indicate that an increased growth rate occurred during space flight in two of eight
flight specimens. The increased growth rate continued in the two specimens during
the postflight period until termination of the experiment. Radiation effects may be
responsible for the absence of spores in two areas of the last spore ring that was
formed during the in-flight period in one of the flight cultures; however, the radia-
tion studies related to this experiment have not been completed. Distinct morpho-
logical differences in spore rings were observed when postflight spore rings were
compared with in-flight spore rings. Factors that are related to space-flight
recovery and reentry into Earth gravity may have effected these alterations.
Studies are in progress to compare the secondary cultures from the respective
spore rings.

INTRODUCTION

Streptomyees (Actinomyees in the U. S. S .R. ) levoris was used as a test

micro-organism to study specific biologieal aspects during space flight. The cul-
tural characteristics of this organism permit in situ comparison of spore ring fea-
tures and development rates in preflight, flight, and postflight periods of the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). The vegetative growth and degree of spore
ring development during the respective periods could be observed within a single
culture. Photographic documentation of growth characteristics in both the flight
and control specimens was performed during the experiment.

aNorthrop Services Inc., Houston, Texas.

bNASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.

tPrineipal Investigator.

15-1
 The objective of the experiment was to investigate the influence of space-
flight conditions on the rhythms of vegetative and spore phase characteristics of
Streptomyces (Actinomyces) levoris. To assist in accomplishing this objective,
five aspects of the experiment were studied.

1. Cultures that had been initiated with a 12-hour phase shift were ex-
changed during the flight.

2. The effects of local radiation factors (especially multicharged high-energy

particles) on arrhythmia and injury areas of primary cultures were evaluated.

3. Similar effects of radiation on genetic changes of T4B r+ bacteriophage

were studied.

4.
Characteristics of secondary cultures that were derived from different
sectors of the primary cultures (which were developed during preflight, flight,
and postflight periods) were studied and compared.

5. Morphological and cultural properties of different nutrient media were

recorded.

The results of radiation dosimetry and bacteriophage genetic studies were

used for selection of specific areas of the primary Streptomyces cultures that may
have been affected by local radiation factors. Secondary cultures from these areas
will later be compared morphologically and genetically with secondary cultures
from controls and secondary cultures of nonaffected areas of the flight specimens.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Streptomyces (Actinomyces) levoris was used as the primary test specimen

for this experiment. This species was isolated, named, and provided by the
U .S .S .R. Optimum growth of the organism is achieved by incubating at 300 K
(27 ° C) on an agar-base medium that consists of inorganic salts, glucose, and
yeast extract.

From a single-point inoculation, radial vegetative growth of the organism

was followed by sporulation, which formed a circular spore ring. When the orga-
nism was grown in 60- by 5-millimeter petri dishes at 300 K (27 ° C), one complete
cycle (vegetative and spore phases) occurred at approximately 24 to 26 hours for
10 to 14 days. Thereafter, because of nutritional depletion and metabolic waste
diffusion within the media, the rate of growth slowed.

Optimum phasing of the vegetative growth and spore production cycle was
facilitated by using a 12-hour light-dark regimen of approximately 100 lux with
the lighted phase occurring from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. central daylight savings time.
The light-dark cycle was maintained until the cultures were selected for the ex-
periment and placed in the flight devices.

15-2
 The bacteriophage T4B r+ was incorporated into an agar medium and dried to
form a thin film. These films were placed in the flight devices beneath the lower
layer of plastic dosimeters so that specific genetic alterations of the bacteriophage
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which were induced by the action of high-energy
particles, could be studied (ref. 15-1).

Radiation Detectors

Radiation detectors of cellulose triacetate, cellulose nitrate, and Lexan were

used for registration of particles that passed through the biological test systems.
One radiation detector was situated in the movable cover of each flight device and
another was placed directly under each of the petri dishes that contained the
Streptomyces cultures.

Flight Devices

The flight devices for performing the experiment consisted of four containers
(figs. 15-1 and 15-2). Each device was designed to hold two petri dishes (60 by 5
millimeters) that contained Streptomyces cultures. Radiation detectors were situated
beneath the petri dishes as well as in the movable lid. A bacteriophage film was
also placed beneath each of the radiation detectors under the petri dishes.

The main body of each device consisted of separable halves that were com-
posed of anodized aluminum. A protective glass, fitted with a biologically nonreac-
tive siliconized rubber ring, was inserted beneath the movable lid in the top half
of each device. This glass served as a protective cover and permitted observation
and photography of the cultures. The bottom half of the device, which included the
petri dishes with cultures, spacing rings around the dishes, and siliconized rubber
rings below the dishes, was fitted with the top half of the device to complete the
assembly.

Portable Incubator

The "Thermocont" (fig. 15-3), which was used as a portable incubator for
the cultures enclosed in the flight devices, had an ac/dc power capacity with a
temperature range of 273 to 313 K (0 ° to 40 ° C) and was equipped with an electric
digital thermometer. The Thermocont held four flight devices.

In the United States, the control cultures were maintained in the Thermocont
during the entire course of the experiment, including transportation to and from the
launch and recovery sites. The flight cultures were maintained in the Thermocont
during the preflight and postflight periods.

In the U .S .S .R., the Thermocont was used to maintain and transport the
control and flight cultures to and from the launch and recovery sites. During the
mission, the controls were maintained in the Thermocont. Following recovery,
both control and flight specimens were maintained in the Thermocont until the
experiment was terminated.

15-3
 Photography

Photography of the specimens was initiated after selection of the cultures and
loading of the flight devices. All flight and control specimens were photographed
at 12-hour (+3 hours) intervals from the time the cultures were selected for the ex-
periment until termination of the experiment. Exceptions were made during space
flight because of schedule time lines.

In the U .S.S .R., photography was with a 35-millimeter camera with an f/2.8
(50 millimeter) lens. Photographs were recorded on black-and-white film (type
KH-z, ASA 55). In the United States, a Nikon 35-millimeter camera with an f/2.8
(55 millimeter) lens was used. All photographs were taken with Kodak SO-168 film
(ASA-500). Special devices were used to position the cameras 30.4 centimeters
from the specimens (figs. 15-4 and 15-5).

Preparation and Deployment of Specimens

Streptomyees (Actinomyces) levoris was inoculated on nutrient medium in

petri dishes (60 by 5 millimeters) on July 9, 1975, at 14:00 GMT at the Lyndon B.
Johnson Space Center (JSC) and at 06:00 GMT at the Baykonur Cosmodrome. The
cultures were incubated at 300 K (27 ° C) with a 12-hour light-dark cycle of ap-
proximately 100 lux.

Before selection of the cultures, the flight devices were disassembled,

cleaned, and autoclaved (with the exception of the protective glass inserts, which
were washed in acetic acid, alcohol, and sterile distilled water).

At JSC on July 13, 1975, four flight and four control cultures were selected
and assembled together with radiation detectors and the bacteriophage film. The
devices and specimens were then placed in a .Thermocont and transported to the
launch site. Two devices (A-19 and A-22) were placed onboard the Apollo space-
craft approximately 13 hours before launch.

Four flight and four control cultures were selected at the Baykonur Cosmo-
drome on July 15, 1975, and assembled with radiation detectors and bacteriophage
film. The devices and specimens (C-12 and C-31) were placed onboard the Soyuz
spacecraft approximately 2 hours before launch. The controls were maintained
in a Thermocont at the Baykonur Cosmodrome at 300 K (27 ° C) until July 21. After
recovery, the flight and control specimens were transported from the recovery site
and maintained in a Thermoeont until the experiment was terminated on August 16.

After the launch of Apollo, the control specimens were returned to JSC and
then transported to the Apollo recovery site on July 21. Both the flight and control
specimens were then returned to JSC on July 26 and were maintained in the Ther-
moeont until the experiment was terminated on August 11.

During the joint activities of the Apollo-Soyuz crewmembers, the U.S. cul-
ture A-19 was exchanged with the U .S .S .R. culture C-12 on July 17. On August 29,
following termination of the experiment, the Thermocont and specimens from the
United States were shipped to the laboratory in the U .S .S .R. On October 7, the

15-4
radiation detectors were marked for position and were removed from the flight and
control devices in the presence of science representatives of both the United States
and the U.S.S.R.

RESULTSAND DISCUSSION

The general scheme of the experiment was carried out according to the proj-
ect outline. All the flight and control cultures of Streptomyces exhibited growth
during the preflight, flight, and postflight periods of the experiment without
apparent contamination.

Preliminary visual analyses of photographic documentation of culture growth

rates during the experiment were performed. To facilitate preliminary comparison
of data in the respective periods, August 1 was selected as the cutoff date for the
postflight period, although the experiment was continued until August 11 in the
United States and August 16 in the U. S. S .R.

Data on the total number of spore rings formed by the control and flight cul-
tures at the end of the preflight, flight, and postflight periods are shown in
table 15-I. Similar data are shown in table 15-II for the specimens that were
exchanged during the mission. Photographs of the respective flight and control
specimens (U.S .S .R. and U .S.) that were taken on August 1 are shown in fig-
ures 15-6 and 15-7.

Cultures were initiated for the experiment in both the U .S .S .R. and the
United States on July 9. However, at the respective launch times on July 15, the
rate of vegetative growth and subsequent spore ring development (biorhythm) was
different (tables 15-I and 15-II). The difference in growth rate between cultures
initiated in the United States and those initiated in the U.S.S.R. continued through-
out the experiment. This growth-rate difference between the respective cultures
reflects differences in the nutritional media used by the two laboratories, although
all attempts were made to standardize procedures and components. In practice, the
culture medium formula was identical, but specific chemicals were not obtained
from the same sources. The variation in the number of spore rings in the U .S.S .R.
cultures at the end of the preflight period may suggest inherent differences of
growth rate rather than nutritional effects, because the cultures were grown on
identical media (tables 15-I and 15-II). Studies are in progress to determine
whether this difference was due to nutritional or genetic variation, or a combination
of both.

The controls cultured in the United States grew at the same rate when com-
pared with each other within a given time period (preflight, flight, or postflight),
with the exception of number 2 of A-25, which exhibited a slight decrease in growth
rate during the postflight period (table 15-I). In the U.S.S.R. controls, the two
cultures of C-35 had three spore rings and C-36 had two spore rings at the end of
the preflight period. At the time of Soyuz recovery on July 21, the number of spore
rings of C-35 and C-36 was the same. During the postflight period, number 2 of
C-36 exhibited a distinct increase in growth rate when compared with the other
U.S.S.R. controls Gable 15-I).

15-5
 Differences in growth rate between flight and control cultures occurred
(table 15-I). Either space-flight factors or the reduced temperature in both the
Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft could have contributed to this slower growth rate.

During the in-flight period of Apollo, number 1 of A-22 developed four spore
rings. When compared with the growth rate of the controls, and when considering
the reduced temperature in Apollo, this growth rate appears as expected. In the
postflight period, the growth rate of number 1 of A-22 was similar to that of the
controls.

The most obvious alteration of growth rate was exhibited by number 2 of

A-22 during the in-flight period. In the decreased temperature environment of
Apollo, six spore rings were formed. This was two rings more than in number 1 of
A-22 and one-half ring more than in the controls, which were continually maintained
at 300 K (27 ° C). The increased growth rate continued during the postflight period
(table 15-I). In number 2 of C-31, the preflight growth rate was slightly slower
than in number 1 of C-31; during the in-flight period, the two cultures grew at the
same rate. However, in the postflight period, the biorhythm was slightly decreased
in number 2 of C-31 when compared with other flight specimens (tables 15-I and
15-II).

The morphologic appearance of the spore rings of the flight specimens that
formed during the preflight and in-flight periods was distinct and generally uni-
form. The spore rings that developed during the postflight period were irregular
and indistinct. This alteration of morphologic appearance between adjacent rings
(the last in-flight ring and the first postflight ring) may suggest an influence of
space-flight recovery factors on spore ring formation. The comparative aspects
of these features are shown in figures 15-6 and 15-7.

In addition to the increased growth rate of number 2 of A-22 during flight,

this culture developed an offset, which caused the formation of a spiral ring
(fig. 15-8). Similar offsets and spirals were observed in the controls; however,
they developed during the postflight period (figs. 15-6 and 15-7).

In number 1 of A-19, the last ring formed during the in-flight period exhib-
ited two distinct areas in which spores failed to form (fig. 15-9). As subsequent
spore rings developed, these two regions remained void of spores. As the next
ring was formed (the double ring that developed in the early postflight period), a
portion of the spore development occurred in part of the void region (fig. 15-10).

The first postflight spore rings that formed in both cultures of A-19 and in
number 2 of C-31 were double rings (figs. 15-10 and 15-11). Based on the time
of their formation, it appears that factors related to reentry and recovery resulted
in this abnormal spore ring development. This feature was not observed in any of
the subsequent spore rings of these cultures or in any of the other cultures during
the remainder of the experiment.

After the exchange of the temperature profiles of Apollo and Soyuz, the
influence of temperature on the characteristics of Stre_3tomyces will be studied.
Studies on the radiation detectors and bacteriophage aspects of the experiments are
in progress. These data will be used for assessing the effects of radiation on

15-6
specific areas of the primary flight and control cultures. Studies are in progress
for comparison of morphological and cultural characteristics of secondary cultures
derived from the preflight, flight, and postflight growth regions. These studies
will provide data with which to determine whether the noticeable changes of growth
biorhythm observed in two of the eight specimens during the in-flight period are
permanent or temporary alterations related to space-flight factors. As these data
become available, they may help to achieve a better understanding of the biological
effects of space-flight factors that may influence the biorhythm of vegetative growth
and spore production of Streptomyces (Actinomyces) levoris.

REFERENCE

15-1. Akoev, I. G.; Yurov, S. S.; Leontyeva, G. A.; Kusin, I. A.; et al.:
Mutagenic Action of Secondary Radiation of 70 GeV Protons. Studia
Biophysica, vol. 41, 1_73, pp. 167-180.

15-7
 0 _ 0

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Lt_

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u)

Z
0

C_

i.

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Lt_

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r_

15-8
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15-9
 Figure 15-1. - Examples of flight de-
vices. The "A" series was used by
the United States and the tfC" series
by the U.S.S.R. Each device holds
two petri dishes (60 by 5 m i l l i -
meters), which are designated as
I? I??and .

1
Figure 15- 3 , - The portable incubator
(transport container) "Thermocont"
that was used to maintain cultures at
300 K (27O C ) during various phases
of the experiment in the United
. .
States and the U S, S .R It has both
4
ac/dc power capability.

.-
Figure 15-2 Photograph of the com-
ponents of a flight device.
(1) Upper half of device with mov-
able covers. (2) Siliconized rubber
ring that fits around the protective
glass. (3) Protective glass and
rubber ring, which are inserted in-
to the upper half of the device and
serve to protect the specimen in the
petri dish. (4) Bottom half of the
device. (5) Metal spacing ring.
(6) Siliconized rubber washer that
fits in the well of the lower half.
(7) Radiation detector that is placed
in the bottom of the device under the
petri dish. (8) Radiation detector
in movable cover. (9) Petri dish Figure 15-4. - Photographic apparatus
and specimen. . .
used in the U .S S .R for ground-
support photography of the experi-
ment. A similar bracket was used
in flight with another type of camera.

15- 10
I
Figure 15-5. - Photographic apparatus
used in the United States during
both ground-support and Apollo in-
flight photography of the experiment.

Figure 15-6. - Photographs of cultures

of Streptomyces (Actinomyces)
. .
levoris in the U S . S .R taken on
August 1, 1975. Device A-19 was
--- launched in Apollo and recovered
from Soyuz, whereas C-31 was both
launched and recovered in Soyuz .
Devices C-35 and C-36 were
U . S .S .R. controls.

Figure 15-7. - Photographs of cultures

of Streptomyces (Actinomyces)
levoris taken in the United States on
August 1, 1975. Device C-12 was
launched in Soyuz and recovered
from Apollo, whereas A-22 was both
launched and recovered from Apollo.
Devices A-24 and A-25 were U . S .
controls.
 Figure 15- 10.- Photograph of the first
postflight spore ring showing an
erratic attachment to the last in-
flight ring and partial "filling in" of
the void area. Note the occurrence
Figure 15-8. - Growth offset of a spore of the double-ring formation.
ring that formed during the in-flight
period.

.-
Figure 15-9 Photograph of spore Figure 15-11.- Example of another
ring deletion that occurred in the culture exhibiting the double-ring
last ring formed i n flight. formation.

15-12
 16. MICROBIALEXCHANGE

EXPERIMENTAR-002

G. R. Taylor, at K. D. Kropp,b M. R. Henney,b S. S. Ekblad, b

T. O. Groves,b T. C. Molina, b J. G. Decelle,b C. F. Carmichael b
N. J. Gehring,b and E. L. Youngb

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the Microbial Exchange Experiment was to evaluate compo-

nents of the infectious disease process in space flight by measuring alterations in
three factors: (1) the composition of the microbial populations inhabiting the crew-
members and spacecraft, (2) the ability of each crewmember's defense mechanism
to resist infection, and (3) the ability of certain micro-organisms to originate in-
fections. The impetus for performing the experiment arose from the variety of in-
flight and ground-based microbial studies in the United States and the U.S.S.R.,
which have indicated that the conditions of space flight alter man and micro-
organisms in such a way that the normal fine balance between them may be adversely
affected. The monitoring of two separate crews, which differed microbiologically
and immunologicaUy, provided an opportunity to study in-flight cross-contamination
patterns. Because the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crewmembers came from widely
different geographical and ecological areas, it was possible to identify specific,
naturally occurring, marker micro-organisms for detailed analysis.

This report evaluates the operational aspects associated with the experiment
and the activities of medically important micro-organisms recovered from the Apollo
crewmen. The majority of activities were performed as planned, and a large per-
centage of the anticipated data will be forthcoming. A variety of potential pathogens
was recovered from each of the prime and backup crewmembers before and after
flight. However, no disease events were reported. Candida albieans and
Staphylococcus aureus (type 52, 52A, 80, 81) were shown to be transferred
from one erewmember to another during the flight. No other medically significant
changes in the microbial population were observed.

aNASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.

bNorthrop Services Incorporated, Houston, Texas.

tprincipal Investigator.

16-1
 INTRODUCTION

The problems concerning the occurrence of microbial contamination and in-

fectious diseases during space flight have been evaluated repeatedly following U.S.
and U.S.S.R. manned missions. Scientists in the U.S.S.R. have been concerned
with crew microbiological profiles and natural bactericidal activity since their first
manned mission. Twelve years ago, Alekseyeva (ref. 16-1) reported that the com-
position and properties of the autoflora of cosmonauts remained within normal limits
during preflight evaluations but that there were occasional postflight changes. An
increase in oral autoflora was accompanied by dysbacteriosis in which the normal
throat flora were almost entirely crowded out by Gram-negative, nonhemolytic dip-
lococci. It was also reported that an increase in the number of microbes in the deep
layers of the skin was caused by the appearance of masses of hemolytic microcoeci
(ref. 16-1).

More recently, Nefedov et al. (ref. 16-2) have observed that alterations in
microbial flora have been observed on several flights and appear to be dependent
on "environmental parameters," the duration of the exposure to different environ-
mental factors, and the work-rest schedules. The same authors point out that one
of the most consistent phenomena appears to be the interchange of micro-organisms
between subjects (ref. 16-2).

The interest of U .S .S .R. investigators in autoflora has not been restricted to

cosmonauts. Alekseyeva and Volkova (ref. 16-3) have reported studies with
"space dogs" (dogs that have experienced space flight) since 1960. They reported
that whereas acceleration and vibration on the ground had no effect on the micro-
flora, the space dogs had intestinal bacilli in their mouths after 2 days of flight.
The authors interpreted the presence of intestinal bacilli to be a result of a space-
flight-mediated decrease in the immunological activity of the subjects.

The advent of the U .S .S .R. space station, Salyut, enabled in-flight samples
to be taken from the three crewmembers. Postflight analysis of these samples re-
1
vealed changes in autoflora and microbial interchange. However, the death of the
crewmembers prevented postflight sampling and analysis.

The interest of the U. S. S .R. Space Agency concerning this research and
their philosophy, which led to their participation in the Microbial Exchange Experi-
ment, was offered during the first meeting of the U .S .-U .S .S .R. Joint Working
2
Group in Space Biology and Medicine in Moscow. During the meeting, U.S. S .R.
investigators made the following observation.

1L. I. Kakurin, data presented at the second meeting of the U.S.-U.S.S.R.

Joint Working Group in Space Biology and Medicine, NASA Lyndon B. Johnson
Space Center, May 1972.
2Data presented at the first meeting of the U. S .-U. S. S .R. Joint Working
Group in Space Biology and Medicine, Moscow, 1971.

16-2
 The results of the study of the automicroflora of the integumen-
tary tissues of the cosmonauts, indicating the development of dysbac-
teriotic changes in its composition during the space flight, have neces-
sitated more detailed scientific studies in this area. Studies to clarify
the role of the environment of objects in space in terms of the appear-
ance of unfavorable changes in the composition of the automicroflora
of the cosmonauts are most important in this respect.

The corresponding NASA studies began with comparisons between preflight

and postflight specimens collected during one of the Gemini flights (ref. 16-4). In
this first U.S. microbial analysis, the investigators reported a decrease in the num-
ber of types and an increase in the total number of micro-organisms recovered after
the flight. Also, there was evidence of microbial transfer between the crewmem-
bers. When evaluating these findings in reference to the total clinical picture,
Berry (ref. 16-5) indicated that the observed microbial changes may not be com-
patible with the health and welfare of the astronauts.

In a survey of 26 chamber tests conducted by the National Academy of Sci-

ences between 1962 and 1970, evidence was presented which indicates that micro-
bial exchange is not infrequent and that it may contribute to medically significant
events (ref. 16-6).

Detailed analyses of preflight and postflight samples from Apollo 14 crewmem-

bers revealed (1) an intercrew transfer of S. aureus, (2) an 830-percent increase
in the quantitation of aerobic bacteria, and (3) a transfer of micro-organisms from
crewmembers to the command module hardware (ref. 16-7). A dramatic postflight
reduction in the number of mycological species recovered from the Apollo 14 crew-
members was also observed with the Apollo 15 crew (ref. 16-8).

The review by Fox (ref. 16-9) indicates clearly that the results of the early
NASA autoflora studies were analogous to those done in the U .S .S .R. Both studies
have indicated significant alterations in the microbial population as well as definite
transfer of species between crewmembers.

With the advent of the Skylab missions, it became possible to evaluate the
microbial alterations resulting from space flights with durations as long as 85 days.
Complete autoflora studies were conducted on each of the prime crews (refs. 16-10
and 16-11). Preliminary evaluations show that while gross contamination of the
Skylab environment did occur and while there were several in-flight disease events
(presumably of microbial origin), such events did not prove to be limiting hazards
for long-term space flight. Evaluation of the major groups of micro-organisms,
comprising the microbial population tested, tended to support the theory of micro-
bial simplification for anaerobic bacteria (refs. 16-2, 16-12, and 16-13) but not
for other microbes. Intercrew transfer of pathogens was indicated. The data did
not support the theory of postflight microbial shock (refs. 16-13, 16-14, and 16-15).

The Microbial Exchange Experiment was designed to monitor quantitatively

the microbial load of all crewmembers and of selected inner surfaces of both the
Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft and to evaluate the status of certain components of the
immune mechanism of each crewmember. To accomplish this objective, the normal

16-3
autoflora and immunocompetencelevel of each crewmember was established before
flight through repeated sampling and analyses. Therefore, quantitative and quali-
tative changes occurring during or after flight could be measured and evaluated,
and instances of intercrew transfer of marker organisms could be identified. In
addition, selected micro-organisms recovered from the crew and spacecraft were
examined to detect changes in the ability of the micro-organisms to become patho-
genie, infective, or toxic to man. At the same time, certain immunological
parameters of the blood and saliva of each crewmember were studied to detect
changes in the ability of the individual to resist infection.

METHODSAND MATERIALS

Baseline Microbial Specimen Collection

Specimens were to be collected from the 5 prime and 5 backup crewmembers

and from 15areas on the inner surfaces of each spacecraft at specific times before,
during, and after the flight as given in table 16-I.

During each preflight and postflight sampling period, 11 microbial specimens

were collected from each crewmember (table 16-II). Calcium alginate swabs, wetted
in 0.3-millimolar phosphate buffer, were used to sample each of the seven body sur-
face areas. This swab technique was the only collection method compatible with the
flight program. Although it is recognized that subsurface microbes may be over-
looked by this method, procedures for sampling subsurface area were not accept-
able. Dry calcium alginate swabs were used to sample the surfaces of the tonsils
and the posterior pharyngeal vault before collection of the gargle specimen. For
the latter sample, the subject gargled with 0.3-millimolar phosphate buffer followed
by a repeated rinse of the teeth with the same solution. Fecal samples were collected
into a sterile cardboard container at the convenience of the subject. Swabs were
placed in 5 cubic centimeters of 0.3-millimolar phosphate buffer for transport to the
laboratory. Analysis of all samples was initiated within i hour of specimen collection.

In-Flight Microbial Specimen Collection

In addition to the baseline samples previously described, in-flight samples
were obtained from all five prime erewmembers and both spaceeraft between 77:40
and 78:30 ground elapsed time (GET). A specially developed sample collection
device was used for this set of samples (fig. 16-1). This deviee consisted of a
cotton-tipped Teflon swab on a capillary tube that contained conservation fluid to
keep the micro-organisms alive. Each swab was housed within an airtight case to
prevent desiccation. Groups of swabs were organized in Beta-cloth retaining bags
(fig. 16-2). One bag of this type was provided for each of the following: (1) swabs
used for Soyuz spacecraft samples, (2) swabs used for Apollo spacecraft samples,
(3) swabs used for Apollo commander (ACDR) and Soyuz commander (SCDR) sam-
ples that were taken in the Soyuz, (4) swabs used for Soyuz flight engineer (SFE),
docking module pilot (DMP), and command module pilot (CMP) samples that were
taken in the Apollo spacecraft.

16-4
 All four sets of swabs were launched in the Soyuz spacecraft. The two kits
to be used in the Apollo were transferred from the Soyuz at the end of the first joint
activity (58:20 GET) and returned to the Soyuz near the end of the last joint activity
(79:50 GET). All samples collected during flight were returned to Moscow for pre-
liminary analysis and division between the U .S. and U .S .S .R. laboratories as out-
lined in the following discussion. In-flight se_mples consisted of the first six areas
outlined in table 16-II as well as the spacecraft sites presented in table 16-III. It
should be noted that Soyuz spacecraft samples C-7 through C-15 were taken from
the part of the spacecraft not returned to Earth. Accordingly, these samples were
not collected after the flight. To assist in spacecraft sample collection, black lines
demarking a 100-square-centimeter area had previously been painted at each of the
specified sites as shown in the two examples illustrated in figure 16-3.

Because the specimens collected during flight had to be returned to the lab-
oratory for analysis, considerable delay was unavoidable. To equate results from
these specimens with results of specimens collected before and after flight, a group
of samples was collected the morning of launch and immediately upon return from
the flight. These samples were held at room temperature for 4 days to simulate the
delay imposed on the in-flight specimens. These comparative specimens were col-
lected from all 10 crewmembers and both spacecraft using the same type swabs used
during flight.

Collection of Salivary Parotid Fluid

Saliva from the parotid gland was collected from each of the 10 crewmembers
before flight and from the 5 prime crewmembers after flight according to the sched-
ule shown in table 16-I. The special saliva collection device, shown in figure 16-4,
was attached by pressure to the inner surface of the oral cavity over the opening of
the parotid duct. The parotid fluid was collected for 10 minutes with the flow being
stimulated by a sour candy drop placed in the subject's mouth. The resulting
saliva was frozen at 233 K (-40 ° C) and stored for future analysis. No saliva was
collected during the flight.

Blood Collection and Serum Preparation

Venous blood was collected from the antecubital fossae of each of the 10 par-
ticipating crewmembers before flight and from the 5 prime crewmembers after flight
as outlined in table 16-I. From each sample, whole blood was smeared onto slides
and subsequently treated with Wright's stain (ref. 16-16) for leukocyte differential
counts. The remaining blood was allowed to clot for serum separation. The re-
sulting serum was used to determine humoral antibody levels and bactericidal
activity.

Preliminary Analysis of Microbial Specimens and

Distribution of Test Materials

The contents of each swab, gargle sample, and fecal specimen were serially
diluted under aseptic conditions and subsequently inoculated onto the surface of

16-5
the nutrient media (table 16-1V). The variety of media, number of plates inoculated,
and dilution range were selected on the basis of what was required to isolate and
quantitate the autoflora components present in each sampled area. The SAB plates
were incubated at 303K (30° C) for 5 days. The CMMY plates were incubated at
298 K (25° C) for 7 days, and all others were incubated at 310K (37° C) for
48hours.

Following incubation under the appropriate conditions, all resulting colonies

on every culture plate were categorized and counted. Subsequently, one sample of
each morphologically different colony type was transferred from each dilution series
to the appropriate nutrient media and was stained according to the method of Gram
(fig. 16-5). Following verification that a pure culture was obtained, one aliquot of
each culture was stored by the laboratory in which it was identified (the host lab-
oratory), and another complimentary aliquot was made available to the guest labor-
atory. The guest laboratory was to have had access to an isolate from each different
type of colony grown on the plates outlined in table 16-1V.

A discrete specimen number was assigned to each isolate by the host labor-
atory, and a bilingual data sheet (fig. 16-6) was completed to accompany the speci-
men when it was transferred to the guest laboratory. A unique identification num-
ber and a bilingual data sheet were processed with each isolate so that unequivocal
traceability of each isolate was established in a method intelligible to both U .S. and
U. S. S.R. investigators.

Division of Responsibility for Specimen Analysis

The analytical procedures required for performance of the Microbial Exchange

Experiment were divided between the laboratories in the United States and the
U. S.S .R. (table 16-V). The U.S. Principal Investigator was responsible for identi-
fication of all filamentous fungi, nonlactose-fermenting Gram-negative rods, and
members of the genus Haemophilus. The U .S .S .R. Principal Investigator was re-
sponsible for the identification of yeasts and yeastlike fungi, Gram-positive
catalase-negative cocci, Gram-negative cocci, and lactose-fermenting Gram-
negative rods. The responsibility for identification of Gram-positive catalase-
positive cocci was shared by both laboratories. In addition to these microbial iden-
tifications, the responsibility for specific tests was divided as shown in table 16-V.

The proper collection of preflight and postflight samples from the cosmonauts
and the Soyuz spacecraft was the responsibility of the U.S .S .R. Principal Investi-
gator. The proper collection of preflight and postflight samples from the astronauts
and the Apollo spacecraft was the responsibility of the U.S. Principal Investigator.
The safe and expeditious return of samples collected during flight was the responsi-
bility of the U.S.S.R. Principal Investigator. The preliminary analysis of all sam-
ples, culminating in and including distribution of specimens to both U.S. and
U. S. S .R. investigators, was the responsibility of the Principal Investigator of the
country in which the sample was collected. All preliminary specimen analyses
conducted in the U. S. S .R. laboratories were to be conducted in the presence of a
science representative of both the United States and the U.S.S.R. Although this
arrangement was also available in U.S. laboratories, the U.S. S .R. investigators
had the option of exercising this procedure. These joint activities were to include

16-6
dilution and plating of specimen materials, isolation of microbial colonies, and
evaluation of growth properties on the initial isolation media. Crewmembers and
spacecraft were sampled independently.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For this report, analyses are limited to two areas: an analysis and evaluation
of the operational aspects of the experiment and a thorough analysis of the activities
of medically important micro-organisms recovered from U.S. crewmembers.

Analysis and Evaluation of Operational Activities

The extent to which each objective of the experiment was accomplished is

evaluated together with a discussion of any reported anomalies.

1. The normal microbial autoflora level and the immunocompetence level

of each crewmember were identified. The collection of five sets of preflight saliva
and microbial samples and of two sets of serum samples for each of the prime and
backup crewmembers provided adequate establishment of baselines for U.S. crew-
members. However, data pertaining to the total microbial load cannot be retrieved
from microbiology specimens collected in the U .S. S .R. All serum samples, with
the exception of those taken from the backup SCDR 15 days before launch, were re-
ceived in a condition that permitted the required analysis. All the astronaut saliva
samples, with the exception of the CMP samples, were collected as planned. (An
alternate collection method was used for the CMP that provided an adequate but not
optimum saliva sample. ) All cosmonaut saliva samples were collected in a manner
different from that agreed upon and therefore may not be usable in this study.

2. The identification of qualitative and quantitative changes in crew and

spacecraft microbial populations and the evaluation of demonstrable intercrew micro-
bial exchange occurring during flight are necessary for proper analysis. The most
important marker micro-organisms were properly monitored in the U.S. and U. S. S .R.
laboratories, allowing for a reasonably thorough evaluation of intercrew microbial
exchange. Likewise, shifts in many of the major components of the autoflora can be
evaluated. Variations in the total autoflora are calculated only for the Apollo crew.

3. Selected micro-organisms must be critically evaluated to detect postflight

changes in their ability to be pathogenic, infective, or toxic in man. Several of the
micro-organisms that are most useful for these evaluations have repeatedly been
isolated from Apollo-Soyuz crewmembers. The prognosis for satisfying this objec-
tive is very good. Thirty-day postflight samples of cosmonauts were not collected.

4. Immunological parameters of blood and saliva must be evaluated to detect

postflight changes in the ability of crewmembers to resist infection. The required
astronaut specimens have been obtained, and analyses are proceeding as planned.
Data from cosmonaut specimens will be less complete because of incomplete blood
collection and different saliva collection techniques.

16-7
 Most of the activities were performed as planned, and a large percentage
of the cooperatively derived data will be preserved. At present, all samples have
been collected and divided between the two laboratories, with the exceptions pre-
viously noted. Analyses of specimens are currently progressing according to the
joint laboratory procedures previously approved by the U .S. and the U .S. S.R.
investigators.

Medical Microbiological Analysis of Apollo Crewmembers

On early Apollo missions, before strict protective measures were instituted,

in-flight infections were not unusual (ref. 16-17). In-flight illness of microbial
origin was, however, completely absent from the Apollo 14 through 17 missions
(ref. 16-18). There is no doubt that the implementation of extensive preventive
measures (ref. 16-19), following the clinically significant Apollo 13 mission, was
a contributing factor. Preflight monitoring of pathogenic and potentially pathogenic
species identified certain potential problems so that appropriate prophylaxis or
treatment could be administered before the flight or could be provided during the
flight. This procedure was highly effective and was recommended for all future
U.S. manned space flights (ref. 16-18). Similar analyses conducted during the
three Skylab missions indicated that whereas there were several in-flight disease
events and gross contamination of the orbital workshop did occur, such events did
not prove to be limiting hazards for long-term space flight (ref. 16-11).

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), a unique space flight in which two
teams of erewmembers from different geographical areas joined in space with two
different spacecraft, presented an unusual opportunity for cross-contamination.
Accordingly, it was necessary to identify and trace all micro-organisms of potential
medical importance present in the population. This report covers such an analysis
of the three prime and three backup Apollo crewmen.

Gram-negative rods.- Gram-negative rods are composed of enteric micro-

organisms and other Gram-negative rods.

Enteric micro-organisms: A number of different microbes that normally occur

in the intestinal tract, or are associated with intestinal infection, are placed in the
enteric group of bacilli. The normally occurring members of this group are gen-
erally considered to be of potential medical importance when they are recovered
repeatedly, or in large numbers, from sites other than the lower digestive tract.
The following members of this group were recovered from areas on the ASTP crew-
members other than the lower digestive tract. An outline of the total reeovery pat-
tern for the Apollo crewmembers is presented in tables 16-VI to 16-IX.

The Eseherichia coli species is generally accepted as the most reliable evi-
dence of fecal contamination. Outside the intestinal tract, under certain conditions,
it often produces diseases such as the following: urinary tract infeetions (cystitis
and pyelitis), peritonitis, gallbladder infection, wound infection, septicemia, and
enteritis. This species was repeatedly recovered from the groin of the prime CMP
and occasionally from the upper respiratory tract of the other two Apollo prime crew-
members. In all cases, neither the recovery pattern nor the quantitation indicated
medical significance.

16-8
 The Enterobacter aero_enes micro-organism often occurs in the large intes-
tine of man, although the number present is considerably smaller than that of
E. coli. The pathogenic significance of E. aerogenes is similar to that of E. coli.
As indicated in tables 16-VI and 16-VII, this species was always carried in the nose
and mouth of the prime CMP and DMP and was frequently isolated from the backup
ACDR and DMP. Although this is not a common occurrence, it should be noted that
this species was not shown to spread to the prime ACDR or to more sites on the
carriers during the flight. Also, there was no postflight increase in quantitation.
This occurrence is an excellent example of a potential pathogen, carried by two
Apollo prime crewmembers, apparently being unaffected by the conditions of space
flight.

Members of the genus Proteus may cause infections of the urinary tract and
abscesses. Additionally, these microbes have been associated with outbreaks of
enteric infection, particularly gastroenteritis. More often, they are secondary
invaders of infections of the middle ear, mastoid process, meninges, wounds, and
urinary tract. P. mirabilis is the most frequent species of this genus found in hu-
man clinical material. This species was carried, in low numbers, in the nasal pas-
sage of the prime ACDR throughout the monitoring period. As with E. aerogenes
previously described, this unusual event provides a good model system for analyz-
ing the response of Gram-negative rods to space-flight conditions. The ASTP mis-
sion had no detectable affect on the qualitative or quantitative presence of this
micro-organism.

Other Gram-negative rods: Nonenterie Gram-negative rods discussed in this

section include the Moraxella genus, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus organisms, and
four species of Haemophilus.

Members of the Moraxella genus are parasites of the mucous membranes of

humans and are frequently involved in pathogenic activity such as conjunctivitis.
Although carried in the oral cavity of the prime DMP for 45 days before the flight,
no discernible alteration was demonstrated following the mission.

Acinetobacter calcoaceticus (synonym: Mima polymorpha) is a species of

minor potential medical importance. Isolated inr-_quently from multiple sites on the
prime CMP, it did not contribute significantly to the load of Gram-negative rods re-
covered from ASTP prime crewmembers.

Four species of Haemophilus were isolated from the oral cavity of each ASTP
astronaut as outlined in tables 16-VIII and 16-IX. Although each of these is to some
degree a common inhabitant of the human mouth, each is a strict parasite requiring
certain growth factors present in blood. A discussion of the potential medical im-
portance of each follows.

H. influenzae is found in lesions and in the upper respiratory tract of carriers.

It may be either a primary or a secondary invader. As a primary incitant of disease,
it is responsible for meningitis, septicemia, conjunctivitis, and upper respiratory
tract infections. It is commonly a secondary invader in eases of influenza and per-
tussis. This species was isolated from each erewmember before flight in quantita-
tions ranging from 10 000 to 600 000 viable cells/era 3 of gargle. The postflight loss

16-9
from two Apollo crewmembers and the quantitative reduction in contamination of the
ACDR is contraindicative of a space-flight-mediated increase in infective potential.

H. haemolyticus and H. parahaemolyticus are often associated with acute

pharyngitis when present in high numbers. As with the H. influenzae, the overall
quantitation and ineidenee decreased following the ASTP _ight.

H. parainfluenzae is the most benign of the four recovered species and is

used largely as a marker organism because of its almost ubiquitous appearance.

Candida albicans.- This well-recognized component of the indigenous auto-

flora of man (ref. 16-20) has been recovered from astronaut specimens collected in
association with each Apollo and Skylab mission (refs. 16-11, 16-18, and 16-21).
Because C. albicans has been identified as the causative agent for serious oral
cavity diseases (refs. 16-20 and 16-22), the presence of this micro-organism in the
mouth of astronauts was carefully monitored. As previously reported (ref. 16-8),
C. albicans was recovered from crewmembers following the Apollo 14 and 15 mis-
sions whereas other fungal species, present before flight, were absent from samples
obtained immediately after recovery. Analysis of the ASTP data presented in table
16-X indicates an in-flight transfer of this species to the ACDR. No such transfer
occurred with the backup crew, although C. albicans was carried in the mouth
of the backup CMP. These events demonstrate the importance of this species in
space flight. C. albicans could become even more important during in-flight use of
antibiotics because this could provide the opportunity for a loss of competing bac-
terial species and eventual overgrowth with C. albicans (refs. 16-22, 16-23, and
16-24).

Staphylococcus aureus.- Although S. aureus micro-organisms are not un-

common skin and nasal contaminants, all strains are potential pathogens. They
have been shown to be the causative agent of a wide range of infection and intoxi-
cations including boils, abscesses, meningitis, furunculosis, pyemia, osteomy-
elitis, suppuration of wounds, and food poisoning (ref. 16-25). Several space-
flight-simulation studies (refs. 16-2, 16-26, and 16-27) have indieated increases
in the toxigenie activity, virulence, or pathogenicity of this species with stressful
confinement of the human host. If these events were to be duplicated during space
flight, the resulting lesions could be especially important because of their interfer-
ence with close-contact surfaces, such as the tight-fitting and abrasive pressure
suits. Accordingly, the presence and activity of this speeies were monitored before
and after each of the recent U.S. space flights. Data from the Apollo 13, 14, and 15
missions and from the Skylab missions confirm in-flight cross-contamination with
S. aureus (refs. 16-11 and 16-18).

The recovery of this species from ASTP crewmembers in connection with pre-
vious space flights is presented in table 16-XI. The prime DMP had not previously
been assigned to a space flight, rendering such data nonapplicable. Strains of
S. aureus were recovered from all the other five ASTP astronauts in connection
with at least one previous space flight.

The recovery of strains of S. aureus during the ASTP monitoring period is

presented in table 16-XII. These strains are expressed as numbered bacteriophage
types. The data show that each prime and backup crewmember carried a diffei_ent

16-10
strain of S. aureus. Type 52, 52A, 80, 81 was carried by the prime DMP and was
transferred to the prime ACDR during flight. Apparently, colonization did not
ensue because this strain was not recovered again from the prime ACDR.

A postflight increase in the incidence of S. aureus isolation (refs. 16-11 and

16-18) has been previously reported. In the ASTP mission, this increase did not
occur among the astronaut population. Likewise, and contrary to some previous
missions (ref. 16-11), no disease events resulted from the ubiquitous presence of
S. aureus before and during the flight.
i

Total load of potential pathogens.- Several investigators have suggested

that returning space travelers may experience a "microbial shock" and may respond
negatively to renewed contact with potentially pathogenic micro-organisms that are
absent in the space-flight environment (refs. 16-13, 16-15, 16-17, and 16-28).
These warnings were based on the assumption that contact with potential pathogens
during space flight would be very limited, resulting in a reduction of immunocom-
petence. However, there was no demonstrable decrease in the incidence of medi-
cally important micro-organisms recovered from the astronauts on recovery day.
This finding supports results reported earlier (refs. 16-7, 16-18, and 16-29).
If a reduction in total immunocompetence occurred during this mission, it was not
in response to decreased contact with medically important components of the resi-
dent microflora.

SUMMARY

The major portion of the planned postflight laboratory activities is continu-

ing. Analysis of the specimen collection and distribution activities indicates that
most of the experiment objectives will be satisfied. Analyses of the recovery of
medically important micro-organisms from U.S. crewmembers have shown in-flight
intercrew transfer of potential pathogens but no other changes of medical signifi-
cance. Alterations leading to microbial simplification and microbial shock did not
occur.

16-11
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minative Bacteriology. Eighth ed., Williams & Wilkins Co. (Baltimore),
1974.

16-26. Chukhlovin, B. A.; Ostrovmov, P. B.; and Ivanova, S. P.: Development

of Staphylococcal Infections in Human Subjects Under the Influence of Some
Spaceflight Factors. Space Biol. & Med., vol. 5, no. 6, 1971, pp. 91-98.
(Primary source - Kosmicheskaya Biologiya i Meditsina, vol. 5, 1971,
pp. 61-65. (In Russian.))
16-27. Borisova, O. K.; Lizko, N. N.; Prokhorov, V. la.; and Shilov, V. M.:
Changes in the Microflora of Man During Long-Term Confinement. Life
Sciences and SpaceResearch, IX, COSPAR,Akademie-Verlag (Berlin),
May 1971, pp. 43-49.
16-28. Wilkins, Judd R. : Man, His Environment, and Microbiological Problems of
Long-Term Spaceflight. Biotechnology. NASA SP-205, 1967, pp. 133-143.
16-29. Zaloguyev, S. N.; Shinkareva, N. M.; and Utkina, T. G.: State of the
Automicroflora of Skin Tissues and Certain Natural Immunity Indices in the
Astronauts A. G. Nikolaev and V. I. Sevast'ianov Before and After Flight.
Kosmicheskaya Biologiya i Meditsina, vol. 4, no. 6, 1970, pp. 54-59.
(Translation available from Joint Publications Research Service,
Washington, D.C. )

16-14
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16-15
 TABLE 16-II.- SAMPLE COLLECTION AREAS

Sample Sample Sample area

no. designation

Hair 20-cm 2 area of hair (and scalp) on top of head

Ears Right and left external auditory canals with 2 revo-

lutions of each swab in each ear canal

3 Neck 20-cm 2 area below hairline at base of neck

4 Nose Internal area of both nostrils

5 Throat swab Surfaces of tonsils and posterior pharyngeal vault

6 Hands 20-cm 2 area on right and left palms

2
7 Axilla 20-cm area below hair on each side

8 Groin 5-cm strip from rear to front on right and left

inguinal area between legs

9 Toes Area between the two smallest toes of each foot

10 Feces Two 100-mg samples taken from center of the

fecal specimen

11 Gargle 10 cm 3 of phosphate buffer used as gargle and

washed through oral cavity 3 times

16-16
 TABLE 16-III.- LOCATION OF SAMPLING SITES ON INNER SURFACES OF

APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT SPACECRAFT

Sample Location in Soyuz Sample Location in Apollo

no. no.

C-1 SCDR couch seat A-1 Left X-X headstrut

C-2 SFE couch seat A-2 Right X-X footstrut

C-3 Control panel in the de- A-3 Crew couch, right stabili-
scent vehicle zer beam

C-4 Surface of gas mixture A-4 Tunnel area

regulator

C-5 Surface near bulkhead hatch Right floodlight

in descent vehicle
Left rotational hand con-
C-6 Descent vehicle hatch cover troller pistol grip (both
under the handwheel sides)

C-7 Flush side of sanitary A-7 Right girth shelf above

device in the orbital panel 278
module (OM)
Panel 325 below window
C-8 Top of food locker table
in OM Above left girth shelf
(above U-3)
C-9 Couch seat in OM
A-10 Cover plate, ORDEAL stow-
C-10 Surface of food locker in age locker (U-3)
OM near panel
A-II B-6 door behind waste
C-II Front surface of the couch stowage bag
backrest in the OM
A-12 Inside door of food locker
C-12 Grid near fan in OM (L-3)

C-13 Floor surface near OM food A-13 Top of video tape recorder
locker module

C-14 Transfer hatch under the A-14 Panel 251, waste manage-
handwheel ment dump

C-15 Surface of transfer hatch A-15 Forward of panel 225

16-17
 TABLE 16-IV.- ISOLATION MEDIA

Sample designation Media Number of plates Dilution range

Back of neck Blood a 2 bl00 to 104

Hair Mannitol c 3 100 to 101

Hands CMMY d 4 100

BTB e 3 100
Axilla

SAB f 5 100
Ears I

Blood 2 l0 0 to 10 5
Gargle (natural)

Mannitol 3 10 0 to 101

CMMY 4 10 0 to 10 2

3 10 0 to 10 3
Rogosa g

Choc h 3 10 0 to 10 5

CMMY 10 0
Gargle (centrifugate)!

BTB 10 0

SAB 10 0

aBlood agar.

bsample in 5 cm 3 of phosphate-buffered physiological saline solution.

CMannitol salts agar.

dcornmeal, malt-extract, yeast-extract agar.

eBromthymol blue agar.

fSabouraud's dextrose agar.

gRogosa agar.

hChocolate bacitracin agar.

16-18
 TABLE 16-1V.- Concluded

Sample designation Media Number of plates Dilution range

Nose Blood l00 to 104

Mannitol i00 to 103

CMMY 100

BTB I00

SAB 100

Choc i00 to 101

Toes and groin Blood 100 to 105

Mannitol I00 to 101

CMMY I00

BTB i00 to i01

SAB I00

Throat swab Blood 2 l00 to 105

Mannitol 3 I00 to I01

CMMY 4 I00 to 102

BTB 3 l00 to 101

SAB 5 I00

Choc 3 I00 to 105

Rogosa 3 100 to 103

Feces BTB 2 103 to I019

SAB 5 100 to 103

Internal surfaces Blood 3 10 0 to 10 4

of ASTP space-
craft Mannitol 3 10 0

CMMY 4 10 °

BTB 3 10 0

SAB 5 lO 0

16-19
 TABLE 16-V.- DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR SPECIMEN ANALYSIS

Activity Responsible laboratory

U°S° U .S .S .R.

Collection of specimens from astronauts and Apollo X

spacecraft

Collection of specimens from cosmonauts and Soyuz X

spacecraft

Identification of filamentous fungi X

Identification of yeasts and yeastlike fungi X

Identification of Gram-positive catalase-positive cocci X X

Identification of Gram-positive catalase-negative cocci X

Identification of Gram-negative cocci X

Identification of nonlactose-fermenting Gram- X

negative rods

Identification of lactose-fermenting Gram-negative X

rods

Identification of Haemophilus.. species X

Bacteriophage typing of Staphylococcus aureus X

Antibiotic sensitivity testing of Staphylococcus X

aureus

Determination of immunogiobulin levels in parotid X

fluid

Determination of steroid, urea nitrogen, uric acid, X

calcium, and potassium levels in parotid fluid

Determination of lysozyme levels in parotid fluid X

Determination of bactericidal activity of serum X

Measurement of viral antibody titers in serum X

Measurement of specific microbial antibody levels X

in serum

Determination of leukocyte differential count X

16-20
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16-22
 TABLE 16-VIII.- RECOVERY OF GRAM-NEGATIVE RODS FROM ASTP APOLLO PRIME

CREWMEMBERS (GENUS HAEMOPHILUS)

Crew- Species of
Quantity of bacteria, log10 colony-forming units/cm 3 of gargle or swab diluent
member Haemophilus

Days before flight Days after flight

R+29
R+O 1 R+18 [

Throat swab

ACDR H. haemolyticus 0 O 4.47 0 0 0 0 0

H. influenzae 0 0 4.90 0 0 3.34 0 0

H. parahaemolyticus 0 0 0 O O 0 0 0

H. parainfluenzae 4.50 5.04 5.36 5.17 5.20 3.49 4.62 2.18

CMP H. haemolyticus 5.60 5.47 0 0 0 3.30 0 0

H. influenzae 5.77 0 0 0 0 O 0 0

H. parahaemolyticus 0 0 4.00 5.90 0 0 0 0

H. parainfluenzae 5.69 6.04 5.14 5.90 5.36 3.84 5.87 5.49

DMP H. haemolyticus 0 O 4.47 0 0 0 0 0

H. influenzae 0 0 O 0 4.00 0 0 0

H. parahaemolyticus 0 0 0 0 0 O 5.11 0

H. parainfluenzae 5.41 5.23 4.84 6.46 5.45 4.77 4.90 4.00

Gargle

ACDR H. haemolyticus 0 O 6.49 0 O 5.30 0 0

H. influenzae O 4.90 5.77 0 O 0 0 1.48

H. parahaemolyticus 0 O 0 0 0 5.00 0 0

H. parainfluenzae 5.54 5.99 6.77 6.53 6.53 5.95 5.08 4.18

CMP H. haemolyticus O 6.30 0 6.90 0 0 0 0

H. influenzae 5.69 O O 0 O 0 0 0

H. parahaemolyticus 0 O 6.30 7.11 O O 0 0

H. parainfluenzae 6.23 7.08 7.20 7.39 6.48 5.15 6.48 7.00

DMP H. haemolyticus 0 0 5.77 0 0 O 5.78 0

H. influenzae 0 O 0 O 0 O 0 0

H. paraheemol_ticus 4.69 O O 5.30 O 5.30 5.00 0

H. parainfluenzae 5.44 6.04 6.46 6.80 6.28 5.52 6.25 5.46

16-23
 TABLE 16-1X.- RECOVERY OF GRAM-NEGATIVE RODS FROM ASTP APOLLO BACKUP

CREWMEMBERS (GENUS HAEMOPHILUS)

Crew- Species of Quantity of bacteria, logl0 colony-forming units/era 3

member Haemophilus of gargle or swab diluent

Days before flight Day of recovery

F-45 F-32 F-18 F-5

Throat swab

0 4.60 0 0 0 0
ACDR H. haemolyticus

H. influenzae 0 0 0 0 0 0

4.30 0 4.11 0 0 0
H. parahaemolyticus

5.32 4.95 7.95 5.81 6.05 5.38

H. parainfluenzae

CMP H. haemolyticus 0 0 0 0 0 0

H. influenzae 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 4.65 4.65 4.57 0

H. parahaemolyticus

4.34 2.30 3.95 3.60 4.48 4.57

H. psrainfluenzae

0 0 0 5.04 0 0
DMP H. haemolyticus

H. influenzse 0 4.00 0 3.00 3.00 0

0 0 0 0 0 0
H. psrahaemolyticus

2.44 5.20 4.41 4.69 4.04 4.15

H. psrainfluenzae

Gargle

ACDR 5.47 0 0 0 0 5.00

H. haemolyticus

H. influenzae 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0
H. parahaemolyticus

5.95 6.54 6.60 0 6.49 6.36

H. parainfluenzae

CMP 0 0 0 0 0
H. haemol_,ticus

H. influenzae 0 0 0 0 0

0 6.00 6.77 0 5.30

H. parahaemolyticus

4.70 6.43 6.36 5.86 6.41

H. parainfluenzae

DMP 0 0 o 0 0 0
H. haemolyticus

H. influenzae 3.00 0 0 0 0 0

4.25 0 0 0 4.00 4.30

H. parahaemolyticus

0 6.73 7.43 7.43 5.81 5.00

H. parainfluenzae

16-24

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16-25
 TABLE 16-Xl.- STAPHYLOCCUS AUREUS RECOVERY FOR U.S.

CREWMEMBERS COLLECTED BEFORE ASTP FLIGHT

Crewmember Flight Sampling period Sample area Phage type

Prime ASTP crew

ACDR Apollo 10 F-30 Hands NA a

CMP F-30 Scalp NT b

Apollo 15
Nose 85

F-5 Nose 85
Mouth NT

Skylab 3 F-30 Groin NT

Nose 75/85

F-14 Groin NT

F-5 Mouth 75/85

Nose NT

Skylab 4 F-30 Groin NT

Nose 75/85

F-14 Nose, groin NT

Mouth 75/85

F-5 Ear, groin NT

Nose 29/75
Mouth, scalp 29/47/75

DMP Clinic - - Mouth 83-A

Backup ASTP crew

ACDR Apollo 12 F-30 Scalp, ears, axilla, NA

hands, nose, inguinal

F-14 Nose NA

F-0 Toes, nose NA

R+0 Nose NA

Skylab 3 F-45 Nose, mouth 3-A

F-14 Scalp, navel, nose, 3-A

groin

F-5 Nose 3-A

F-0 Nose 3-A

R+0 Hands 3-A

Nose 3-A/3-C

R+8 Nose, hands, navel 3-A

Groin 3-A/3-C

R+15 Scalp 3-A/3-C

Nose, axilla, hands 3-A
Navel 3-C

CMP Apollo 14 F-14 Nose, hands 6/47/53/54/77/

79/80/81

DMP Skylab 3 F-45 Scalp 29/79

Groin 29/79/80
Nose 29/53/54/79/80

F-14 Nose 29/53/54/79/80

F-5 Hands 29/79

Nose NT

R+O Mouth, scalp, feces 29/79

Hands 3-A
Nose 29/53/54/79/80

R+8 Mouth 29/53/79/80

R+18 Nose 29/79

Mouth 29/53/79/80

aNot applicable (typing not done).

bNontypable.

16-26
 ®

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16-27
 Swabcover....

:.:'.:ii
,'.:

r 4
m.-n

Capillarytube

Swabcase....
_"'i 75 mm MICROBIAL EXCHANGE KIT NO. 3 "MZKPOBH_,II_ OBMEH"
FOR CREW SAMPLING IN APOLLO S/C YFJ_A_IEA _'}
P/N: I_POBB! 9KHI3A_A EE "A_O220H"'
_'.i S/N: TME:
m.4

Airspace. [:I mm

I
H_
APOLLO -"AIIOJ-IJIOH"
Cotton swab............ I .'-2
I' 280mm 'I

(a) Closed kit.

In Figure 16-2.- Beta-cloth sample

collection kit used for crewmem-
Figure 16-1.- In-flight microbial ber samples in the Apollo space-
sample collection device. craft.

.................. ]T--[;,,:_o_,[_-Ex_.-..-_,
u
' i
,Ii S/N_
.,. ,,..oo..-.o,_"_'Ti
1005
DATE OF MFG: 4-24-74
I
I
-] I
................. A.L__ -----------------------_-J

(b) Open kit showing sample collection devices in place.

Figure 16-2.- Concluded.

16-28
(a) A-8: panel 325 below window (b) A-7: right girth shelf above
(S-74-33254). panel 278 (S-74-33259).

Figure 16-3.- Demarcation lines on internal surfaces of Apollo spacecraft.

'.Saliva collection tube

Figure 16-4.- Saliva collection device

used to obtain salivary parotid fluid.

16-29
F ]i I; SAB Ii F IVlannitol salt ]_ F Blood agar (BA) ]i
_ tT .......
Chocolate ;i
I BTB t I CMMY I I agar t II Rogosaacjar _ I I
_ i i I Bloodagar i i I bacitracin
t , L F ' , [ J t F ' "- I '

colony colonies upto a maximum morphologically different colony

I of 15 o donies different colony TSB +aFil_s
I
Pick each Pick all suspectedS. aureus
I
Subculture each
TSBI
Subculture each morphologically
o
li_ot to V_e_Uun_r Pick aliquotto I (BA only) Incubate 18 hr 308 K 05 C)
for host v _.. ('MMY fnr n,,_t ISOatedcolony Pinpoint colony = i .
I ...... microscope .... _-- I I r ....... -_ .,- ....... 1
i laboratory (400X) laboratory TSB TSB ITSB + Fildes +11_ITSB+ Fildes +',
I,ncu=teZdaysl ,..n;,fv,° ]lncub_te7days I TSB+TweenSO !TSB +I, II"SB -!
IooQv,_c°,", I ....... "'- i 298K(25°C) ' ' .... r ...... r-----r---
¢,,o
r,_.,,_,_ genus ifpossible Incubate
18hr Incubate18hr _ I O,ram-

I I CMM_'
Stripplate 308 K.(35
r_ ° C) ; 308 K.(35° C) F,.T
- "---_, F.---L---_ _- -_
.... ] |
-| _ativR
'ba_ih(-_
I i I I i TSB + i i TSB - I [SB - i _ram I
I Incubate 7 days I I I Tween + I I Tween + i, Tween - I stain I

[Silage ]--,CcMu_YteS_:ys 298Kj'25° C) NogloWthr I _h Tw-leen_'_" L _SB_"_J L-- _'_ I

--I-- 298
K=5Cl I __' I_ I_ l'S°l,_Je,
n_l ' '°'.... i I
,,am'ntous Ii i I I 'aem°ph"°s
I
growth I I'_-7_?,,':_'1
I T.SB Tw.een

Pre_ent' '
Absent I ':
(I.JpophiVc acilli)

1,.a entou.
I I Yeastao,
fungi yeastlike Gram'stain
r--6-z_E;_---I Aliquot for host
laboratory Aliquot for guest
laboratory ., I--Sh_p-
t_ _ -I- --' _.--_l

_ II Gramstain
New isolation_Incubate 18 hr Isolation streak_(Upon_ I K__o,ru_I
broth _ 308K(35°C) _ to blood agar _ receipt) I resui_s j
---q ,p' _ l
Subculture each Endo I_<c Gram stain Incubate 18 hr 308K (35° C)
morphologically_ medium
differenttype I
I Incubate 24 hr I" I results I Mixed culture Pureculture
Giss cultu re I_- ' ' ,_,_. on bloodaqar on blood agar
310K (37° C)
medium plus I I &Incubate 18 hr '._"'"'."C." I - I
I '_ _ ,-,_o,-,,
_slreaK io i
] percent lactose Gram stain I 308r, _ t._ blood agar I
I TSB . Indicatespure
Incubate24 hr
310K (37° C)
t_
I
Gram-negative
i
Gram-negative
,
Gram
I
'
Incubate 18 hr
308K (35° C)

Aliquot host
,
Aliquot guest _
broth culture ....

-- - J i
Pure brolh culture

I
lactose-positive lactose-negative stain laboratory laboratory Cocci Bacilli
bac II bacilli
Gram-positive i , Gram
coccus G ram G ram hegative
I positive negative I

I
Coagulase I _ Lactose
I
I I I
TSB - trypticase soy agarbroth
Positive Negative Catalase _ _
I I
Positive Negative
I I
IMicr°c°ccaceaelI streptococcus
I

Figure 16-5.- Schematic diagram for identifying micro-organisms.

16-30
 ASTP BACTERIOLOGY DATA FORM

_OPMYTIfIP BAKTEPHOJIO_CKHX JIAHHI_X 31"IAC

IOENTI FIO_TION N_ER

I4.1)__,HTH4_HI_%I2_O
HH_ HOM_
Stafford Bean Area Sample Pertod
[] CT_p_ [3 5HH MeOTO 3a6opa Bpektq 3aGopa
Slayton Evans Sample Date
[] CJIeRTOH [] 3BaHC Count: _laTa 3aOopa
CqeT: MEDIUM:
Brand [] Lousm
[] Bpa._ JIycMa r]HTATEJ_HA_I CPEJIA:
Dilution: Blood Agar
Leonov [3 Ft 1 t pchenko Pa3eeJ1eHxe: L.J KpOB_qHOR arap
[] _eoHoa ORDIMn_eHKO
Pbnnttal Salt
Kubasov [] P,ukavt shnt kov [] MaHHMTO_OBO-OOneBOR aPap
[] Ky6aOoe PyKaBS_HHKOB
Chocolate Bacttractn
[] _oxo_a_mm_ arap
CELL MORPHOLOGY
MOP_0JI01"_ KJIETOK /sau.Tpa._./
CNNY
S|ze m. Ptgment Surface: E1 evatt on: [] C.M.M.Y
Pa3MeD )04 I1_rMesT NoBepxt4OCT &: BOSB_eHHocTb :
Smooth Convex
Fore: Hemolysis: Cpe_a CaOypo
[] Pna_as [] B_yx.na_
_pMa: Felons3:
[] Ragosa
Round A! pM [] Rough [] Ra|sed Paro3a
[] Kpyr_a_ [] A.nb_)a I_epoxoSaTa_ I]pHnO_IHMTa_
Elongated [] Beta Wrtnkled Flat [] BTB
Cpe_a BTB
[] _]po_1onroBaTsu_ BeTa 0 Mop_iHHSe'ra_ [] I-L_OCKa,,:I
Irregular Gamma
[] HepoBsaa [] FasMa
Gram Statn:
0KpaOK8 no I'paMF:

Gram postt|ve rod

I'1 PpaMno_o,,HTe_bsa_ nsmo_xa _o_)I
(0e
[] Gram postt_ve sporulattng rod na_o_KS /l_08/
Cnopoo6pa3yrmss _,paM-nonov, sTenb Has
Gram postt|ve branching rod (13)
n _eTBMOTSJ! rpaM-noJlozsTen_sa_ naJ;oqKa /1)/
Gram postttve coc¢t tn parrs and chatns (04)
O I/enoqm4e H napm;e rpa_-nono]u_Tem_H_e XOKK_ /04/
Grin postttve cocct tn clustars ((M)
[3 1"po3._eaH_e rpaM-no_ozHTenSH_e KOKKH /06/

Gram negattve cocct tn patrs and clustars (OS)

[] Ppos_euH_1_e _ napH_e rpa_OTpH_aTe_m_e xo_cx_ /05/

[] 6rm neg_ttverod (03)

I_)AMOTDHI_ATe31bHaR ns.qoqK& /0_/

Figure 16-6.- ASTP bacteriology data form.

16-31
 17. CELLULAR IMMUNERESPONSE

EXPERIMENTMA-031
B. S. Criswell a

ABSTRACT

Significant changes in phytohemagglutinin (PHA) lymphocytic responsiveness

occurred in the cellular immune response of three astronauts during the 9-day flight
of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Parameters studied were white blood cell concen-
trations, lymphocyte numbers, B- and T-lymphocyte distributions in peripheral
blood, and lymphocyte responsiveness to PHA, pokeweed mitogen, Concanavalin
A, and influenza virus antigen.

INTRODUCT_N

The cellular immune response of the three astronauts of the Apollo-Soyuz Test
Project (ASTP) space flight was studied before and after the 9 days of flight. The
findings are to be correlated in the future with lymphocytic changes that were noted
during the Skylab space flight. Briefly, the functional capacity of lymphocytes at
splashdown of Skylab 3 and 4 was depressed along with a suppression in the T-
lymphocyte numbers. No changes of this type were noted following a 14-day bed-
rest study. In the present study, which involved a shorter flight, functional sup-
pression was again noted but no quantitative changes in lymphocytes occurred.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Samples of heparinized peripheral venous blood (10 cubic centimeters) were

obtained and were processed within 1 to 24 hours after collection. Before separation,
total leukocyte (white blood cell (WBC)) counts were performed using a hemaeytom-
eter and/or a Coulter counter, and differential counts were determined using slide
preparations stained with Wright's stain.

Lymphocyte Preparation

Lymphocytes were also separated by Ficoll-Hypaque gradient eentrifugation

according to B6yum's method (ref. 17-1) or by using a Technicon lymphocyte

aBaylor College of Medicine; Principal Investigator.

17-1
separator. Cells in the resulting suspension of mononuclear cells were washed
three times in minimum essential medium (MEM); they were then adjusted to a final
concentration of 1 X 106cells/ml.

Lymphocyte Classification

The B-lymphocyte distributions were determined by enumerating the percent

of 200mononuclear cells with surface immunoglobulins detected by the immunofluo-
rescent antibody technique described in reference 17-2.

The E-rosette forming lymphocytes (T-cells) were determined by the method

of Jondahl et al. (ref. 17-3). A concentration of 1 × 106lymphocytes was mixed in
0.25 milliliter of MEMand added to 0.25 milliliter of a 0.5-percent sheep red blood
cell (SRBC) suspension. After mixing, the tubes were incubated at 310 K (37° C)
for 5 minutes, centrifuged at 500g for 3 minutes, and incubated in ice water for
2 hours. Approximately half the supernatant was removed and the top layer of cells
was gently resuspended; 200 lymphocytes were counted with three or more adhering
SRBC used as criteria for E-rosetted lymphocyte.

Lymphocyte Responsiveness in MierOculture to PHA, PWM, and Con A

Purified lymphocytes (I X 105cells) in MEM containing 40-percent fetal calf
serum (FCS) were placed in culture plates, and the antigens were diluted in MEM
(containing Pen-Strep and L-glutamine) in the following concentrations: 0.01 ml
phytohemagglutinin (PHA)/ml MEM; 0.01 and 0.05 ml pokeweed mitogen (PWM)/ml
MEM; and 25 and 50 _g Concanavalin A (Con A)/ml MEM. The diluted antigens in
0.1-milliliter aliquots (in duplicate) were placed in the appropriate well. The cul-
tures were incubated in a humidified carbon dioxide atmosphere at 310K (37° C)
for the following periods: 3 days for PHA and 5 days for Con A and PWM. On the
day of harvest, samples were treated as described in the following section on the
influenza virus antigen cultures.

Lymphocyte Responsiveness to Influenza Virus Antigen

by Thymidine Incorporation

An inactivated monovalent type A influenza virus vaecine containing 1600

chick cell agglutinating units/ml of a Hong Kong strain (H3N2) was dialyzed against
phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and stored at 203 K (-70° C) until used for tests.
Separated lymphoeytes were added in 0.1-milliliter aliquots (in duplicate) for each
dilution of influenza antigen, and the cultures were incubated in a humidified car-
bon dioxide incubator at 310K (37° C) for periods of either 2 or 3 days. On the day
of harvest, the cells were pulsed for 2 hours with 1 microeurie of methyl 3H-
thymidine and then harvested with an automated harvester onto glass-fiber filter
strips; they were then counted in a liquid scintillation counter. Data were ex-
pressed as counts per minute (CPM)/1 × 106lymphocytes, and the stimulation index
(SI) was calculated by dividing the mean result for stimulated cultures by that for

17-2
the unstimulated cultures. Allantoic fluid was used separately as a control on re-
activity of each individual crewman to chick embryo proteins.

RESULTS

White Blood Cell Quantitation

Table 17-I shows the mean and one standard deviation (SD) of the WBCcount,
lymphocyte count, and lymphocyte percentages for respective days preflight and
postflight. Significant increases in WBCnumbers were noted on R+0 (day of
splashdown) and R+I, which represented polymorphonuclear leukocyte increases.
Normal laboratory values are given for comparison.

Table 17-II gives the results of the T-lymphoeytes, B-lymphocytes, and non-
reactive lymphocytes. Fluctuations are indicated but values remain within the one
SD for normal laboratory values.

Lymphocyte Responsiveness in Culture to PHA,

PWM, and Con A

Table 17-1II shows the culture findings for the nonspecifie mitogens. The
stimulation indexes for PHA dropped at R+0 and at R+I for all three astronauts. By
R+8, the three astronauts were back within normal ranges. Interestingly, a reverse
situation is indicated for the Apollo commander (ACDR) at R+0with Con A stimula-
tion enhanced. Other crewmembers began and remained at low-level ranges for
Con A throughout the preflight and postflight periods. Considerable individual
variation was noted in the PWMdata and no consistent trend was obtained.

Influenza Virus Antigen Stimulation

One of the three astronauts responded to influenza virus Hong Kong strain
antigen in cultures. All three astronauts responded to influenza virus England
strain preflight. Because these antigens are quite variable in response patterns
even in known and diagnosed influenza illnesses, changes or losses in reactivity
are not significant. Total lack of reactivity may reflect influenza susceptibility.

DISCUSSION

Significant changes were found for all three crewmen in PHA responsiveness
of the lymphocytes. No significant quantitative changes were noted among the
lymphocytic population. Variations were noted in the stimulation indexes of the
subjects for Con A and PWM; however, because of the rapid exchange of cells be-
tween different compartments in the body, variation in the indexes may be expected.

17-3
 It has been noted during space flight in Skylab 4 that PHA responsiveness of
lymphocytes was extremely depressed on splashdown. Previous bed-rest data
showed no significant change in PHA reactivity for a 14-day period. Because a
depression was observed in this 9-day ASTP mission, one must conclude that time
in space may not be the controlling factor in the functional suppressiveness of the
lymphocytes. Perhaps, because no quantitative changes were noted in lymphocytes
for ASTP but were present for the Skylab 3 and 4 missions, these changes in B-
and T-lymphocyte numbers may reflect the longer period in space.

REFERENCES

17-1. B6yum, A.: Separation of Leukocytes From Blood and Bone Marrow. Scand.
J. Clin. Lab. Invest., vol. 21, suppl. 97, 1968, p. 7.

17-2. DeFazio, Sally R. ; Criswell, B. Sue; South, Mary A.; Kimzey, S. L.; and
Montgomery, J. R.: A Paraprotein in Severe Combined Immunodeficieney
Disease Detected by Immunoelectrophoretic Analyses of Plasma. J. Clin.
Exp. Immunol., vol. 19, no. 3, 1975, pp. 563-570.

17-3. Jondahl, M.; Holm, G. ; and Wigzell, H.: Surface Markers on Human T and
B Lymphocytes. 1. A Large Population of Lymphocytes Forming Nonimmune
Rosettes With Sheep Red Blood Cells. J. Exp. Med., vol. 136, no. 2, Aug. 1,
1972, pp. 207-215.

17-4
 TABLE 17-I.- PREFLIGHT, POSTFLIGHT, AND "NORMAL VALUE" WHITE BLOOD

COUNT, LYMPHOCYTE COUNT, AND LYMPHOCYTE PERCENT

Sample WBC/mm 3, Lymphocyte count/mm 3, Lymphocyte percent,

day mean + 1 SD mean + 1 SD mean _+ 1 SD
(a)

F-30 6 640 ± 1830 2820 ± 480 43+5

F-15 5 830 ± 2020 2420 ± 440 43+7

F-5 6 530 ± 560 3040 ± 550 47 ± 11

R+0 11 110 ± 4210 1950 ± 490 20 ± 10

R+I 13 530 ± 610 3020 ± 810 22±6

R+8 9 560 ± 258O 3500 ± 900 37+1

R+13 6 6O0 ± 1510 2270 ± 400 35±5

Normal lab- 7 110 ± 240O 30O0 ± 1200 43 ± 13

oratory
value

aF-30 is 30 days before lift-off, R+0 is recovery (splashdown) day, R+I is

recovery plus 1 day, etc.

17-5
 TABLE 17-II.- RESULTS OF THE T-LYMPHOCYTES, B-LYMPHOCYTES,

AND NONREACTIVE LYMPHOCYTES

Sample T-lymphocytes, B -lymphocytes, Nonreactive

day 1 × 105/ml 1 X 105/ml lymphocytes,
(mean + 1 SD) (mean + 1 SD) 1 X 105/ml
(mean + 1 SD)

F-30 16.5 + 6.1 7.1±0.4 4.7±2.1

F-15 12.9 +_ 4.9 4.7±0.2 6.7±0.5

F-5 17.9 ± 2.8 5.4±0.9 7.1±3.7

R+0 13.0 _+ 5.6 5.3±1.2 1.2±1.2

R+I 19.1 ± 3.8 7.0±3.5 4.2±1.8

R+8 25.3 _+ 4.4 5.8±1.9 3.9±3.6

R+13 14.4 + 3.2 5.6±1.2 2.6±1.0

Normal lab- 15.9 + 6.3 5.1±3.0 8.5±5.6

oratory
value

17-6
 TABLE 17-III.- LYMPHOCYTIC RESPONSE TO PHA, PWM, AND CON A

Sample Subject Stimulation indexes

day (a)
PHA Con A PWM

F-30 ACDR 34 3 5

CMP 34 26 50

DMP 41 16 114

Mean of three 36 _+4 15 _+ 12 56 _+ 55

F-15 ACDR 65 25 43

CMP 47 11 14

DMP 95 12 41

Mean of three 69 _+ 24 16_+8 33 _+ 16

F-5 ACDR 66 12 27

CMP 46 32 29

DMP 74 6 34

Mean of three 63 _+ 15 17 _+ 14 30 _+4

R+0 ACDR 38 151 100

CMP 11 11 24

DMP 12 12 11

Mean of three 20 _+ 15 58 _+ 80 45 + 48

R+I ACDR 9 20 40

CMP 21 49 11

DMP 5 6 4

Mean of three 12 +8 25 + 22 25 _+ 15

R+8 ACDR 72 12 11

CMP 45 18 11

DMP 18 8 9

Mean of three 45 -+ 27 13_+5 10 _+1

Normal lab- Mean 69 67 50

oratory
value Range 10 to 282 10 to 277 10 to 170

aACDR, CMP, and DMP mean Apollo commander, command module pilot,
and docking module pilot, respectively.

17-7
 18. THE EFFECTS OF SPACE FLIGHT ON

POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTE RESPONSE

EXPERIMENT MA-032

R. R. Martin a

ABSTRACT

In a series of studies performed at intervals from 30 days before flight to 30

days after recovery, blood samples were obtained from the three astronauts of the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and from eight control subjects. To determine the effects
of space flight on polymorphonuclear leukoeytes, tests were performed onboard the
recovery ship U.S.S. New Orleans on blood samples obtained as quickly as possi-
ble after splashdown and on the day following recovery. The astronauts' inhalation
of propellent gases and the inception of eortieosteroid therapy 1 day after recovery
provided an additional opportunity to investigate the possible effects of these factors
on leukocyte function. Data were obtained during each time period on the total leu-
kocyte count, differential count, leukocyte adhesion, leukocyte migration and chem-
otaxis, phagocytosis, and histochemieal staining for leukocyte acid and alkaline
phosphatase. These observations present a variety of in vitro correlates to white
blood cell function within the body. Taken together, they serve as a reasonable
approximation of the effects of space flight on leukocyte function.

INTRODUCTION

Various physiological, hematological, and serological measurements have

been performed on astronauts throughout the manned spacecraft program. No
previous formal effort has been made to investigate the possible effects of space
flight and weightlessness on polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) function. Because
these phagocytic cells are important in the defense of the body against disease and
because situations in which the function of these leukocytes is abnormal are asso-
ciated with increased susceptibility to infection, a variety of experiments was de-
signed to observe changes in the PMN's of astronauts in relationship to the events
of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). The goal of this experiment was to iden-
tify any measurable PMN alterations that might be significant in planning future,
longer duration space missions.

The results of this experiment are being analyzed and correlated with a
large amount of normal data in which the same laboratory methods were used.
The experiment went as planned, and all blood samples were obtained during
baseline, postflight, and later convalescent periods. The unplanned inhalation of

aBaylor College of Medicine; Principal Investigator.

18-i
propellent gases and subsequent hospitalization of the astronauts with the
administration of adrenal corticosteroid therapy provided an opportunity to evaluate
these factors in relation to leukocyte function.

Overall, this experiment was successful in documenting that no consistent,

potentially serious abnormalities in PMN function (detectable by the methods used)
were produced in the ASTP crewmembers. A broader experience, including similar
studies on future space-flight missions, will be required before definite conclusions
can be drawn.

BASIC THEORY

The PMN is a critical cell in the defense of the host against infections. The
ultimate function of the PMN is the phagocytosis and killing of micro-organisms that
invade the tissues of the body. To carry out this function, however, a sequence
of earlier steps is important. Because the majority of leukocytes at some time pass
through the bloodstream, they must be able to leave the circulating blood and reach
the tissue spaces where potential infections occur. To do this, the leukocyte must
adhere to the surface of the blood vessel, work its way through the walls of the
small blood vessels, migrate through the tissue spaces, and collect in the area of
inflammation accompanying early infection. Abnormalities in function leading to
the impairment of any one of these steps can potentially cause increased suscepti-
bility to infection.

The PMN is present in the circulating blood for a matter of hours, as the
cells travel from the production sites in the bone marrow to the tissues where they
function to protect the host from invasion of foreign organisms. As a result of this
rapid turnover, changes in the well-being of the host may be reflected in altera-
tions in circulating leukocytes. The usual clinical data of total white blood cell
counts and differential counts can be considerably supplemented by a variety of
functional tests.

The in vitro techniques used in the present studies have been adapted from
methods in widespread use among investigators of leukocyte function. These tests
have been standardized by using a large number of normal subjects. This experi-
ment was performed using concurrent controls.
The total white blood cell counts and differential counts have been useful to
clinicians for many decades as indices of the status of the host. The leukocyte
eounts are well recognized to fluctuate with infections (ref. 18-1) and with stress
reactions (ref. 18-2). Histochemical staining for acid phosphatase and for alkaline
phosphatase can correlate with leukocyte "activation" (ref. 18-3) and fluctuate with
physiological abnormalities (ref. 18-4). The property of leukocyte adhesion can
be quantitated in vitro and is altered with several clinical states associated with
increased susceptibility to infection, such as alcohol ingestion, and corticosteroid
administration (ref. 18-5). Chemotaxis experiments were performed using a
variation of the Boyden chamber technique developed in this laboratory (ref. 18-6).
Similarly, phagocytosis studies were conducted using tissue chamber slides and
previously described techniques (ref. 18-7).

18-2
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experiment was successfully carried out as planned. All blood samples
were obtained from the Apollo commander (ACDR), command module pilot (CMP),
and docking module pilot (DMP) during the interval from 30 days before flight
(F-30) to 30 days after recovery (R+30). The backup crew was studied during the
preflight period and served as a normal control for this interval. Three other sub-
jects (A, B, C) were studied both in preflight testing and during recovery testing
onboard the U.S.S. New Orleans. Two other subjects (D, E) who had been tested
repeatedly served as internal controls.

The total white blood cell counts were fairly stable and reproducible for each
subject (table 18-I). Abnormalities include low preflight values for the DMP
(particularly on day F-5) and the occurrence of elevated leukocyte counts in all
three astronauts for 2 days after recovery and on day R+8 (when steroid adminis-
tration was a factor).

The differential leukocyte counts for the study group are given in table 18-II.
These values are used to calculate the total PMN counts in table 18-11I. Note that
the total PMN counts are extremely reproducible among the group of normal controls.

The leukocyte alkaline phosphatase is a histochemical test that generally

correlates with the amount of PMN activation. The numbers of positive cells for
this enzyme generally paralleled the total number of PMN's (table 18-IV). A
weighted value can be assigned to positive leukocytes by grading the reaction of
individual cells from 0 through 4+. A number of cells of each degree of reactivity
are multiplied by the activity score, and the total value for I00 representative
cells is calculated. When this is done, the astronauts are noted to have somewhat
elevated values during both the preflight and postflight periods (table 18-V). This
higher value is also noted in the backup CMP. A further weighted value can be
calculated by determining the mean staining characteristics of the positive leuko-
cytes (table 18-VI). Again, the astronauts tend to have somewhat higher values
than the normal controls, but these differences are not significant.

The total number of PMN's staining for the lysosomal enzyme, acid phospha-
tase, were similarly determined (table 18-VII). The DMP again had low values
during the preflight period; the number decreased to a level of 990 positive cells on
day F-5. All crewmembers showed an elevation in the number of cells that stain
for acid phosphatase during the postflight interval. The total leukocyte acid
phosphatase scores (table 18-VIII) and the mean acid phosphatase scores
(table 18-IX) were not significantly different from the values found in the concur-
rent controls.

To test leukocyte adhesion, samples of heparinized blood were passed through

nylon columns and the percentage of leukocytes adhering to the columns was cal-
culated (table 18-X). This test is usually reproducible if followed linearly, but it
is known to be influenced by high levels of steroids, aspirin ingestion, alcohol
ingestion, and inflammation. Two of the three astronauts (the CMP and the DMP)
showed a decrease in leukocyte adherence on day F-5. However, the concurrent
controls also showed decreased adherence values on that same day, although
decreases did not occur to the same extent in all control individuals. The control

18-3
tests were much more stable on the day of recovery (R+0) and on day R+I, possibly
making the decreases in PMN adherence in members of the prime crew significant.
However, because of the fluctuations, the serial values in the prime crew are not
significantly different from those obtained for the controls.
The ability of leukoeytes to migrate in a modified Boyden chamber was
measured both without a chemotactic stimulus (table 18-XI) and in response to the
chemotactic agent casein (table 18-XII). A chemotactic index, expressed as the
ratio of migration with casein compared to migration with no chemotactic agent, is
presented in table 18-XIII. In general, the migration of leukoeytes as quantitated
in this manner remained within the normal range throughout the period of observa-
tion. Slightly decreased migration was noted on day R+8, but this decrease was
also noted in the normal control. Because this test was performed at a temporary
facility in Honolulu, comparative values obtained under the same field conditions
are not available to determine whether migration was actually depressed or whether
this decrease was a result of the testing conditions. The chemotactic index was
preserved normally in the tests performed on day R+8.
The phagocytic capacity of PMN's was measured by allowing the leukocytes
to form monolayers and then adding heat-killed staphylococci. The percentage of
PMN's that were phagocytic was determined microscopically (table 18-XIV). Although
somefluctuations occurred, the leukocytes retained the ability to ingest staphylo-
cocci in cells from the prime crew. When the total number of phagocytic PMN's was
calculated, increased numbers of phagocytes were found in the prime crew following
recovery (table 18-XV). This increase reflects the total increase in the leukocyte
count. Whenthe number of leukocytes containing large numbers of staphylococci
(five or more) was calculated, the values for the prime crew were not as markedly
elevated when compared to the controls (table 18-XVI). The conclusion concerning
the phagoeytosis test would be that no impairment in PMNphagocytic function was
demonstrable using these techniques. In fact, because of the increased numbers of
circulating leukocytes, the phagocytic capacity of the blood was enhanced.

SUMMARY

The studies summarized in this report constitute the first comprehensive

effort to evaluate the effects of space flight and weightlessness on PMN function.
Because of limitations imposed by the mission, blood samples obtained during
weightlessness could not be tested. The values obtained for day R+0 reflect the
effects both of the reentry stresses and of the unplanned inhalation of propellent
gases. The sample obtained on day R+I was drawn before the first dose of corti-
costeroid therapy was given, but the pulmonary changes in the astronauts were
becoming evident at this time. The results of the tests performed on day R+8 must
be interpreted in the context of corticosteroid therapy being administered to the
astronauts for the pulmonary reaction following gas inhalation.

Despite these limitations and reservations, a comprehensive survey of

leukocyte function is possible if performed serially in both the crew and control
individuals. The data reported herein are still being analyzed in the context of
larger groups of normal control individuals. The tentative conclusion, however, is
that no consistent abnormality attributable to the period of weightlessness and space

18-4
flight was detected. Before the effects of space flight on polymorphonuclear
leukocytes can be accurately determined, however, testing of samples obtained
during flight without the influences of reentry, gas inhalation, and corticosteroid
therapy will be necessary.

REFERENCES

18-1.
Wintrobe, M. H.: The Leukocytes in Clinical Hematology. Lea and Febiger
(Philadelphia), 1962, p. 214.

18-2.
White, A.: Hormonal Steroids, Biochemistry, Pharmacology, and Thera-
peutics. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Hormonal
Steroids, vol. I, Academic Press (New York), 1964, p. 571.

18-3. McCall, C. E.; Katayama, I.; Cotran, R. S.; and Finland, M.: Lysosomal
and Ultrastructural Changes in Human "Toxic" Neutrophils During
Bacterial Infection. J. Exp. Med., vol. 129, Feb. 1969, pp. 267-293.

18-4. McCall, C. E.; Caves, J. ; Cooper, R.; and DeChatelet, L.: Functional
Characteristics of Human Toxic Neutrophils. J. Infect. Dis., vol. 124,
July 1971, pp. 68-75.

18-5. McGregor, R. R.; Spagnuolo, P. J.; and Lentnek, A. L.: Inhibition of

Granulocyte Adherence by Ethanol, Prednisone, and Aspirin, Measured
With an Assay System. N. Engl. J. Med., v.ol. 291, Sept. 1974,
pp. 642-646.

18-6. Martin, R. R.; Warr, G. A.; Couch, R.; and Knight, V.: Chemotaxis of
Human Leukocytes: Responsiveness to Mycoplasma Pneumoniae. J. Lab.
Clin. Med., vol. 81, Apr. 1973, pp. 520-529.

18-7.
Cline, M. J.: A New White Cell Test Which Measures Individual Phagocyte
Function in a Mixed Leukocyte Population. I. A Neutrophil Defect in
Acute Myelocytic Leukemia. J. Lab. Clin. Med., vol. 81, Feb. 1973,
pp. 311-316.

18-5
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 19. KILLIFISH HATCHINGAND ORIENTATION

EXPERIMENTMA- 161
H. W. Scheld, at J. F. Boyd,b G. A. Bozarth, b J. A. Conner, c
V. B. Eichler,dp. M. Fuller, "e R. B. Hoffman,fJ. R. Keefe,e

K. P. Kuchnow,g J. M. Oppenheimer, h G. A. Salinas,b

and R. J. von Baumgarten I

ABSTRACT

In the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Killifish Hatching and Orientation Experi-

ment, the killifish Fundulus heteroclitus was used as a model system for study of
embryonic development and vestibular adaptation in orbital flight. The experiment
package consisted of two parts: a series of staged embryos in five individual com-
partments of a polyethylene bag and a series of preconditioned juvenile fish in a
similar bag. Embryos at 32, 66, 128, 216, and 336 hours after fertilization at the
time of launch were chosen to represent key stages of development; development
occurred at a constant temperature of 295 K (22 ° C). Juvenile fish were reared
from hatching for 21 days in specific visual environments.

Experiment packages were mounted on the docking module wall and photo-
graphed periodically during the mission to record the swimming activity of the fish
and the condition of the eggs. At splashdown, vestibular sensitivity of the juvenile
fish and of hatchlings from the eggs was tested in a rotating, striped drum. Sub-
sequently, additional vestibular orientation tests during parabolic-trajectory flight,
light orientation tests, and geotaxis tests were performed. Samples of juveniles

aBaylor College of Medicine.

bNorthrop Services Inc.

CRiee University.
dWichita State University.

euniversity of Louisville.
fNRC-NASA Resident Research Associate•

gTexas A. & M. University.

hBryn Mawr College.

iUniversity of Mainz, Germany.

#Principal Investigator.

19-1
and hatchlings/embryos were fixed for microscopic examination at splashdown and at
selected times thereafter. Sampling for microscopy and testing of vestibular func-
tion will be continued through maturity of the fish.

Juvenile fish in a null-gravity environment exhibited looping swimming activ-

ity similar to that observed during the Skylab 3 mission. Hatchlings from the 336-
hour egg stage also were observed to loop. At splashdown, both juveniles and
hatchlings exhibited a typieal diving response suggesting relatively normal vestib-
ular function. The juveniles exhibited swimming patterns suggestive of abnormal
swim bladders. Rotating drum tests confirmed that no radical changes in vestibular
function had occurred, but more subtle changes may be apparent after careful anal-
ysis of motion picture records. The embryos exhibited no apparent gross abnor-
malities resulting from development in a null-gravity environment. Extensive light
and electron microscopic analyses of flight and control animals are currently
underway.

INTRODUCTION

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) killifish experiment was the second in
a series of experiments to evaluate the hazards inherent in the exposure of living
organisms to the space environment during eritical portions of the life cycle or for
extended periods. The points of primary emphasis were the function and develop-
ment of the vestibular system and calcium metabolism, particularly as it relates to
otolith development.

The experimental organism was Fundulus heteroclitus (Walbaum), a small

shallow-water minnow common along the Atlantic eoast. This organism has been
used in experimental embryology for many years, and its biology and developmental
relationships are well known (refs. 19-1 to 19-3). Fundulus was used as a test or-
ganism at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) during the lunar quar-
antine. Subsequently, the methodology for continuous laboratory production of
fertile eggs was developed in this laboratory (ref. 19-4). The Beaufort, North
Carolina, strain of Fundulus produces an egg having a transparent ehorion that is
extremely tough. Development may thus be observed from the first eleavage to
hatching, and during this time, the egg may be manipulated extensively without
undue stress on the developing embryo. The approximately 2-week period of de-
velopment is convenient for most laboratory experiments, and the resulting hatch-
ling is relatively large (approximately 1 centimeter long) with much of the length
taken up by the head. The vestibular region, the eyes, and the brain are relative-
ly large at this stage. Overall, the Fundulus embryo offers a high-quality system
for flight experimentation under available flight eonditions.

EXPERIMENT BACKGROUND AND DESCRIPTION

A Fundulus experiment was included on the Skylab 3 mission in an abbreviated

and informal demonstration form. The Skylab paekage consisted of a plastic bag con-
taining 2 juvenile fish in a compartment with 250 milliliters of synthetic seawater

19-2
 (21 parts per thousand dissolved solids) and 50 fertilized eggs (5 days past fertil-
ization) in a separate compartment with 50 milliliters of seawater. Initially, the
juveniles exhibited obvious disorientation reactions (swimming rapidly in loops
and circles), but over a period of several days in orbit, they gradually adapted to
the weightless environment and to dependenceon visual cues for orientation. In
this state of adaptation, the locker door surface to which the plastic aquarium was
attached served as "down." Adaptation was not complete, however, and occasional
disoriented swimming activity occurred. Nearly all the 50 eggs hatched in space,
and because of a delay in hatching of the flight fish, several returned alive to Earth.
However, a series of unfortunate events resulted in the death of these animals
shortly after return. The space-hatched Fundulus fry exhibited no observable
tendency toward disoriented swimming activity, and their apparent dependence on
visual orientation cues both onboard the Skylab spacecraft and on the recovery
ship suggested the possible absence of vestibular input. Preservation of the re-
turned hatchlings was insufficient to prevent deterioration and did not permit defi-
nite conclusions regarding the condition of the vestibular system. Typical otoliths,
however, were not visible in microscopic sections of the flight fish.

The ASTP killifish experiment was designed to confirm and extend the Skylab
3 observations of vestibular disturbance and embryonic development. Calcium loss
has been observed in humans after exposure in space, and otolith development is,
in fact, largely concerned with calcium metabolism. Therefore, observations of
otolith development are important not only because of the importance of the vestib-
ular system in balance but also because of the possible use of the otolith as a model
for space research on calcium metabolism in general.

The Skylab observations also raised several questions regarding mechanisms

of vestibular disturbance and adaptation in the Fundulus and its usefulness as a
model for vestibular research. The primary questions asked in the ASTP experi-
ment were related to the rate of adaptation, which is only sketchily known from the
Skylab experiment, and the role of the visual system in orientation and adaptation
to null-gravity conditions.

Experimental Design

The experiment consisted of a two-part experimental package (package A,

fig. 19-1) that was exposed in orbital flight and of four control treatment packages.
Except for the treatment designated "launch control," all packages contained the
experimental materials enumerated in table 19-I. The following control packages
were used.

1. Transport control (package C-I): This package was transported with

the flight package. During the mission, it was exposed to a eonstant temperature
(296 K (23 ° C)) and to the predicted atmospheric pressure and oxygen (O 2) partial
pressure profile of the ASTP spacecraft. Recovery processing and return to JSC
paralleled those of the flight treatment package.

19-3
 2. Laboratory air control (package C-II): Immediately after packing, the
fish and egg packages were placed in a 295-K (22° C) incubator under standard
atmospheric conditions until recovery. Subsequent handling was similar to that
for the flight treatment package.

3. The 48-hour lag control in ASTP-simulated air (package C-Ill): Eggs

were fertilized and packages prepared on a schedule precisely 48 hours behind the
flight schedule. All timing and conditions of preparation of flight packages were
duplicated. At launch time, the package was exposed to a simulated launch vibra-
tion profile and then placed in an atmosphere chamber for exposure to simulated
spacecraft atmosphere. Atmosphere (O2 partial pressure) and temperature were
programed to duplicate the averaged readings of the spacecraft sensors. Recovery
activities paralleled those of the flight treatment package.

4. Launch control: Smaller samples of eggs (10) and fish (2) were prepared
in parallel to the flight controls and the 48-hour lag controls and were transported
with these treatment packages. At lift-off, these samples were killed and fixed to
provide a record of developmental condition at lift-off.

Experiment Theory

The embryo development portion of the experiment was designed to isolate

the effects of exposure to a null-gravity environment in progressively more advanced
stages of embryo development. The ages were selected as probable average times
for the onset of key stages of development with particular reference to the vestibular
system and otolith development. Development time varies somewhat within the popu-
lation but is essentially complete by 9 to 11 days, and most of the eggs may be stim-
ulated to hatch at the end of 14 days under standard laboratory conditions. Thus,
in a majority of the flight treatment eggs, all subsequent embryogenesis was com-
pleted in the near-null-gravity conditions of orbital flight. The three later stages,
128, 216, and 336hours, theoretically were fully developed and capable of hatching
in orbit. One experiment objective was to observe and record swimming activities
of the hatchlings from these eggs to confirm the apparent adaptation of the Skylab
hatchlings.

Embryos of different ages (table 19-I) were obtained by stripping ova and
milt from adult Fundulus (ref. 19-4) and combining these to effect fertilization at
the given prelaunch times. Fertilized eggs were then incubated in plastic petri
dishes containing synthetic seawater (21 parts per thousand dissolved solids) at a
constant temperature of 295 K (22 ° C). Each petri dish contained a maximum of 50
eggs that were washed daily with filter-sterilized synthetic seawater to ensure re-
moval of metabolic products and contaminating micro-organisms. Between 30 and
26 hours before launch, all eggs were sorted, given a final wash, and sealed into
the compartments of the plastic flight package.

The vestibular adaptation portion of the experiment was designed to extend

previous observations of Fundulus swimming behavior in a null-gravity environ-
ment. The cause of the observed disorientation in the fish is largely unknown,
although the vestibular system is presumed to be primarily responsible. The ob-
served adaptation during the Skylab 3 mission was apparently based partly on a

19-4
 switch to dependence on the visual system for orientational cues. The entire proc-
ess is of more than passing interest because it parallels in many ways the patterns
reported for human adjustment to weightlessness, and findings regarding vestibular
adaptation in fish could usefully be applied to humans (ref. 19-5). Because of time
and space limitations, the experimental schemewas not intended to produce profound
conclusions; it was simply an attempt to refine previous measurements of rate of
adaptation and to define the nature of the visual stimulus (light direction or back-
ground surface) in the apparent habituation of fish to null-gravity conditions. Of
equal importance was the observation of readaptation of the partly space-adapted
fish to one-g conditions.

The experiment package consisted of several small plastic-film bags

(fig. 19-1), each containing a number (table 19-I) of Fundulus fry (immature fish
21 days old at time of launch) that had been reared from hatching in tanks present-
ing different visual environments (table 19-I). The swimming activity of the fish
was recorded with a motion picture camera at various times during the flight with
the objective of measuring general rate of adaptation as well as orientation patterns
and relative rates of adaptation of the visually conditioned fish.

Data Collection

The data yield of the experiment consisted of visual observations from the
flight, motion picture recordings of the condition and activity of experimental ani-
mals during and after the flight, animals for microscopic examination that were
killed and fixed at recovery and at subsequent selected sampling times up to ma-
turity, and results of vestibular sensitivity tests taken at recovery and for an inde-
terminate time after recovery.

The primary objective of the histological sampling was to detect anatomical

differences in the flight animals that could be correlated with behavioral differences
and to record any observable readjustments that might occur in the developing ani-
mals after their return. Samples of juvenile fish were fixed at splashdown and sev-
eral weeks later following completion of behavioral testing. Hatchlings and un-
hatched eggs were sampled at recovery, at approximately daily intervals for the
first week after splashdown, and again at 2 weeks, 1 month, and 6 months to pro-
vide a picture of progressive changes. Analysis involved, as a first stage, serial
sectioning of the fixed animals for light and electron microscopy of the head and
particularly the vestibular organs. Key points of interest were development of the
otolith and the associated sensory tissue. Subsequent study will depend on initial
results, but probable further areas of interest are general calcium deposition and
development of other sensory systems.

Postflight testing was performed on both fry and hatchlings from the flight
and control treatment packages with the objective of detecting and measuring dif-
ferences in orientation behavior attributable to null-gravity exposure during devel-
opment. The tests used were the rotating striped-drum test, the light orientation
test, the geotaxis test, and brief exposure to null-gravity conditions during
parabolic-trajectory flight. In each case, the response of the vestibular system
was measured.

19-5
 The classical fish otolith tests (ref. 19-6) are based on measurements of the
fish longitudinal-axis tilt from the horizontal when the direction of water currents
or of illumination is varied. At the University of Mainz, an additional otolith test
that works especially well with very young and small fish has been developed. The
fish tank containing the unrestrained fish is placed inside first a vertical and later
a horizontal rotating striped drum. In the vertical drum, the fish visually lock with
the stripes and swim around inside the drum keeping pace with the moving stripe
(fig. 19-2 (a)). In the horizontal drum, the fish are prevented from looping solely
by action of the otolith system (fig. 19-2 (b)). However, if the fish face the stripes,
their bodies are tilted in the direction of stripe movement. The fish that are turned
90 ° away from the stripes roll to a measurable degree in the direction of the drum
rotation, but again are prevented from tilting further by the action of their otolith
system. Abnormal tilt indicates a lowered sensitivity of the otolith system. The
fish tested were inside a sealed tank, which was placed inside the drum for varying
times of at least 1 minute in both horizontal and vertical drum positions. Tilt angle
and movements were recorded by a motion picture camera for later single-frame
analysis.

In addition to the rotating striped-drum test, a light orientation test was given
to the juvenile fish. The purpose of this test was to further evaluate the ability of
the juvenile fish to orient in the geogravitational environment after a 9-day exposure
to weightlessness. Although it is well known that fish maintain their relative verti-
cal orientation by integrating sensory information from the influences of both gravity
and light (ref. 19-6), it was not known whether the exposure only to light cues dur-
ing a 9-day period would affect this integration when the fish were reintroduced
into the normal one-g environment.

In the normal geogravity environment, fish maintain their equilibrium orien-

tation by static and optic stimuli. If these stimuli do not operate in the vertical
direction, the fish takes a position between the vertical plane and the incidence of
the light (ref. 19-7). For example, if a light is placed in a darkened chamber at a
90 ° angle relative to the vertical plane, the fish will roll about its body axis toward
the light and the dorsal fin will form a 30 ° to 60 ° angle relative to the vertical plane.
(The exact magnitude of the angle varies with species of fish and other environ-
mental factors such as light intensity and dark adaptation. ) Normally, fish live in
an environment in which light is overhead and therefore represents a reference for
the vertical in addition to the sensing of gravity. The fish rolls toward the light
source to accommodate its sensory inputs in the new 90 ° test environment. If the
light intensity is increased, the fish will roll even farther toward the light up to a
point. If gravity is increased (as in a centrifuge), the fish will roll back toward
the gravitational vertical. The static vestibular sense is the more dominant of the
two systems, but if it is damaged (as in ablation studies), the fish will orient
strictly with respect to the dominant light direction. Therefore, the light orienta-
tion test was an attempt to measure a possible modification of the gravitational re-
ceptors due to a 9-day exposure to null-gravity conditions.

In this test, each juvenile fish was placed in a clear Plexiglas cylinder and
its dorsal fin orientation was measured after a 40-watt bulb was placed 14 centi-
meters to the right of the fish (90 ° relative to the vertical plane) for 30 minutes and
then to the left for the same period. One minute of dark adaptation was permitted
before each test interval, and right and left tests were randomized. Each fish was

19-6
given one trial (left and right orientations) in any given test day. All fish were test-
ed sequentially until four trials per fish were made over a period of several days.
A geotaxis test for small fish has been developed at JSC. In this test, a fish
is gently placed just below the meniscus of the synthetic seawater in a graduated
cylinder filled to the 500-milliliter mark. The amount of time spent in the upper
half of the cylinder is recorded over a 2-minute interval as a measure of the geo-
taxis response. This diving response is very strong in the majority of Fundulus
heteroclitus; therefore, the test was a measure of whether or not this innate vestib-
ular program was modified by an exposure to null-gravity conditions during
embryonic development.

Experiment Execution

Execution of the flight portion of the experiment was, relatively, the simplest
part. The prepared flight package was transported to the launch site in a T-38
aircraft between 26 and 23 hours before launch and placed in a storage locker of
the command module approximately 9 hours before launch. At approximately 30
hours after launch, the metal and glass cloth flight container was opened and the
experimental packages were mounted on the docking module wall for the duration
of the mission. Motion pictures were taken of the fish package at this time. No
photography or observations were scheduled during the joint phase of the mission
because of the heavy demands placed on the crew during that time. Daily observa-
tions were recorded in the flight notes, and motion pictures were made on mission
day 6 and all subsequent days of the mission. Following photography on mission
day 9, the packages were returned to the flight container and stored for reentry.

Eight hours after recovery, the flight package was removed from the com-
mand module and photographed to record initial swimming activity. Hatching was
induced by agitation on a rotary shaker, and samples of eggs, hatchlings, and
juvenile fish were killed and fixed for microscopic examination. Additional samples
were fixed at selected intervals after recovery. Upon return of experimental ma-
terials to the laboratory 2 days after recovery, selected specimens were injected
with tritiated thymidine and killed after a 1-hour exposure.

Testing for vestibular sensitivity by the rotating drum method was begun as
soon as the fish and hatchlings were removed from the flight packages and was con-
tinued for several days after splashdown. Following return to the laboratory, test-
ing of light orientation response was initiated and continued for several weeks.
The first test of orientation in parabolic-trajectory flight was completed 5 days after
recovery.

Continuation of the experiment will involve rearing the remaining hatchlings

to maturity and eventually producing a new generation from the flight-developed
animals. Additional periodic observations will be made to assess vestibular func-
tion in the maturing fish. Limited numbers of animals will be killed for anatomical
studies.

19-7
 RESULTS

The experiment was accomplished as scheduled. The only major loss of data
was the initial photography, apparently because of an improperly seated camera
magazine. Looping swimming activity similar to that on the Skylab 3 mission was
observed in juveniles and in hatehlings from the 336-hour egg group. Some adapta-
tion to null-gravity conditions apparently occurred during the 9-day mission, but
when the flight package was opened 8 hours after splashdown, all juveniles and
hatchlings initially exhibited a typical diving response suggesting that vestibular
systems were in relatively good working order. After recovery from their initial
fright, most fish swam in a manner that indicated low buoyancy, probably as a re-
sult of deflated swim bladders. No radical alterations in orientation behavior or
vestibular function were observed. Any alterations were relatively subtle and will
be apparent only from careful statistical treatment of the data.

Films from the flight, from postflight testing in the rotating drum, and from
tests in parabolic-trajectory flight are currently undergoing single-frame analysis.
Results from these tests will be reported when the analyses are complete.

The results of light orientation tests on the juvenile fish are presented in
table 19-II as the group means of the roll angles for the light orientations. The C-I
group was omitted because only four juveniles survived and two died midway
through the test period. The roll angles were highly variable for all groups, and
the mean values for each group for four trials were similar. There were no signifi-
cant differences. The ASTP flight juveniles were slightly more variable, particu-
larly for 90 ° light orientations on the right side of the fish, but this deviation is
mentioned only for the sake of data completeness.

The light orienting of the Fundulus heteroclitus appears to be much more

stable (unpublished observations) in adults than in juveniles. Several competing
responses in the juvenile Fundulus apparently increase the difficulty of obtaining
a reliable measure of the roll orientation. It is possible to place an adult in a Plexi-
glas cylinder and position its body perpendicular to the light rays for 30 minutes
and thereby to enable observation of a slow roll to a final angle toward the light.
However, the juvenile will frequently bend itself into a U-shape or become wedged
upside down in the same type of tube. The light orientation is most reliable in the
adult of the Fundulus heteroclitus when measured on an individual basis. On mis-
sion day 9, an attempt was made in orbit to measure the light-orienting responses
of the groups of juveniles in each of the five compartments. The lights were turned
off in the spacecraft and the camera photolight was held at a 45 ° angle from the
camera line of sight to the fish packages. The astronauts reported that the fish did
not orient themselves with respect to light direction but seemed to be alining their
bodies with respect to the "bottom" of the fish packages adjacent to the spacecraft
wall. It is difficult to believe that light direction was not the major influence for
orientation while the fish were in a weightless environment, but it may be possible
that a contrast gradient due to the cards in the "bottom" of the package or some type
of tactile reference was the major influence. The crew reported that this light ori-
entation experiment was photographed but this cannot be confirmed from present
techniques for viewing the flight films. A frame-by-frame analysis may clarify this
question.

19-8
 The geotaxis tests on the hatchlings are in progress.

Embryonic development appeared to be normal in all flight animals. In-flight

hatching occurred only in the 336-hour embryos, which were theoretically ready to
hatch at the time of launch. This result was not surprising in view of the Skylab 3
experience and of ground-based experiments indicating that hatching occurs readily
only following a change in the state of vestibular stimulation. A similarly low hatch-
ing rate was also observed in controls that were exposed to minimum disturbance.

Exposure of the eggs to agitation during the recovery procedures, which in-
volved routine shaking on a rotary shaker for 20 minutes each day, resulted in ex-
tensive hatching in all treatment groups. The eumulative hatching curve in figure
19-3 is typical of the results obtained. If hatching rate and ultimate hatch can be
considered an index of health and development rate, it is safe to conclude that the
flight animals did not suffer in any case. Temperature and atmosphere profiles of
the flight environment were duplicated relatively closely in the ground controls,
and baseline experiments indicate that relatively large deviations would be required
to produce the observed results. Photographs of the egg packages in flight show a
remarkably even distribution of eggs throughout the packages. It is known that
crowding of eggs results in slowed development, and it seems likely that the even
distribution resulted in improved dissipation of toxic metabolites and thus in in-
creased development rate. No significance is attached to this result other than as
an indieation that poor health is not a causal agent in any possible morphological
anomalies uncovered by the histological studies in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The investigators wish to acknowledge the significant contributions made to

this research by Mr. Thomas B. McKee and his associates of the Nutrition-Physiology
Section, Fish Commission, Clackamas, Oregon, and Mr. Thomas J. Price and his
associates of the National Marine Fisheries Service, Atlantic Estuarine Research Cen-
ter, Beaufort, North Carolina. Without their interest and assistance, respectively,
in trapping wild Fundulus breeding stock and in providing the diet for the breeding
colony, the Fundulus research program and the resultant flight experiments would
not have been possible.

19-9
 REFERENCES

19-1. Armstrong, Philip B. ; and Child, Julia Swope: Stages in the Normal
Development of Fundulus heteroclitus. Biol. Bull., vol. 128, no. 2, Apr.
1965, pp. 143-168.

19-2. Oppenheimer, Jane Marion: The Normal Stages of Fundulus heteroclitus.

Anatomical Record, vol. 68, no. 1, Apr. 25, 1937, pp. 1-15.

19-3. Trinkaus, J. P.: Fundulus. Methods for Study of Development, N. K.

Wessells and F. Wilt, eds., Thomas Y. Crowell (New York, N.Y.), 1967,
pp. 113-122.

19-4. Boyd, John F.; and Simmonds, Richard C.: Continuous Laboratory Produc-
tion of Fertile Fundulus heteroclitus (Walbaum) Eggs Lacking Chorionic
Fibrils. J. Fish. Biol., vol. 6, no. 4, 1974, pp. 389-394.

19-5. Von Baumgarten, R. J.; Simmonds, R. C.; Boyd, J. F.; and Garriott, O. K.:
Effects of Prolonged Weightlessness on the Swimming Pattern of Fish Aboard
Skylab 3. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, vol. 46, no. 7,
July 1975, pp. 902-906.

19-6. Von Holst, E.: Uber den Lichtrackenreflex bei fischen. Publ. Staz. Zool.
Napoli., vol. 15, 1935, pp. 143-158.

19-7. Pfeiffer, Wolfgang: Equilibrium Orientation in Fish. Int. Rev. Gen. Exp.
Zool., vol. 1, 1964, pp. 77-111.

19-10
 TABLE 19-I.- EXPERIMENTAL PACKAGES

(a) Egg package with 5 compartments

Compartment Number of eggs Age of embryos Nominal stage of

at launch, hr embryogenesis
Launch Return (a)

1 100 i00 32 Early gastrulation

2 i00 I00 66 Otic vesicle closure

3 i00 100 128 Completed vestibular

development

4 100 100 216 Vestibular system

functional

5O 50 336 Full development;

able to hatch

Co) Fish package with 5 compartments

Compartment Number of fish Preconditioning Flight background

Launch Return
(b)

6 5 Neutral background White

6 5 Vertical bars Barred

6 5 Horizontal bars Barred

6 CO Black overhead Black

6 6 Blinded White

aDevelopment occurred at a constant temperature of 295 K (22 ° C).

bAge of fish at launch was approximately 21 days.

CAll fish in this compartment were dead.

19-11
 TABLE 19-II.- GROUPRESPONSES
TO LIGHT ORIENTATIONTESTSOF
JUVENILEFUNDULUS HETEROCLITUS

Group Na Roll angle about body axis, deg

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Mean

Left

7 34.3 27.9 36.4 -10.7 22.0 -+ 19.2

A

12 12.1 34.6 22.5 30.4 24.9 -+ 8.6

C-II

6 23.3 2.5 35.8 35.8 24.4 _+ 13.6

C-III

Right

A 7 -8.6 7.1 -21.4 -20.7 -10.9 + 12.6

C-If 12 -26.2 -23.8 -7.9 -18.3 -19.1 _+ 7.1

C-Ill 6 -3.3 -39.2 -16.7 -29.2 -22.1 + 13.5

aNumber of samples.

19-12
Figure 19-1 .- Experiment package consisting of fish packet and egg packet.

/
I
I
f

(a) Vertical position. (b) Horizontal position.

Figure 19-2. - Orientation in rotating drum.

19-13
 _I -
< _ _
o Tr_t<0_tr0,
A Laboratory air control
_ / . _ 0 48-hour lag control

._
E40/; / _ in ASTP-simulated air

20- _ i I I I I
1
0 lO 20 30 40 50 60 70
Days after fertilization
Splashdown

Figure 19-3.- Cumulative hatehing

curve of 32-hour eggs from the flight
and eontrol treatment packages.

19-14
 20. ELECTROPHORESISTECHNOLOGY
EXPERIMENTMA-011

R. E. Allen,at G. H. Barlow,b M. Bier, c P. E. Bigazzi, d

R. J. Knox, e F. J. Micale, f G. V. F. Seaman,e J. W. Vanderhoff, f
C. J. Van Oss, d W. J. Patterson, a F. E. Scott,ap. H. Rhodes, a
B. H. Nerren a and R. J Harwell a

ABSTRACT

Experiment MA-011, Electrophoresis Technology, was designed to test elec-

trophoresis hardware that would continue the development of technology for elec-
trophoretic separation of materials in the near-zero-g environment of space• Ex-
perimental difficulties identified during the Apollo 14 and Apollo 16 electrophoresis
demonstrations, if not successfully eliminated, would have severely limited any
future separations by electrophoresis of biological materials in space.

The experimental hardware generally functioned as planned. Frozen live

cells were successfully transported into space, electrophoretic processing was per-
formed, and viable cells were returned to Earth. A separation of the three types
of fixed red blood cells (rabbit, human, and horse) was demonstrated. The human
lymphocytes, however, showed no apparent migration. Problems relating to this
experiment will be discussed in detail in this report.

The separation of human kidney cells produced the most exciting data. Anal-
ysis shows electrophoretic separation throughout the entire column with at least
four bands of viable cells. The isotaehophoresis experiment definitely demonstrated
the isotachophoretic separation of biological cells in a near-zero-g environment•

aNASA George C. Marshall SpaceFlight Center.

bAbbott Laboratories, Chicago, Illinois.
Cveterans Administration Hospital, Tucson, Arizona.
dstate University of New York, Buffalo, New York.
euniversity of Oregon Health Sciences Center, Portland, Oregon•
fLehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
tprincipal Investigator.

20-1
 INTRODUCTION

The Electrophoresis Technology Experiment was performed to demonstrate

the concept of static free-fluid electrophoresis in the unique environment of space
and to verify electrophoresis experiment concepts by operation in this environment.
The following objectives were set forth.

1. To conduct engineering and operational tests of a space-rated static elec-

trophoresis separation apparatus
2. To further current research efforts through separation of similar cellular
species
3. To reduce or eliminate electro-osmosis through the application of a low
zeta potential coating to the inner surfaces of the columns

4. To apply biological samples precisely without perturbing the subsequent

electrophoresis
5. To maintain viable biological samples during all phases of the experi-
mental procedure
6. To demonstrate isotachophoresis of red blood cells in space

The experiment equipment consisted of four major elements: (1) an elec-

trophoresis unit (EU), (2) a cryogenic freezer (CF), (3) eight experiment columns
(six electrophoresis, two isotachophoresis), and (4) eight sample insertion slides.

The following biological materials were contained in the sample slides for the
eight experiment stages.
1. Columns 1 and 5, three species of fixed red blood cells: rabbit, human,
and horse

2. Columns 2 and 6, human peripheral blood lymphocytes

3. Columns 3 and 7, human fetal kidney cells

4. Column 4 (isotachophoresis), fixed rabbit and human red blood cells;

column 8, (isotachophoresis), fresh rabbit and human red blood cells.

To perform the experiment, a crewmember removed an electrophoresis or

isotachophoresis column from its storage location and installed it in the EU. Fluid
couplings were secured to each electrode chamber of the electrophoresis columns
only. The slide containing a specific frozen sample was next removed from the cry-
ogenic freezer and inserted into the column. A camera mounted on the EU cover
photographed critical control positions and digital readouts during each column
operation. Following each electrophoresis separation, the electrophoresis columns
were frozen by the thermoelectric (TE) module and then removed from the cradle.
The crewman then quickly removed each electrode chamber from the frozen columns

20-2
and placed the column in the CF for return to Earth. The isotachophoresis columns
were neither frozen nor returned but only photographed in orbit during their
operation.

BACKGROUND

Most biological materials, when dissolved or suspended in a selected aqueous

medium, have a characteristic electric charge, and the migration velocity per unit
electric field strength (defined as the eleetrophoretic mobility of the material) is
thus fixed (ref. 20-1). If the mobility difference between biological species is small,
separation can be enhanced by increasing the length of the column. Electrophoresis
was originally conducted in liquid media, or free solutions, but problems arose be-
cause of disturbances in the bulk of the fluid. Two major causes of these disturb-
ances were sedimentation of the particles or solute being separated and thermal
convection generated by Joule heating of the column during electrophoresis. Al-
though various techniques have been developed to overcome these problems on
Earth, the elimination of gravity-induced sedimentation and thermal convection can
be accomplished best in the near-zero-g environment of space.

Electrophoresis in a free fluid was first demonstrated in space during the

Apollo 14 mission. Three materials of different molecular weight, deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), hemoglobin, and soluble dyes, were to be photographed periodically
during electrophoresis in 10-centimeter (4 inch) long by 0.64-centimeter (0.25
inch) diameter cylindrical columns. Before operation of the apparatus, the sample
materials were isolated in small cavities in a plastic slide that was arranged for in-
sertion in a slot intersecting the separation columns. The experiment was initiated
by pushing the slide so that the sample cavities coincided with the separation col-
umns. The diameter of the sample cavity was made slightly smaller than the column
diameter so that electrophoresis of the sample would occur away from the walls,
where electro-osmotic streaming would be less intense.

Particular problems encountered during the demonstration included a misa-

lined sample insertion assembly which injected the samples near the column walls,
poor photography from a hand-held camera, and bacterial degradation of the DNA
and hemoglobin because of the long storage time. However, a separation was meas-
ured between two dyes, and operation of the fluid and electrical systems was nor-
mal. The overall results indicated the validity of fluid eleetrophoresis investiga-
tion; therefore, plans were made and apparatus was developed for a second dem-
onstration during the Apollo 16 mission.

The Apollo 16 electrophoresis demonstration was performed using the basic

operating elements of the Apollo 14 demonstration, but a nonbiological sample ma-
terial, polystyrene latex, was used (ref. 20-2). These stable, nondegradable par-
ticles were used as models for living cells. Two sizes of latex particles were run
separately and collectively to provide comparative data (ref. 20-3). An automati-
cally operated camera, mounted rigidly on the apparatus, photographed a clock, a
thermometer, a column current meter, and the position of the migrating materials.
These photographs provided better technical data on electrophoresis in space than
had been obtained previously. The sample insertion mechanism was redesigned to

20-3
provide more reliable release of the samples in the columns. Although each sample
was inserted correctly, the insertion mechanism allowed buffer to leak out of the
columns before the eleetrophoresis began, and a bubble formed in each column.
The sample bands were severely distorted by electro-osmosis, which caused buffer
flow along the walls of the columns counter to the direction of electrophoretic migra-
tion of the latex particles. Although the parabolic bands observed in space were
explained by subsequent analysis, a clear separation of the two sizes of polystyrene
latex particles was not obtained because of the electro-osmosis. Electrophoresis
according to size did occur in the columns containing single species of the latex,
and the photographs clearly show distinct boundaries and sharply defined fronts.
The deleterious effects of gravity-induced sedimentation and thermal convection on
particle electrophoresis can be seen by comparing the results of the Apollo 16 elec-
trophoresis demonstration with those of ground experiments.

For the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), experiment plans included reuse
of the parts of the Apollo 14 and Apollo 16 systems that operated correctly, improve-
ment of the techniques used to accomplish sample insertion, elimination of the
charge condition along the column walls, and avoidance of bacterial degradation by
using proven sterile techniques. A sample insertion technique was devised to en-
sure precise injection of the sample into the electrophoresis column without affect-
ing the properties of the sample or disturbing the fluid column. The Apollo 14
method of inserting a thin rectangular vane containing cylindrical sample disks into
the column was slightly modified and used. Buffer leakage and bubble formation
were avoided by specific design techniques. Each sample disk was kept frozen,
and the entire insertion slide was stored in a CF that was kept at liquid-nitrogen
(77 K (-196° C)) temperatures.
The advantages of a separate insertion vane containing frozen samples are
as follows.
1. The frozen disks can be inserted into the column and allowed to thaw in
contact with the buffer while any fluid disturbances induced by the sample inser-
tion are damped.

2. Agglutination and sedimentation of the sample material in storage can be

avoided by rate freezing a well-mixed sample on the ground.

3. The freezing preserves the viability of the live biological materials.

To assessthe resolution and sharpness of the bands formed by electrophoresis
in space, a well-characterized particle specie is required. Although polystyrene
latexes were the model particles for the Apollo 16 demonstration, the red blood cells
used on the ASTP flight (erythrocytes fixed in a formaldehyde fixative) provide an
almost indestructible sample material resistant to mechanical stress, hemolytic
agents, and surface modification. These fixed red blood cells are stable for months
under varying temperature conditions, and extensive electrophoresis mobility meas-
urements of the cells using a variety of buffers have been published (ref. 20-4).
Each type of cell was selected to be morphologically distinguishable under micro-
scopic examination. The red color of the cells make them clearly distinguishable
on the photographs made in orbit.

20-4
 Isotachophoresis

Isotachophoresis is a relatively new technique of electrophoretic separation

in which a discontinuous electrolyte system is used at the site of sample injection
(ref. 20-5). The boundaries between species of different mobility are sharply de-
fined and stabilized by electrical forces. Adjacent compartments of sample com-
ponents that may not be distinguishable by zone electrophoresis may be resolved
by isotaehophoresis. The boundaries are highly self-recuperative and will reform
if stirred or disrupted by other factors, including convection. The concentration
of each substance within a compartment is uniform and remains constant throughout
the run once the separation has been achieved. Because of this uniformity, higher
concentrations of components can be handled with no deterioration of the sharp
boundaries.

Lymphocytes

The interest in specific lymphocytes stems from the increased emphasis in

the field of immunology. Initial interest in immunology grew out of the knowledge
that persons who survive an infectious disease seldom contract that disease again.
The two major types of immune mechanisms are humoral and cellular. Humoral
immunity is characterized by the circulating antibodies that originate from B
lymphocytes. Cellular immunity is mediated by means of T lymphocytes and is re-
sponsible for delayed allergic and transplant-rejection reactions. With the in _
creasing emphasis on cell interactions and the cellular basis of immunology, a sim-
ple method of obtaining pure fractions of cells from heterogeneous populations is
desirable. From examination of microelectrophoretic data, differences in cell sur-
face charge are known to exist (ref. 20-6), and differences in electrophoretic mo-
bility have been measured. The significance of the cell separation is of great prac-
tical and theoretical importance. Many unresolved questions in immunology depend
on the availability of pure lymphocyte subpopulations; such subpopulations are
needed to study the nature of the interaction between T and B cells in antibody for-
mation and the nature of the recently described interaction between the classes of T
cells in reactions of cell-mediated immunity. More specifically, interest has devel-
oped in the clinical use of various soluble lymphocyte products (lymphokines) in a
manner analogous to the use of antisera. Several other lymphocyte products, such
as the factors modifying inflammatory cell behavior, are also important. The frac-
tionation of these different lymphokines depends on the earlier separation of the
specific lymphocyte populations responsible for their production. To date, none
have been fractionated to any significant extent.

Kidney Cells

The isolation and production of the enzyme urokinase (UK) has interested
biomedical laboratories for more than 20years (ref. 20-7). This enzyme is capable
of effecting the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin. This conversion is necessary
to accomplish blood clot lysis. Originally, UK was extracted from urine; however,
at least 1500liters of urine were required to produce a single UK unit dose consist-
ing of 4 million CTA (Committee on Thrombolytic Agents) units. The production
cost was $1200/CTA unit dose. Another source was subsequently discovered; UK

20-5
has been isolated from cultures of cells located in the cortex of the kidney as follows.
Human fetal kidneys are trypsinized to disperse the cells and then tested for viability.
The cells are grown out in cultures on mass tissue propagators from which the UK
is harvested. Currently, the demand for UK greatly exceeds the capability to pro-
duce it. Bernik and Kwaan (ref. 20-8) in 1969observed that only approximately
5 percent of the cells in the cortex of the kidney produce UK. Obviously, if these
"producing cells" could be isolated and subjected to subculturing techniques, a
twentyfold increase in the yield and a corresponding reduction in the cost of
this lifesaving drug might result. Electrophoresis has been used to try to iso-
late these "producing cells." The disadvantages of separation on Earth are the
loss of resolving power due to sedimentation of the cells and convective mixing
due to the heating effects of electrophoresis. Under zero-g conditions, these
disadvantages should be eliminated or minimized.

As outlined, the kidney cell portion of Experiment MA-011 consisted of taking

to orbit a mixture of frozen human kidney cells, separating them by electrophoresis,
refreezing the resulting bands, and returning them to Earth. They were then
grown out in tissue culture and assessed for UK production. In addition, extensive
analyses were conducted to characterize the separated cells. The information from
these analyses, as well as the data from the tissue culturing, has contributed ex-
tensively to the understar_ding of this very important source of UK.

EQUIPMENT

The experiment equipment consisted of four major elements: (1) an EU,

(2) a CF, (3) eight experiment columns (six for electrophoresis and two for iso-
tachophoresis), and (4) eight sample slides containing the experiment specimens.
In addition to this experiment hardware, performance of the experiment required
the following items of support equipment: (1) a 70-millimeter electric camera,
(2) an 80-millimeter lens and extender tube, (3) an intervalometer, and (4) an EU
power cable. As stated, the materials used as samples in the experiment consisted
of fixed red blood cells of three different types (rabbit, human, and horse), lym-
phocytes, and human kidney cells. In addition to the slides processed, several
control slides containing samples of the biological materials were stored in the CF
at launch and remained there throughout the ASTP mission to allow assessment of
the effects of space flight on the biological materials.

A general description of experiment operation follows. An electrophoresis

or isotachophoresis column was removed from its storage location and installed on
the EU column cradle. Fluid couplings were secured to each electrode chamber of
the electrophoresis columns only. Then, the proper sample slide with a frozen
sample was removed from the CF and inserted into the column. The 70-millimeter
camera, mounted on the EU cover, photographed the experiment column during a
run. After each electrophoretic separation was completed, the column was frozen
in place on the EU by the TE module. The frozen column was removed from the col-
umn cradle, the electrode chambers were removed and discarded, and the column
was placed in the CF for return to Earth. Isotachophoresis specimens were neither
frozen nor returned but only photographed. Duplicate electrophoretic separations
were performed using each of the three sample materials. The two isotachophoretic

20-6
separations (runs 4 and 8) were performed using rabbit and human red blood cells.
Run number 4 contained formalin-fixed red blood cells and run number 8, fresh red
blood cells.

A detailed deseription of each major hardware element and its subelements

is provided in the following paragraphs.

Eleetrophoresis Unit

The EU (fig. 20-1) was the apparatus in which the experiment was performed.
External envelope dimensions of the unit (cover closed), excluding mounting lugs
and fasteners, were 20.32 by 20.32 by 40.64 centimeters (8 by 8 by 16 inches).
Launch weight was 13.61 kilograms (30 pounds). The EU was designed to be
mounted to the Eleetrophoresis Experiment (MA-014) adapter rack near command
module locker A-6 with four thermally stable fasteners. Subassemblies provided
by the EU were as follows.

i. Controls and displays

2. Fluorescent light assembly for illumination of the experiment columns

during proeessing

3. Thermoelectric module for cooling and freezing the electrophoresis

columns

4. Self-contained power supplies that required only an external 208-volt ac

(115-volt line-to-neutral), three-phase, 400-hertz connection
5. Buffer solution reservoir

6. Buffer solution circulation pump

7. Phase separator assemblies for removing gases liberated in the buffer

solution

8. Electrical circuitry and plumbing required by the experiment

9. Cover with one knurled screw fastener latch to protect the EU when not
in use

10. Camera attachment assembly for mounting the camera to the EU cover

11. Individual storage compartments for eight experiment column assemblies

The EU control and display panel (fig. 20-2) is described as follows. In the
ON position, the POWERswitch energizes the fluorescent light assembly and the EU
digital displays and also activates the TE module cooling blower.

20-7
 The TEMP SELECT switch has positions FREEZE, COOL, and OFF. The
FREEZEposition is selected to freeze the electrophoresis eolumn after each elec-
trophoresis separation has been accomplished. A thermoelectric temperature con-
troller allows a minimum temperature of approximately 233K (-40° C). When the
COOLposition of the switch is selected, the temperature controller will control the
TE units to temperatures as high as 278K (5° C). The switch is placed in this po-
sition at the beginning of viable cell eleetrophoresis separations and remains in
COOLuntil the separation is aeeomplished. Because performance of the isotacho-
phoresis portion of the experiment required neither cooling nor freezing of the
column, the OFF position was used for isotachophoresis.

The MODESELECT switch has positions ELECTRO, OFF, and ISOTACH. The
ELECTROposition is selected to perform the electrophoresis. When the ISOTACH
position of the switch is used to perform the isotachophoresis, the buffer pump,
which is not needed for this part of the experiment, does not operate.
The TIME SELECT (MIN) switch is used to select a time period of 45, 60, or
75 minutes for experiment operation.
The CURRENTSELECTswitch is used to select the level of current flow
through the experiment column to either 4.00 milliamperes (HI) or 1.31 milliam-
peres (LO). The electrophoresis samples were processed with the switch in the
HI position, while the LO position was used for isotachophoresis.

The COLUMNVOLT (DC) digitally displays the voltage sensed across the
experiment column electrodes. The range of the display is from 0 to 99 volts in
increments of 1 volt, with an accuracy of +2 percent.

The COLUMN TEMP (°C) displays the buffer solution temperature in the
electrophoresis column. The range of the display is from -99 ° to 99 ° C in incre-
ments of 1 ° C, with an accuracy of +2 percent.

The TE TEMP (°C) displays the temperature of the thermoelectric module

assembly cold plate. The range of this display is from -99 ° to 99 ° C in increments
of 1 ° C, with an accuracy of _+2 percent.

The purpose of the EU clock (a commercial panel-mounted wristwatch) is to

enable time correlation of the photographs taken during the experiment process.
A metric scale is mounted next to the experiment column cradle. The scale is
marked from 0 to 130 millimeters in 1-millimeter increments to provide distance
information in photographing the biological speeimens as the specimens move
through the column during the experiment. A portable fluorescent light assembly
mounted on the EU cover supplied the illumination required both for viewing the
electrophoresis and isotaehophoresis processes in the experiment columns and for
photography. The fluorescent light tube, contained inside a polycarbonate tube
for protection, is permanently bonded to its electrical receptacles.

The EU contains a TE assembly consisting of four three-stage thermoelectric

coolers to remove heat from the electrophoresis columns during the experiment and
to freeze the columns after each separation has been performed. The four coolers
are mounted on a heat sink that is cooled by a flow of 0.09 m3/sec (190 ft3/min)

20-8
free air by a 208-volt ac, three-phase blower. The cradle holding the electropho-
resis columns during the experiment is attached to the TE assembly cold plate.
The cold plate contains a thermistor device to sense the cold plate temperature. A
thermal cover joins the column cradle to provide thermal continuity around the pe-
riphery of the column. The thermal cover is designed to remain in place for all
freezing operations and during eleetrophoresis of lymphocytes and human kidney
cells. The column assemblies can be isolated from the TE cradle by using special
thermal spacers or slide devices.

A buffer solution reservoir is mounted on a removable tray that forms a part

of the EU structure. The tray is attached to the EU by screw fasteners. The reser-
voir contains a cylindrical rubber diaphragm with a hemispherical end and has a
buffer solution capacity of 57.7 milliliters. The buffer solution enters the reservoir
from a phase separator assembly and is then delivered from the reservoir to the
buffer solution pump. The reservoir was covered with a hydrophobic felt cover to
ensure containment of the buffer solution if the diaphragm ruptured.

A double peristaltic pump, mounted on one side of the EU removable tray as-
sembly next to the buffer solution reservoir, circulates the buffer solution through
the fluid system to allow removal by the phase separators of gas bubbles generated
at the electrophoresis column electrodes. The pump receives buffer solution from
one side of the fluid system (e.g., the column anode side) and circulates it to the
other end of the column (fig. 20-3). The capacity of the pump is 35 ml/min.

Two phase separator assemblies were located on the EU removable tray assem-
bly. The phase separators are identical and consist of two cylindrical membranes.
One membrane is hydrophilie (porous polyethylene) and the other is hydrophobic
(porous polytetrafluoroethylene). The buffer and gas mixture enters between the
membranes. The hydrophobic membrane allows passage of gas to either the cabin
atmosphere or the hydrogen adsorber, and the hydrophilic membrane allows pas-
sage of liquid to the storage reservoir. One separator is connected to the column
anode side of the fluid system and removes the oxygen gas liberated in the buffer
solution at the anode. The oxygen is vented to cabin air. The other separator is
connected to the cathode side of the fluid system and removes hydrogen gas liberated
at the cathode. The hydrogen is then routed to the hydrogen adsorber assembly.
The separator assemblies return the liquid buffer solution to the reservoir.

The hydrogen adsorber assembly is connected to the phase separator assem-

bly to remove hydrogen bubbles from the buffer solution. The hydrogen gas is
adsorbed on a mixture of precipitated palladium (palladium black) and silica gel
contained in a fine-filament fiberglass bag in the adsorber canister.

Cryogenic Freezer

The CF (fig. 20-4) was used to freeze the experiment samples before inser-
tion into the experiment columns for processing and to maintain the frozen elec-
trophoresis columns after the separations had been accomplished. The sample
slides were launched in the CF, and the frozen electrophoresis columns were re-
turned to Earth in the CF.

20-9
 The CF consists of two flasks (one contained within the other). The space
between the flasks is evacuated for thermal insulation. The inner flask has an out-
side diameter of 31.12 centimeters (12.25 inches) and has a cavity to accommodate
a cylindrical sample storage canister with dimensions of 4.98 centimeters (1.96
inches) diameter and 48.26 centimeters (19 inches) length. The maximum launch
weight of the CF, when charged with liquid nitrogen, is 10.4 kilograms (22.9
pounds).
The cooling medium used in the CF was liquid nitrogen, which was contained
in the inner flask and surrounded the sample canister cavity. The CF maintained
the samples at a temperature no higher than 188K (-85° C) for 20 days. The sam-
ple canister had space for eight experiment sample slides with samples, one experi-
ment sample column for the German Electrophoresis Experiment (MA-014), and three
cylindrical cavities for return of the electrophoresis columns (two columns per
cavity).

Electrophoresis Columns

Six electrophoresis columns were stowed in individual compartments at one

end of the EU. Each column consisted of a transparent Pyrex glass tube 0.953 cen-
timeter (0.375 inch) outside diameter by 0.635 centimeter (0.25 inch) inside diam-
eter. The tube was 15.24 centimeters (6 inches) long and was split lengthwise and
rejoined with a flexible adhesive (RTV 140) to allow for expansion of the buffer
solution when the electrophoresis columns were frozen. A thermistor bonded to the
tube wall at the center of the length of each tube was used to monitor the column
temperature for display on the EU COLUMNTEMP (°C) display.
The inside surfaces of the glass columns were stringently cleaned, coated
with Z-6040 (T-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane, Dow Corning) and then coated
with methylcellulose in order to obtain a stable, biocompatible surface with close
to zero zeta potential. Confirmation of the adequacy of the coating was obtained by
experimentally determining the electrophoretic velocity of fixed red blood cells in
the coated columns. The ends of the tubes were plugged with a fritted glass disk
containing a 3 percent agarose gel. The columns were filled before flight with a
sterile buffer solution. Each column was sealed in a polyvinylidene chloride bag
that was then placed in a fine-filament fiberglass bag. Attached to the polyvinyli-
dene chloride bag was a wiper used to wipe the female electrical connectors before
column installation. Each end of the electrophoresis column has an electrode cham-
ber assembly containing a platinum electrode, a printed circuit electrical con-
nector, and a mating EU buffer solution connector.
The electrode chamber assemblies were removable for disposal after the col-
umn had been frozen in the EU. The electrode chamber assembly containing the
column cathode had a cavity into which the sample slide was inserted for experi-
ment operation. A blank slide was contained in the cavity before experiment oper-
ation. The blank slide had a 0.13-centimeter (0.05 inch) inside diameter threaded
hole used for preflight filling of the column with buffer solution. The opening was
sealed after filling.

20-10
 A drawing of the electrophoresis column assembly is provided in figure 20-5.
The assembly electrical schematic is shown in figure 20-6.

The buffer used in the electrophoresis columns consisted of a mixture of 1.76

mmol Na2HPO4, 0. 367mmol KH2PO4 , 6.42 mmol NaC1, 0. 336mmol Na2EDTA, 222
mmol glucose, and 514mmol glycerol in water. 1 It had a hydrogen-ion concentra-
tion (pH) of 7.30 _+0.10 at 293K (20° C) and a calculated ionic strength of 0.0097
tool/liter. At 298 K (25° C), the conductivity was 0.96 mmho/cm; the density,
1.022; and the dynamic viscosity, 0.0011"1N-sec/m 2 (0.0111 poise). The buffer
was demonstrated to be compatible with the column coating, all components of the EU
system, and the candidate materials to be flown on the mission. The mobilities of
fixed rabbit, human, and horse red blood cells in this buffer were 1.60, 1.96, and
2.60 _tm/sec/V/cm, respectively.

Isotachophoresis Columns

Two isotachophoresis columns (fig. 20-5) were stowed in individual compart-

ments in the EU. Each column consisted of a glass tube having dimensions of 0.97
centimeter (0.38 inch) outside diameter, 0.64 centimeter (0.25 inch) inside diam-
eter, and 15.24 centimeters (6 inches) length. Each end of the tube had an assem-
bly containing a fiat, disk-shaped, three-lobed electrode (one electrode assembly
with a silver anode and the other with a palladium cathode), a rubber diaphragm,
and a printed circuit electrical connector.

The assembly containing the palladium cathode had a cavity into which the
sample slide was inserted for experiment operation, A blank slide was contained in
the cavity before processing the column. The blank slide had two 0.13-centimeter
(0.05 inch) inside-diameter threaded holes used to fill the column with buffer solu-
tion before flight.

The isotachophoresis occurred in a column containing a leader buffer of 0.62

milliliter of 85 percent phosphoric acid in 500 milliliters water, with 42 grams of
dextrose and 276 grams of glycerol, adjusted to a pH of 7.4 in 1 liter of distilled
water. The terminator buffer contained 2 grams of serine, 42 grams of dextrose,
and 276 grams of glycerol, adjusted to pH 8.2 in 1 liter of glass distilled water.

Sample Slides

Each sample to be processed during the experiment was mounted in a slide

assembly. Before processing, the slides were stowed in the CF sample canister.
Each slide assembly was contained in a tetrafluoroethylene cover 0.13 millimeter
(0.005 inch) thick that had a removal tab 5.08 centimeters (2 inches) long of the
same material. The slides were removed from the CF sample canister by grasping

1Na, sodium; H, hydrogen; P, phosphorus; O, oxygen; K, potassium; C1,

chlorine; and EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid.

20-11
the removal tab and pulling the slide out of the canister. Every two slides removed
from the canister exposed a return storage space in the canister for two electro-
phoresis columns. In addition to the slides to be processed, four "control" slides
with sample material were stowed in spaces on the circumference of the sample
canister. Two control slides contained lymphocytes and two contained kidney cells.
These "control" slides were designed to assess the effects of the flight environment
on the viable sample materials; they were returned to Earth without processing.

Each sample slide was numbered to correspond to the appropriate column.

The slides were removed from the canister and inserted into the experiment column
electrode (cathode) chamber assembly for processing in numerical order. Each
slide was discarded together with the electrode chamber assemblies after each elec-
trophoresis column was frozen for return. The entire isotachophoresis column was
discarded after processing.

RESULTS

The EU, the CF, and the data collection assembly met the required objectives
with satisfactory experimental results. The fluid connect lines (located in the elec-
trode housings) of some of the columns were clogged during assembly. Without a
fluid washout of the electrode housing, chemical and gas products of electrolysis
accumulated in the electrode region. This accumulation triggered changes in the
buffer which were manifested as column voltage fluctuations and pH changes in the
column fluid. These anomalies were seen in columns 2, 5, and 6. Operation of the
remaining columns appeared normal.
In the laboratory, the frozen buffer containing the processed samples was
separated from the glass electrophoresis columns. These frozen ice columns were
sliced into sections (5 millimeters in width) for processing by each Co-Investigator.
The results of the analyses available to date are presented in the following sections.

Fixed Red Blood Cells

The fixed red blood cells were selected as a standard, or control. The pho-
tographic record clearly demonstrates separation of the sharp bands of cells in col-
umn 1. The volume of cells loaded in the sample slide was 5.22 × 106 rabbit cells/
0.06 ml, 3.44 × 106human cells/0.06 ml, and 7.26 × 106horse cells/0.06 ml. The
volume of the sample slide was 0.06 milliliter for an electrophoresis slide. The
bands appeared to spread during separation. Histograms have been completed
showing less than 43-percent recovery of cells in column 1 and a 54-percent re-
covery of cells in column 5 with a 60-minute operation time. To identify specific
eeUs, mobility data for column 1 (fig. 20-7) were collected using microelectropho-
resis techniques. The highest mobility was shown by horse cells, the next highest
by human cells, and the lowest by rabbit cells.

20-12
 The pH of column 1 was 7.2; however, column 5 had a pH range of 6.0 to
9.2. This condition, together with an unexplained dispersion of the bands, was
responsible for the lack of distinct bands in column 5. Mobility data for column 5
(fig. 20-8) indicate the occurrence of cellular separation, but not to the concentra-
tion necessary to show distinct bands in the photographs. The pH problems were
induced by the fluid line blockage already discussed.

In column 5, two specific instances of sudden disruption of boundaries can

be seen in the flight photographs (figs. 20-9 to 20-12). These dispersions occurred
between the time of the photographs shown in figures 20-9 and 20-10 and between
the time of the photographs shown in figures 20-11 and 20-12. The disruptions
probably were caused by random motion of the apparatus or perhaps of the
spacecraft.

Human Lymphocytes
Approximately 1.5 X 107human lymphocyte cells were loaded into the 0.06-
milliliter volume of the sample slide. Migration of the cells was not detected in either
column. In column 2, current was established for less than 3 minutes because of
fluid line blockage, which resulted in the formation of gaseous products around the
electrodes. These gas bubbles blocked current and prevented operation of the ex-
periment. In addition, the cell viability was only 6 percent. No explanation can be
found for this observation, as the pH of the column fluid varied from 6.69 to 6.85.

In column 6, current existed for approximately 30 minutes. In this case, the

electrode housings were returned, and a failure analysis confirmed that the right
electrode chamber fluid lines were blocked. This condition resulted in an acid pH
throughout the column. The pH of the fluid in column 6 was 2.54 on the left end,
2.28 in the center, and 2.21 on the right end. As would be expected, the viability
of the lymphocytes was only 1 percent.

Human Kidney Cells

In the human kidney cell experiments, approximately 2.0 × 106 cells were
loaded into the sample slide. Only column 3 was electrophoresed in orbit. Analysis
showed that the electrophoretic separation proceeded throughout the entire column
(fig. 20-13). The experiment was active for approximately 75 minutes. All the
cells returned were viable. The pH was 7.45 _+0.40. All returned samples were
planted on culture media on August 28, 1975, and showed attachment characteristic
of growing cell cultures. Controls were planted 1 day later. However, after ap-
proximately 1 month, only sample slices 11, 13, 15, and 17 were capable of produc-
ing an assayable product. The lack of assayable byproducts from the other slices
• has not been explained. The only product assayed to date has been UK. Because
the number of cells differs for each sample, an assay was performed on September
26, 1975, to determine the number of CTA units and the number of UK units per
100 cells being produced (table 20-I). These data show that the amount of UK pro-
duced per 100 cells is higher than the amount seen in the mixed culture controls.
Assays for other products of interest from these same cells are in progress.

20-13
 Isotachophoresis

Isotachophoresis column 4 was processed using rabbit and human formalin-

fixed red blood cells. The concentration of these cells, when loaded, was the same
as that for columns 1 and 5. The volume of live red blood cells loaded into the sam-
ple slide (number 8) was provided in the following manner. Human and rabbit cells
were prepared at a 40-percent hematocrit each. Equal volumes of each concentra-
tion were loaded into the sample slide. The final concentration was 450× 106cells/
0.098 ml. The isotachophoresis sample slides had a slightly larger volume (0.098
milliliter) than that of the electrophoresis slides (0.06 milliliter).

Both of the isotachophoresis experiments were essentially successful. Un-

fortunately, however, full expectations were not realized. Thus, there is only
evidence of frontal boundaries, but not of any separation or details of the rear
boundaries. In retrospect, the duration of the run, 45 minutes, was insufficient to
bring the isotachophoretic bands into full view. The 45-minute duration was based
on the calculated and experimentally observed temperature rise in ground-based
experiments. A better photographic record might have provided some indications
of possible emergence of the rear boundary or the expected intercompartmental
boundaries in the fresh cell sample.

The predicted overall migration rate was 1 ram/rain for both samples. The
last four frames of the fixed cells have confirmed this migration rate, but the over-
all migration rate appears to be substantially lower than expected (0.68 ram/rain).
With the fresh cells, the migration rate was still lower, ranging from 0.55 to 0.64
ram/rain depending on mode of calculation. Interpretation of these mobility differ-
ences is made difficult by several possible contributing factors such as possible
variation in time, power, and starting position.

CONCLUSIONS

With the successful separation of the standard particles (fixed red blood
cells) and the human kidney cells, it has been shown that electrophoresis can be
performed under zero-g conditions. The absence of significant electro-osmosis,
the loading and returning of a sterile system, the capture of the resulting separa-
tion, and the preservation of the viable cells in orbit and during the subsequent
return represents many "firsts" for space electrophoresis. In addition, the newer
methods of separation represented by the isotachophoresis runs proved the feasi-
bility of conducting large-particle processing by this method. The red blood cells
in both columns demonstrated sharp front boundaries indicative of successful iso-
tachophoresis. However, the experiment was not totally successful because the
fluid lines in someof the columns were blocked. Although each column was thor-
oughly tested before even being considered for flight, the fluid lines could not be
checked without contaminating the encased sterile buffer.

Significant steps have been made toward future plans for providing a separa-
tion facility in orbit for space-processing experiments. Important areas necessary
for future operations were considered in the Electrophoresis Technology Experiment.

20-14
 In both zonal electrophoresis columns (1 and 5), sharpness of boundaries
deteriorated with time, as evident from the photographic record. In column 5, two
specific instances of sudden disruption of boundaries can be pinpointed.

Operating time of the two isotachophoresis experiments was insufficient to

permit visualization of rear or intercompartmental boundaries. Nevertheless, the
experiments show the great advantage of isotachophoresis in displaying the sharp-
ness of boundaries and the concentration of the migrating zones. Thus, the main
potential advantage of isotachophoresis is the quantity of sample it may fractionate
within comparable instruments. With cel}s, the future of isotachophoresis depends
on finding proper spacers; however, with other substances, the use of a zero-g
environment for large-scale fractionation can be foreseen.

SUMMARY

The basic objectives of the Electrophoresis Technology Experiment were to

conduct engineering and operational tests of a space-rated static electrophoresis
separation apparatus and to further current research efforts through separation of
similar cellular species. In addition, special effort was made to improve existing
concepts in several areas. A method was needed that would allow for the precise
application of the sample without affecting the subsequent electrophoresis. This
improvement was accomplished by inserting the sample as a frozen disk. Attempts
were made to separate and return viable lymphocytes and kidney cells. This goal
was accomplished with the kidney cells but not with the lymphocytes. A technique
was needed to demonstrate viable candidate preservation after separation. This
preservation was accomplished for the firsttime in space by using a thermoelectric
module to freeze the sample at a prescribed rate after separation was completed.
The experiment allowed, therefore, the testing and evaluation of many important
aspects related to space-flight electrophoresis. In almost all cases, the concepts
developed were proven operationally or shown to offer significant improvements
over past efforts. Of particular interest was the low zeta potential coating. The
minimization of electro-osmosis in this experiment provided a breakthrough sought
since before the Apollo 14 separation attempts.

In summary, this experiment provided a significant step forward in the de-

velopment of a biological processing facility in space. All areas of concern --i.e.,
sample preservation, sample collection and return, biocompatible systems, and
sterile operating environment m were considered in this experiment. The accom-
plishments were significant and encouraging. The performance of electrophoretic
separations in space without sedimentation and heat convective-mixing problems
has been demonstrated. The isotachophoresis of large living biological particles
can be achieved. Scientists limited by Earth gravity problems can now use space-
flight operations in the processing of particles that are difficult to separate or purify
on Earth.

20-15
 REFERENCES

Shaw, Duncan J.: Electrophoresis. Academic Press (New York), 1969.

Snyder, R. S.: Electrophoresis Demonstration on Apollo 16. NASA

TM X-64724, 1972.

20-3. Wiersema, P. H.; Loeb, A. L.; and Overbeek, J. Th. G.: Calculation
of the Electrophoretic Mobility of a Spherical Colloid Particle. J. Colloid
& Interface Sci., vol. 22, no. 1, July 1966, pp. 78-99.

20-4. Seaman, G. V. F.: Electrokinetic Behavior of Red Cells. Red Blood Cell,
Vol. 2, Douglas N. Surgenor, ed., Academic Press (New York), 1975.

20-5. Bier, M.; Hinckley, J. O. N.; and Smolka, A. J. K.: Potential Use of
Isotachophoresis in Space. Protides of the Biological Fluids: 22nd
Colloquium, H. Peeters, ed., Pergamon Press (New York), 1975,
pp. 673-678.

20-6. Donald, D.; Hutchinson, F.; Macleod, T. M.; and Raffle, E. J.: Electro-
phoretic Mobility of Human Lymphocytes --An Investigation of the Tech-
nique of Cytopherometry. J. Immunological Methods, vol. 6, nos. 1
and 2, 1974, pp. 151-156.

20-7. White, Wilfrid F. ; Barlow, Grant H. ; and Mozen, Milton M.: The Isolation
and Characterization of Plasminogen Activators (Urokinase) From Human
Urine. Biochemistry, vol. 5, no. 7, July 1966, pp. 2160-2169.

20-8. Bernik, Maria B. ; and Kwaan, Hau C. : Plasminogen Activator Activity in

Cultures From Human Tissues. An Immunological and Histochemical
Study. J. Clin. Invest., vol. 48, no. 7, Apr. 24, 1969, pp. 1740-1753.

20-16
 TABLE 20-Io- UROKINASE PRODUCTION FROM A SELECTED

POPULATION OF HUMAN KIDNEY CELLS

Slice No. of cells UK activity,a UK units

CTA units per 100 cells

Flight b

11 28 000 90 0.32

13 69 600 535 .77

15 12 000 240 2.00

17 74 000 225 • 30

Control c

B 61 0.28

D 81 .40

aAll activity quenched by urokinase antisera.

b26 days after planting.

c25 days after planting.

20-17
 \

Electric camera

Camera mount

Electrophoresis unit

Figure 20-1.- Electrophoresis unit with camera.

j POWER TIME SELECT(MIN) L

®

CURRENTTEMPSELECT (_) 0
SELECT
HI FREEZE

COLUMNVOLT(DC)
COOL
.rrrr_ ®
COLUMNTEMP(°C)
MODESE_EOCT O_F_L
I1÷111211
TETEMP_°C)
®
Figure 20-2.- Eleetrophoresis unit
_==,SOT^C,_CLOC_ control and display panel.

20-18
 Double
peristaltic pump

Liquid
! reservoir

Phase
separator
Phase

separati __]I "'"'-Oxygen

s

Hydrocjen
adsorber

Hydrogen Oxygen "',

and basic and acid Fluid
productsof productsof systems
electrolysis electrolysis quick-disconnect
fittings

Figure 20-3.- Eleetrophoresis fluid system sehematie.

20-19
 (8)
Sample slide

Electrophoresis column
(O)

.--Absorbent material

t_ Control(4) slide

Vacuum chamber

..... Insert cavity

Figure 20-4.- Cryogenic freezer.

Eledrophoresis column Isotachophoresis column

Figure 20-5.- Eleetrophoresis and isotaehophoresis column assemblies.

20-20
 Cathode Anode r j
I
I

I
Thermistor I

Figure 20-6. - Electrophoresis column

electrical schematic.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
Sample slice

7x103

r I
Mobility, percent
I

11 23 42 35
MorDholoqV Der 100 cells

7
a 17 41 41
9 12 27
Sample slice 10 11 23 66
11 10 34 56
Cell type
Sample
Slice Rabbit Human Horse Figure 20-8. - Mobility and morpho-
logical data from column 5.
Mobility, percent
1 19 22 59
3 11 17 72
4 12 38 50
Morphology per 100 cells
1 17 26 57
3 19 48 33
4 15 31 54

Figure 20-7. - Mobility and morpho-

logical data from column 1.

20-21
 I

Figure 20-9. - Flight photograph of Figure 20-11.- Flight photograph of

electrophoresis column 5 electrophoresis column 5
(AST-26-2182). (AST-26-2186).

.-
Figure 20-10 Flight photograph of Figure 20-12. - Flight photograph of
electrophoresis column 5 showing electrophoresis column 5 showing
disruption of boundaries seen in disruption of boundaries seen in
figure 20-9 (AST-26-2183). figure 20-11 (AST-26-2187).

20-22
 lOOxlO 3

Ill/
I!!/
IIII
i/i/
IIIi
1111
f/I/
iii/
f///
////
ill/
////
ll/l
////
/II/
////
III/
Z/l/ ////
/Ill
//// iiii
"_ 1/11 ////
z/I/
//// ////
_50 - ,/H //// IIII III IIII
IIII r/h
ll/J ////
• -- NH rlz, iii I//Z
/i/# //// III IIII
I/I/ rz/J
///J //// /// ////
l/I/ N/J
NH ///I //// 171 IIII
IIII
//II i/ii ////
I//I rllJ
#/I/ i/]1 //// ///
/// Y/X
IIII IIII
/11t ill# ////
1/11 IIII NIl
//// ///
NIl IIII iiii
//// //"/_ lib III
/// I_//I/_/ Nil
/11/ ill/ ////
//i/ IIII lib till ////
III/ ill/ ////
NIl I/Ij IIII
II// N// I///
_'1// //// ///
/11/ NIl
IIIJ I/I FA
//// ///
III/
/// _/// NH //// //// /// ////
//I/ fill
III/ //// III II// IIII ////
Illl //// III IIII
/111 t/i/ I111 ////
/Ill I/// IIII
/ill fill ////
Ill,,
llll III/ /// ////
rlz# I/// /11/ /Ill ////
IIit III/ ////
I/// tllJ iii/ NIl f/I/ ////
II/I IIII ///
//11 t//j IIII III/ /111 ////
III/ ///
I/// I11t
I/IJ
IIIi
/11/
III/
IIIi
I
t//j
illJ I//I
IIit
iIiJ
1/i/
III

///
III III1_
iiii
NIl 7//,
N/J z//J I///
///

0
7//, I/I/
lib
III/ I/i/
/k// ,//,
I/I
///
fill
/1111
Left 5 10 15 2O 25 Right
Fraction number

Figure 20-13.- Histogram of viable kidney cells for each sample slice in column 3.

20-23
 21. ELECTROPHORESIS
EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENTMA-014
K. Hannigat and H. Wirth a

ABSTRACT

A continuous, free-flow electrophoresis study was conducted during the

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission to investigate and evaluate the increase in sam-
ple flow rate and sample resolution achievable in space. This electrophoresis tech-
nique is one of the most valuable methods to separate and analyze biological parti-
cles, such as living cells, without decreasing their biological activity. Gravity-
induced thermal convection and sedimentation limit the effectiveness of separation
by this method. The electrophoresis equipment was designed for the separation of
four mixtures of biological cells with variable sample flow rates, buffer flow rates,
and electric field gradients. Separation quality was assessed by measuring the
light from a quartz lamp through the electrophoresis channel and on to a photodiode
system.

The preliminary results indicate that all monitored systems operated cor-
rectly during the experiment. The optical system produced a light that was too
bright to discern true cell distributions, but data were received that show a dis-
tribution of separated cells.

INTRODUCTION

The scientific requirements of the Electrophoresis Experiment (EPE) on the

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) flight resulted from a study concerning the ap-
plication of electrophoresis in future biological experiments on Spacelab. That study
examined the possibility of separating vital cells or other biological materials in the
space environment.

To understand the specific function of cells and their membrane systems,

research is needed concerning the problem of separation and characterization of
particles performing individual functions. Of particular importance in studying
cooperative interactions in biological processes is the isolation of the interacting
systems in the most homogeneous and still functioning form. These problems are
not only of a fundamental theoretical interest but are also of practical importance to
elucidate normal and pathological processes in biology.

aMax Planck Institut f_ir Biochemie, Munich.

tprincipal Investigator.

21-1
 The reason for using eleetrophoresis to investigate these problems concerns
the properties of the cell membrane surface, which is the site of many important
biological phenomena. Transformation and differentiation processes are often ac-
companied by changes of the cell surface charge density. Charge density, however,
determines the electrophoretie behavior; i.e., the electrophoretic mobility. There-
fore, electrophoresis is a highly efficient method of separating cells or other bio-
logical particles according to functional criteria. Furthermore, cell electrophoresis
is one of the few physicochemical processes that can be applied to living cells with-
out producing damageor loss of viability.
Because electrophoresis is established as one of the most effective separation
methods used in biological study, it is considered an essential tool for investigation
in space. The expectation was that the separation capability would be increased at
zero-g, resulting in new applications that depend on improved resolution.

The EPEconcept was based on a new electrophoretic principle known as

"carrier- free continuous- deflection electrophoresis" (free- flow electrophoresis).
The technique was developed by K. Hannig at the Max Planck Institut and is pat-
ented in Germany and the United States. By this method (fig. 21-1), the sample to
be separated is introduced continuously into a separation chamber, in which a buffer
solution flows laminarly. An electric field is generated perpendicular to the direc-
tion of flow. Particles having different surface charge densities are deflected
from the flow direction of the buffer by an angle determined by the flow rate and
the electrophoretic mobility of the particles. After leaving the lower end of the
separation chamber, the separated zones can be collected continuously or analyzed
by evaluating the deflection and the density distribution of the fractions.

Because this electrophoresis system is a continuous procedure, it should be

applicable for routine use in solving a variety of separation problems in a future
Spacelab. The EPEwas designed to verify the theoretically expected better and
higher-capacity separations in the free-flow electrophoresis system under zero-g
conditions.

EFFICIENCYOF FREE-FLOWELECTROPHORESIS

The decisive advantages of free-flow electrophoresis result from the principle

of continuous operation in a flowing medium. In contrast to most of the usually ap-
plied foil- or gel-electrophoresis methods, this method does not accomplish stability
by an open-pore carrier medium, but rather permits the medium to flow freely in a
narrow gap. To obtain the necessary stability, the capillary forces at the gap walls
are used. Under one-g conditions, this method succeeds when the gap width is
less than 1.0 millimeter. This width is also sufficient for an undisturbed eleetro-
phoretic migration of larger particles in the electrical field. Unlike the discontinuous
electrophoresis method that is stabilized by porous media, the range of application
of electrophoresis for preparative purposes can be expanded to include bulk-
colloidal mixtures such as suspensions of viruses, bacteria, and cells and their
membrane systems. A further advantage of electrophoresis in flowing medium with
continuous operation is that the samples to be examined can be quickly exchanged
without interrupting the experimental process.

21-2
 The capability of quickly switching to the optimal experimental conditions
combined with a completely automatedoperation makes this electrophoretic principle
applicable to routine analytical separation problems. Thus, it would be possible to
separate as many as 100samples/hr to obtain analytical data concerning the compo-
sition of the samples to be examined.

As in every physical process, the effectiveness of free-flow electrophoresis

is limited by some methodologically determined disturbances. In the use of electro-
phoresis under zero-g conditions, it is necessary to distinguish between effects
caused by gravitation (i .e., sedimentation and thermal convection) and effects in-
dependent of gravitation. Under zero-g conditions, sedimentation and convection
can be eliminated and thus a higher throughput with larger separation chamber
gap dimensions can be obtained.

The resolution of electrophoretic separation is, however, hindered by a

methodologically caused band broadening, which also exists under zero-g condi-
tions. The band-broadening effects result mainly from (1) the Poisseuille velocity
profile of the liquid curtain, (2) the electro-osmotic velocity profile, and (3) the
temperature gradient through the liquid curtain thickness; the temperature gradi-
ent increases with liquid curtain thickness and electric power (fig. 21-2). The
thermal diffusion caused by the extremely short separation times in free-flow elec-
trophoresis can be ruled out.

The extent of the previously mentioned effects on the resulting band broaden-
ing has been theoretically and experimentally examined. The results are reported
in reference 21-1, from which the following remarks were taken.

An analytical Free-Flow Electrophoresis apparatus permitted easy

observation of all these parameters. It could be shown that the
opposing tailing effects of electro-osmosis, and the temperature
gradient to the effect of the velocity profiles can be compensated for
by appropriate adjustment of the chamber wall zeta potential. (The
velocity profile of the liquid curtain flow causes a tailing of the sep-
arated bands in the direction of electrophoretic migration, whereas
the electro-osmotic velocity profile counteracts this effect.) The ex-
periments showed that there are additional broadening effects due to
other not clearly defined parameters. It was observed that the sam-
ple inlet geometry plays a considerable role in band broadening.
The practical relevance of this observation is that band broadening is
reduced if samples are centered in the middle of the liquid curtain.
Furthermore, sample bandwidth should be adjusted to values with
a starting bandwidth of less than half the liquid curtain thickness.
Under such conditions, the bandwidth was reduced so as to approach
theoretical values.

These considerations and the experimental results reveal decisive advantages

of free-flow electrophoresis, as opposed to static systems, regarding obtainable
separation sharpness and sample throughput. However, one limitation occurs if
the method of "isoelectric focusing" or "isotachophoresis" is applied for special
separation problems. Because of the discontinuous buffer systems required (pH or
ion strength gradients), the free-flow system appears to be less suitable.

21-3
 ELECTROPHORESISUNDER ZERO-G CONDITIONS

The eff_ieney of eleetrophoresis under' one-g conditions is limited. Gravity

effects such as he'a_convection, sedimentation, arrd buoyancy limit the applicatibn
with respect to flow rates and resolution. To avoid eon_veetionund'er one-g eondi-
tions, the cross section and dimensions of the electrophoresis separation chamber
must be kept small. (The thickness of the buffer film is nnrmally 0.5 to 1 millimeter. )
Under ze_o-g con'difio'ns, there are the'or_tieally no limits in this respect. However,
one limit is set by the n_'ed for effective removal of the Joule heat, especially when
working with biological m_teria/s. (Depending on environmental conditions., this
limit occurs at _ layer thickness of 5 to 10 m_llimeters .) Considering this limitation,
with a possible tenfold larger buffer film thickness, an increase of up to terrfold in
sample thr'oughput can be achieved because of the lack of convection disturbances.

A simultaneous imp,rovement of Separation sharpness is, h0we_rer ,, not to be

expected. As previously discussed, the factors influencing separation sharpness
in the EPE are esffentially methodological an_l are not dependent on gravitation.
An optimization of s'ep'aration sharpness can be achieved urrder one-g conditions
if the experimental requirements are fulfilled (suitable separation chamber wall
potential arid less ffample throughput).

The significance of applying electrophoresis in the Spa_elab as the p_r_ferred'

separation method for sensitive biological material becomes particularly evident in
eo,_neetion with important biological experiments conducted under zero-g conditions.
The use of electrophor_sis may as'sist in clarifying many phenomena, such as growth,
metabolism, genetics, and immune responses, which occur differently in zero-g
conditions than in one-g conditions. The two main purposes for conducting elec-
trophoretic experiments in space are (1) to armlyze purity arrd to isolate samples
for medical and biological r_seareh, and (2) to develop separation methods for com-
mercial and other applications on a preparative scale.

Many proposals also merit further irr_'estigation. These propo_. _ls concern
the effect of gravity on cell functions arid the ability of cells or whole organisms
to adapt to changes in gravity. One example is the cu, ltivation of cel'ls, the inves-
tigation of their synthesis efficiency, arid their contact inhibition without gravity.
Assuming that it is p_ssible to isolate highly pu'rified cell pop_lations grDwn under
zero-g conditions, the state of weightlessness will offer an excellent opportunity
to examine the pherromena of cell differentiation arid the exchange of information
between diffe_gnt cells.

Some of the r_e_-,essary ol_mr_ation_l eo_ditioms can be tesled only with complete
absence of s edinten_ation. The clarification of these phenomena is not or_fy of great
seientifie intel, est but also of practical significance for the regulation of detailed
biological processes.

The import_mee of new findings of th_s kind for medicine can be anticipated.
Thege irrvestigafior_s require _ s'epa'ration method tha4 aIlows s'epmmtion of the car-
riers of specific syntheses or of the s,._nthesis p-r,0ducts thern_eI_zes. This p_rpese
may be fulfilled in _pseelab by using eIeetrophoretic separation methods. However,
the applieability of space eleetrophore_is for the Froduction of biological material

21-4
for commercial purposes eannot yet be predicted. At this point, researchers are
just learning how electrophoresis in space is to be used. The EPEcan therefore be
essentially regarded as a pilot experiment.

The main purposes of EPEand the problems to be clarified were as follows.

1. Applicability of eleetrophoresis in space

2. Performance of separation experiments with greater throughput

3. Investigation of temperature and velocity effects with a chamber of

larger gap width

4. Investigation of separation capability in zero-g conditions

5. Proof of the possibility of separating preparative quantities of living cells

6. Determination of necessary modifications in the construction of the appa-

ratus for use in space

METHODSAND PROCEDURES

Equipment Design
The design goal for the EPEapparatus (fig. 21-3) was to develop experimental
equipment meeting the ASTP spacecraft requirements. The apparatus functions
automatically, requiring minimal crew intervention. Known biological samples were
used and it was not necessary to collect the separated biomaterial fractions. An
optoeleetronic analysis of the separation was performed. A preparative separation
was not used. A quantitative evaluation (by use of an optical system) is sufficient
to determine the applicability of the method and to study the sharpness of separation.

The separation chamber is the main part of the apparatus. It consists of two
cooling plates that are adjusted to be exactly parallel to supply laminar flow and
form a gap of approximately a 28- by 3.8-millimeter cross section. Along the sides,
electrodes (180 millimeters long) provide the electric field perpendicular to the cell
buffer flow. The electrodes are separated from the cell buffer by ion-exchange
membranes. The electrodes are located in channels purged by the electrode buffer
to remove the hydrogen and oxygen (H 2 and O 2) gases generated by the electrolytic
processes. The gases are separated from the fluid and absorbed by means of catal-
ysis. The fluid flow is kept constant by controlled pumping at a rate sufficient to
transport the total volume of gas generated. The electrode buffer is separated from
the eell buffer, which has a lower concentration, by the two ion-exchange diaphragms.

The separation buffer flow was achieved by means of a peristaltic pump. Be-
fore starting the experiment, the buffer was pumped through the heat exchanger,
which is in eontact with a eold plate of the spacecraft, and cooled to the appropriate

21-5
operation temperature of 278 _+3 K (5° + 3° C). The buffer leaves the storage con-
tainer and enters the cell somewhat upstream of the sample inlet to achieve a con-
stant laminar flow in the cell parallel to the electrodes. After having passed the
separation chamber, the mixture of sample and cell buffer entered the waste con-
tainer, which is combined with the storage container but separated by a membrane.
The angle of deflection for a particular particle was determined by the separation
buffer flow rate and the field gradient. The program included two flow rates for
each sample so that the influence of buffer velocity could be studied.

The sample containers were designed so that no air entered the circuit and
none of the samples were split when the containers were inserted into the equip-
ment. The containers have a volume of 2 milliliters, consist of a metal tube with
handling knob, and are totally gold plated. On the upper end, they are closed by
a pressure exchange membrane and sealing. The lower end has a bore connected
to a needle with a valve that is opened by inserting the container into the sample
inlet closed by a rubber sealing.

The sample containers were stored in a freezer at 273 to 278 K (0° to +5° C).
For experimental operation, they were removed from the freezer and inserted into
the equipment so that the sample flow entered the buffer flow. This flow was di-
rected by a peristaltic pump similar to that of the buffer flow circuit.

The separation was evaluated by optoelectronic methods. By this method, a

narrow slit across the downstream end of the separation chamber, parallel to the
electric field, is illuminated. The light passes through the quartz plates of the sep-
aration chamber and is attenuated as a function of the density of the biomaterial dis-
tribution. On the other side of the chamber, the light intensity, related to the cell
density, is measured with a photodiode array.

Experiment Sequencing

The experiment equipment was programed and controlled by electronic

units that performed the following functions.
1. Control of the flow rates; i.e., motor speeds for driving the pumps

2. Power supply

3. Program sequencing, which provided the program of the experiment

operations and was triggered by the parameters of the experiment
4. Thermoelectric temperature control
5. Self-eheck

6. Data acquisition, evaluation, and processing

7. Data recording
8. Switching and displaying of experiment operations and experiment states

21-6
 The main purpose of the program sequencer was to operate the experiment
automatically as much as possible, thereby reducing erewmember participation.
The program sequencer was designed to perform the following functions (fig. 21-4).

1. Timing of functions such as precooling or purging

2. Generating nominal values for voltage and flow rates according to the
sequence step

3. Collecting and processing GO/NO GOinformation from experiment

subsystems

4. Switching subunits "on" or "off" according to a fixed test program

5. Providing time, frequency, and voltage references

6. Initiating and performing an in-flight self-check program

All experimental data were recorded in digital form by two tape recorders that were
integrated into the experiment. Both recorded digital data at a bit rate of 2.5
kilobits/see.

Cell Sample Preparation

The following samples were prepared for the electrophoresis experiment.

1. Rat bone marrow cells

2. Mixture of human and rabbit erythrocytes

3. Rat spleen cells

4. Rat lymph node cells with the addition of human erythrocytes as markers
(Sample 4 was the only frozen sample.)

With the exception of sample 2 (erythrocytes), all samples were freshly prepared
on July 14, 1975, 15 to 20 hours before lift-off. They were stored at 277 K (4 ° C)
for approximately 45 hours before the start of the experiment. Sample 2 (erythro-
cytes) had been prepared 2 weeks in advanee at the Max Planck Institut ffir
Biochemie in Munich, and the cells were preserved by fixation in 2 percent
glutaraldehyde. The preparation of cells from different lymphatic organs was accom-
plished under sterile conditions (autoclaved material, clean bench) at 277 K (4 ° C)
in the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) laboratory.

Bone marrow cells of rats (Wistar) were prepared, and cells were flushed
out of the bones with Puck TC solution combined with 2.5 percent bovine serum
albumin (33 percent) by using a syringe. A single-cell suspension was prepared
by passing the cells several times through a plastic syringe without a needle. The
cells were then washed twice (150 grams, i0 minutes) with the same buffer and
finally resuspended in ampholine buffer.

21-7
 Cells from spleen and lymph nodes of the rats were prepared by teasing the
organs in Puck TC solution at 277 K (4° C) with injection needles. Cells were
washed twice with the same solution (150 grams, 10 minutes), filtered through
cotton wool, and resuspended in ampholine buffer.

For sterile tests, cell suspensions and buffer solution were spread on blood-
agar dishes and incubated for 5 hours at 301 K (28 ° C). This test, as well as light
microscopical control, showed no bacterial contamination of cell suspensions and
buffer solutions. The viability of the prepared cells (tested with trypan-blue
exclusion test) was more than 90 percent in each sample.

All containers of the flight unit were sterilized with formaldehyde (2.5 per-
cent) and washed five times with 20 milliliters of sterile ampholine buffer. A
special apparatus for filling the sample containers was sterilized in the same way.
At 4 days before Apollo lift-off, the special "deep freezing container" was filled
with a 0.8-milliliter mixture of rat lymph node cells (25 X 106 cells/ml) and human

erythrocytes (30 X 106 cells/ml) and kept in liquid nitrogen. At 14 hours before
Apollo lift-off, the other three sample containers were filled with 1.4 milliliters of
the following preparations.

1. A mixture of fixed human erythrocytes (30 × 106 cells/ml) and fixed

rabbit erythrocytes (50 X 106 cells/ml)

2. Native bone marrow cells of the rat (80 X 106 cells/ml)

3. Native spleen cells of the rat (80 X 106 cells/ml)

The exact composition of all buffer systems used for cell preparation and for electro-
phoretie separation is shown in table 21-I.

RESULTS

The experiment began on schedule on July 16, 1975, at 32:40 ground elapsed
time (GET) and lasted for one complete Earth orbit until 34:25 GET. Radio commu,
nication from the Apollo spacecraft confirmed that, according to the signal lamps,
all functions were operating properly.

A_alysis of the Tapes

The first playback took place at the Max Planck Institut with the aid of a so-
called "unit tester." All housekeeping data carrespond to the expected course
except fc_r the chamber temperalure, which for unknown reasons was indicated as
being too high. Nevertheless, the measurements were within the tolerable range
far biological material.

21-8
 The scientific data re,vealed that the light for Uae optical deteation of the sep-
aration must have been too bright. The lamp cheek sh_we.d excessive lighting
resulting in a saturation of the pho.todiades in the op.tieal detection system. The
quantitative estimate of error revealed that the light must have been 42 percent too
bright, although the lamp cheek indicated normal functioning during the preinstal-
lation cheek. For this reason, only abs,orp.tians above 30 percent were registered.
This amount corresponds to the maximum expected absorption of a separated
fraation zone.

In the entire separation process, no "true" cell distribution curve was ob-
tained. The baseline of registration in all cases was above the maximum absorp-
tion obtained in the peaks. Because of this finding, an analysis of the experiment
seemed at first to be impossible. Howcav, er, during the stati_1_ary phase of the
separation (after adjustment to constant exlaerimental conditions), i .e., du_ng
90-second separation time, irregularly occurring pulses (called "events") were
recorded. This patter_a refl_cte.d the expected .course _f t_e separation eurv, es
(fig. 21-5). These pul&es seemed ,to be caused by cell aggregatian in the region
of the sep_rate_d bands. This assumption was confirmed in the fallowing tw, o ways.

1. An aliquot of the sample used in the ASTP flight was separated under the
same comdiNons on mission day at KSC in an i_lentieal aplaaratns under one-g con-
ditians (eleata-ophoresis engineering model (EM) with a 0.7-millimeter buffer film
thickness). In addition to the expected eell distribution curves (fig. 21-5), anal-
ysis of this undisturbed tape showed stray pulses caused by cell aggregation that
had a greater absorption. The accumulation at the same location (frequ_ency distri-
bution of the events) during a separation time of approximately 2 minutes yielded
distribution curves similar to normal separation curves (fig. 21-5).

2. To check this finding and to obtain a reliable ir_terpa-etati_n, such s_elaara-

tions were repeated mamy times with the EM apparatus, and each expe_rjment w_as
performed and e_raluated with normal and increased lighting. It w_as c]_early estab-
lished that only the agaly_s of the periodically oP_urring cell aggregations .at the
measur_ag lo_ation was rep_esenttati_e of the a_tual cell distribution. The diffiQult
evaluafkm amd eoordinatit!n of in_linact information was perlormed with the aid_f_a
data-processing computer.

Based on these studies, assertions can be made regarding the following

samples.

1. Bone marrow cells: Although only a few events (73) could be analyzed
because of the tendency of these cells to form no aggregations, the dis.tribution
curye is that of an excellent separation.

2. M_xture of human arid rabbit e2ythrocytes: B.ec.ause of t_e wgak _te_dartcy

of th_se fixed cells to form aggregations, insufficJ.ent info_.mation wJas _v.ailable for
campulaJgon.

3. Spleen cells: The best result was ob.tained with this sample. The amount
of information (358 events) was sufficient to identify fine de.tails of the sep, ar,_.tion.
The separation in erythrocyte peak can sometimes be indicated in good separntions
under normal one-g conditions as well. This finding indicates an essentially g.o.od
separation sharpness under zero-g eondi.tions.

21-9
 4. Lymph node cells with the addition of human erythroeytes (frozen
sample): A large number of events (549) were detected. A good separation effect,
similar to sample 3, was inferred here as well as under zero-g conditions.

Postflight Examination

Postflight examination of the flight unit, which took place in Munich, yielded
the following information.
1. All housekeeping data were within the tolerance range.
2. The buffer and sample amounts corresponded to the required specifica-
tion according to the volume measurements carried out.

3. Buffer samples collected in the container revealed no extraordinary bac-

terial contamination despite the long storage period. Microscopic investigation for
the presence of cell particles in the separation buffer (collection container) was
positive.
4. The expected remainder of the cell suspension, more than 3 months old,
was found in the examined sample containers. However, the gold-plated containers
revealed unexpected corrosion.
5. All buffer tube systems were intact and penetrable. The pump systems
were still fully operational.
This information clearly reveals that the course of buffer and sample and the
electronic system must have operated accurately. Surprisingly, the error in the
optical detection system shown by the tape (saturation of the photodiodes) was at
first not identifiable. Both the current and the voltage of the lamp were normal.
By contrast, the light intensity measured by the diode array was, as expected, too
low, because of turbidity. The cause for this phenomenon can be considered as
either a fault in the electrical contact arising during the flight or an increase in
lamp helix temperature arising under zero-g conditions. The latter could be ex-
plained by the absence of thermal convection in the gas-filled tube.

SUMMARY

The applicability of free-flow electrophoresis under zero-g conditions of the

space flight was confirmed. The technical problems arising from the special envi-
ronmental conditions in a Spacelab can be controlled. This observation applies to
the technical concept of the EPEapparatus as well as the manual operation by crew-
members. In particular, it was demonstrated that the buffer flow systems operated
despite the more difficult conditions imposed by a closed system. The effective re-
moval of gases from the electrode buffer (electrolytic products) by the measures
used was a necessary part of this experiment.

21-10
 In a separation chamber of large cross section, the temperature conditions
required for biological material could be fulfilled. The same applies for the cor-
rect laminar buffer flow.

A sample throughput greater than tenfold was achieved by the expansion of

the separation chamber cross section possible in space flight and with otherwise
similar chamber dimensions. (In the fast sequence (fig. 21-4, step 1), 7 × 106
cells/min were separated.) Despite the error that occurred in the optical detection
system, it was demonstrated that the separation sharpness corresponded at least to
that of analytical separations under one-g conditions. Whether an improved sepa-
ration sharpness is possible with a fivefold decreased sample insertion rate (fig.
21-4, steps 2 and 3), in contrast to one-g conditions, could not be determined be-
cause of the reduced source of information (sensitivity) caused by the lamp error.
This is of little importance because such measurements can also be condueted under
one-g conditions, as already shown. Also, the separation sharpness depends on
other influences as well (e. g., zeta potential on the wall).

The possibility of separating living cells under zero-g conditions was demon-
strated. The cell aggregations that formed in the cell suspensions need not corre-
spond to a decrease in cell viability.

REFERENCE

21-1. Hannig, K.; Wirth, H. ; Neyer, B.; and Zeilter, K.: Theoretical and Experi-
mental Investigations of the Influence of Mechanical and Electrokinetic Vari-
ables on the Efficiency of the Method. Z. Physiol. Chem., vol. 356, Aug.
1975, pp. 1209-1223.

21-11
 TABLE 21-I.- BUFFER SOLUTIONSa

Description Electrode Chamber Ampholine

buffer buffer buffer

Substance, g/liter
Triethanolamine ......... 5.16 1.71
Potassium acetate ........ 0.90 0.30 0.61
Glucose ............. 0.90 14.61
Sucrose ............. 7.88
Calcium acetate ......... 0.033 0.05
Magnesium acetate ........ O. 46
Glycine ............. 21.55
Ampholine (pH 3.5 to 10) .... --w 20 000

Characteristic

Conductivity, _tmho ....... 25OO 900 900

Osmolarity, mOsmol ....... _300 _300
pH ............... 7.2 7.2 7.2

aBuffer solutions mixed with distilled water.

21-12
 Buffer

1', I
L Buffer flow Electrophoreticmigration

............ -_ ....... Sample

I
Buffer curtain velocityprofile

I I -o
v (-)
Electro-osmotic velocity profile

©
nnmmnnnmtnr II
(-)
• _ Fractions
buffer 1
Temperaturegradient

Figure 21-1.- Illustration of the prin- Figure 21-2.- Band-broadening effects

ciple of free-flow electrophoresis. in free-flow eleetrophoresis.

21-13
 L Ill

..... D

®
....

}® M = membrane

','i'i'i" I
J

Figure 21-3.- Functional diagram of experimental setup. Buffer system: (1) cell,
(2) cell buffer, waste container, (3) pipe pump, motor, pipe. Sample system:
(4) sample container (exchangeable), (5) separation membrane, (6) pipe-pump,
motor. Electrode wash system: (7) electrode chamber, (8) electrode, (9) dia-
phragm (membrane), (i0) phase-separation O 2 + H 2 (catalytic burner), (11)
pump, motor, (12) electrode buffer container. Cell cooling system: (13) cell
cooling tank, (14) Peltier cooling tank, (15) pump, motor. Freezer system:
(16) samples container, (17) Peltier cooling unit, (18) heat radiation plate.

21-14
Buffer flow rate
/
.275cm31sec
I I
•185 cm3/sec F
0 cm31secL

5 cm3/hr /
Sampleflow rate
1 cm3/hr I
0 cm31hr-
[
Electrical field
60 V/cmF
I
40 V/cm F
0 V/cm/
!
Taperecorder
o iL I
Halogen lamp
o iL_l I
I I I I
!
I I
200 300 400 550 700
-, _ ,_,,_--_*_---__ .
Start Prerun Step ] Step 2 Step 3 Postrun Standby
Time, sec

Figure 21-4.- Eleetrophoresis experiment sequenee.

21-15
 Bone marrow

Bonemarrow
i i i i

Spleen rue
c?,,
"iiiii

Q_
0

Spleen
E

== - True cell l_llr_:_lllll liiiililiiiiiii

I 1 I

_-'_ population,
_[I] ........... J , , II_:_lllllllllli_;,
,
Lymph node - human erythrocytes

Lymph node - h

I I I I

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 0 lO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 i00 110 120 130

Channel numbers Channelnumbers

(a) Zero-g conditions. (b) One-g conditions.

Figure 21-5.- Sample separation under zero-g and one-g eonditions.

21-16
 22. MULTIPURPOSE ELECTRIC FURNACE

EXPERIMENT MA-010

A. Boese,at j. MeHugh,b and R. Seidensticker b

ABSTRACT

Experiments on solidificafion, crystal growth, and other processes involving

phase changes in various type materials were performed in the multipurpose electric
furnace developed for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Phase changes were conduct-
ed at elevated temperatures (as high as 1423 K (1150 ° C)) in systems comprising
selected combinations of solid, liquid, and vapor phases. Because of the near-
zero-g environment aboard the spacecraft, the liquid and vapor phases were
essentially quiescent, and phases of different density had little or no tendency to
separate.

INTRODUCTION

The Multipurpose Electric Furnace Experiment facility for the Apollo-Soyuz

Tesf Prolect (ASTP) wa_ b_sed on _ similar furnace (denoted M-518) that was oper-
ated onboaTd the Skylab. The furnace w_as used to heat and cool material samples
in space a_d thereby take advantage of the lack of thermal convection and sedimen-
tation during the liquid or gaseous phase of the material. Seven experiments in
solidification arid crystal growth from vapor or melts were performed: Surface-
Tension-lnduced Convection (MA-041), Monotectic and Syntectic Alloys (MA-044),
Interface Markings in Crystals (MA-060), Zero-g Processing of Magnets (MA-070),
Crystal Growth From the Vapor Phase (MA-085), Halide Eutectic Growth (MA-131),
and Multiple Material Melting (MA-150). These experiments are described in sec-
tions 23 to 29, respectively.

The n_tivating concept for the MA-010 experiment was that, at the present
stage of the space-processing progr_n, there are many useful preliminary space
experiments that can be performed simply by applying prescribed heating and cool-
ing programs ar_d/oT known temperature distributions to selected experimental sam-
ples of materials. For e_smple, the simple process of growing a Bridgman crystal
of a pure metal by directional solidification becomes an interesting new experiment

aNASA George C. Marshall Space Fliwht Center.

bwestinghouse Research Laboratories, Pittsburgh, Pa.

#Principal Investig-ator.

22-1
in space because convective heat and mass transport will be largely suppressed in
the melt. Many other similar examples exist.

The guiding design requirement for the multipurpose electric furnace system
was to produce an apparatus that provided the widest possible flexibility in apply-
ing predetermined temperature distributions and temperature/time sequences within
the constraints imposed by existing interfaces. Although the Skylab multipurpose
furnace met all expectations of performance and reliability, it was apparent that im-
provement in function could be obtained with some specific modifications for ASTP.
The system consisted of three essential parts: the furnace, a programmable elec-
tronic temperature controller that provided the desired temperatures, and a helium
rapid cooldown system (fig. 22-1).

SYSTEMDEVELOPMENT

Furnace

The design of the ASTP multipurpose furnace was prompted by two major
considerations: the need for higher operating temperatures and the desire for re-
duced power requirements. The variety of materials experiments proposed for the
ASTP mission required temperatures in excess of the approximately 1273K (1000° C)
limit of the Skylab system. Furthermore, the reduced heat dissipation capability of
the ASTP vehicles dictated that these higher temperatures be obtained with no in-
crease in power requirements.

Experience with the Skylab furnace facility indicated that somewhat higher
temperature operation would be possible without any modification; however, the
power requirements would be excessive. Therefore, the initial effort of the rede-
sign was to reduce the intrinsic heat loss. The predicted performance of the rede-
signed system was sufficiently encouraging that even higher temperature operation
appeared feasible if it were compatible with the furnace materials, especially the
heating elements. Accordingly, the high-temperature components of the furnace
were carefully evaluated and, where necessary, materials were changed or assem-
bly techniques modified to provide reliable operation.

Analysis of the Skylab furnace indicated that one significant source of heat
loss was the "piping" of radiation between the heat shields. This loss could be re-
duced by providing a "mitered" closure of the radiation shields at both the cold and
hot ends of the furnace. This type of construction would, in essence, provide a
"nested can" shield configuration in which radiation leaks would occur only through
the necessary clearance gaps in the shields. The efficiency of the shield system
was also inereased by using two interstitial shields of 0.0127-millimeter (0.0005
inch) thick molybdenum foil between adjacent main shields.

Conductive heat loss through the heat leveler support tubes was also reduced.
In the Skylab system, the heat leveler assembly was mechanically supported by
three stainless steel (Type 310) gradient tubes that had outside diameters of 2. 223
centimeters (0. 875 inch) and walls that were 0.040 centimeter (0.016 inch) thick.
These tubes had a combined thermal conductance of approximately 0.15 W-cm/K,

22-2
which would result in a conductive loss of approximately 21 watts with a furnace
temperature of 1423 K (1150 ° C). In the modified furnace, the wall thickness of
the support tubes was cut to 0.020 centimeter (0.008 inch), which would reduce
the loss by half.

The design target maximum temperature of 1423 K (1150 ° C) for the heat
leveler necessitated a reexamination of the heater elements. The first character-
istic considered was the specific loading of the heater wires. This parameter con-
trols the temperature difference between the wire and the workpiece; e.g., the
graphite heat leveler. If the loading is too large, then the heater wire may be forced
to run too hot in order to transfer the requisite power to the work. Several varia-
tions of heater design, including single and multiple ribbon heaters, were investi-
gated. It was found, however, that the double, noninductive winding used for the
Skylab furnace was nearly optimum when the additional constraint of heater resist-
ance was imposed. The specific loading of approximately 1 W/era 2 would impose a
wire temperature only approximately 50 K (50 ° C) greater than the heat leveler
temperature.

The next factor investigated was the suitability of Kanthal A-1 as heater
material. Although this material is suitable for use to 1598 K (1325 ° C) in air, it is
not recommended for use in vacuum at temperatures over 1273 K (1000 ° C). This
warning is based on the rapid evaporation of a component from the alloy and was
verified by tests performed on bare wires in ultrahigh vacuum. Sample filaments
burned out after 2 hours or less at a surface temperature of 1473 K (1200 ° C). The
heater winding, however, is not a bare wire operating in ultrahigh vacuum.

A second test was performed with a Kanthal A-1 heater wound on a salvaged
Skylab heater form. In this configuration, the wire is completely surrounded by
high-purity alumina. In the test facility, this heater form was filled with a graphite
block to simulate the heat leveler and heavily insulated with Fiberfrax to reduce
heat losses. After 144 hours of operation, the windings were still operating; how-
ever, the heater resistances had changed considerably. Examination of the disas-
sembled unit revealed that evaporation of a volatile component had occurred and the
wire was seriously degraded.

A further modification of the configuration was considered, namely embedding

the heater wires in high-purity alumina cement. The life test was then repeated.
The Kanthal was wound on the heater form and fired in air at 1273 K (1000 ° C) to
form a surface oxide. A slurry of alumina powder was applied and air dried, and
the heater form was then fired at 1273 K (1000 ° C). Finally, the test setup was re-
assembled. After 100 hours of operation at approximately 1473 K (1200 ° C), the
heater resistances had changed by only 1.3 percent. Because the test time was
roughly I0 times longer than the anticipated operating requirements, this design
was adopted for incorporation in the prototype furnace.

Coincident with the requirement for higher temperature operation of the mod-
ified furnace, it became necessary to evaluate the higher temperature suitability of
the structural materials used in the Skylab furnace design. It was immediately
obvious that the only portion of the design that might be doubtful was that part of
the structure in close thermal proximity to the heating element. Furthermore, it
was clear that the limiting condition was that of the combined effects of graphite,

22-3
alumina, and stainless steel as they exist at higher temperature in the multipurpose
furnace atmosphere and pressure environment. In the Skylab furnace design, these
materials are in direct physical contact.

To evaluate the limiting of this materials combination, a series of compatibility

tests was carried out under conditions that approximated the multipurpose furnace
environment. Alumina was promptly shown to be inert in these conditions at the
intended temperature. The margin of safe temperature for the graphite-stainless
steel combination, however, was found to be very small. The intended maximum
design temperature for graphite and stainless steel is 1423 K (1150 ° C) in the modi-
fied design. The tests indicated that this materials combination exhibited no harm-
ful degradation at 1498 K (1225 ° C) but degraded seriously at 1523 K (1250 ° C).
Thus, a furnace overtemperature of approximately 75 K (75 ° C) would be allowable
insofar as graphite and stainless steel reaction is a concern. Although a margin of
that value is probably adequate, it was desirable to provide a better choice of
materials.

As a consequence, nickel was proposed as a replacement for the stainless

steel, and the graphite and nickel combination was evaluated. This combination
exhibited no harmful degradation even at 1560 K (1287 ° C), and it was deemed un-
necessary to extend the evaluation to higher temperatures. The conclusion was that
the graphite-nickel-alumina combination was safe to at least 1560 K (1287 ° C) and
that the resulting overtemperature margin of 137 K (137 ° C) was more than adequate.
The stainless steel was thus replaced with nickel in the temperature-critical areas
in the modified multipurpose furnace.

A predictable consequence of increased multipurpose furnace temperature is

increasingly reduced thermocouple electrical isolation resistance. This occurrence
is a natural property of the magnesia insulation in the prefabricated swaged
thermocouples and has the effect of reducing the resistance between the Chromel-
Alumel wires and the Inconel sheaths, which, in the Skylab furnace, were elec-
trically grounded to the furnace structure. This effect was acceptable at the 1273 K
(I000 ° C) maximum temperature for which the Skylab furnace was designed. Be-
cause this effect is strongly temperature dependent, however, it was unacceptable
at the higher (1423 K (1150 ° C)) maximum furnace temperature and thus required
compensating design changes.

Greatly increased thermocouple resistance to a ground was obtained by

electrically insulating the Inconel sheaths from the grounded furnace structure.
This was accomplished in the high-temperature region by the installation of high-
purity alumina sleeves and in the low-temperature region by Teflon sleeves. Addi-
tionally, the control thermocouple Inconel sheaths were electrically connected to the
regulated 10-volt supply that biases the control thermocouples. This arrangement
in effect applies a guard potential to the sheaths and thus eliminates the effect of the
small remaining electrical leakage which exists with the insulating sleeves. The
Inconel sheaths of the four measuring thermocouples were allowed to float electrically.

Experience disclosed that the seals of the access ports for the Skylab multi-
purpose electric furnace were not suitable for repeated use because of the excessive
force required for removal. No seal leakage was ever detected. Because rotating
and reciprocating seals are used routinely in high-vacuum systems, it appeared

22-4
very likely that the problem with the Skylab furnace was not a fault of design prin-
ciple but was rather a fault of design detaildimensions. A new design was developed.

The Skylab furnace was evacuated by evacuating the chamber in which it was
situated. The ASTP furnace was evacuated through a pump line leading from the
furnace through the docking module wall to space. The furnace vacuum connection
was redesigned to allow for this change. The Skylab fitting was replaced by a
2.54-centimeter (1 inch) diameter elbow that terminated in a welded connection to
the docking module pump line.

Helium Package

The Skylab multipurpose furnace was evacuated during the entire time period
required for each experiment. The modified furnace, if evacuated, required as
much as 20 hours of passive cooling to reach the allowed touch temperature. For
the ASTP mission, eooldown periods of such duration would seriously limit the num-
ber of experiments that could be fitted into the permitted time frame. To minimize
this problem, a helium rapid cooldown system was developed. With this system, the
time required for cooldown was reduced to as little as 3 hours.

Rapid cooling may be provided through selective control of the heat loss of
the furnace. For minimum thermal transfer, the heat shields require a high-vacuum
environment, but the thermal transfer will be greatly increased if the vacuum envi-
ronment is replaced by helium. Fortunately, only a very small amount of helium is
required for this purpose; approximately 1.01 kN/m 2 (0.01 atmosphere) approaches
the maximum effectiveness. For the multipurpose furnace, the volume required to
produce 1004.13 kN/m 2 (9.91 atmospheres) is approximately 0.16 cubic centimeter

of helium at standard conditions. Within the 1.01-kN/m 2 (0.01 atmosphere) range,

the thermal transfer is weakly dependent on pressure, and it is consequently not
necessary to provide a precise volumetric measure for each dosage. The helium
package was designed so that successive doses of helium would be provided at
slightly reduced volume.

A schematic representation of the helium package is shown in figure 22-2.

During each experiment before rapid cooldown, all helium package valves must be
closed. Immediately before operation of the package, the docking module valve in
the overboard vacuum line to the furnace must be closed. To initiate rapid cooldown,
two valve operations are required: (1) valve B must be opened momentarily to
pressurize the helium dosage cavity from the helium storage tube, and (2) valve A
must be opened momentarily to release the helium dosage into the furnace. No
further valve manipulation is required during the rapid cooldown period.

When eooldown is completed and the allowed touch temperature has been
reached, the experiment cycle is completed. Before the furnace is opened, it should
be pressurized to the same value as the docking module. This is accomplished with
the helium package by momentarily opening valves A and C simultaneously and thus
allowing the docking module atmosphere to flow into the furnace until the pressure
is equilibrated.

22-5
 Control Package

The control package for the multipurpose electric furnace system (fig. 22-3)
was modified to meet a new set of requirements for the ASTP mission. These modi-
fications included several changes of the system operating functions; mechanical
modifications were also made to meet new interface requirements. A listing of these
modifications and a brief description of each is presented in the following paragraphs.
In addition to these items, a number of minor electronic component changes were
made to provide additional safety margins in circuitry operation.

Increase in maximum control temperature.- To facilitate higher temperature

experiments, the gain of the control thermocouple amplifier was altered to permit a
maximum controlled heat leveler temperature in excess of 1423 K (1150 ° C).

Variable controlled cooldown rate .- To provide more constant solidification

velocities in the experiments, circuitry was incorporated to decrease the cooldown
rate continuously during the controlled cooldown portion of the experiment. A con-
trol was provided to enable selection of the amount of cooldown rate variation.

Shorted control thermocouple protection.- To protect the furnace from over-

heating should the control thermocouple become shorted, an additional shutdown
circuit was incorporated in the control package. This circuit continuously monitors
both HOT-1 and HOT-2 measuring thermocouples and automatically shuts off the
furnace heaters if either of these thermocouples exceeds a preset limit temperature
(nominally set at 1463 K (1190 ° C)).

Mechanical interface modifications.- A new mounting mechanism and a new

control cable between the control package and the furnace were designed to facilitate
the ASTP system configuration. The input power and telemetry cable was provided
by the vehicle integration contractor.

The operation of the ASTP control package is very similar to the operation of
the Skylab control package described previously.

SUMMARY

The entire multipurpose electric furnace system performed perfectly, as had

been predicted from the ground-based testing, with one minor exception. The rapid
cooldown helium system did not respond during the first experiment. It could not
be ascertained whether this was a facility or an operational problem, but the system
performed nominally on all subsequent experiments. Table 22-I describes the ther-
mal cycles for the flight experiments and shows how they compare with the ground-
based tests. The soak temperatures were well within the tolerances requested by
the Principal Investigators.

22-6
 F--4
o 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 Z z Z z z z
cO

P_ t.O ¢_I _ LO ¢r_ ¢r_ CO

O_ _ c_ c,3 O0 cq

_Q

(0

C'_ O0 cO O0 O0 cO O0
0 _.0 c_ ¢r_ _'_ 0"_ ¢r_ cO

Z
_Q

4-'
x
°_.1
I

o_.._

_Q

E_ Q; Q;

¢)

o_1

Q; | I I I I I I
0_

22-7
 Figure 22-1. - Multipurpose electric furnace system.

[m’q] I
Helium dosage cavity

storage ~ ,,,Helium storage tube

To furnace and overboard vacuum line

Figure 22-2. - Schematic representation

of the helium rapid cooldown system.

22-8
28 V I
0 " Breaker
I I regulator
Voltage
Regulated voltages

Shutdown signals
relay
Shutdown
Control thermocouple1

elector Heater

l:[ switch
Output ]

Soak period
timer

1 1
cooldown
Indication function I circuit
Controlled J'_ selection
Soak period I
- _
§ _
o E _ Shutdown I

E_ -_-
©©©OOOOO

Figure 22-3.- Schematic representation of the furnaee control system.

22-9
 23. SURFACE-TENSION-INDUCED CONVECTION

EXPERIMENT MA-041

R. E. Reed a

ABSTRACT

This experiment was designed to detect possible surface-tension-induced con-

vection caused by a steplike compositional variation in a liquid metal contained in
both wetting and nonwetting ampoules with minimum temperature gradients. The
concept of the investigation was to set up a liquid diffusion couple of lead and lead-
0.05 atomic percent gold alloy in a microgravity environment. The liquid diffusion
couple was contained in two types of ampoules, a steel container which the liquid
metal would wet and a graphite container that the liquid metal would not wet.

In the absence of gravity, stirring in a liquid is suppressed because of den-

sity differences caused by thermal or compositional gradients. However, other
mechanisms resulting in natural convection in a microgravity environment exist.
One of the most important mechanisms for liquid metals is surface-tension-driven
convection, which becomes predominant in the low-gravity environment. In this
case, surface tension differences caused by compositional or temperature gradients
have been demonstrated to cause stirring in liquids during experiments performed
onboard Skylab. Compositional gradients were created by adding a soap solution
to a large water globule, which caused vigorous fluid motion for some moments
after the addition.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this investigation was to set up a liquid diffusion couple of

lead (Pb) and Pb-0.05 atomic percent (at. %) gold (Au) alloy in a microgravity
environment. The liquid diffusion couple was contained in two types of ampoules,
a 1015 steel container that the liquid metal would wet and an LTJ graphite container
that the liquid metal could not wet. The couples were in the molten state for approx-
imately 2 hours to allow the Au to diffuse approximately 2.5 centimeters. If there
were no convective stirring effects due to the surface tension difference between the
Pb and Pb-0.05 at. % Au alloy, then a normal concentration-distance profile for the
Au could be found in the diffusion couples. Because there were two diffusion tem-
peratures (923 and 743 K), the liquid diffusion parameters for Au in Pb can be

aoak Ridge National Laboratory; Principal Investigator.

23-1
estimated. If there were convective stirring effects due to the surface tension varia-
tions caused by the Au additions, then these effects could also be found by the auto-
radiographic technique used for the diffusion analysis. The role of the two ampoules
will be examined in evaluating the extent of these stirring effects.

EXPERIMENTDESIGN

The specimen ampoule preparation for this experiment is described in ref-

erence 23-1 and illustrated in figure 23-1. Because of the longitudinal heat flow in
the furnace upon heating and cooling, the specimens probably melted from left to
right in this schematic and solidified in the reverse direction. The results de-
scribed in this report are based entirely on observations of flight cartridge 2.

The dimensions of the actual specimen are shown in figure 23-2. The total
specimen length was approximately 3 centimeters, and the diameter was approxi-
mately 1 centimeter. The 3-millimeter-thick Pb-0.05 at. %Au alloy disk was
cold-pressure welded to the pure Pb. It should be noted that the total diffusion
distance available was approximately 3 centimeters.

The ampoule used for the specimens described in this report is illustrated in
figure 23-3. In addition to the graphite liner on the interior of this ampoule, quartz
cloth disks were placed at each end to provide somepadding for normal handling
movementsand to adjust the void space in the ampoule.

OBSERVATIONSAND DISCUSSION

Thermal Characteristics of the Multipurpose Electric Furnace

The temperature-time data monitored on the mission were taken on the heat-
leveler block of the multipurpose furnace. After the flight, another ground-based
test (GBT) was made to duplicate the space-flight (SF) furnace operation because
it varied from the original experimental plan. Thermal characterization analyses
to obtain the temperature-time history for the specimen ampoules from these data
have not been completed. However, it was estimated that the samples were molten
105minutes and 35 to 40 minutes for the hot and cold positions, respectively.

The prototype test data and a thermal analysis of the GBT for the original
experimental plan allowed additional estimates of the thermal history of the speci-
men ampoules. These parameters are shown in table 23-I. It should be noted that,
during the prototype test, thermal arrests due to the heat of fusion were observed
at the melting point. The estimated slope of this arrest is the lower limit of the
heating and cooling rates given in table 23-I.

Becausethe thermal analysis giving the temperature-time record for the

specimens during the mission is not available at this time, the best estimates of the
thermal parameters are as follows. Thermal gradients along the specimen during
heating, soaking, and cooling were similar and were approximately 2 K/cm and

23-2
3 K/cm for the hot and cold ampoules, respectively. The heating rates at the melt-
ing point were approximately 2 K/min and 3 K/min for the hot and cold ampoules,
respectively. Similarly, the cooling rates were 4 K/min and approximately 5 K/min.
An estimate for the solidification rate was 2 cm/min.

Postmission Examination of Samples

After removal from the ampouley the specimens were potted in araldite epoxy
for longitudinal sectioning. A high-torque, low-speed diamond blade wheel was
used for the sectioning. The epoxy was then redissolved from the sample. The
sample half with four calibration Pb-Au disks was then remounted in a 5.1-
centimeter-diameter araldite epoxy mount. The entire mount was then metallograph-
ically polished.
The mounts were prepared for irradiation as follows. Two mounts were
irradiated at the same time. A polyethylene ring separator separated the epoxy
specimens when they were placed face to face. The mounts, face to face with the
separator in position, were placed in a 0.24-liter plastic bag, and the bag was
twisted until the mounts were held rigidly secure. The bag was then heat sealed,
and the mounts were placed in a 0.12-liter polyethylene bottle by slitting the side
of the bottle. After the mounts were in place, the side of the bottle was sealed,
using a soldering pencil. The samples were then irradiated in the Bulk Shielding
Reactor East (deuterium oxide) tank. After the irradiation, the sample was allowed
to decay from 4 to 8 hours, and the mounts were then removed from the bottle. The
mounts at this time read approximately 100mrads/hr. This operation was conduct-
ed using plastic gloves in a hood. After about a 24-hour decay, the mounts were
ready for autoradiography.
Autoradiographs were made in complete darkness in the same darkroom in
which the film was processed. The polished face of the mount was placed face down
on Kodak industrial type R X-ray film. This single-emulsion ultrafine-grain film
is suitable for autoradiographs. Exposures were made for 15-, 20-, and 30-minute
durations. In addition, an overexposed autoradiograph of 4 hours 15 minutes was
made to emphasize the penetration of the Au. It should be noted that the film was
recording a _ emission from the Au in the Pb. Also, the Pb has sueh a high cross
section that the Au activity from the very near surface is the only activity seen by
the film. Additional details of the autoradiographic technique can be found in
reference 23-1.

Hot-End Specimens

Specimens from the hot end of the electric furnace were photographed in color
to record the outward appearance. The GBT and SF specimens were directly com-
pared. Figure 23-4 shows the side view of the 17-A GBT specimen and the 11-A SF
specimen. These specimens were solidified from the bottom to the top. The origi-
nal bond interface of the Pb-Au disks can still be seen at the top of each specimen.
The outward surface of the 11-A SF specimen shows indication of cellular structure,
which is especially noticeable at the top of the specimen. The 17-A GBT specimen
shows the expected sharp corners at the bottom; conversely, the SF specimen has
rounded corners at each end of the ingot.

23-3
 The top ends of the two specimens are shown in figure 23-5. The 17-A GBT
specimen shows evidence of a solidification pipe, whereas the 11-A SF specimen
indicates the cellular or substructure walls typical of a lightly alloyed metal. There
is no evidence of outward high-angle grain boundaries on the surface of either
casting.

Figure 23-6 shows the bottom ends of the same two specimens. The ripple
marks seen on the 17-A GBT specimen were caused by an impression of the quartz
spacer cloth. The 11-A SF specimen does not show these ripple marks and ex-
hibits a rounded edge.

A study of the metallographically polished cross section of the 11-A SF

specimen shows some additional features. A maerograph of the autoradiographie
mount is shown in figure 23-7. This figure shows that the 11-A SF specimen was
almost entirely a single crystal with the exception of the section near the top. In
addition, there is some indication of intercellular porosity at the very top. The
Pb-Au calibration disks, which were as-cast structures, show the typical elongated
grains pointing toward a direction of freezing. Also, there is some porosity in these
rods that shows up as dark spots on the autoradiographs.
A similar study of a macrograph (fig. 23-8) taken of the mounted 17-A GBT
specimen also shows that this specimen is very large grained. There are appar-
ently three grains in the entire sample. The solidification pipe at the top does not
extend very far into the casting. Again, the calibration disks show some porosity.

The autoradiograph taken of the 11-A SF specimen shows someinteresting

features. A print of such an autoradiograph that was deliberately overexposed to
show the extent of Au diffusion is shown in figure 23-9. In this figure, (1) the
lighter areas indicate the Au activity, (2) the total diffusion distance is approxi-
mately 2.2 centimeters, and (3) the Au diffusion interface is curved, with the Au
apparently diffusing faster at the center of the melt. However, this interface could
be an artifact if for some reason the original interface became curved upon melting.
In this particular autoradiograph, there are some straight markings resulting from
scratches made on the mount during irradiation. The original experimental plan
estimated the diffusion distance for the high temperature and the expected time
during the mission. These estimates show that the distance based on liquid diffus-
ivities for zine self-diffusion was to be approximately 2.5 centimeters. Thus, the
diffusivity of Au in Pb may be found to be in the typical liquid diffusion range.

A similar print of an overexposed autoradiograph taken of the 17-A GBT

specimen is shown in figure 23-10. This autoradiograph exhibits a surprising
feature. It was expected that the Au would be evenly distributed throughout the
ingot. However, figure 23-10 clearly shows that there is more Au activity in the
bottom half of the ingot. The Pb-Au phase diagram predicts an equilibrium distri-
bution coefficient during solidification of <1. Hence, if it is assumed that the Au
was evenly distributed in the melt and the solidification front passed up the ingot,
a heavier concentration of Au could be expeeted near the top. The distribution
shown in the autoradiograph cannot be explained by this effect. Again, the straight
markings were caused by seratehes made on the mount during irradiation.

23-4
 Cold-End Specimens

Photographs were also taken of the outside surface of the 14-A GBT specimen
and the 21-A SF specimen, which had been positioned in the cold end of the multi-
purpose electric furnace (fig. 23-11). The same observations will be madeon
these specimens. The original Pb-Au disk bond interface is again evident as the
line near the top of the ingot. The 14-A GBT specimen shows the typical sharp-
cornered bottom and the slightly rounded top. In this particular specimen, there is
no solidification pipe. The 21-A SF specimen shows rounded corners at the bottom
and a highly rounded top. There is no solidification pipe in this ingot either. Evi-
dence of high-angle boundaries is not present on either specimen. A much finer
cellular structure is faintly evident near the top of the 21-A SF specimen.

A photograph of the bottom ends of these two specimens is shown in figure

23-12. Again, the ripple markings caused by the quartz spacer cloth are evident
on the 14-A GBT specimen. These markings are not so evident on the 21-A SF speci-
men, which also shows a distinctly rounded corner.

The autoradiographs of the 21-A SF specimen show the samefeatures seen on

the previous autoradiographs. A print of a deliberately overexposed autoradiograph
of the 21-A SF specimen is shown in figure 23-13. Again, (1) the light areas indi-
cate Au activity, (2) the Au diffusion interface is curved, (3) the total Au diffusion
distance is approximately 1.2 centimeters, and (4) in t.his particular autoradiograph,
there appears to be some indication of surface diffusion of Au along the ingot. This
surface diffusion could be a possible explanation for the curved interface, if a deple-
tion of the Au at the surfaces as it diffuses along the melt interface is considered.

A print of the overexposed autoradiograph for the 14-A GBT specimen is

shown in figure 23-14. It is again evident that there is more Au activity near the
bottom half of the ingot, which is very similar in appearance to the GBT specimen
that had been processed at the hot end of the electric furnace.

CONCLUSIONS

It is difficult to make any definite conclusions until all the specimens from
the mission have been studied. For example, if the curved Au diffusion interface
is due to a melting effect upon heating, then it may be possible to see a difference
on the reversed specimens that have not been studied yet. However, several con-
clusions can be made from the one flight cartridge that has been studied. (It must
be remembered that no Au concentration-distance data have been obtained yet. )

1. The SF samples that were almost entirely single crystals exhibited a

cellular structure near the top, typical of lightly alloyed metals solidified in a
unidirectional manner. Such a structure is not readily evident on the surfaces of
the GBT specimens; however, the surfaces of these specimens were in close con-
tact with the container material.

2. The Au distribution, as indicated by the autoradiographs, showed no

extensive stirring in the SF samples. Instead, they showed primarily a typical

23-5
liquid diffusion profile. However, two features were quite striking: the curved
Au diffusion interface and some evidence of diffusion along the surface of the melt.
3. The GBT specimens also showed an unusual feature, that of increased Au
activity at the bottom half of the ingot. This activity is unexplained by a unidirec-
tional redistribution of Au due to solidification from bottom to top, because the' pre-
dicted equilibrium distribution coefficient is probably _1.

4. The total diffusion distances measured from the autoradiographs of the

SF samples compare favorably with those distances predicted in the experimental
plan, using Zn self-diffusion liquid diffusivities from Skylab results, which means
that the diffusion of Au in Pb will be in the typical liquid diffusion range.

REFERENCE

23-1. Reed, R. E.: Progress Report of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Experiment No.
MA-041 for the Period, Sept. 1 - Dec. 31, 1974. ORNL TM-4812, April
1975.

23-6
 TABLE 23-I.- THERMAL CHARACTERISTICSOF SPECIMENAMPOULE

IN THE MULTIPURPOSEELECTRIC FURNACE

Prototype test Ground-based test

Characteristic Hot Cold Hot Cold

position position
position a position b

Thermal gradient along

ampoule, K/cm ....... co c2 to 3 d2 d3

Heating rate at e600 K,

K/min ........... f2 to 7 f3 to 5

Cooling rate at e600 K,

K/min ........... f2 to 9 g15 h4 h5

aCopper thermal insert in heat-leveler block.

bcopper thermal insert in temperature gradient section.

CElectric multipurpose furnace at equilibrium.

dThermal gradient during heating and cooling.

eMelfing point of sample.

fLower limit estimated from slope of thermal arrest.
gThermal arrest insufficient for lower-limit estimate.

hRate taken from slope of calculated cooling curve.

23-7
 -Flight Temperature Type of ampoule wall
cartridge 923 f 10 K 723 f 50 K
1 1-B Wetting (mild steel)

2 1-B 1 Nonwetting (graphite)

3 r a r a Nonwetting (graphite)

Pb-0.05 at. % Au

0Pb
Figure 23-1. - Schematic arrangement
of specimens.

,Pb-0.05 at. % Au

Figure 23-4.- Photograph of the 17-A

GBT (left) and the 11-A SF speci-
mens from the hot end of the electric
0. 0.
furnace. Specimens solidified from
bottom to top i n ampoules with non-
wetting walls. Specimens are ap-
0.320 cm
3.035 cm proximately 1 centimeter in
diameter.

Figure 23-2. - Dimensions of MA-041

specimen.

,0.114-cm-thick graphite end disk

,J‘ J.064-cm-thick wall graphite liner
, I

, ,I‘ I #
,’ ,,0.015-cm-thick wall 321 stainless steel

’\, ‘.0.203-cm-thick stainless steel end cap

0.114-cm -wide by 0.076-cmdeep trepan
Figure 23-5 .- Photograph of the top
Figure 23-3. - Stainless steel-graphite ends of the 17-A GBT (left) and
ampoule assembly. the 11-A SF specimens.

23-8
Figure 23-6. - Photograph of the bot-
tom ends of the 17-A GBT (left)
and the 11-A SF specimens. Rip-
ple marks evident on the 17-A GBT
specimen bottom are an imprint of
the quartz spacer cloth in the
ampoule.

Figure 23-7. - Macrograph of the as-

polished 11-A SF specimen,
mounted with four Pb-Au calibra-
tion disks. Specimen was in the
hot end of the multipurpose fur-
nace and solidified from bottom to
top in a nonwetting ampoule.
Specimen is approximately 1 centi-
meter in diameter.

Figure 23-8.- Macrograph of the as-

polished 17-A GBT specimen,
mounted with four Pb-Au calibra-
tion disks. Specimen was in the
hot end of the multipurpose fur-
nace and solidified from bottom
to top in a nonwetting ampoule.
Specimen is approximately 1
centimeter in diameter.

23-9
Figure 23-9 .- Print taken from a delib- Figure 23-10.- Print taken from delib-
erately overexposed (4 hours 15 erately overexposed (4 hours 15
minutes) autoradiograph to empha- minutes) autoradiograph to empha-
size the extent of Au diffusion in the size the extent of Au diffusion in the
11-A SF specimen. Light areas in- 17-A GBT specimen. Light areas
dicate Au activity. Mount was indicate Au activity. Mount was
scratched during neutron irradia- scratched during neutron irradiation;
tion; the scratches show up as line the scratches show up as line mark-
markings. Apparent increase in ings. Apparent increase in the size
diameter of the calibration disks of the calibration disks and sample
with increasing Au content is due to diameter with increasing Au content
long exposure time allowing "side- is due to long exposum time allow-
scatter" activity that also darkens ing "side-scatter" activity that also
the film. darkens the film.

Figure 23-11.- Photograph of the 14-A

GBT (left) and the 21-A SF speci-
mens from the cold end of the electric
furnace. Specimens solidified from
bottom to top in ampoules with non-
wetting walls. Specimens are ap-
proximately 1 centimeter in diameter.

23-10
Figure 23-12. - Photograph of the bottom
ends of the 14-A GBT (left) and the
21-A SF specimens. Ripple marks
evident on the 14-A GBT specimen
bottom are an imprint of the quartz
spacer cloth in the ampoule.

Figure 23-14.- Print taken from a de-

liberately overexposed (4 hours 15
minutes) autoradiograph to empha-
size the extent of Au diffusion in the
14-A GBT specimen. Light areas in-
dicate Au activity. Apparent increase
in diameter of the calibration disks
with increasing Au content is due to
long exposure time allowing "side-
scatter" activity that also darkens
the film.

Figure 23-13.- Print taken from a de-

liberately overexposed (4 hours 15
minutes) autoradiograph to empha-
size extent of Au diffusion in the
21-A SF specimen. Light areas indi-
cate Au activity. Apparent increase
in diameter of the calibration disks
with increasing Au content is due to
long exposure time allowing "side-
scatter" activity that also darkens
the film.

23-11
 T

24. MONOTECTIC AND SYNTECTIC ALLOYS

EXPERIMENT MA-044

C. Y. Ang a and L. L. Lacy a

ABSTRACT

The flight test furnace run of the Monotectic and Syntectic Alloys Experiment
was successfully performed during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission. All three
experiment cartridges were returned intact. A seeond ground-based test was con-
ducted after the mission to provide one-g samples with an equivalent thermal his-
tory. The examinations of all flight and ground-based cartridges and ampoules have
been completed. Formal characterization of the flight and ground samples began
after the initial postflight quick-look efforts had been completed and a characteriza-
tion plan had been developed. Encouraging results have been obtained in the pre-
liminary analysis of one flight aluminum antimonide sample as compared to ground-
based and prototype-test counterparts. In terms of reduction of the unwanted sec-
ond phase, the low-g sample shows a homogeneity improvement by a factor of 5 to
20. Furthermore, small amounts of the second phase were formed only along parts
of the grain boundaries of the flight sample, whereas the ground-based samples
show major grains of the second phase. Preliminary examination of one lead zinc
flight sample shows a dispersion of lead in the zinc matrix. However, complete
homogenization of the material did not occur. A thermal analysis of flight data
shows that the average soak temperature for the lead zinc ampoules was 20 K
(20 ° C) lower than planned but 35 K (35 ° C) above the published consolute temper-
ature. Further indepth analysis and characterization will be performed to study
lead zinc diffusion and to identify differences between the flight and ground-
processed samples.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effects of weightless-

ness on the melting and solidification of two material systems, lead zinc (PbZn) and
aluminum antimonide (AISb). The objectives were (1) to investigate phase segrega-
tion effects in low g for the immiscible binary PbZn and (2) to determine the influ-
ences of low-g solidification on the microstructural homogeneity and stoichiometry
of the semiconducting compound AISb.

aNASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center; Co-Principal Investigators.

24-1
 This report presents an updated (ref. 24-1) preliminary evaluation of the
returned samples of AISb syntectic compound and PbZn monoteetic immiscible proc-
essed during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. Postflight data have
been used to develop a tentative characterization plan for evaluating the limited
number of available samples. This plan will be modified if new observations at
each stage require specialized analysis.

EXPERIMENT CONCEPT

Certain potentially useful alloys or material systems are difficult to synthe-

size on Earth because of sizable differences in specific gravity of the constituents
in a molten state, which results in undesirable buoyancy and convection influences
on solidification. Consequently, the near-zero-g conditions in space processing
were the primary motivation for this experiment. Furthermore, significant dis-
coveries related to microsegregation and kinetics of latticedefects, made as a re-
sult of the Skylab experiments, have strengthened the belief in the value of continu-
ing space processing experimentation for future space manufacturing activities.

The PbZn system (ref. 24-2, fig. 24-1) is characterized by the large misci-
bility gap L1 + L2 and the monotectic point at 99.7 atomic percent (at.%) Zn where
the immediate transformation upon solidificationis from one liquid to a second liquid
plus a solid. This system is also characterized by a large density difference be-
tween Pb (11.7 g/cm 3) and Zn (7.14 g/cm3). In the Earth's gravity field, preventing
gravity separation between Pb and Zn upon solidificationis difficult. Negating the
effects of gravity in space processing should lead to a degree of mixing of the two
phases, resulting in a dispersion of fine particles of superconducting Pb in a Zn
matrix. The composition selected for the experiment was 20 at.% Pb and 80 at.%
Zn as shown by the dashed line izlfigure 24-1. This composition is equivalent to a
weight percent of 44.2 Pb and 55.8 Zn or a volume percent of 33.2 Pb and 66.8 Zn.

The A.ISb system (fig. 24-2) has been neglected for many years among the
UI-V semiconducting compounds that are characterized upon solidification by a syn-
tectic transformation of two molten constituents to a constant composition interme-
tallic compound (at. % of 50 A1 and 50 Sb). The reasons for this neglect have been
difficulties (ref. 24-3) in synthesizing a stoichiometrically homogeneous compound
and the problems of high reactivity of the material to moisture. Some reported
properties of A1Sb are given in table 24-I. With an energy gap of 1.62 electr_mvolts,
A1Sb has been theoretically analyzed as a highly efficient solar energy converter
(refs. 24-4 and 24-5). However, because of the aforementioned problems in crystal
synthesis, experimental verification is lacking.

In space processing, the compositional honmgeneity may be enhanced by

minimizing the very large density difference (2.7 g/cm 3 for A1 and 6.62 g/cm 3 for
Sb) between constituents in the molten state and during crystallite formation upon
cooling. Electromotive potential considerations suggest that the AI- and Sb-rich
phases observed in polycrystalline AISb synthesized on Earth could cause the high
reactivity to moisture.

24-2
 SAMPLEPREPARATIONAND TESTING

Thermal Cycling Considerations

One A1Sb sample and one PbZn sample were to be processed in each of three
flight cartridges. Homogenization (soaking) for 4 hours in the molten state at 1123K
(850° C) for PbZn and 1373K (1100° C) for A1Sbwas originally proposed. The
soaking temperature for A1Sbwas later raised to 1403K (1130° C) because of the
lack of complete melting at 1373K (1100° C) in laboratory tests. Higher tempera-
tures could not be readily obtained in the multipurpose furnace. Serious A1Sb
sample leakage problems that necessitated a reduction of the soaking time to 1 hour
were evidenced during ground-based testing. Including the heatup and eooldown
times for the multipurpose furnace, this adjustment resulted in an estimated effec-
tive soaking time of 1.5 hours for both PbZn and A1Sb.

Temperature and sample crucible reactivity considerations led to the selec-

tion of high-purity graphite as the crucible material for both PbZn and A1Sb. For
the latter, the use of graphite was not an optimum choice, but fabrication of alumina
crucibles with hermetic sealing to contain A1 and/or Sb vapor was difficult. The
reaction between molten A1Sb and graphite and the slow carbide formation were
recognized and considered in comparing ground and flight samples.

Starting Materials

All starting constituents were composed of material of at least five-nines

purity (i.e., total impurities were less than 10 ppm). Zinc, obtained in disk form,
was machined from zone-refined rods. Lead was obtained in both pellet and powder
forms. Aluminum antimonide, obtained in granular form, was processed from zone-
refined polycrystalline ingots.

Ampoule Configuration and Sample I,oading

The ampoule configurations for PbZn and A1Sb samples are shown in fig-
ure 24-3. The materials were loaded in the graphite crucibles and sealed with
graphite cement in an argon glove box. Before capping and sealing, the A1Sb sam-
ples were premelted at 1423 K (1150 ° C) in uncapped graphite crucibles under argon.
Tungsten inert gas welding of the stainless steel ampoule containers was also com-

pleted in a glove box with approximately 100 000 N/m 2 (1 atmosphere) of ultra-high-
purity argon. Both fabricated A1Sb and PbZn ampoules were further heated for 10
minutes at 1423 K (1150 ° C) and 1123 K (850 ° C), respectively. The AI_ arapoules
were heated by a high-frequency induction furnace, and the thermometry was deter--
mined by an optical pyrometer. The PbZn ampoules were heated in a 30.5-centimeter
hot-zone tube furnace.

Ampoule weighing and American Society of Testing Materials bubble-leak

testing were performed before and after heating. Graphite boats were used to carry
from four to nine ampoules per furnace load, with one ampoule of each furnace load

24-3
used as a control sample. An ampoule might fail the heating test because of either
dimensional distortion or leakage. The control samples were again thermally tested
for 4 hours at the respective temperatures. If a control failed, the entire boatload
was rejected. It should be noted that all PbZn ampoules passed, but one of the five
AISb control ampoules failed. Of the 33 AISb ampoules processed for prototype,
qualification, ground-based, and flight tests and for laboratory studies, 6 failed,
including the control sample. In addition, three good ampoules were rejected be-
cause of the failure of the control sample.

Cartridge" Construction

A simplified schematic of the cartridge is shown in figure 24-3. Ampoule

temperatures were determined during prototype testing by using an instrumented
cartridge as shown in figure 24-4 (a). This figure also presents an exposed view
of the components of a cartridge, including the A and B ampoules and the graphite,
copper, and stainless steel inserts. Figure 24-4(b) shows the same exposed com-
ponents for a flight cartridge.

Scheduled Preflight Tests

All required ampoules were fabricated without simulation and prototype test-
ing. When ground-based testing was conducted, two out of three AISb ampoules
failed. The failure mode was determined to be cracking of the graphite crucibles
similar to cracking that occurred during ampoule fabrication and testing. These
failures did not leave sufficient time to introduce and develop changes in crucible
materials or new ampoule designs. The decision was made to adapt the previously
mentioned shortening of the soaking time from 4 hours to 1 hour for the flight test
and to use X-radiography in the selection of flight test cartridges for increased
reliability.

As a result of this last-minute change, no true one-g samples were thermally

treated identically to the flight samples (table 24-II). A second ground-based test
(GBT) has been conducted to perform the primary experiment objective of compara-
tive characterization of samples.

IN-FLIGHT AND GROUND-BASED TESTS

This experiment was the last furnace test run during the ASTP mission. The
initial heatup was started at 175:30 ground elapsed time (GET), which corresponds
to 14:50 GMT on July 23, 1975. The run was completed (cartridges extracted) on
the morning of July 24, just before the jettison of the docking module (and the
furnace).

A computer-generated plot of the telemetered furnace temperatures for the

graphite heat leveler (hot end) and the heat extractor (cold end) is presented in
figures 24-5(a) and 24-5(b). The change of slopes shown in the cooling curves of
figure 24-5 (b) is caused by the injection of helium into the multipurpose furnace to

24-4
increase the cooling rate. In figure 24-6, the time-temperature profile of the flight
cartridges is compared with a similar profile obtained from the second GBT. As
indicated in figure 24-6, the GBT has essentially duplicated the thermal profile of
the flight sample.
1
A computer analysis of the thermal histories revealed that the AiSb samples
were in the homogenization region (i .e., in the liquid state) for 1.5 hours and that
the PbZn samples were in the miscible region (i.e., above the consolute tempera-
ture) also for 1.5 hours. During the cooldown period, it is estimated that PbZn was
in the two-liquid phase region (i.e., the miscibility gap)for 3.4 hours.

The flight cartridge and ampoule numbers are identified in table 24-II. Based
on the temperature calibration data obtained in prototype testing and computer anal-
ysis, the AISb ampoule temperature at soak is estimated to be 1399K (1126° C).
Because of thermal lag, the PbZn ampoule temperature at soak was estimated to be
below the specified minimum of 1123 K (850 ° C). The thermal analysis indicated
that indeed the PbZn ampoules were soaked for 1 hour at an average temperature
of 1107 K (834 ° C).

PRELIMINARY EVALUATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A summary of the postflight evaluation and characterization plan for the re-
turned samples and various ground samples is given in table 24-III. An earlier
report (ref. 24-1) describes efforts performed in tasks 1 and 2 and a quick-look
assessment of some samples (task 3). This report contains a preliminary character-
ization of flight and ground-based samples performed in task 3. The samples char-
acterized to date include one AISb flight sample, one PbZn flight sample, a pair of
GBT-2 counterparts, and one prototype-tested AISb sample. Characterization of
the AISb and PbZn samples has been completed through the scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM) energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) evaluations.

Figure 24-7 is a photograph of the two AISb and three PbZn flight samples.
Figure 24-8 is a photograph of the GBT-2 samples. Part of the graphite crucible
was left attached to one of the flight and one of the GBT-2 AISb samples so that
later microstrueture analysis could be correlated with potential contamination by
the graphite crucible. Visual observation of the exposed surfaees of the AISb sam-
ples indicated that melting and reerystallization did occur. A macrophotograph
(5×) of one of the AISb samples (A-164) is shown in figure 24-9 where large crys-
tallites of the polycrystalline sample can be seen. Part of the graphite crucible is
shown at the bottom of the sample.

Complete melting also occurred with the three PbZn samples. Macrophoto-
graphs (10×) of the samples are shown in figure 24-10. 'As shown in figure 24-10, an
interface exists between the smaller and larger parts of the samples. This interface
may correspond to the original Pb/Zn interface. Overflow regions can be seen on the
surface of the sample where a liquid phase flowed over the first solidified surfaces.

1W. Key, Brown Engineering Co., personal communication, 1975.

24-5
 Each of the samples appears to have solidified first on the cold end (tempera-
ture gradient of 4.5 K/cm) and, because of shrinkage away from the container walls,
part of the remaining liquid then flowed around the solid surface. The topography
of sample B-186 appears to be different from the other two samples. In sample
B-186, the liquid flow appears to be symmetric about the axis of the sample, where-
as an asymmetric flow channel apparently developed on sample B-164. Sample
B-181 also has an asymmetric flow that can be seen in figure 24-11(a), which is a
photograph of its cold end.

Closer examination of B-181 in figure 24-10 reveals small parallel grooves

or strata around the circumference of the sample. These grooves are believed to
be caused by machining marks in the graphite crucible. A more detailed view of
the topography of B-181 is shown in the SEM photographs of figure 24-12. A
shrinkage cavity is visible on the hot end of the sample (fig. 24-12 (a)), and the
interface region is shown in figure 24-12 (c). A preliminary EDAX of B-181 reveals
that both Pb and Zn are present at both the hot and cold ends of the sample and that
the concentration of Zn is more pronounced at the cold end.

For a preliminary microstructural examination, one longitudinal section each

of the A-185 AISb sample and the B-186 PbZn sample was mounted and cut for met-
allography. Similarly, one GBT-2 AISb sample (A-141) and one GBT-2 PbZn sam-
ple (B-142) were extracted and sectioned for metallography.

The flight AISb sample appears to have an overall homogeneous compound

phase with a small amount of a second phase along the grain boundaries. Figure
24-13(a) illustrates this typical feature (unetched). With all the AISb samples
processed on the ground, including the as-received AISb granules, at least two
phases, one rich in A1 or Sb and the other the compound AISb, can be seen. Fig-
ure 24-13 (b) shows this feature of large amounts {if two phases present in one-g
solidified samples. The one-g solidified sample (A-127) was obtained in a proto-
type test that had approximately the same thermal history as the ASTP solidified
sample except for a slightly lower soak temperature. Figures 24-14(a) and 24-14(b)
are pseudocolored photographs of figures 24-13 (a) and 24-13 (b) in which surface
artifacts have been eliminated and the computer-aided technique of digital imaging
analysis (I)IA) has been used to more clearly present compositional homogeneity.
The red areas of the photograph represent the A1Sb compound, and the blue areas
represent a second phase. Likewise, figure 24-15 is a graphical presentation of
the digitized data depicting the low-g effects of reducing the unwanted second phase
from 21.6 to 1.7 percent.

Figures 24-16 (a) and 24-16 (b) are photomicrographs of another area of
flight sample A-185 as compared with GBT-2 sample A-141. Major improvements
in microscopic homogeneity are again evident in the flight sample. An EDAX of the
samples reveals that the gray phase is the compound AISb and that the white phase
is an Al-rich phase. An analysis of the area fraction of the second phase for these
two photomicrographs reveals that the flight sample has 1,1 percent of the Al-rich
phase as compared to 25.2 percent for the GBT-2 sample. Thus, for these two se-
lected areas, the Al-rich phase has been reduced by a factor of 23 in the flight
sample.

24-6
 To compare the homogeneity of the flight and the GBT-2 samples on a macro-
scopic scale, a continuous series of photomicrographs (100×) was taken across each
sample. An area analysis for the second phase, obtained from the photomicrographs,
is shown in figure 24-17 as a function of position for the two samples. As indicated in
figure 24-17, the GBT sample contains significantly more of the second phase across
the sample face. It is also interesting to note that, unlike the flight sample, the sec-
ond phase of the GBT sample is maeroscopically inhomogeneously distributed across
the sample.

A quantitative comparison of the microscopic homogeneity of the two samples

is shown in figure 24-18 where the area fractions of the unwanted second phase are
plotted as a function of increasing area for two of the photomicrographs. Because
the second phase grows as major grains in the ground-based samples, the material
is also microscopically inhomogeneous. Conversely, the ASTP solidified material
contains the second phase only as small particles located on selected portions of the
grain boundaries. Figure 24-18 indicates that the second phase for the flight sam-
ple is homogeneously distributed throughout the measured area. Additional anal-
ysis, presently in progress, will be done to examine the microscopic homogeneity
of the two samples at other locations and for smaller measuring areas.

The flight sample of PbZn (B-186) exhibits a macrostructure similar to that

of the ground samples; i.e., a Zn-rieh portion and a Pb-rieh portion, the latter
entrapping one large and several small zinc particles (fig. 24-19). On a macro-
seopie scale, the separation of Zn and Pb portions due to gravity can be seen in
the GBT-2 sample B-142 (figs. 24-20(a) and 24-20(b)). Some striking (5 percent
nitric acid etched) microscopic formations in the Zn-rich areas of the flight sample
can be seen in figure 24-19. The small particulate inclusions have been identified
by a preliminary EDAX scan as Pb particles.

INTERIM CONCLUSIONS

1. The flight and ground-based tests have essentially the same thermal his-
tory. The combined flight and various ground-based tests have provided low-g and
one-g samples with identical and different thermal histories for indepth scientific
study.

2. Comparing the microstructure of the flight and ground solidified samples

of AISb reveals major microscopic and macroscopic homogeneity improvements in
the low-g solidified material. The flight solidified material contains 5 to 20 times
less of the unwanted second phase. An Al-rich phase is found only along parts of
the grain boundaries for a flight sample, whereas the ground-based samples show
major grains of the Al-rich or Sb-rich phase.

3. Incomplete homogenization between Pb and Zn has been observed in one

flight sample. A thermal analysis shows that the samples were soaked at a tempera-
ture above the published consolute temperature for over 1 hour. Although complete
homogcrlization was not achieved in the PbZn system, the presence of fine Pb par-
titles _as detected in the Zn matrix by a preliminary mierostruetural study. Fur-
ther indepth analysis and characterization will be performed to study PbZn diffusion
and to identify differences between the flight and ground-processed samples.

24-7
 REFERENCES

24-1. Ang, Choh-Y. ; and Lacy, Lewis L.: Monotectie and Synteetie Alloys:
ASTP Experiment MA-044. NASA TM X-64956, 1975.

Hansen, Max: Constitution of Binary Alloys. MeGraw-HiU, 1959.

Willardson, R. K.; and Beer, Albert C., eds.: Semiconductors and

Semimetals. Physics of III-V Compounds. Vol. 4. Academic Press
(New York), 1968, p. 59.

24-4. Rittner, E. S.: Use of p-n Junctions for Solar Energy Conversion. Phys.
Rev., vol. 96, no. 6, Dee. 15, 1954, pp. 1708-1709.

24-5. Loferski, J. J.: Theoretical Considerations Governing the Choice of the

Optimum Semieonduetor for Photovoltaie Solar Energy Conversion. J.
Appl. Phys., vol. 27, no. 7, July 1956, pp. 777-784.

24-8
 8
TABLE 24-I.- REPORTED PROPERTIES OF AISb

Property Value

Density, g/era 3 ............ 4.27

Melting point, K (°C) ....... +.. 1323 to 1353 (1050 to 1080)

Energy gap at 293 K (20 ° C), eV . . . 1.62

Hall mobility at 293 K (20 ° C)

Electrons, cm2/V see ........ 20O

Holes, cm2/V see ......... 420

Dielectric constant .......... 11

Conductivity (p-type), ohm/era .... 10 -2 to 10 -1

acrystal structure is Zn blend.

24-9
 TABLE 24-II.- THERMAL HISTORY OF AISb and PbZn SAMPLES

Test Cartridge AISb PbZn

origin no.
Ampoule Thermal history Ampoule Thermal history
no. no.

Soak time, Temperature, Soak time, Temperature,

hr K (°C) hr K (°C)

Flight 7 A-185 1399 (1126) B-186 1107 (834)

9 B-181 1107 (834)

10 A-164 1399 (1126) B-164 1107 (834)

GBT- 1 1 A-163 1405 (1132) B-160 1138 (865)

2 B-161 4 1138 (865)

3 B-162 4 1138 (865)

GBT-2 5 A-141 1 1401 (1128) B-141 1 1107 (834)

6 A-142 1 1401 (1128) B-142 1 1107 (834)

11 A-165 1 1401 (1128) B-165 1 1107 (834)

Prototype- 1 A-127 1.2 1385 (1112) B-127 1.2 1208 (935)

Prototype-2 1 A-124 5.6 1322 (1049) B-124 5.6 1014 (741)

plus 1.3 1405 (1132) plus I. 3 1138 (865)

A-132 1.2 1385 (1112) B-125 1.2 1208 (935)

plus 1.3 1405 (1132) plus I. 3 1138 (865)

A-126 1.2 1385 (1112) B-105 1.2 1208 (935)

plus 1.3 1405 (1132) plus i. 3 1138 (865)

24-10
TABLE 24-Ili.- POSTFLIGHT EVALUATION AND CHARACTERIZATION PLAN

Evaluation A1Sb PbZn

Cartridge examination (task 1)

Photography X X

Radiography (preflight and postflight) X X

Disassembly x X

Ampoule examination (task 2)

Photography X X

Radiography X X

Leak tests (helium) X X

Weighing X X

Sample characterization (task 3)

Removal X x

Weighing X X

Stereoscopic examination (10X to 100X) X x

Macrophotography (2X to 10X) X x

SEMa topography (60X to 1000X) (b) x

Surface EDAX c (b) x

Microstructure (metallography) X x

Quantitative microstructural analysis x x

SEM/EDAX (qualitative and quantitative) x x

Microhardness testing X Co)

ResistiviW (four-point probe) x x

Superconductivity (b) X

X-ray diffraction x x

Chemical and spectral analysis x x

Impurity analysis (ion microprobe) X x

Humidity oven testing x Co)

Diffusion analysis x x

ascanning electron microscope.

bNo evaluation.

CEnergy dispersive X-ray analysis.

24-iI
 Weight percent of Zn
1273 [51 [10] [201 1401 [601 [801 [100]
I I 1
(1000)

Boiling

1173 1179 (906)

(9O0) 906

I
80 (55. 8) ~ 1068 (795), I
1073
(800)

973
A (700)

873 LI + L2
(600)

773
(500)
Monotectic point,,

673
(400)
""""'-6 121
99.7 (99.1) ""

592 1318. 2)
573
(300)
"'1.6 10. 51

473
(200) J L I I I I [ I
0 10 20 30 40 50 6O 70 80 9O 100
Atomic percent of Zn

Figure 24-i.- Phase diagram for PbZn.

24-12
 ~1200) Liquid
1P3 to 1353 K (1050"to 1080" C)

904 K 1631" C)
i 873
:
L
n
a
l
(600)-
AlSb plus AI AlSb plus Sb
s
+ 673 -
(400) n
'"
a

0 20 40 60 80 100
Atomic percent of Sb

Figure 24-2. - Phase diagram for AlSb ,

(a) Stainless steel cartridge assembly.

316 Stainless, 1-mm walls

Graphite crucible, 1-rnrn walls

t
11.9 I
9.9
rnrn
I
92-1 rnm I
01) Ampoule A . (c) Ampoule B.

Figure 24-3, - Schematic of cartridge assembly and ampoules.

24-13
 (a) Instrumented prototype equipment.

(b) Flight equipment.

Figure 24-4. - Exposed views of cartridges and ampoules.

 1473 473
(]200 I i I I i
(20O)

Hot end

1171 423
(9O0) (]5O)

873 373
(6OO) (]00)

Cold end
573 323
(3OO) tSO)

0
o.. 2731 I I I I I 273
(0) (0)

(a) Heatup and soak period starting at 175:30 GET.

E E

_1473 473
I I I I I

_
(200)

_ (]2001

I173 423
(9OO) (]5O)

873 373
(6OO) (]00)

P73 _3
(300) (50)

Cold end -_

213 273
I I i I I (0)
(0)0 ] 2 3 4 5
Time, hr

(b) Cooldown period starting at 181:00 GET.

Figure 24-5.- Furnace telemetry data.

24-15
 1473
(1200)

1373
ill00)
Soaktemperatures:
1273 GBTcartridges - 1424K (]151 °C)
(1000) Flight cartridges - 1422K (1149%)
Hotend
1173
(9O0)
Flightsample....
1073
(8OO)

973
I
I ...... GBT-2
873
16001

E ....... Helium injection

e 773

673 I
(400) I
I
573
(3O0)

473
(200)

373 Coldend
(100)

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll
Time, hr

Figure 24-6.- A eomparison of the thermal profiles for the flight and
the GBT samples.

24-16
 A-1115 8-186

8-181

8-164 Hot
end

I- ib 2b sb do sb sb
Figure 24-7. - Photograph of the flight
samples.

B -141
A -141

A-142
B -142
Figure 24-9. - Macrophotograph (5X)
of AlSb flight sample.
,
I

A-165
8-165

Figure 24-8.- Photograph of the GBT-2

samples.

24-17
81-PZ
 (a) Hot end.
cb) Cold end.

(c) Interface.

Figure 24-12.- SEM photographs of surface features of PbZn flight sample B-181.

24-19
 (a) Low-g sample (A-185).

(b) One-g sample (A-127).

Figure 24-13. - Comparison of the microstructure of

AlSb samples tested in low-g flight and one-g
prototype furnace conditions (1OOX).
 (a) Flight sample. The blue areas are rich in Al.

(b) Laboratory sample. The blue areas are rich in Sb .

Figure 24-14. - Pseudocolored presentation of microstructures shown in figures
24-13(a) and 24-13(b) using DIA. The red areas represent the AlSb compound.

24-2 1
 3.2r
n

0 I I I I
80 90 loo 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
Gray scale

Figure 24-15. - Quantitative comparison of AlSb microstructures using DIA .

(a) Low-g sample (A-185). 03) One-g sample (A-141).

Figure 24-16 .- Comparison of the microstructure of AlSb samples tested under
flight and equivalent GBT conditions (1OOX).

24-22
 25

20
AverageGBT
-5.1
Average flight

e- [] GBT (A-141)

[] Flight (A-185)
Maximum GBT
-8.5
Maximum flight
3o

o 28
e-

26

L_ < 2 Flight (location4)

0 ,,.,, C, 0
l
I I I I
] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 .25 .50 .75 1.00
Distance across sample, mm Area of measurement, mm2

Figure 24-17.- Comparison of AISb Figure 24-18.- Comparison of AISb

maerostruetural homogeneity across microstruetural homogeneity as a
sample sections. function of area of measurement.

24-23
 500X.

Figure 24-19 .- Microstructure of PbZn flight sample B-186.

24-24
 Gravity

(a) Unetched (lox). Cb) Etched (lox).

Figure 24-20 .- Macrophotograph of the longitudinal section of GBT-2 PbZn

sample B-142.

24-25
 25. INTERFACEMARKINGSIN CRYSTALS

EXPERIMENTMA-060
H. C. Gatos at and A. F. Witta

ABSTRACT

Doped germanium single crystals with interface demarcation were success-

fully grown during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission. Interface demarcation
permitted the determination of the microscopic growth behavior from the onset to the
termination of solidification. Preliminary segregation analysis shows striking dif-
ferences in segregation in the presence and the absence of gravity. The correlation
between microscopic growth-rate behavior and the composition of the solid on the
microscale is being evaluated.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the germanium (Ge) crystal growth experiment was to study
quantitatively the basic solidification behavior of high-temperature melts in near-
zero-g conditions. It was specifically designed to establish (i) the growth-rate be-
havior on the microscale, (2) the morphology of the crystal-melt interface and its
changes during solidification, (3) the dopant segregation behavior and its func-
tional dependence on the microscopic growth rate, (4) the absence or presence of
convection phenomena, and (5) the heat-transfer characteristics of a solidification
system in the absence of free convection.

To achieve these objectives, the growth system was equipped for interface
demarcation during solidification through 20-ampere current pulsing (20A) at
4-second intervals. The experiment, involving the growth of gallium (Ga) doped
and antimony (Sb) doped Ge of <111> and <100> orientation, was conducted to per-
mit in all solidified crystals the direct comparison of solidificationbehavior on Earth
with that in near-zero-g conditions.

The data obtained from the experiments were used to assist in establishing a
quantitative framework for solidification and to provide a basis for feasibility studies
of zero-g processing experiments to be conducted in the Space Shuttle. The results
were also intended to establish guidelines for designing space-processing
instrumentation.

aMassachusetts Institute of Technology.

tprincipal Investigator.

25-1
 Preliminary analysis of the experiments indicates that the basic objectives
were realized. Further analysis of several phenomena is in progress.

BASIC THEORY

Solidification conditions require the establishment of thermal gradients (in

melts), which are inherently destabilizing in the presence of gravity. Generally,
the resulting thermal conveetion leads to uncontrollable variations in solidification
rates and significant perturbations of the segregation-controlling diffusion bound-
ary layer at the solidification front (crystal-melt interface). Thus, gravity effects
make it essentially impossible to produce materials with compositional homogeneity
on the mieroseale and maeroseale; furthermore, in many systems, sueh gravity
effeets may contribute significantly to the formation of structural defects in single
erystals.

The adverse conditions generated by gravity effects do not permit the experi-
mental establishment of "theoretieal" ideal experimental solidifieation eonditions.
Thus, a gap exists between theory and experiment in erystal growth. This gap
must be bridged if optimization of processing conditions on Earth is to be achieved.
Speeifieally, several approaches have been taken to obtain solutions for the
segregation-controlling diffusion equation

a2eL ae L ae L
D_+R
ax 2 ax at

for transient and steady-state growth conditions where D is the diffusion coefficient,
eL is the concentration in liquid, R is the speed of advanee of interface, x is the
distance along the crystal, and t is time. The proposed solutions vary, and, be-
eause of convective interference, experimental confirmation of the validity of the
proposed theoretieal approaches has as yet been impossible.

These experiments provide solidifieation eonditions that are applicable, in

principle, to the theoretical work previously mentioned and permit the first analysis
of basic solidification theory through experimental results.

EQUIPMENT

The Ge erystal growth experiment was conducted in the multipurpose furnace

originally designed for the Skylab Program and further developed for the Apollo-
Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). To provide for growth interface demarcation through
current pulsing, the internal structure of the encapsulated quartz ampoule config-
uration that had been used for indium-Sb had to be redesigned. The eenterless
ground Ge single crystals, 1.0 centimeter in diameter, were redueed in diameter

25-2
at both ends to 0.8 centimeter to permit the insertion of high-purity graphite cup
electrodes for current flow across the growth system. The graphite electrodes were
in contact with current-carrying platinum wires, 0.1 centimeter in diameter, con-
nected to the pulsing power supply (fig. 25-1). The pulsing unit provided pulses
of 60 milliseconds duration at 4-second intervals. The electrical pulses for interface
demarcation were applied to the three growth ampoules, containing one Ga-doped
<Iii> Ge crystal and one (each) Ga-doped and Sb-doped <i00> Ge crystal, con-
nected in series to the power supply.

The growth conditions used in space were determined by a series of ground-

based tests that also served as a basis for comparison of the growth behavior en-
countered in one-g and near-zero-g conditions. Based on these tests, the follow-
ing space-growth conditions were established. The furnace was brought to growth
temperature (1383 K (1110 ° C)) over a period of 3.5 hours by applying full power
at a 100-percent duty cycle. At this temperature, the encapsulated Ge crystals were
expected to melt back to a length of approximately 3.5 centimeters. The system was
subsequently allowed to reach thermal equilibrium (soaking period) for 2 hours.
Equilibration was obtained by applying full power with an approximate 90-percent
duty cycle. Current pulsing was applied to the growth system throughout the
heatup, thermal-soaking, and ensuing cooling cycle. After thermal equilibration,
the power system was switched to the cooldown position, resulting in a decreasing
duty cycle with a cooling rate of 2.4 K/min (2.4 ° C/min). This cooling rate was
expected to yield a microscopic growth rate ranging from 5 gm/sec at the beginning
to 10 m/sec at the end of the controlled cooldown period.

The crystals grown in space were subjected to exhaustive growth and segre-
gation analysis based on procedures determined during the ground-based tests.
The primary techniques used in the analysis involve high-resolution etching, Hall-
effect measurements, spreading-resistance measurements, and ion-microprobe
analysis.

RESULTS

The preliminary results of the Ge crystal growth experiment are as follows.

1. All three space-grown Ge segments were single crystals with a length

exceeding 3 centimeters. Breakdown of single crystallinity during the late stages
of growth was expected and was attributed to constitutional supercooling. The ex-
periment thus confirmed the adequacy of the ampoule design. The original regrowth
interface appeared approximately 3.5 centimeters from the cold end of the Ge crys-
tal, confirming on the macroscale the proper functioning of the growth furnace
(figs. 25-2 and 25-3).

2. High-resolution etching analysis of longitudinal cuts of the regrown crys-

tals revealed the presence of interface demarcation lines, confirming the functioning
of the electrode design and pulsing power unit (fig. 25-4). Visual inspection of the
region about the original regrowth interface indicates that before controlled cool-
down (top part of fig. 25-5), the systems experienced uncontrolled, irregular, slow

25-3
growth, which resulted in the formation of a growth band approximately 300 micro-
meters wide. The growth of this band must have occurred during the thermal soak-
ing period and reflects thermal instability in the form of a slow, irregular, down-
ward temperature drift. This thermal drift is attributed to a slight imbalance of
heat input and heat loss in the growth systems.

3. Interface demarcation permitted, by spacing the successive demarcation

lines, a quantitative microscopic growth-rate analysis of the space-grown crystal
(fig. 25-6). The results indicate an exponential increase of the growth rate,
which reached a value of approximately 9 _Am/sec after a growth length of approxi-
mately 2 centimeters. The observed growth-rate behavior in space, which is vir-
tually identical with that encountered during ground-based testing, varies from the
predicted behavior. This variance will have a significant impact on the theoretical
approach to growth and segregation analysis. The results of the growth-rate anal-
ysis also indicate that the heat-transfer characteristics of the system are virtually
identical in zero-g and one-g conditions. This finding indicates that conductive
heat transfer dominates and that the contribution of laminar convection to heat trans-
fer, which was present in the ground-based experiments, is negligible. Interface
demarcation further indicates that the growth interface morphology (shape of the
solidification isotherm) remained constant over a growth distance exceeding 2.5 cen-
timeters. Changes in the morphology of the crystal-melt interface were observed
only after approximately 3.5 centimeters of growth, when the presence of the graph-
ite electrodes, which have significantly different thermal conduction characteristics,
altered the basic heat flow in the system. This finding is important because it pro-
rides a means of controlling the growth interface morphology during the materials
processing in space.

4. The quantitative compositional analysis of the space-grown crystal, based

on spreading-resistance measurements and ion-microprobe measurements, is in
progress. Preliminary results indicate the absence of compositional fluctuations on
the microscale, and the data thus far obtained indicate that compositional homogene-
ity (steady-state segregation) on the macroscale was not obtained during growth.
In fact, the compositional analysis indicates the occurrence of unpredicted dopant
concentration decreases at distances of approximately 3 centimeters from the origi-
nal regrowth interface (fig. 25-7). The validity of these preliminary data obtained
through spreading-resistance measurements is checked by means of ion-microprobe
analysis to verify the absence of unpredictable contamination. The quantitative
microsegregation analysis and comparison of that analysis with theoretical treatments
will be performed after verification of the compositional analysis.

SUMMARY

Based on preliminary results, interface demarcation constitutes an indispen-

sable tool for quantitative investigation of growth and segregation behavior at zero-g
conditions. Preliminary results obtained are as follows.

1. The microscopic growth rate is subject to an initial transient that reaches

approximately 8 _m/sec after 2 centimeters of growth.

25-4
 2. The microscopic growth-rate behavior observed during the ASTP mission
is identical to behavior encountered during ground-based testing.

3. Compositional fluctuations on the mieroseale are absent in the space-

grown Ge crystals.

4. The basic segregation behavior observed in the space-grown material is

fundamentally different from that observed in ground-based tests.

Conclusions concerning the qualitative relationship between microscopic

growth rates and composition will follow further experimental analysis.

25-5
 .
Heat-leveler Gradient region Heat-extraction
region region

Molybdenum disk, ,,'

,,Quartz wool
disks
,,Graphite electrodes Imm :

9.5cm 0.125 c m'

12.7 cm

I, Hot-end configuration
@-
.
q 7 , , ...... ,
..'"''
(

... ,.
*rrnN,,,,"",,,
. :i .... .......1.. ......
Figure 25-1. - Schematic diagram of the growth ampoule.

Figure 25-2. - Radiogram of Ge crystals regrown in space.

25-6
 Figure 25-3. - Ge crystal regrown in space.

. . .. . . ... .._-

Figure 25-5. - Segregation effects in

the region of the original regrowth
interface.

l2 r

.......... Left
-Center
--- Right
Figure 25- 4.- Interface demarcation ~~

0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8

lines in the initial portion of re-
growth . Distance grown, cm

Figure 25-6. - Microscopic growth-rate

analysis of Ga-doped <111> Ge crys-
tal regrown in space.

25-7
 1020 _

% 2
¢_
¢D

._ 1019

1018 I I 1 I
0 1 2 3 4
Distancegrown, cm

Figure 25-7.- Preliminary compositional analysis of Ga-doped <111> Ge crystal

regrown in space.

25-8
 26. ZERO-G PROCESSING OF MAGNETS

EXPERIMENT MA-070

a
D. J. Larson, Jr.

ABSTRACT

The Zero-g Processing of Magnets Experiment (MA-070) was conducted to

study the solidification of magnetic materials in the low-gravity orbital environment.
The magnetic compounds under study, manganese bismuth (MnBi) and copper-cobalt-
cerium ((Cu, Co) 5 Ce), both have the potential for the development of high coercive
strength. The results of this experiment will determine whether space processing
offers the opportunity to substantially improve critical magnetic properties by
improving chemical homogeneity, morphological perfection, crystalline perfection,
or magnetic substructure.

Preliminary results indicate that static fluid configurations, in the absence of

the gravitational body force, differ substantially from the documented terrestrial
behavior. Chemical homogeneity is substantially enhanced on a macroscopic and
microscopic level. Single crystal matrices have been grown in the coordinated
growth regions of the flight samples. Primary crystals one order of magnitude
greater than those grown terrestrially have been noted and are limited in size by
the ampoule dimensions.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this experiment was to increase the fundamental understand-

ing of contained solidification in the low-gravity, orbital environment. In addition,
tests will be conducted on a number of specific results obtained during the Skylab
materials science experimentation and analysis. Specifically, an order of magnitude
reduction in the twin density was reported in the Skylab mixed crystal growth ex-
periment (M563) (ref. 26-1); this finding wiU be tested within the bismuth matrix
that surrounds the manganese bismuth (MnBi) particles. In addition, an analysis
of the Skylab immiscible alloy (M557) experiment results (refs. 26-2 and 26-3) in-
dicates that several significant points were not considered quantitatively; these

aGrumman Aerospace Corporation, Bethpage, New York; Principal Investigator.

26-1
points will be considered in the course of this investigation. 1 The Skylab results
indicate a significantly larger primary crystallite size and a nonuniform chemical
distribution within the primary crystallites. The former result is of critical im-
portance to solution crystal growth in orbit, and the latter is of critical importance
to both solution crystal growth and fundamental solidification theory, if it is actually
a bulk and not just a surface effect. Lastly, investigators will evaluate crystalline
and morphological perfection of directionally solidified eutectics that led to conflict-
ing conclusions within the Skylab copper-aluminum eutectics (M566) and metal and
halide eutectics (M564) experiments 2 (refs. 26-3 and 26-4).

BASIC THEORY

The fluid state before the initiation of thermally controlled solidification is of

fundamental importance to crystal growth and directional solidification experiments.
This fluid state has both static and dynamic considerations; however, the measure-
ments required to conduct in situ or postflight dynamic analysis of the flight samples,
processed during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) flight, were deemedimpos-
sible and thus only static analysis is to be conducted. Previous crystal growth ex-
periments, conducted onboard Skylab, indicated that the static fluid shape in low-g
was appreciably different from the static fluid shape documented terrestrially (refs.
26-5 and 26-6). If the fluid configuration is changed, the heat flux or thermal pro-
file, which is critical to the success or failure of the experiment, may be changed.
Prior work conducted in the drop tower facility at NASA Lewis Research Center
(LeRC) has identified the fluid-crucible variables that are of primary considera-
tion in a reduced gravity environment. These variables are the fluid-crucible
wetting angle e, the thermal gradient G, the crucible taper, the fluid-crucible
volume fill factor, and the diameter to length ratio D/L of the cylindrical crucible
(refs. 26-7 to 26-9). The LeRC results on fluid displacement in the reduced gravity
environment are reproduced in figure 26-1, and the fluid configurations within a
cylindrical crucible ("tank" in LeRC terminology) are illustrated in figure 26-2.
In the current experiments, fluid-crucible fill-factor studies and solidification
studies were conducted in the isothermal portion of the experiment. Fluid displace-
ment studies were conducted in the gradient regions of the experiment. In addition,
the isothermal and elevated temperature thermal gradient experiments were con-
ducted with metallic liquids that wet their containers, whereas the low-temperature
thermal gradient experiment was conducted with a nonwetting fluid-crucible system.
Results, presented in the section entitled "Results and Discussion," were, for the
most part, consistent with theory. Information on the theory of crystal growth and
directional solidification, or coordinated growth of eutectics, is available in refer-
ences 26-10 to 26-12.

1j. L. Reger, "Experiment No. M557Immiscible Alloy Compositions, Final

Report," TRWSystems Group, Apr. 1975.
21bid.

26-2
 EQUIPMENT

This experiment used the multipurpose furnace facility located in the ASTP
docking module. The experiment used three discretely different thermal zones
(one isothermal and two gradient). The thermal profile of the furnace is shown in
figure 26-3 at three stages of the prototype test, and the data used to make this
drawing are presented in table 26-I. Note that the isothermal region of the furnace
had a slight thermal gradient of 2 to 3 K over the range of solidification of this alloy,
and that the thermal gradients in the gradient regions were, respectively, approxi-
mately 30 K/cm and 50 K/cm. The furnace required approximately 3.25 hours to
reach the soak temperature. It was held at the soak temperature for 0.75 hour and
then cooled passively over a 10.5-hour period._ The measured soak temperature
during the flight was 1348 K (1075 ° C), the helium injection was conducted at 673 K
(400 ° C), and the air quench was performed at approximately 523 K (250 ° C).
Controlled solidification was accomplished during an astronaut sleep period to
minimize vehicular vibration and to avoid control maneuvers.

Three experiment cartridges (types 1, 2, and 3) of the design shown in fig-

ure 26-4 were used in the experiment. The sample materials were selected for com-
patibility with the thermal capabilities of the furnace, and the ampoule materials
were selected with both experiment and safety criteria in mind. The final experi-
ment was such that ampoules 1 and 2 were pyrolytic boron nitride and ampoule 3
was quartz. Ampoule 1 contained a 50-50 atomic percent alloy of bismuth and man-
ganese, ampoule 2 contained a copper copper-cobalt cerium (Cu-(Cu, Co)5Ce)
euteetic alloy, and ampoule 3 contained a bismuth manganese-bismuth (Bi-MnBi)
eutectic alloy. These ampoule-sample selections were adequate for both the fluid-
statics studies and the solidification studies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

It should be immediately noted that conclusions based on the flight samples

are preliminary, with the exception of the fluid statics, and that they are based on
surface and near-surface measurements only. No bulk measurements have been
made to date because the materials are being conserved for magnetic analysis.
Once the magnetic results are completed, then the internal morphological, chemical,
microstructural, and crystallographic measurements will be made. Whenever bulk
measurements are critical to a conclusion, this fact will be pointed out.

The macroscopic fluid configurations are visible in the X-ray radiograph

(fig. 26-5), and the reader can infer the anticipated fluid configurations and dis-
placement from figures 26-1 and 26-2.

The three number 1 ampoules (fig. 26-4) contained wetting fluids, each with a
different fill factor; the other factors are assumed constant, The fill factors were
such that one ampoule was anticipated to give a type 1 configuration, one ampoule
a type 2 configuration, and one ampoule a configuration (type 3) somewhere close
to the transition between the two. Unfortunately, the type 2 sample was lost be-
cause of a vibrational failure of the inner ampoule; however, the other ampoules

26-3
agreed with theory. The type 1 sample is shown in figure 26-6. The pore has been
revealed by breaking away a portion of the metallic shell surrounding the large pore.
All the ground-based fluids assumed a bottom position with a flattened meniscus that
was due to the dominant gravitational body force.
The number 2 ampoules contained a wetting fluid; however, the fluid was
positionally constrained by the unmelted seed portion of the sample. These samples
all had high fill factors, and cross-sectional analysis is required to define any fine
differences between the samples.

The number 3 ampoules were intended to represent an unconstrained, non-

wetting fluid, in parallel walled capillaries, with a superimposed thermal gradient.
Two unanticipated results took place during the flight experiment. First, the num-
ber 3 ampouleswere backfilled with inert gas to suppress cavitation of the bismuth-
rich fluid and, apparently, a small amount of contaminant oxygen was also injected
into the type 3 ampoule of the middle cartridge (fig. 26-5). This small amount of
contaminant oxygen was sufficient to change the system from a nonwetting to a wetting
system, with concomitant differences in displacement behavior. The nonwetting
fluid moved toward the hot end of the ampoules, whereas the wetting fluid moved
away from the hot end. This fluid displacement is indicated by the comparative
positions of the solidified samples in figure 26-5. The manifestation of the fluid
motion within the nonwetting ampoules was such that, as the bismuth-rich fluid
expanded upon solidification, it caused an internal stress to build up ahead of the
solidification front that was sufficient to cause these two ampoules to crack. Close
inspection of figure 26-5 shows that a small amount of fluid was lost within one of
the cartridges.

Another fluid effect was unexpectedly discovered in the ground-based studies.

Inspection of the thermal profile imposed upon the number 3 ampoules, when the
furnace was at peak temperature, reveals that the hot end of the number 3 ampoule
appreciably superheated the bismuth-rich fluid. This superheating necessitated the
backfilling of these ampoules with inert gas to suppress cavitation. To check ampoule-
fluid compatibility, the quartz-bismuth system was superheated within a differential
thermal analysis (DTA) unit. This testing discovered a liquid phase transition that
took place at 988 K (715 ° C) on heating and 858 K (585 ° C) on cooling. Cyclic studies
within the DTA ascertained that these transitions were one and the same, with large
hysteresis. Similar fluid state transitions have been reported for other semimetals,
but not previously for bismuth (ref. 26-13).

The isothermally processed ground-based samples demonstrated appreciable

gravitationally dependent segregation. This chemical segregation resulted in almost
all the properitectic Mn particles being at the top of the sample and a continuously
decreasing area percentage of MnBi particles on progressing from top to bottom.
This area fraction varied from 42 percent at the top to less than 1 percent at the
bottom. The Mn, MnBi, and Bi phases were evident at the surface of the ground-
based samples.

Surface analysis of the internal pore shown in figure 26-6 revealed no primary
Mn particles that could be identified by X-ray energy dispersive analysis. There
appeared to be extremely large MnBi particles that were arrayed in a Bi-IMnBi ma-
trix. The major MnBi particles were few in number and an order of magnitude

26-4
greater in extent than those documented within the ground-based samples. Compar-
ison with Skylab samples revealed, unexpectedly, that these results occurred with-
in the Skylab samples but they had not been quantitatively evaluated (ref. 26-2).
The extent of these crystallites was limited by the dimensions of the ampoule.

Chemical surface analysis of these particles, by X-ray energy dispersive

analysis and mierocompositional mapping techniques, gave a highly anomalous re-
sult. The particles seen optically and the two-phase matrix are isocompositional.
This compositional result may be a surface effect, and it can be readily explained as
such. However, reference 26-2 (fig. 5, p. 143) shows a bulk micrograph that would
also account for this compositional result. Within the bulk, it would be anticipated
that these large erystallites would be monolithic slabs of uniform composition. The
sectioning of the samples will determine whether this characteristic is a bulk effect.
If this is true, the structure is an extremely difficult one to explain with respect to
solidification theory.

The X-ray surface analysis of the type 2 samples indicates a single crystal-
line matrix, which is an ideal result. However, no conclusions about the disper-
sion of the secondary particles can be drawn at this time because the necessary
bulk analysis has not yet been performed.

The type 3 ground-based samples revealed gravitational segregation to a

lesser extent than the type 1 samples. The segregation was sufficient, from bottom
to top, to result in three discrete regions of growth. At the bottom of the samples
was a bismuth-rich region that consisted of a proeutectic array of Bi dendrites and
interdendritic eutectic (fig. 26-7). This morphology abruptly changed to a coordi-
nated growth (fig. 26-8). The abrupt change in morphology may have been chem-
ically or thermally driven; but, if it were chemically driven and the chemical
gradient due to gravitational segregation, then one would not expect to observe
this abrupt change in the flight samples. If it were imposed thermally, then one
might anticipate similar behavior, but with the transition somewhat displaced. Sur-
face techniques are not sufficient to adequately define the location of the transition
point in the flight samples. However, it appears that the transition does occur, and
thus it is thermally driven or driven by both chemical and thermal parameters. The
latter is the most likely. Internal chemistry and morphology have not yet been
defined.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The intent of this program was to study the fluid-static configurations in low-
g by variation of fundamental parameters such as fill factor, diameter to length ratio
of the cylindrical crucible, fluid-crucible wetting angle, and crucible taper. These
goals were accomplished and the results were found to agree well with theory. Of
equal importance was the study of solidification in the low.-g environment. Because
this is a preliminary report, definitive conclusions within the latter area are not
included, but it appears that sufficient data exist to conclude that chemical and mor-
phological distributions are appreciably different in the low-g processed materials.

26-5
 The following conclusions are made with a high degree of certainty.

1. Bismuth undergoes a liquid phase transition at elevated temperatures.

2. Equiatomic manganesebismuth alloys undergo severe gravitational segre-

gation. However, segregation does not appear to occur in the flight processed
samples.
3. The number and size distribution of orbitally processed primary crystals
is greatly different than the sameproperties of terrestrially processed samples.

4. Static fluid configurations in the orbital environment are greatly different

from those monitored terrestrially.
5. Anomalous surface chemical results have been monitored in areas of pri-
mary crystallization.

26-6
 REFERENCES

26-1. Wilcox, William R.; Yee, James F.; Sen, Sanghamitra; Samra, Kalluri; and
Lin, Mu-Ching: Directional Solidification of InSb-GaSb Alloys. Proceed-
ings of the Third SpaceProcessing Symposium - Skylab Results. NASA
TM X-70252, 1974, pp. 301-373.
26-2. Reger, J. L.: Experiment No. M-557 Immiscible Alloy Compositions.
Proceedings of the Third Space Processing Symposium - Skylab Results.
NASA TM X-70252, 1974, pp. 133-158.
26-3. Hasemeyer, Earl A.; Lovoy, Charles V.; and Lacy, L. L.: Skylab Experi-
ment M566 Copper-Aluminum Eutectic. Proceedings of the Third Space
Processing Symposium - Skylab Results. NASA TM X-70252, 1974,
pp. 457-461.
26-4. Yue, A. S.; and Yu, J. G.: Halide Eutectic Growth. Proceedings of the
Third SpaceProcessing Symposium - Skylab Results. NASA TM X-70252,
1974, pp. 469-489.
26-5. Witt, A. F.; Gatos, H. C.; Lichtensteiger, M. ; Lavine, M. C.; and Herman,
C.J.: Steady State Growth and Segregation Under Zero Gravity: InSb.
Proceedings of the Third Space Processing Symposium - Skylab Results.
NASA TM X-70252, 1974, pp. 275-288.
26-6. Walter, H. U.: Seeded, Containerless Solidification of Indium Antimonide.
Proceedings of the Third SpaceProcessing Symposium - Skylab Results.
NASA TM X-70252, 1974, pp. 257-265.
26-7. Clodfelter, Robert G.; and Lewis, Roger C.: Fluid Studies in a Zero
Gravity Environment. Technical Note 61-84, Wright-Patterson A.F.B.,
June 1961.

26-8. Clodfelter, Robert G.: Fluid Mechanics and Tankage Design for Low
Gravity Environments. ASD-TDR-63-506, Wright-Patterson A.F.B.,
Sept. 1963.
26-9. Clodfelter, Robert Glen: Low Gravity Pool Boiling Heat Transfer. APL-
TDR-64-19, Wright-Patterson A.F.B., Mar. 1964.
26-10. Chalmers, Bruce: Principles of Solidification. John Wiley and Sons, 1964.
26-11. Flemings, Merton C.: Solidification Processing. McGraw-Hill, 1974.
26-12. Hurle, D. T.J.: Mechanisms of Growth of Metal Single Crystals From the
Melt. Pergamon Press, 1962.
26-13. Vezzoli, Gary C.: Electrical Resistance of Liquid Sulfur to 420° C and of
Liquid Selenium to 700° C. American Ceram. Soc. J., vol. 55, no. 2,
Feb. 1972, pp. 65-67.

26-7
 TABLE 26-I.- PROTOTYPETEST THERMAL DATA

Thermocouple Temperature, K (°C)

Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 3

AT-1 873 (600) 1092 (819) 1328 (1055)

AT-2 869 (596) 1088 (815) 1322 (1049)

AT-3 788 (515) 962 (689) 1152 (879)

AT-4 543 (270) 610 (337) 678 (405)

Heat leveler 909 (636) 1126 (853) 1362 (1089)

26-8
 a
011 == ao2
2 <90 °
Taper as shown
(1)

e,1 • a 2
(1)._(2) 01 = as
Taper o2 shown
>90 °

Cold _ Hot 01 " 02 <90°

_-,/J.,/_ "1 >o2

(l) (2) NO taper

Cold _ Hot e l=e 2 >90 °

_/-_ al>a2
NO taper
(I) (2)

e I > #2 > 90°

al =c_2
NO taper
(1) (2)

82 < # 1 < 90°

al = a2
No taper
(l) (2)

Figure 26-1.- Results on fluid displace-

ment in the reduced gravity environ-
ment where o is surface tension.

26-9
 D

1 _ Vapor

I_ Liquid

1 I I I

I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12
D
L

Figure 26-2 .- Wetting fluid configurations in a cylindrical tank.

26-10
 1373
(110(
e.-..,,.,._ THL
127!
(1000) "1,.%,,, THL "Temperature heat leveler

1173
(goo

1073
A (BOO)-_ THL
(J
9,--
973 - _. _
(7OO)

873

E
(60O)
-°---.,..., -,,, \
773
(SOO

673
(400)

573
%'.%% %_
(3OO)
%%

473
(2OO) I I I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16
Distance from cartridgehot end, cm

Figure 26-3.- Thermal profile of the

furnace at the three stages of the
prototype test.

Gradient section _H//////////,,,, t

It_-_ _ ....... "_ ............. _\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\x

1
' i ' " Q

AT-I/ ,," i AT-2 \ AT-3" ! ! AT-4" / ",

c)Q oC) c> C) C)

i. Thermal insert, ZTA graphite
2. Ampoule l
3. Ampoule 2
4. Insulation
5. Support tube, 321 stainlesssteel
6. Ampoule 3
I. Thermal insert,ZTA graphite

Figure 26-4.- Experiment cartridge.

26-11
 Figure 26-6.- Large pore formed by flow
of the wetting fluid over all inner sur-
faces of the ampoule (120X).

Figure 26-7. - Proeutectic bismuth den-

drites and interdendritic Bi-MnBi
eutectic (40X).

Figure 26-5. - X-ray radiograph of the

three flight cartridges (1x1.

26-12
Figure 26-8 .- Transition from dendritic to coordinated growth (75X).

26-13
 27. CRYSTAL GROWTH FROM THE VAPOR PHASE

EXPERIMENT MA-085

H. Wiedemeier ,at H . Sadeek ,a F . C . Klaessig ,a and M . Norek a

ABSTRACT

Three vapor transport experiments on multicomponent systems were per-

formed during the Apollo-Soyuz mission to determine the effects of microgravity
forces on crystal morphology and mass transport rates. The mixed systems using
germanium selenide, tellurium, germanium tetraiodide (transport agent), germa-
nium monosulfide, germanium tetrachloride (transport agent), and argon (inert
atmosphere) were

i. SystemA: GeSe0.99Te0.01- GeI 4

2. SystemB: GeS0.98Se0.02- GeCI 4

3. System C: GeS- GeC14-Ar

The materials were enclosed in evacuated sealed ampoules of fused silica and were
transported in a temperature gradient of the multipurpose electric furnace onboard
the Apollo-Soyuz spacecraft.

The preliminary evaluation of systems A and B shows improved quality of the

space-grown crystals in terms of growth morphology and bulk perfection. This
conclusion is based on a direct comparison of space-grown and ground-based (pro-
totype) crystals by means of X-ray diffraction, microscopic, and chemical etching
techniques. The observation of greater mass transport rates than predicted for a
microgravity environment by existing vapor transport models indicates the existence
of non-gravity-caused transport effects in a reactive solid-gas phase system.
Present results are in close agreement with those of a similar Skylab experiment
and extend the findings to mixed systems and different experimental conditions.
The completed analysis of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crystal growth by vapor
transport experiment, in combination with the Skylab results, will yield a conclu-
sive interpretation of the crystal growth and transport phenomena under micrograv-
ity conditions for a series of technologically useful materials.

aRensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

tprincipal Investigator.

27-1
 INTRODUCTION

Crystal growth by chemical vapor transport is of technological importance for

the production of bulk- and layer-type single erystaUine materials used in various
electronic devices. That the performance characteristics of electronic materials are
critically dependent on the degree of chemical homogeneity and crystalline perfec-
tion is well known. These properties are affected by the transport and growth
conditions of a given chemical system. Complete control of these growth parameters
under ground-based conditions is limited because of the presence of gravity-driven
convection. Under otherwise optimum growth conditions on Earth, convective
interference with the transport process causes crystalline imperfections.

Crystal growth in a microgravity environment without convective interference

should produce crystals of improved quality and yield fundamental data for the
vapor transport process. These expectations were confirmed by the results of
Skylab Experiment M556 (Vapor Growth of IV-VI Compounds). In the Skylab experi-
ment (ref. 27-1), representative compounds of Group IV-VI materials, germa-
nium selenide (GeSe) and germanium teUuride (GeTe), were transported with
germanium tetraiodide (GeI4) as a transport agent. The single crystals grown in
space are of considerably improved structural perfection compared to corresponding
ground-based specimens. The second major result of the Skylab studies is the
observation of greater mass transport rates in a microgravity environment than
predicted for a diffusion-controlled transport process. Because of the far-reaching
scientific and technological implications of these two observations, the Skylab
results served as a basis for the definition of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)
experiments. The primary objectives of the ASTP crystal growth by vapor transport
experiment were to extend and generalize microgravity crystal growth for a class
of compounds and to characterize the unexpected gas motion observed during
Skylab missions. Hence, new compounds and doped materials were transported
with different transport agents in higher temperature gradients. Also, an inert
atmosphere was used in one of the transport ampoules. Details of the experimental
design and chemical systems are discussed as follows.
This report is based on the preliminary analysis of two of the three vapor
transport experiments performed in space. Present data reveal improved crystalline
perfection for the space-grown material compared to ground-based samples. These
results confirm the Skylab observations and extend the conclusions drawn to more
complex systems. In addition, the present evaluation of mass transport rates for
two systems shows considerably greater mass fluxes than predicted by theory. The
latter result not only confirms Skylab data, but could provide evidence for deter-
mining the cause of the higher than predicted transport rates.
Because of the technological importance of single crystals for solid-state
devices and because of their high yield-to-weight ratio, crystal growth by vapor
transport is a primary candidate for space-processing applications. Therefore,
the long-range goal of mierogravity transport studies is to provide the scientific
and technical basis for actual space manufacturing. In addition, the knowledge
gained from these experiments will be of practical use for the improvement of crystal
growth techniques on Earth.

27-2
 GROUND-BASEDSTUDIES

Basic Theory

In a chemical transport reaction (ref. 27-2), a gaseous (g) transport

agent B(g) reacts at a given temperature with the solid (s) source material A(s)
to form exclusively gaseous products C(g). This process is represented by the
following reaction.

xA(s) +yB(g) = zC(g) + .... (27-1)

The number of different gaseous products formed depends on the particular chemi-
cal system. The vapor speeies migrate in the reaction vessel from the source to the
condensation region, where, at a different temperature, the reverse reaction occurs
with formation of the solid. The necessary concentration gradient is established by
means of a temperature gradient, which yields different equilibrium constants for
the reaction of equation (27-1) and, thus, yields different p_rtial pressures of the
gaseous species in the source and condensation zones of the system. According to
equation (27-1), the solid A is transported by way of the gas phase through a
chemical reaction; this method is distinctly different from transport by sublimation.
Under optimal experimental conditions, well-defined single crystals of the source
material are obtained by the condensation reaction. Depending on the thermo-
dynamic properties of the transport reaction, a chemieal transport can occur from
high to low temperature or from low to high temperature. This aspeet is of practical
importance with respect to the choiee of transport agent and condensation tempera-
ture. The transport reaction is performed in evacuated, sealed ampouies of fused
silica that are conventionally subjected to the desired temperature gradient in a
horizontal, two-zone, tubular resistance furnace.

The migration of gas phase species can be described by diffusion and by

gravity-driven convection. In a gravitational field and temperature gradient, both
transport modes occur simultaneously. It is a unique feature of the vapor transport
technique to select experimental conditions so that one or the other mode can be
predominant. Under ground-based conditions, the convective contribution to the
overall transport proeess can be minimized but not eliminated. Based on present
models for diffusive and convective gas motion (ref. 27-2), the material flux from
the source to the condensation region is affected by the pressure in the transport
ampoule. At very low pressures of the transport agent, the mass transport rate is
controlled by the rate of the heterogeneous solid-gas phase reaction in the source
or the condensation region, or both. Under these conditions, the material flux is
proportional to the concentration of the transport agent. At medium pressures, the
transport rate is inversely proportional to the total pressure. In this range, the
overall transport is diffusion controlled. At higher pressures, the material flux
increases with increasing total pressure and thus indicates the predominance of the
convective transport mode. For the conditions of the diffusion- and convection-
controlled transport modes, the heterogeneous solid-gas phase reactions in the
source and condensation zones occur rapidly.

27-3
 Transport Properties of Group IV-VI Compounds

Mass transport rate studies on GeTe (ref. 27-3) and GeSe (ref. 27-4) con-
firmed the previously described models. Details of the experimental procedures
and results have been discussed previously (refs. 27-3 and 27-4). The most impor-
tant observation of these studies is the decrease in crystal perfection with increasing
contribution of the convective component to the overall transport process. Trans-
port studies in the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) laboratory on germanium
monosulfide (GeS) using germanium tetrachloride (GeC14)as a transport agent and
different temperature gradients show the diffusion- and convection-controlled trans-
port regimes in agreement with those of the previous systems (refs. 27-3 and 27-4).
In particular, the changes in crystal morphology and habit of GeSas a function of
transport mode reveal the negative effects of convective interference on crystal
quality. The previous ground-based studies and the solution properties of solids
used in these binary systems led to the definition of mixed systems for two of the
three transport experiments performed during the ASTP mission and discussed in
this report. (The third transport ampoule contained GeSand a mixture of GeC14and
argon (Ar)). The chemical composition of the mixed systems is given by the formulas
GeSe0.99Te0.01 (system A) and GeS0.98Se0.02 (system B), respectively. In the
RPI laboratory, quantitative mass transport rate studies in terms of flux as a func-
tion of pressure were performed on these systems in the temperature gradient of
approximately 873-_ 773K (600° -_ 500 ° C). The transport agents used were Gel 4

for system A and GeC14 for system B. The flux is calculated from the quantity of
crystals recovered, the cross section of the ampoule, and the duration of the experi-
ment. The pressure is computed for the mean temperature from the amount of trans-
port agent added, assuming ideal conditions and use of GeI 4 (g) or GeC14 (g),
respectively. The results are illustrated in figure 27-1, together with those for the
system GeS - GeC14 (C). The flux curves of all three systems have the same shape
as those observed earlier (ref. 27-4). The diffusion-controlled region at lower
pressures shows a decrease in flux with increasing pressure. The range of pre-
dominantly convective transport is characterized by an increase in flux with
increasing pressure. The leveling of the flux curve for system A at higher pres-
sures is due to the precipitation of the transport agent and the resultant establish-
ment of a constant saturation pressure in the ampoule. The flux curves in fig-
ure 27-1, determined in the RPI laboratory, serve as a basis for the evaluation of
the space experiments. For the direct comparison of mass transport rates and
crystals obtained on Earth and in space, a set of three ampoules containing the same
amounts of starting materials and transport agent as the corresponding ampoules
used on the ASTP mission was processed in the prototype furnace. This furnace
and the prototype transport conditions were-identical to ,the furnace and conditions
used in space, except for gravity.

27-4
 EXPERIMENTAL ASTP PROCEDURES

Apparatus

The transport experiments were performed in the multipurpose electric

furnace, which consisted essentially of a cylindrical furnace chamber and an instru-
mentation compartment. The furnace chamber contained three tubular reaction
cavities for the individual metal cartridges and quartz ampoules discussed subse-
quently. Because the furnace was heated resistively in one zone at the source
region, the desired temperature gradient and stability were achieved by heat
shields surrounding the quartz ampoules in the metal cartridges and by appropriate
heat shields in the furnace. The temperature gradient employed for these experi-
ments in space was 877 -_ 780 K (604 ° -+ 507 ° C) with a shallow gradient in the hot
zone and a nearly linear gradient between the hot and cold zones of the reaction
chamber. During the performance of the transport experiments, the furnace tem-
peratures were constantly monitored at the outside of the metal cartridges in the
hot and cold zones. The relationship between furnace and actual ampoule tempera-
tures was calibrated under identical ground-based conditions by using
thermocouples.

Ampoule and Sample Preparation

The transport ampoules were made of fused silica tubing of 13.7 millimeters
inside diameter and 150 millimeters length. Near the rounded end, the ampoules
contained two thin silica rods to hold the source material in place. The other

ampoule end was sealed after loading at a pressure of 0. 1333 mN/m 2 (10 -6 torr) or
less. Before loading, the cleaned ampoules (refs. 27-3 and 27-4) were outgassed
at a temperature of approximately 1273 K (i000 ° C) and a pressure of 0. 1333 mN/m 2

(10 -6 torr) for 10 hours. The polycrystalline starting materials were synthesized
by the repeated annealing at approximately 873 K (600 ° C) of stoichiometric mixtures
of the binary compounds GeS, GeSe, and GeTe. The compounds were prepared from
high-purity elements (99.999 percent) by annealing and subsequent sublimation of
the product (refs. 27-3 and 27-4). The crystallographic identity of all materials
was established by means of X-ray diffraction techniques. High-purity Gel 4 (99.999

percent) and GeC14 (99.999 percent) were used as transport agents. Ultra-high-
purity Ar was employed as inert gas in one system. The ampoule designated as 3A
in this experiment contained 1.50 grams of GeSe0.99Te0.01 and 123.5 milligrams of

GeI 4. Ampoule 3B was loaded with 1.50 grams of GeS 0.98Se0. 02 and 59.1 milligrams

of GeC14. The third ampoule (3C) contained I. 50 grams of GeS, 61.8 milligrams of

GeCl 4, and 193.53 kN/m 2 (i .91 atmospheres) of Ar at the mean temperature of the
gradient. The ampoules used for the ground-based prototype tests (2A, 2B, and

27-5
2C) were of the samedimensions and contents. The ehemical transport reactions
for the binary compounds are shown in the following equations.

GeSe(s) + GeI4(g) = 2 GeI2(g) + 0.5 Se2(g) (27-2)

GeTe(s) + Gel4(g) = 2 Gel2(g) + 0.5 Te2(g) (27-3)

GeS(s) + GeC14(g) = 2 GeC12(g) + 0.5 S2(g) (27-4)

The experimental conditions for the ASTP mission are summarized as follows for a
temperature gradient of 877-_ 780K (604° -_ 507° C).

GeSe0.99Te0.01(3A) P(GeI4(g)) = 70.93kN/m 2 (0.70 arm)

GeS0.98Se0.02 (3B) P(GeC14(g)) = 95.25 kN/m 2 (0.94 atm)

GeS (3C) P(GeC14(g)) = 97.27 kN/m 2 (0.96 atm)

P(Ar) = 193.53 kN/m 2 (1.91 arm)

where P indicates component gas pressure. The transport reactions of the mixed
systems are analogous. The total pressures in terms of GeI4(g ) or GeC14(g) are
calculated for the mean temperature of the gradient and for ideal gas conditions.

Heating Cycle and Return of Ampoules

The transport ampoules were enclosed in metal cartridges, which were

inserted into the multipurpose furnace by the astronauts. After a heatup period of
approximately 2 hours, the desired temperature gradient was achieved and
maintained for 16 hours. Following termination of the experiment, cooling of the
cartridges to ambient temperatures occurred over a period of approximately 4 hours,
during which a helium quench was used.

Examination of the opened eartridges at the NASA George C. Marshall Space

Flight Center revealed that none of the ampoules had any mechanical damage and
that the source material in all the ampoules was firmly attached to the ampoule wall
in the source region. The ampoules were brought to the RPI laboratory for analysis.
An opened cartridge and a prototype ampoule (2A) are shown in figure 27-2. The
residual source material is at the left end of the ampoule; the onset of crystallization
and the deposition zone extend to the right end of the ampoule. The ampoule fit

27-6
into the upper section of the cartridge, which was inserted into the lower part of
the cartridge and sealed at the right edge of the wider section (left part) of the
upper cartridge.

RESULTSAND DISCUSSION

The preliminary evaluation of two transport experiments performed on the

ASTP mission is based on X-ray diffraction analyses, flux measurements, and
microscopic and chemical etching techniques. Present results are summarized as
follows.

Crystallographic Identification of Transport Products

The crystallographie identification of space-grown crystals was established

by means of Debye-Scherrer and Laue X-ray diffraction techniques. For the Debye-
Scherrer method, randomly selected crystals were finely powdered, sealed in
thin-walled glass capillaries, and exposed to copper (Cu) Ka radiation in a 114.59-
millimeter-diameter camera. For the Laue method, individual single-crystal plate-
lets were mounted on the crystal holder of a conventional Laue camera and exposed
to Cu Ka radiation. The results in terms of lattice parameters (Debye-Scherrer)
and crystallographic orientation of as-grown predominant faces (Laue) are sum-
marized in table 27-I together with corresponding data for ground-based crystals.

A comparison of the data in table 27-I shows that the lattice constants of the
respective systems are in excellent agreement. There is no change in the orientation
of predominant native faces of single crystals. Within the detection limits of X-ray
diffraction techniques, there is no measurable effect of microgravity forces on the
crystallographic parameters of space-grown crystals. These results are expected
in view of the relative magnitude of chemical bonding and gravitational forces.

Transmission Laue photographs of GeS0.98Se0.02 ground (2B) and space

(3B) crystals revealed major differences, as illustrated in figure 27-3. The diffrac-
tion pattern of the ground-based crystal (fig. 27-3(a)) shows considerable strain
and multiplicity of individual diffraction spots, an indication of distortion and
structural inhomogeneities of the ground specimens. The diffraction pattern of the
space crystal (fig. 27-3(b)) clearly reveals the twofold symmetry of the predominant
(001)-oriented growth face. The considerably better defined diffraction spots indi-
cate a higher degree of crystallographic perfection compared to the ground-based
sample. These differences in crystallinity are observed for most samples that have
been investigated. Similar observations are made for ground (2A) and space (3A)
crystals of the GeSe0.99Te0.01 system. The combined results of the present
diffraction studies demonstrate the improved structural homogeneity of the crystals
obtained in a microgravity environment.

27-7
 Mass Transport Rates

The determination of the mass transport rates observed in a microgravity

environment is based on the mass of the transported crystals and on the mass loss
of the source materials. The sameprocedures were applied to determine the flux
of the ground-based (prototype) systems. The experimental uncertainties connected
with the recovery of crystals and the separation of crystals from the transport agent
were combined to yield lower values for the mass flux observed under microgravity
conditions. The extrapolated values are based on a graphical extrapolation of the
diffusion-controlled region of the respective ground-based experimental flux curves
shown in figure 27-1. Therefore, selected data on flux as a function of pressure
were plotted in double logarithmic scales. The resulting straight line was extended
to the flux that corresponded to the pressure employed in the space experiment.
The data of the diffusion-controlled region used for the extrapolation were selected
to obtain upper values for the predicted fluxes. The extrapolation is based on the
assumption that vapor transport in a microgravity environment is by gas phase
diffusion. The numerical results are listed in table 27-II.

A comparison of these data reveals a rather significant result. For system A,

the flux observed in a microgravity environment is lower than that observed under
ground-based (prototype) conditions, but is approximately three times greater than
predicted for a diffusion-limited transport. For system B, the ground-based flux
and the microgravity flux are apparently the same, but the latter is approximately
three times higher than the transport rate predicted by theory. In view of the
previously discussed evaluation procedures, the discrepancy between observed
and predicted microgravity fluxes is outside error limits. Despite the differences
in experimental conditions between the ASTP and Skylab missions, the observed
trends for the mass transport rates in a mierogravity environment are in perfect
agreement for both missions.

The consistency of the flux data (ASTP and Skylab) obtained for different
chemical systems with two transport agents, seven pressures, and three tempera-
ture gradients strongly supports the validity of these observations. The combined
results suggest the existence of non-gravity-caused transport effects in a micro-
gravity environment. These unexpected phenomena could be related to thermochem-
ical effects of gas phase reactions; these effects have not been considered in existing
vapor transport models. A further interpretation of the combined data will be
attempted after completion of the current evaluation. However, it is justifiable to
conclude that the transport phenomena observed on the ASTP and Skylab missions
are of scientific and technological significance. Furthermore, clarification of these
observations is of great practical importance for space-processing applications.

Morphological Characterization of Crystals

Optical photomicrographs of representative GeSe0.99Te0.01 (A) ground

(prototype) and space crystals show qualitative differences in surface morphology
as illustrated in figure 27-4. Most of the prototype crystals (fig. 27-4(a)) reveal
ragged edges, intergrowth, and stepped surfaces. The space crystals (fig. 27-4(b))
have smoother surfaces and, in general, have better defined edges. The average
dimensions of the ground specimens range from approximately 2 to 8 millimeters in

27-8
edge length. The slightly smaller sizes of the space material are in agreement with
the lower microgravity transport rates observed for this system (table 27-II).

The deposition patterns of transport agent GeI4 on the system A ampoule

walls, shown in figure 27-5, differ significantly. The transport agent in the space
ampoule (fig. 27-5(a)) has condensed in the form of well-developed, transparent
single-crystal platelets and a few needles. The GeI4 deposition in the ground-based
ampoule (fig. 27-5(b)) consists of dendritic material with a distinct curvature of
individual dendrites that are as long as approximately 8 millimeters. The absence
of any distinct curvature in the deposition pattern of the space ampoule
(fig. 27-5 (a)) reflects the more homogeneousgas motion in a microgravity
environment.

Optical photomicrographs of representative GeS0.98Se0.02 (B) ground

(prototype) and space crystals in figure 27-6 reveal distinct morphological differ-
ences. The prototype crystals (fig. 27-6(a))show considerable aggregation,
undefined edges, and rough surfaces. The distinct morphological improvement in
terms of surfaces and edges of the space crystals is apparent from figure 27-6 (b).
The average dimensions of the space material range from approximately 1 to 7 milli-
meters in edge length. Because the transport rates for system B (table 27-II) are
the sameunder both ground and space conditions, the external morphological
differences reflect the absence of convective interference in a microgravity
environment.

To investigate the effects of microgravity forces on crystalline perfection for

the bulk of the material, internal faces of ground and space crystals were examined
by means of chemical etching and optical microscopy. For this purpose, crystal
platelets were cleaved parallel to the (001) plane.

An optical photomicrograph (200X) of the cleaved face of a ground (prototype)

cyrstal of GeSe0.99Te0.01 (system A) shows the presence of large cavities in the
bulk of the material (fig. 27-7(a)). After chemical etching, the same area of the
crystal is covered with etch pits (fig. 27-7(b)). It is interesting to note that the
areas which appear to be mirror smooth at this magnification (fig. 27-7(a)) show a
high etch-pit density (fig. 27-7(b)). Etch pits along the walls of the main cavity
are also clearly visible. The concentration of etch pits indicates the degree of
structural or chemical imperfections in the ground-based material. Similar obser-
vations were made for the majority of the investigated crystals.

Application of the same cleaving and etching procedures to space-grown

crystals of system A yields rather different results, as shown in figure 27-8. The
photomicrograph (100X) of the cleaved crystal reveals that most of the space material
is structurally very uniform (fig. 27-8(a)). The photomicrograph (200X) of a
cleaved space crystal platelet after etching (fig. 27-8(b)) shows very few etch pits
and thus indicates a high degree of microhomogeneity. The striation pattern of
both crystals, showing (001) planes of different depth with respect to the native
surface, is due to cleavage. (The edge damagewas caused by handling.)

27-9
 Similar differences in cleavage and etch patterns were observed for ground-
based (prototype) and space-grown GeS0.98Se0.02 (B) crystals as shown in
figures 27-9 and 27-10. Elongated channels and irregular cleavage of the ground
crystal (fig. 27-9(a), 100×) indicate nearly macroscopic crystallographic imper-
fections for the bulk of the material. Chemical etching of the same crystal
(fig. 27-9 (b)) reveals additional random imperfeetions in other areas of the cleaved
face. This is contrasted by optical photomicrographs (100×) of the native, cleaved,
and etched (001) face of a space-grown crystal platelet (B) in figure 27-10. The
spotty appearance of the native surface (fig. 27-10 (a)) is due to condensation of
residual gas phase on the crystal during the cooldown period of the ASTP furnace.
The cleaved face (fig. 27-10(b)) reveals a high degree of structural quality for the
bulk of the space material. The line pattern is due to cleavage and marks the border
of a series of (001) planes of different depth relative to the native surface. Except
for an isolated area in the lower left corner of the same crystal platelet
(fig. 27-10(c)), the space crystal is practically unaffected by chemical etching, an
indication of considerably improved structural and chemical microhomogeneity of
the crystal relative to the corresponding ground-based material.

The previously described differences after cleaving and etching were

observed for the majority of presently investigated space and ground specimens.
The combined morphological observations demonstrate the improved crystallographic
quality of the crystals grown in a microgravity environment.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The original objectives of the crystal growth by vapor transport experiment

were to investigate the effects of microgravity forces on the morphology of single
crystals of mixed systems and to determine the mass transport rates of these systems
using the chemical transport technique. Therefore, three vapor transport experi-
ments were performed during the Apollo-Soyuz mission using three chemical
compounds, two transport agents, and one inert gas in one common temperature
gradient. The preliminary evaluation of two of the three experiments performed
during the Apollo-Soyuz mission has yielded positive results. This conclusion is
based on a direct comparison of macroscopic crystal habits, optical microscopy,
and chemical etching of cleaved crystals obtained under ground-based (prototype)
and microgravity conditions. Present data indicate improved structural homogeneity
of the space-grown materials. In addition to the crystallographic data, the obser-
vation of greater mass transport rates in a microgravity environment than predicted
by existing transport models is significant and represents the second important
result of this experiment.

Despite the preliminary nature of presently available analysis data, the

results are in close agreement with those of the similar Skylab experiment. Consid-
ering the experimental differences between the Apollo-S0yuz and Skylab missions
in terms of chemical systems, pressures, and temperature gradients, the agreement
demonstrates the validity of the combined results. This agreement confirms initial
predictions concerning the suitability of the vapor transport technique for the
growth of better quality crystals, and the observation of unexpected phenomena
in a microgravity environment. Crystals of structurally improved homogeneity have

27-10
been produced, and the transport rates in spacewere rather unexpected. When
the analysis of this experiment has been completed, the combined information avail-
able from the Apollo-Soyuz and Skylab missions will represent the crystal growth
and transport properties in a microgravity environment for a class of technologically
useful materials. These results are of scientific and practical significance for future
space-processing applications.

27-11
 REFERENCES

27-1. Wiedemeier, H.; Klaessig, F. C.; Wey, S. J.; and Irene, E. A.:
Vapor Growth of GeTe Single Crystals in Micro-Gravity. Proceedings
of the Third Space Processing Symposium on Skylab Results, vol. 1,
June 1974, pp. 235-256.
27-2. Schaefer, Harald: Chemical Transport Reactions. Academic Press (New
York), 1964.

27-3. Wiedemeier, H.; Irene, E. A.; and Chaudhuri, A.K.: Crystal Growth by
Vapor Transport of GeSe, GeSe 2 , and GeTe and Transport Mechanism and
Morphology of GeTe. J. Crystal Growth, vol. 13-14, 1972, pp. 393-396.

27-4. Wiedemeier, H.; and Irene, E. A.: The Chemical Transport Rates and
Crystal Morphology of GeSe. Z. Anorg. Allgem. Chem., vol. 400, 1973,
pp. 59,66.

27-12
 I

• 0
o._.... _ _ _"
_ o o o o

;>.,
o
z
0
o 0
+1 +1 +1 +1

[.-,
r_

_0 _ "t-I -'kl _ +1 +1
O_

o
_ _ •

[.-,

v _4

o
o

0 +1 "t-I +1 4"1

0 • _l •

o_ _ o_
0

27-13
 TABLE 27-II.- MASS TRANSPORT RATES UNDER GROUND-BASED

AND MICROGRAVITY CONDITIONS

System Mass flux, _tg/(cm 2 sec)

Condition Extrapolated
diffusion
Normal gravity Microgravity mode

1.2 _0.64 _0.21

GeSe0.99Te0.01 (A)

2.3 _2.3 _0.68

GeS0.98Se0.02 (B)

27-14
 .=- I

I I I I I l l
0 40.5 81.1 121.6 162.1 202.6
10.4) (0.8) (1.21 (1.6) (2.0)
Pressure. kNlrn2 latrn)

Figure 27-1 .- Mass transport rates in

terms of flux a s a function of pres-
sure for the temperature gradient
873 -+ 773 K (600O -+ 500° C ) deter-
mined under ground-based conditions.

Figure 27-2. - Metal cartridge and ground-based (prototype) transport

ampoule (2A).

27-15
 ~

(a) Ground-based (prototype) . (b) Space-grown.

Figure 27-3 .- Laue X-ray diffraction transmission photographs of GeSO.98Se0.o2 (B)

single-crystal platelets.

27-16
 (a) Ground-based (prototype) .
I (b) Space-grown.

Figure 27-4. - Representative crystals of GeSeO 9gTe0. 01 (A).

I

27-17
 (a) In microgravity environment. (b) Under ground-based conditions.

Figure 27-5 .- Deposition pattern of transport agent Ge14 (A) on ampoule walls.

-c

I
(a) Ground-based (prototype) . (b) Space-grown .
Figure 27-6.- Representative crystals of GeSO.98Se0,o2 ( B ) .

27-18
 (a) Cleaved.
(a) Cleaved.

(b) Cleaved an? etched.

Figure 27-8. - Optical photomicrographs

(b) Cleaved and etched. of cleaved and etched (001) faces of
space-grown GeSe
Figure 27-7.- Optical photomicrographs 0 . 9gTe0. 01 (*I
of a cleaved and etched (001) face of crystal platelets.
a ground-based (prototype)
GeSeO. 9gTe0. 01 (A) crystal
platelet.

27-19
 .*. r-

(a) Cleaved. (b) Cleaved and etched.

Figure 27-9. - Optical photomicrographs of a cleaved and etched (001) face of a

ground-based (prototype) GeSO.98Se0.o2 (B) crystal platelet.

(a) As-grown. (b) Cleaved. (c) Cleaved and etched.

Figure 27-10 .- Optical photomicrographs of the as-grown , cleaved, and etched (001)
faces of a space-grown GeSO.98Se0.o2 (B) crystal platelet.

27-20
 28. HALIDE EUTECTIC GROWTH

EXPERIMENT MA- 131

A. S. Yue, at B. K. Yue,a and J. Y. M. Lee a

ABSTRACT

Fiberlike sodium chloride-lithium fluoride eutectic mixtures have been pro-

duced on Earth and in space by the directional solidification technique. Macro-
scopic and microscopic examinations were made on longitudinal and transverse sec-
tions of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project space-grown and Earth-grown ingots. It was
found that samples grown in space have a higher percentage of fibers alined with
the growth axis. The enhanced alinement of fibers is attributed to the absence of
convection currents in the liquid during solidification.

Optical transmittance measurements of transverse sections of the space-grown

and Earth-grown ingots were performed with an infrared spectrometer. For a given
sample thickness, the highest transmittance was obtained from ingots grown in
space. For samples of different thicknesses, grown either in space or on Earth, it
was found that the thinner the sample, the higher the transmittance. This is in
agreement with the general optical property of transparent materials.

INTRODUCTION

When certain binary eutectic mixtures solidify, one of the two phases can form
fibers or platelets in a matrix of the second phase. For example, when a eutectic
liquid of sodium chloride (NaC1) and sodium fluoride (NaF) solidifies, fibers of NaF
form in a matrix of NaC1. Similarly, when a liquid of NaC1 and lithium fluoride
(LiF) solidifies, LiF will form the fiber phase in the NaC1 matrix.

Fiberlike and platelike eutectics produced on Earth are limited in perfection

by the presence of a banded structure (refs. 28-1 and 28-2), by discontinuity (ref.
28-3), and by faults (refs. 28-4 and 28-5) due, at least in part, to vibration and
convection currents in the melt during solidification. The presence of these defects
renders the solid-state eutectic devices inefficient and useless (ref. 28-6).

If the solidification process is performed in a space environment, where there

are no vibration and convection currents in the melt, there is reason to believe that
continuous fiberlike eutectic microstructures can be produced. The electric, ther-
momagnetic, optical, and superconducting characteristics of such fibers will be

auniversity of California.
tprincipal Investigator.

28-1
strongly anisotropic, which suggests the possibility of exciting device applications.
A Skylab experiment (ref. 28-7) of NaC1-NaFeutectic demonstrated that continuous
oriented fibers of NaF embedded in an NaC1matrix could be grown by the direc-
tional solidification technique in space.

This paper describes (1) the results of the NaC1-LiF eutectic grown in space
during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), and (2) the measurements of the rele-
vant optical properties of the space-grown and Earth-grown eutectics.

Lithium fluoride was used in this experiment because it has a higher index of
refraction than NaF and because a greater volume of fraction of fibers in the NaC1-
LiF eutectic system may be obtained.

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURES

The,NaC1-28.8 weight percent (wt%) LiF eutectie mixtures were made from
99.96-wt% NaC1and 99.99-wt% LiF and were solidified in an induction heating unit
under a protective atmosphere. The ampoule assembly was similar to that used in
the Skylab experiment with the exception that a copper tube was not used.

Ingots of NaC1-LiF eutectics, 0.79 centimeter (0.31 inch) in diameter and

6.4 centimeters (2.5 inches) long, have been grown unidirectionally on Earth and
in space in the ASTP spacecraft in a multipurpose furnace at one freezing rate and
at a steep temperature gradient similar to that described in reference 28-7.

RESULTSAND DISCUSSION

The experimental results are divided into two parts: (1) the macroscopic and
microscopic examinations of the samples that were grown in space and on Earth,
and (2) the optical property of the NaC1-LiF eutectic.

Macroscopic and Microscopic Examinations of Microstructures

The appearance of one of the three opened ampoules and the eutectic sample
after completion of the ASTP experiment is shown in figure 28-1. The surfaces of
the stainless steel cylinders were in perfect condition, which indicates that no re-
action occurred between the ampoules and the cartridges. Inspection of the sample
surface revealed no reaction between the NaC1-LiF eutectic and the graphite
container.

The remelt-back interface is shown in figure 28-2. The resolidified portion

of the sample is on the right and the unsolidified portion on the left. In this particu-
lar sample, the remelt-back interface is 0.28 centimeter (0.11 inch) from the left
end of the sample, whereas the same melt-back distances of the other two samples are
approximately 0.51 centimeter (0.20 inch). This may indicate a slight offset in the
positioning of the heat zonesin the furnace. Figure 28-3 is a photograph of the re-
gion of the remelt-back interface which shows that, at the beginning of the growth,

28-2
the LiF fibers were grown in a direction perpendicular to the growth direction dur-
ing the soaking period. However, the LiF began to aline toward the growth direc-
tion a short distance from the initial solid-liquid interface.

A representative photomicrograph of alined continuous fibers is giv_enin fig-

ure 28-4, which shows that the LiF fibers are regularly spaced and parallel to the
growth axis. The eutectie microstructure that resulted when the NaC1-LiF eutectic
was grown on Earth with convection current is shown in figure 28-5, which shows
that the solidified LiF fibers are short an(_discontinuous.

The orientation of the LiF fibers in the NaCl matrix, however, varies along
the length of the sample. Optical metallographic results show that the LiF fibers
are straight and parallel to the growth direction for approximately one-half the total
length of the sample. The LiF fibers in the remaining half of the NaC1-LiF eutectic,
however, change gradually from a parallel direction to a direction that is perpendic-
ular to the growth axis. This change indicates that the direction of heat extraction
during the latter half of the solidification process is normal to the growth direction
in contrast to what was originally designed. Figure 28-6 is a photomicrograph
showing the change of direction of fibers along the length of the sample.

A photomicrograph of the transverse section of an ASTP-grown sample is

shown in figure 28-7, which reveals that the shapes of the LiF fibers are preferen-
tially circular. This circular shape is different from the preferentially rectangular
shape of the NaF fibers in the NaC1-NaFeutectic grown in the Skylab experiment.

A single-grain eutectic has not been achieved in the presence of microgravity

in space in this ASTP experiment. However, the fibers grown in space are alined
more regularly and are more parallel to the growth direction than those grown on
Earth. Evidence supporting this observation is shown in figure 28-8 and also in the
optical transmittance results shown in figure 28-9. In figure 28-8, filtered light
was incident at the end of the sample. Light can be seen to transmit farther through
the ASTP space-grown sample than through the sample grown on Earth because of
better alinement of the fibers. Light was not transmitted through the upper portion
of the ASTP sample because, in that portion of the sample, the LiF fibers were not
alined well enough to the growth direction, as discussed previously.

Optical Property

Image transmission properties similar to those of fiber optic materials were

obtained with an NaC1-NaFeutectic (ref. 28-8). This eutectic was found to be a far-
field infrared transmitting medium for wavelengths longer than the interfiber dis-
tance. Because the NaC1-NaFeutectic used for optical measurement has discontin-
uous NaF fibers embedded in NaC1matrix, better results should be observed if con-
tinuous fibers are obtained. That this is indeed the case was demonstrated in the
Skylab experiment (ref. 28-7). Similar experiments comparing transmission prop-
erties of NaC1-LiF eutectic grown in space and on Earth were conducted for ASTP.
The far-field infrared transmissions of transverse sections of three NaC1-LiF eutectic
samples are compared in figure 28-9. The ASTP space-grown sample is shown to
have the highest transmittance over nearly the entire wavelength range, which in-
dicates that it has the highest percentage of fibers parallel to the growth direction.

28-3
 The transmittance result also shows that the sample grown in the prototype furnace
has a lower transmittance over part of the wavelength range than the euteetic sam-
ple grown in the laboratory.

The effect of thickness on the transmission curve is shown in figure 28-10 for
the prototype furnace and the ASTP space-grown samples. In both cases, the thin-
ner the sample, the higher the transmittance for a fixed wavelength. This observa-
tion is in agreement with absorption laws as expected.

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions can be drawn from this investigation.

1. Eutectic samples grown in space have a higher percentage of fibers paral-

lel to the growth direction than samples grown on Earth.

2. Larger transmittance over a wider range of wavelength was obtained from

the ASTP space-grown ingots because of the better alinement of LiF fibers embedded
in the NaCl matrix.

28-4

i
 REFERENCES

28-1. Yue, A. S.; and Clark, J. B.: Determination of Eutectic Composition by

Zone-Melting Method. Trans. TMS-AIME, vol. 221, no. 2, Apr. 1961,
pp. 383-389.

28-2. Lemkey, F. D. ; and Thompson, E. R.: Nickel and Cobalt Eutectic Alloys
Reinforced by Refractory Metal Carbides. Met. Trans., vol. 2, no. 6,
June 1971, pp. 1537-1544.

28-3. Crossman, F. W. ; and Yue, A. S.: Unidirectionally Solidified Ti-TiB and

Ti-Ti5Si 3 Eutectic Composites. Met. Trans., vol. 2, no. 6, June 1971,
pp. 1545-1555.

28-4. Yue, A. S.: Microstructure of Magnesium-Aluminum Eutectic. Trans. TMS-

AIME, vol. 224, no. 5, Oct. 1962, pp. 1010-1015.

28-5. Kraft, R. W. ; and Albright, D. L.: Structural Characteristics of Fe-FeS

Eutectic. Trans. TMS-AIME, vol. 236, no. 7, July 1966, pp. 998-1003.

28-6. Weiss, H.: Electromagnetic Properties of Eutectic Composites (A Critical

Review). Met. Trans., vol. 2, no. 6, June 1971, pp. 1513-1521.

28-7. Yue, A. S. ; and Yu, J. G.: Solidification of NaC1-NaF Eutectic in Space.

AIAA/ASME Conference on Thermophysics and Heat Transfer. AIAA Paper
74-646, July 1974.

28-8. Batt, J. A. ; Douglas, F. C. ; and Galasso, F. S.: Optical Properties of

Undirectionally Solidified NaF-NaC1 Eutectic. American Ceram. Soc.
Bull., vol. 48, no. 6, June 1969, pp. 622-626.

28-5
 Figure 2 8- 1.- Macrophotograph of
opened ampoule and eutectic
sample.

Figure 28-4. - Photomicrograph of the

longitudinal section of the ASTP
space-grown NaC1-LiF eutectic
showing continuous LiF fibers (56X).

Figure 2 8- 2 . - Macrophotograph show-

ing the remelt-back interface of the
ASTP space-grown NaC1-LiF eutec-
tic ( 6 . U ) .

Figure 28-5. - Photomicrograph of the

longitudinal section of Earth-grown
NaC1-LiF eutectic showing discon-
tinuous LiF fibers (210X).

Figure 28-3.- Enlarged portion of the

remelt-back interface (56X).

28-6
Figure 28-6 .-Photomicrograph show- (a) Space grown.
ing the change of direction of fibers
(2 10x1.

Figure 2 8- 7 . - Photomicrograph of the (b) Earth grown.

transverse section of ASTP space-
grown eutectic (410X). Figure 2 8-8. - Macrophotographs of
ASTP NaC1-LiF eutectics.

28-7
 8O
Flight sample...........
?0

"_60

_ ,Laboratory sample

{4o
_ 3o
I ._./"--"

10 '_- ""Prototypesample _,_

0 i i I I I
3 4 6 8 10 121416 2025
Wavelength,
Fm

Figure 28-9.- Far-field infrared

transmission eurve of transverse
sections of NaC1-LiF euteeties
grown on Earth and in space.
The sample thiekness was 0. 0536
centimeter (0.0211 ineh).

8O 8O
cm (0._!in.)
.-0.053
7O ,0.048cm (0. 019 in. ) 70 #//SS

: _ 60
6O O.053cm (0. 021 in. ! I
_50
a£

_: 4O
=:_
30 /_ sSS __ _
"- 30
e-

2o
""
s "',,.,,,^_ ...........
\
_ 20
10
_f
:\
lO
0
3 4 6 8 I0 12 1416 2025 4 6 8 I0 ]214162025
Wavelength,I_m Wavelength,
p.m

(a) Prototype sample. Co) Flight sample.

Figure 28-10.- Far-field infrared transmission curves of transverse sections of

NaC1-LiF euteeties with different thicknesses.

28-8
 29. MULTIPLE MATERIAL MELTING

EXPERIMENT MA- 150

R. S. Snyder a and A. Boese a

ABSTRACT

Three different experiments to reveal the effect of weightlessness on some

metallurgical and crystalline processes in metals and semiconductors were prepared
by I. Ivanov and his coworkers at the Institute for Metallurgy, U .S .S .R., for the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission. The experiment materials were fabricated in
the U. S .S.R., assembled in three stainless steel cartridges of U .S. design, taken
into space for processing in the multipurpose furnace, and returned to the U. S. S .R.
for analysis. Analysis of the samples and comparison with the ground-based test
results are in progress.

INTRODUCTION

The Multiple Material Melting Experiment was a U. S. S .R. experiment that

processed three different materials systems (aluminum with tungsten spheres,
germanium with 2 atomic percent (at.%) silicon, and powdered aluminum) in each
of three identical cartridges. The experiment cartridges were carried into space
with the other furnace cartridges adjacent to the multipurpose furnace. The experi-
ment was performed during the joint U. S .S .R .-U .S. phase of the mission; upon
completion of the experiment, the three cartridges were returned by Soyuz to the
U. S.S.R. for analysis.

BACKGROUND

The U. S .S .R. interest in the use of space to conduct materials experiments

for investigation of technological processes has been active for approximately 2
years. Extensive experiments in electron beam welding were reported to have
occurred during an early Soyuz space station mission. Analysis of the space-
welded specimens has been published in the scientific literature (ref. 29-1). The
report cites improved metallurgical characteristics of the welds and evidence of
decreased movement of the molten material in space compared with similar speci-
mens welded on Earth. There is extensive interest in composite materials of two

aNASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center.

29-1
or more materials that differ greatly in density. Similarly, weightlessness is of
interest for manufacturing new metal and semiconducting materials formed of ele-
ments with substantially different densities by careful crystallization from the liquid
state.

EXPERIMENT OBJECTIVES

Each of the three materials systems selected for this experiment had a differ-
ent objective. Placing tungsten spheres in aluminum powder on the ground and
then melting and solidifying in space was planned to investigate composite materials
with one phase meltable and the second phase heavier and more refractory. The
tungsten spheres for the second phase were carefully distributed in the laboratory
and, presumably, this distribution did not move in space. Ground-based testing
clearly showed the sedimentation of the heavier tungsten spheres. Other important
scientific objectives of this experiment are the actual rate of dissolving solid re-
fractory metals in various liquid systems, the actual rate of metal crystallization
from a liquid phase, and the actual rate for growing new phases from tile melt.
Determination of the actual rates of such processes is not possible on Earth because
of gravity-induced fluid convection. Metallurgical reactions will thus be more con-
trollable with the knowledge of actual rate values.

The investigation of single crystal growth of semiconductors used germanium

containing 2 at. % of silicon. Because of convection flow in the melt on Earth, fabri-
cation of such germanium monoerystals with a uniform distribution of silicon through-
out the bulk is very difficult.

Ball formation in weightlessness was to be investigated by melting aluminum

powder. This technique for forming spheres of fused metals or semiconducting
compounds should produce different results in space and should be significant for
such space technological procedures as welding and treatment of biochemically
active raw materials.

EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

The Multiple Material Melting Experiment was begun soon after the Apollo and
Soyuz space vehicles joined together. The three materials specimens were in dif-
ferent locations in the cartridge, were contained in their own quartz ampoules, and
were subjected to different temperatures during the furnace heatup, soak, and cool-
down. An outline of the cartridge is shown in figure 29-1. Ampoule 1 contained
the aluminum with tungsten spheres. It was heated to approximately 1325 K
(1050 ° C). Ampoule 2 contained the germanium with silicon and was partly melted
by the furnace heatup. During furnace cooldown, the solid/liquid interface slowly
caused the entire melt to resolidify directionally. This method was selected to yield
monocrystals with improved properties. Ampoule 3 contained the aluminum powder,
and the 973 K (700 ° C) temperature at this cartridge location was sufficient to melt
the sample. The maximum temperature of the hot end of the furnace was maintained

29-2
for 1 hour to "soak" the sample. The three-stage cooldown gave the necessary
thermal profile in the cartridge and allowed the experiment to be completed in
approximately 10hours.

REFERENCE

29-1. Kubasov, V. M. ; and Paton, B. E.: Experiment in Metal Welding in Outer

Space. J. Aead. Sci. Ukrainian S.S.R., vol. 34, 1970, pp. 37-44.

29-3
 Stainless steelcase

.Ampoule2

s
•Stainless steelpipe
/

•l

," ,Insulation
/ i I
/
l/ /i

,,, ,,Ampoule 3
/

Graphiteheater
•l s

Thermalinsert

,Plug
/

Figure 29-1. - Cartridge used in the Multiple Material Melting Experiment.

29-4
 30. CRYSTAL GROWTH

EXPERIMENT MA-028

M. D. Lind a

ABSTRACT

The Crystal Growth Experiment assessed a novel process for growing single
crystals of insoluble substances by allowing two or more reactant solutions to
diffuse toward each other through a region of pure solvent in zero g. The experi-
ment was entirely successful and yielded crystals of about the expected size,
quality, and number. Photographs were taken in orbit to record the progress of
the crystal growth.

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this experiment was to investigate the growth of single

crystals of insoluble substances by a process in which two or more reactant solu-
tions are allowed to diffuse toward each other through a region of pure solvent.
This is a novel method of crystal growth conceived for orbital space flights to take
advantage of the absence of gravity-driven convection that, on Earth, predominates
over diffusion as a mechanism of material transport. The experiment performed
during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission was designed both as a firSt
attempt to determine the feasibility of the method and as a starting point for further
development.

BASIC THEORY

Because the method of crystal growth used for this experiment is closely
related to gel methods of crystal growth, it is appropriate to present a brief review
of gel methods. Gel methods are particularly applicable to the growth of crystals
that have very small solubility in the solvent (usually water) that is used. In
these methods, two or more reactant solutions, separated by a gel, diffuse slowly
together and react according to a chemical equation of the following type as the
crystal grows:

A (soluble) + B (soluble) + ... v C$ (slightly soluble) + D (soluble) + ...

aRockwell International Science Center; Principal Investigator.

30-1
The three reactions chosen for experiments on the ASTP flight are examples of this
type reaction.

Calcium tartrate: CaCI 2 + NaHC4H40 6 + 4H20 # CaC4H40 6 • 4H204 + NaCI + HCI

Calcium carbonate: CaCI 2 + (NH4)2CO 3 v CaCO34 + 2NH4CI

Lead sulfide: PbC12 + CH3CSNH 2 + H20 v PbS4 + CH3CONH 2 + 2HC1

Typical experimental arrangements for gel methods are shown schematically

in figure 30-1. In the U-tube arrangement, the crystals normally grow within the
gel or at the interfaces with the reactant solutions. In the second arrangement, the
crystals can grow in the pure solvent at the center.

The primary functions of the gel are suppression of gravity-driven convection

and support of the growing crystal. Diffusion is the predominant mechanism for
mixing of the reactant solutions. The crystal grows in a cell of solution, is exposed
to the solution on all sides, and has no contact with container surfaces except those
of the flexible gel structure.

The hypothesis for this experiment was based on the assumption that, in an
environment of sufficiently low gravity, convection and sedimentation become negli-
gible. Therefore, the gel is not needed for suppressing these processes and can be
replaced by a region of pure solvent. Diffusion becomes the predominant mixing
mechanism even with no gel present.

The advantage of allowing diffusion to be the predominant mechanism for

material transport, whether in gel processes on Earth or in low-gravity processes
in space flights, is that the rate of transport can be controlled by varying the con-
centrations of the diffusing substances and the length of the diffusion path. This is
important because the rate of material transport must be compatible with the rate of
crystal growth, which may also depend on other kinetic or heat-transfer factors.
A diffusion-controlled process can result in better crystal quality through better
prediction and control of the parameters involved. It can also result in a better
understanding of crystal growth processes through simplification of theoretical
treatments and a clearer comparison of the experiment with the theory.

The gel methods of crystal growth, like most aqueous solution growth methods,
are advantageous because crystal growth occurs at ambient (room or spacecraft)
temperature. This minimizes problems of thermally or mechanically induced strain,
phase transformations, volatility of components, contamination by the container,
etc., often inherent in high-temperature growth methods. However, gel methods
also have certain disadvantages, including excessive nucleation that results in small
crystal sizes, contamination of the crystals by gel constituents or impurities in the
gel, and gel instability. The method used for this experiment is expected to over-
come all these disadvantages while retaining the advantages.

30-2
 Much research has been done concerning gel methods of crystal growth.
This research has provided much of the background for the design of the ASTP ex-
periment. Information particularly relevant to this experiment can be found in ref-
erences 30-1 to 30-12. The three crystals (calcium tartrate, calcium carbonate, and
lead sulfide) investigated in the ASTP experiments were chosen for the following
reasons:

1. They are easy to grow in gel systems.

2. There has been much investigation of their growth in gel systems so that
growth conditions are well known, and terrestrial results are readily available for
comparison with ASTP results.

3. Calcium tartrate has been an especially important subject for investiga-

tions of gel growth mechanisms.

4. Calcium carbonate and lead sulfide have technological importance.

5. Calcium carbonate is a typical example of crystals that are contaminated
by gel constituents and therefore can be improved by growth without the gel.
The experimental conditions for the ASTP experiments were based on results
of previous gel growth experiments. It was assumed that the diffusion and crystal
growth processes would not be very different if the gel was replaced by a region of
pure solvent. Because typical gels are 95 to 96 percent solvent and only 4 to 5 per-
cent solid, this assumption was reasonable and appears to have been validated by
the ASTP results. To simplify the ASTP experimental apparatus, the usual require-
ment for precise temperature control was eliminated by choosing crystals that can
be grown at ambient temperature without precise temperature control. The other
important experimental parameters are selection and concentrations of reactant
solutions, reactor dimensions, and hydrogen-ion concentration (pH) of the growth
medium (water). The values of these parameters used in the ASTP experiments are
summarized in table 30-I.

As previously implied, much of the behavior of these crystal growth systems

could be calculated from known laws of thermodynamics, diffusion, and heat trans-
fer. In general, the required parameters, including equilibrium solubilities as
functions of temperature and pH, heats and entropies of fusion, specific heats, dif-
fusion coefficients, thermal conductivity coefficients, etc., were reasonably well
known or could be determined in experiments on Earth. However, relationships
between supersaturation and nucleation are more difficult to understand, and incom-
plete knowledge in this area precludes a complete prediction of the behavior of the
crystal growth systems chosen for study. Consequently, it was necessary to esti-
mate the best growth conditions on the basis of results of experimental gel growth
studies.

EQUIPMENT

The experimental apparatus consisted of six specially designed and fabricated

reactors (fig. 30-2). The entire set of flight hardware is illustrated in figure 30-3.

30-3
Each reactor had three compartments that were separated by valves operated by the
knobs at each end. Each compartment had a separate filling port. The compart-
ments varied in length, as indicated in table 30-I. The reactor covers were fiat and
transparent to permit photographing the progress of diffusion and crystal growth.
The reactors were constructed of Lexan polycarbonate resin with silicone rubber
gaskets and seals, porous high-density polyethylene diaphragms between the com-
partments, and aluminum knobs.

Before delivery of the hardware to the launch facility, the reactors (with the
intercompartment valves in the closed positions) were filled with the various solu-
tions. The reactant solutions were placed in the outer compartments of each reactor,
and the central compartment was filled with water.
The six reactors were mounted in the U-4 locker in the command module.
They were accessible in this location, yet out of the way of other operations.

After the joint phase of the flight, at approximately 109hours ground elapsed
time (GET), a crewman activated the experiments by opening the intercompartment
valves to allow the reactants to begin diffusing toward the center. A wrench (fig.
30-3) that was included as a contingency measure was not required.

Beginning at the time of activation and at approximately 12-hour intervals for

the remainder (116 hours) of the flight, a crewman took color photographs of the six
reactors with the Nikon 35-millimeter camera used for various other photography.
A framing device designed and fabricated at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space
Center was used to place the camera properly.

Throughout the flight, the experiment progressed as planned with no prob-

lems or anomalies. The performance of the reactors was most satisfactory. There
was no evidence of leakage through the intercompartment valves before activation
of the experiment, and the valves were opened easily at the proper time to begin the
experiment. Photographs of the reactors taken during the flight appear to be of
excellent quality and verify that the framing device, camera settings, and lighting
were entirely satisfactory.

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

Crystals of about the expected size, quality, and number formed in all six
reactors. Figures 30-4 to 30-6 are photographs of the results taken before
postflight analysis. Before opening the reactors, the crystals were examined
thoroughly through the reactor faces by using a microscope. Then, the center
filling port caps were machined out, and representative crystals were removed and
identified by single-crystal X-ray diffraction data. As expected, the X-ray diffrac-
tion data appeared to be identical to that of Earth-grown crystals.

Also as expected, the largest crystals obtained were calcium tartrate

(fig. 30-4)° Both calcium tartrate reactors produced numerous well-formed and
very clear platelike crystals as lonff as 5 millimeters and a few crystals as long as
10 millimeters but of somewhat poorer quality. The platelike morphology differs

30-4
markedly from the prismatic habit usually obtained in gel experiments, but the
reasons for this difference and its significance are unknown at this time. The two
calcium carbonate reactors each produced numerous well-formed clear rhombohedral
crystals as long as 0.5 millimeter on an edge (fig. 30-5). These crystals are very
similar in appearance to Earth-grown calcium carbonate crystals. Although small,
they are large enough to exhibit birefringence. The two lead sulfide experiments
were less successful, but both produced crystals as long as 0.1 millimeter
(fig. 30-6).
The crystals grown during the flight are at least as good in size, quality, and
number as those obtained by gel methods on the surface of the Earth in the same
length of time. All six reactors contained crystals suitable for the planned detailed
postflight analysis. However, nucleation was excessive in all six reactors, which
indicates the need for considerable refinement of the experimental parameters to
suppress nucleation and improve crystal size.

No finely divided precipitate was observed in the calcium tartrate or calcium

carbonate reactors, which indicates that, in these four reactors, mixing of the reac-
tant solutions and crystal growth were complete by the time of spacecraft reentry.
This complete mixing was the desired result. In the case of lead sulfide, a similar
result was not obtained although there was sufficient mixing to produce at least a
few small crystals.
The calcium carbonate crystals are easily visible in the series of photographs
taken at 184hours GET (75 hours after activation of the experiment) and in subse-
quent photographs. The calcium tartrate crystals also appear in these photographs
but less clearly. Thus far, only transparencies have been examined. Enlarged
prints will be necessary for following the progress of the experiment in detail.

During the flight, the cabin temperature varied more than had been antici-
pated and more than was desirable for solution growth. In designing the experi-
ment, it was decided not to provide temperature control to simplify the hardware.
As part of the experiment results analysis, the effects of the temperature variations
are being considered.

Further detailed analysis of the experiment results is planned. An important

aspect of this analysis will be the detailed comparison of the ASTP-grown crystals
and typical crystals grown on Earth. The experimental results will also be com-
pared to theoretical calculations.

CONCLUSIONS

The experiment has successfully proven the feasibility of a novel method of

crystal growth, both for producing superior crystals of a variety of compounds and
for promoting a better understanding of the theory of crystal growth.

30-5
 REFERENCES

30-1. Henisch, Heinz K.: Crystal Growth in Gels. Pennsylvania State Univ.
Press, 1970.

30-2. Henisch, H. K.; Dennis, J. ; and Hanoka, J. I.: Crystal Growth in Gels.
J. Phys. Chem. Solids, vol. 26, no. 3, Mar. 1965, pp. 493-500.

30-3. Niekl, H. J.; and Henisch, H. K.: Growth of Calcite Crystals in Gels.
J. Electrochem. Sot., vol. 116, no. 9, 1969, pp. 1258-1260.

30-4. Barta, Cestmir; and Zemlicka, Jan: Growth of Calcium Carbonate and
Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate Crystals in Gels. J. Cryst. Growth, vol. 10,
no. 2, 1971, pp. 158-162.

30-5. Blank, Zvi; and Brenner, Walter: The Growth of Group II-VI Crystals in
Gels. J. Cryst. Growth, vol. 11, no. 3, 1971, pp. 255-259.

30-6. Blank, Zvi; and Brenner, Walter: Research Directed Toward Preparation
of Compound Semiconductors by Controlled Diffusion Mechanism in Gels.
AFCRL-70-0252, Air Force Cambridge Res. Labs., L. G. Hanscom Field,
Mass., Mar. 1970.

30-7. Blank, Zvi; Brenner, Walter; and Okamoto, Yoshiyuki: The Growth of
Lead Sulfide in Silica Gels at Ambient Temperatures - Preliminary
Characterization and Effect of Various Organic Compounds as Sulfide Ion
Donors. Mater. Res. Bull., vol. 3, no. 7, 1968, pp. 555-561.

30-8. Swift, Ernest H. ; and Butler, Eliot A.: Precipitation of Sulfides From
Homogeneous Solutions by Thioacetamide. Anal. Chem., vol. 28, no. 2,
Feb. 1956, pp. 146-153.

30-9. Armington, Alton F. ; DiPietro, Mary A.; and O'Connor, John J.: A Study
of Some Factors Which Influence the Growth of Cuprous Chloride in Silica
Gel. AFCRL-67-0445, Phy. Sci. Res. Paper no. 334, Air Force
Cambridge Res. Labs., L. G. Hanscom Field, Mass., July 1967.

30-10. Armington, Alton F. ; and O'Connor, John J.: Some Factors Influencing the
Growth of Crystals in Gel by the Complex Dilution Method. Mater. Res.
Bull., vol. 3, no. 12, 1968, pp. 923-931.

30-11. Kirov, G. K.: On the Diffusion Method for Growing Crystals. J. Cryst.
Growth, vol. 15, no. 2, 1972, pp. 102-106.

30-12. Torgesen, John L.; and Peiser, Herbert S.: Method and Apparatus for
Growing Single Crystals of Slightly Soluble Substances. U.S. Patent
3,371,036, Feb. 27, 1968.

30-6
 E
0

oO ¢'0 ¢0 cO ¢0 ¢0

oo oO

E _0 _0
0 o_ 0
0 0 "_
0 :=
o,l '_
O_

Izl "0
Z Z
v

r_ o c_

0 ._ a0 0o 0

0 < ,._

o ,_
o _ o ._

o _ _ 0 0 o
' _ _ ,-; ¢q
:n

0 0 _

<

O_
c'O

_4 _4

0,]

0
0 0 0 rO o

iO LO _ i.O

o o c; c;

o _0 oO 0,]

0
¢0

30-7
 pat2,3
Solution A

I
; Solution B
,

QJ
Solution A Solution B

-\.'.
*. I
1
,
,

: ,,', r
-..*. : ,,'
J I

=..!,,'
j i l i c a hydrogel (Si0 nH 0)
(a) Serial number 006.
Figure 30- 1 . - Typical experimental
arrangements for gel methods of
crystal growth.

Valves:
Closed:
Fill port caps (3) ,Open ',,

(b) Serial number 013.

.
\
.
\
\

'\
\

Clamp ring i tompartment c

'Valve handle \ tompartment A
tompartment B

Figure 30-2.- Schematic diagram of a

reactor.

(c) Magnified view of calcium tartrate

crystals.
Figure 30-3. - Flight hardware. Figure 30-4. - Calcium tartrate.

30-8
 (a) Serial number 007. (a) Serial number 005.

(b) Serial number 012. (b) Serial number 008.

Figure 30-6. - Lead sulfide.

(e) Magnified view of calcium car-

bonate crystals.

Figure 30-5. - Calcium carbonate.

30-9
 31. SCIENCE DEMONSTRATIONS

R. S. Snyder,aK. S. Clifton,aB. Facemire, a

A. F. Whitaker,ap . G. Grodska, b and S . Bourgeois b

ABSTRACT

Three demonstrations of scientific concepts concerning liquids were per-

formed during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission. Chemical foaming, spreading
of liquids, and capillary wicking were the subjects of each demonstration photo-
graphed in space. The results clearly illustrated the basic principles, and films
suitable for educational uses are now available from the first author.

INTRODUCTION

Three science demonstrations with liquids were performed during the last
part of the ApoUo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. The demonstrations were
chemical foaming, liquid spreading, and capillary wicking, and all dealt with
phenomena that occur at the boundary surface, or interface, between solids,
liquids, and gases. The manner in which one surface 'interacts with another can
be described by intermolecular surface forces that result in adhesion or cohesion
and in wetting or nonwetting conditions. These surface forces cause such well-
known phenomena as the shape of raindrops, the detergent action of soaps, and
the lubrication of complex machinery.

Although basic theories of interfacial phenomena exist, detailed observations

and measurements have been difficult to obtain on practical systems. In particular,
gravity interferes with systems that include liquids and gases because the interface
conditions are changed by sedimentation or buoyancy and the interface configura-
tion of interest may not be obtainable in a gravity environment. The interaction on
Earth of liquids with gases or solids has been especially difficult to model or predict
because the gravity force influences each phase differently.

Gravitational force can only be circumvented on Earth by modifying the

system being studied. For example, the addition of surface-active agents, such as
detergents, enables the formation of stable foams in liquids, and solid surfaces can
be coated or treated to change interactions with a second phase. However, these
modifying agents may change the system being studied to the extent that significant

aNASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center.

bLockheed Missiles and Space Company.

31-1
data cannot be obtained relative to the original system. A zero-g environment is
necessary to measure and assess the fundamental interactions in many important
systems. The study of these systems led to the demonstrations proposed for ASTP.

The demonstrations required no power and had no impact on other experi-

ments or on basic ASTP operations. Each was small, lightweight, and easy to
perform. The demonstrations illustrated basic principles of science involving con-
cepts with which people deal in everyday life. The action of wicking, for example,
may be found in oil lamps, candles, or even paper towels. The action of foaming
is seen in shaving creams and detergents, and the influence of liquid spreading
is seen in the action of oils as well as in water-repellent garments and soldering
materials.

The ASTP science demonstrations, although dealing with common terrestrial

concepts, cannot totally be accomplished outside the zero-g environment of space,
and not one can be described definitively on the basis of experience. Although the
investigators understood the general action of each demonstration, detailed knowl-
edge that enabled prediction of the phenomena was not available. Therefore,
interesting and unanticipated results were obtained from each demonstration.

DEMONSTRATION OBJECTIVES AND RESULTS

Chemical Foams

The purpose of the chemical foam demonstration was to illustrate the stability
of foams in space and to determine the change in reaction times of certain chemical
mixtures when altered from bulk liquid form to a stable foam. Some foams are of
interest because many chemical and pharmaceutical reactions occur predominantly
in the thin surface layer of a liquid.

A foam consists of bubbles of gas encased by walls of thin liquid films.

Although some foams can be made rigid or flexible and durable, the characteristic
foam is not stable on Earth. Foams collapse primarily as a result of the gravity-
induced drainage of liquid in the bubble walls. As the liquid drains from the
bubble, the film walls become increasingly thin until, at a thickness of approxi-
mately 10 nanometers (100 angstroms), they are ruptured by random molecular
motion. Thus, the foam gradually dissipates as more of the liquid drains away to
bulk form and leaves less to support the bubble walls. In the zero-g environment
of space, drainage is substantially reduced; therefore, a longer lasting foam is
provided. Drainage, however, is only one of the mechanisms contributing to the
dissipation of foams. Evaporation and liquid spreading also act to dissipate bubble
walls. Thus, the full extent of foam stability is still uncertain.

Forming a foam in space yields a very large surface area-to-volume ratio of

the liquid that should be retained for a relatively long period. This large, stable
surface area should enable surface-sensitive chemical reactions to occur differently
than they would on Earth. The sensitivity of some chemical reactions to the size of
the interface area has long been known. F.reundlieh (ref. 31-1) reported that a
hydrogen-ion-concentration indicator solution acquired different color intensities
depending on the vigor with which the solution was shaken (or the size and number

31-2
of droplets formed). Likewise, test results have indicated that some reactions occur
faster in a foam or froth. However, the precise change taking place at the interface
has not been precisely determined, and definitive theories on the characteristics of
a stable foam in space have not been generated. Nevertheless, it was anticipated
that a chemical reaction dependent on the surface area of the air-to-liquid inter-
faces, such as the one demonstrated, would proceed differently in a foam in a zero-g
environment than would normally occur on Earth.

Foams are currently used in such diverse applications as the separation of

proteins by the fractionation of foams and the origination of rigid structures such as
foamed polystyrene and foam rubber. It has been suggested (ref. 31-2) that such
unique products as reinforced rigid foams could be formed in space without the
influence of gravity. In such foams, metal fibers would be alined along the surface
of a stable foam strictly by adhesion. When cured, the foam could have a light-
weight durability possibly unknown with earthbound processes. It has also been
suggested that space-originated foams could act as the basis of porous metal elec-
trodes. Such new products and synthesis procedures are potential applications of
foam technology in space.

In the foaming demonstration, the chemical change consists of the simultaneous

occurrence of three homogeneous reactions proceeding at different rates. These
three reactions are as follows.

1. The addition of bisulfite ion to formaldehyde:

HCHO + HSO 3- _ CH2OHSO 3- (rate constant = 2.8 liters/mol sec)

2. The reaction of sulfite ion and water with formaldehyde yielding OH-

SO3 = + H20 + HCHO _ CH2OHSO 3- + OH- (rate constant = 0.14 liter/mol sec)

3. The instantaneous reaction of OH- with bisulfite ion:

OH- + HSO3=---_ SO3 = + H20

Thus, excess OH- becomes available for reaction with the indicator, phenolphthalein,
only after the bisulfite ion has been completely used.

This demonstration of chemical foams in space illustrated simple principles

involving foams in a zero-g environment. The demonstration was divided into
two portions, the first of which visually portrayed the stability of a foam in space.
The crewmember shook a tube containing a premixed solution of water, thymol blue
indicator, and a small amount of ethyl alcohol in front of the camera. The resulting
foam turned bright pink, which contrasted sharply with the gold of the solution in
bulk form. As the pink foam dissipated, this contrast was evident.

31-3
 The second portion of the demonstration illustrated the influence of a stable
foam on the reaction time of a chemical solution. The crewmember inserted prepared
solutions of sodium sulfite, sodium metabisulfite, formaldehyde, and phenolphthalein
indicator into a small tube. The tube was then shaken vigorously for approximately
5 seconds to thoroughly mix the reactants and simultaneously produce the foam.
After the tube was held before the camera for 20 to 30 seconds, the colorless foamed
mixture quickly changed to a vivid red.

Demonstrations using two tubes of pink foam and four tubes to illustrate the
color change of foam were performed during the ASTP mission. Because the
16-millimeter motion picture was out of focus, detailed knowledge of foam dissipation
in the pink foam has not been obtained. Although details of the foam structure are
also lacking for the second part of this demonstration, the color change was dramatic
and of unexpected configuration. During zero-g flights in a KC-135 aircraft with
development hardware, uniform color change appeared to occur more rapidly in
zero-g conditions. Reaction timing will not be possible with the ASTP films, but
the color change began between the gas-liquid interface and the polycarbonate tube.
The color change began as a red ring and rapidly spread throughout the liquid
(fig. 31-1).

The results of this demonstration illustrate that foams can be used to change
the rate of particular chemical reactions. It is anticipated that, in the future, such
foams produced under zero-g conditions can be used as .mediafor conducting
chemical reactions, in which not only the rates but possibly also the end products
may be changed.

Liquid Spreading

The purpose of the liquid spreading demonstration was to illustrate and

determine the behavior of liquids spreading over both solid and liquid surfaces in
a zero-g environment. In particular, the rate of spreading and the change of shape
and thickness of a spreading liquid layer with time were examined.

Liquids, when brought in contact with solid surfaces, have a tendency to spread
over the entire surface if the cohesive forces between the molecules of the liquid are
smaller than the adhesive forces between the molecules of the liquid and the molecules
of the solid. Under the influence of gravity, this wetting action occurs only when the
flow of the liquid along the surface proceeds in a horizontal or downward direction;
the liquid will not be distributed evenly over an object in opposition to gravity.
However, in a zero-g environment, a wetting liquid will spread evenly over a
surface irrespective of the orientation. The driving force for the initial spreading
is the solid-liquid-gas surface energies. Further intrinsic spreading of the remain-
ing liquid is produced by liquid-gas interfacial energy. This latter spreading will
be much slower, or may stop completely. No data exist for predicting the intrinsic
bulk spreading rate, but the time required to approach uniform thickness may
exceed the time available to perform the demonstration in space.

31-4
 The important parameters that characterize the solid-liquid interface are
the contact angle formed at the boundary and the surface tension, which determines
the work required to increase the surface by unit area at constant temperature,
pressure, and composition. A spreading coefficient S can be defined as
S = _SG - aSL - aLG ' where aSG, aSL, and _LG represent the surface tension at
the solid-gas, solid-liquid, and liquid-gas interfaces, respectively. Spreading will
occur if S is greater than or less than zero.

To perform the demonstration, the erewmember injected small amounts of oil

or water from a prepared syringe onto the bottom inside surface of a transparent
cube. Additional oil or water was added as the spreading of the liquid progressed
over the internal horizontal and vertical surfaces of the box. One surface that had
been treated to be nonwetting was marked and placed facing the camera. The top
of the box had also been treated to prevent fluid from creeping over the edge. Blue
dye was mixed with the oil to increase visibility, and the water was dyed red for
contrast. Figure 31-2(a) portrays one of the cubes in space, and the spreading oil
can be observed. In addition to the measures enabling observation of liquid spread-
ing over vertical and horizontal walls, a small anvil-shaped solid was used in the
bottom of a transparent box to illustrate the manner in which a fluid spreads over
sharp corners.

Only one box was photographed during the ASTP mission. The photographs
clearly show that the oil placed at the center of the bottom surface quickly spread
to the corners and climbed the vertical walls. The oil accumulated in the corners of
the cube in a manner that would minimize the exposed surface area. When red water
was added to the oil surface, repulsion of oil and water was followed by an equili-
brated configuration of water droplets surrounded by an oil film (fig. 31-2 (b)).
Data concerning spreading, such as rates and observed mechanisms, are being
compared with results of ground and KC-135 experiments as well as with relevant
theories.

The information derived from this demonstration will result in a better under-
standing of the process of liquid spreading. In particular, the demonstration will
contribute to the basis of a fully consistent hydrodynamic theory of liquid spreading
independent of the effects of gravity. Discrepancies in the existing theory of
spreading may also be resolved. Such information is pertinent to various applica-
tions involving the quickness of spreading or the uniformity of liquid layers. These
applications cover a wide range of processes and products including coatings,
soldering, brazing, lubrication, laminated microelectronic circuits, and insecti-
cides.

Capillary Wicking

The purpose of the capillary wicking demonstration was to illustrate wicking

phenomena in a zero-g environment. Three stainless steel wicks and one cloth wick
were used simultaneously to determine the efficiency and rate of wicking in a zero-g
environment. Two different fluids, a low-surface-tension water-soap solution and
silicone oil, were used as wicking solutions.

31-5
 In the absence of gravity, the behavior of fluids is unusual because of the
predominance of surface properties (such as adhesion) over bulk properties (such
as mass). The fluid behavior that is unique to space has been used to advantage;
fluids can be easily maneuvered and maintained in a zero-g environment by passive
devices that do not require spacecraft power. Capillary wicking principles have
been used in spacecraft for containment of fuel/cryogen fluids, separation of liquid-
vapor phases, and expulsion of propellants. Little is known, however, about the
efficiency of transfer and the wicking rate of the stainless steel wicks used during
space missions, and short-duration zero-g tests, such as those performed from
drop towers and during KC-135 flights, have not provided sufficient time to gen-
erate basic design data. Attempts have been made to simulate zero-g conditions
by wicking horizontally in a one-g environment. However, it is impossible in this
simulation to eliminate both the fluid pressure head and the small gravity force.

The effect, called capillarity, is due to surface and interfacial forces acting
on a liquid. If a cylindrical tube with a bore of small cross section is placed ver-
tically in a container of liquid that wets the tube, the liquid will rise within the tube
to a height that varies inversely with the diameter of the bore. Flow up the tube
continues until the pressure difference created by the forces disappears. The
pressure exerted by the column of liquid depends on the weight of the liquid. If
gravity is reduced, the capillary rise will increase.

A capillary wick is a cloth or metal fabric structure used to absorb a liquid

for storage or transfer to another location. For example, a blotter or towel will
absorb a liquid and then disperse it from the contact area. The movement and
spread of the liquid can be calculated for ideal, evenly spaced, parallel fiber wicks.
Although the gravity force limits the liquid rise in a capillary or ideal wick, equa-
tions are available to describe the phenomenon. However, calculations cannot be
used for practical wicks having variable properties. For example, common wicks
have small channels that divert the liquid from the main channels. Similarly,
wicking depends on the uniform, close spacing of solid surfaces. The large number
of capillary paths available in a wicking material adds to the complexity of any
analysis.

The use of capillary wicks is an important part of everyday life. The natural
cross-linked weave of most fabrics makes them suitable as wicks for many liquids,
as can be observed with the spreading of wet spots following contact of water on
cloth. Treatments that are available to retard wicking are beneficial. Efficient
wieking is also required to clean up liquid spills in the home. Industry and
research require efficient wicks to absorb and retain oil during tanker spills at
sea, to transfer liquid, for application in heat-pipe technology, and to position
liquids (such as cryogens) in containers.

The apparatus for the wicking demonstration is shown in figure 31-3 (a). The
wicks were attached to an assembly that was affixed to a tetrafluoroethylene base
plate. A small well was cut from the center of the tetrafluoroethylene plate, and
the fluids were inserted into this well. A rough aluminum surface covering the
bottom of the well ensured better retention of the fluid. Early plans to enclose the
entire apparatus in a transparent cover were discarded after zero-g tests onboard

31-6
a KC-135 aircraft indicated that the fluid remained within the well despite consid-
erable variation in gravitational forces experienced during the tests. It was also
noted during these tests that the fluid was inserted best into the well with the
syringe held vertically rather than at an angle.

Four identical wicking assemblies, each containing four different wicking

materials, and two base plates were carried onboard the spacecraft. The three
stainless steel wicks differed in the pattern of weave and the size of mesh. They
included a 325 by 2300 Dutch twill weave, a 200 by 200 Plain weave, and a 200
by 600 Plain Dutch weave. A fourth wick of nylon was added for comparative
purposes. Blue dye was added to both water and oil solutions for better visibility.
Because silicone oil has a lower contact angle with respect to stainless steel than
soapy water has, the wicking rates with oil were expected to be somewhat faster
than with the water-soap solution.

The wicking of both oil and water proceeded much faster during the ASTP
mission than had been anticipated on the basis of ground tests and KC-135 zero-g
experiments. The dominant flow was up the crease between the wick and the tetra-
fluoroethylene post (fig. 31-3 Co)).

SUMMARY

The three science demonstrations were successfully accomplished during

the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and useful data were generated. The results will be
analyzed in depth and compared with available theory and similar experiments
performed on the ground and during KC-135 aircraft flights.

REFERENCES

31-1. Freundlich, H.: Surface Forces and Chemical Equilibrium. J. Chem. Soc.,
1930, p. 170.

31-2. Lacy, L. L.; and Otto, G.H.: The Stability of Liquid Dispersions in Low
Gravity. Paper No. 74-1242, AIAA/AGU Conference on Scientific Experi-
ments of Skylab (Huntsville, Ala.), Oct. 30-Nov. 1, 1974.

31-7
 (a) During early part of reaction. (b) Later in reaction.

( c ) At completion of reaction.

Figure 31-1. - Demonstration of the color change of foam.

31-8
(a) Spreading oil film in cube. (b) Red water on blue oil in cube.

Figure 31-2. - Liquid spreading demonstration.

(a) Apparatus. (b) Capillary wicking in space.

Figure 31-3. - Capillary wicking demonstration.

31-9
 APPENDIX A

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ac alternating current
ACDR Apollo commander
A-D analog to digital
amu atomic mass unit
ANZUS Australia-New Zealand-United States
ASTP Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
at.% atomic percent
ATS Applications Technology Satellite
ATSR Applications Technology Satellite ranging
BTB bromthymol blue agar
CF cryogenic freezer
CGE Crystal Growth Experiment
CM command module
CMC command module computer
CMMY corn-meal, malt-extract, yeast-extract agar
CMP command module pilot
CN cellulose nitrate
COAS crew optical alinement sight
Co-I Co-Investigator
Con A Concanavalin A
CPM counts per minute
CSM command and service module
CTA cellulose triacetate
D-A digital to analog
DAC data acquisition camera
dc direct current
D/L diameter to length ratio
DM docking module
DMA Defense Mapping Agency
DMP docking module pilot
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DTA differential thermal analysis
ECE electrical checkout equipment
ECS environmental control system
EMI electromagnetic interference
EPE Electrophoresis Experiment
EU electrophoresis unit
EUV extreme ultraviolet
FCS fetal calf serum
FOV field of view
FWHM full width, half maximum
GBT ground-based test
GEM Goddard Earth Model
GET ground elapsed time
GMT Greenwich mean time
HDC Hasselblad data camera

A-1
HED high-energy deposition
HeG helium glow
HGD helium glow detector
HRC Hasselblad reflex camera
HVPS high-voltage power supply
HZE high-charge energy
ICRP International Commission for Radiation Protection
IF intermediate frequency
IR infrared
ISM interstellar medium
JSC NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
KSC NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center
LaRC NASA Langley Research Center
LBL Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
LED light-emitting diode
LeRC NASA Lewis Research Center
LET linear energy transfer
LFE Light Flash Experiment
lidar laser radar
MEM minimum essential medium
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NRL Naval Research Laboratory
OM orbital module
PBS phosphate-buffered saline
PGS preliminary Goddard solution
PHA phytohemagglutinin
PI Principal Investigator
PMN polymorphonuclear leukocyte
PVA polyvinylalcohol
PWM pokeweed mitogen
QT quantum efficiency and transmission
RBE relative biological effectiveness
RCS reaction control system
RF radiofrequency
RPI Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
SAA South Atlantic Anomaly
SAB Sabouraud's dextrose agar
SAM stratospheric aerosol measurement
SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
SAS small astronomy satellite
SCDR Soyuz commander
SD standard deviation
SEM scanning electron microscope
SF space flight
SFE Soyuz flight engineer
SI simulation index
SIM scientific instrument module
SM service module
SRBC sheep red blood cells
SST supersonic transport or satellite-to-satellite tracking
STDN Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network

A-2
TE thermoelectric module
TLD thermoluminescence dosimeter
TV thermal vacuum or television
UK urokinase
USB unified S-band
UVA ultraviolet absorption
VCO voltage-controlled oscillator
VHF very high frequency
VTR video tape recorder
WBC white blood cell
wt. % weight percent
XBT expendable bathythermograph
Z atomic number
ZFF zone-forming fungi

A-3
 APPENDIXB

UNITS AND UNIT-CONVERSION FACTORS

In this appendix are the names, abbreviations, and definitions of Interna-

tional System (SI) units used in this report and the numerical factors for convert-
ing from conventional units to SI units.

Namesand Symbols of SI Units

SI Base Units

meter m
Length
Mass kilogram kg
Time second see
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole tool

SI Derived Units

Area square meter m2

cubic meter m3
Volume -1
hertz s
Frequency Hz 3
Mass density (density) kilogram per cubic meter kg/m
meter per second m/see
Speed, velocity
radian per second rad/sec
Angular velocity
m/sec 2
Acceleration meter per second squared
rad/sec 2
Angular acceleration radian per second squared
Force newton N kg • m/see 2

Pa N/m 2
Pressure (mechanical stress) pascal

square meter per second m2/sec

Kinematic viscosity
newton-second per square meter N • sec/m 2
Dynamic viscosity
J N.m
Work, energy, quantity of heat joule
Power watt W J/see
coulomb C A ° sec
Quantity of electricity
Potential difference, electromotive force volt V W/A
Electric field strength volt per meter Vim
Electric resistance ohm fl V/A
farad F A • see/V
Capacitance
weber V • see
Magnetic flux
H V • sec/A
Inductance henry
tesla T Wb/m 2
Magnetic flux density
ampere per meter Aim
Magnetic field strength
ampere A
Magnetomotive force
lumen cd • sr
Luminous flux lm 2
Luminance candela per square meter ed/m
lx lm/m 2
Illuminance lux
m-1
Wave number 1 per meter
joule per kelvin J/K
Entropy
Specific heat capac_/ joule per kilogram kelvin J/(kg • K)
watt per meter kelvin W/(m • K)
Thermal conductivify
watt per steradian W/st
Radiant intensity
s-1
Activity (of a radioactive source) 1 per second

SI Supplementary Units

rad
Plane angle
steradian sr
Solid angle radian

B-1
 Unit Prefixes

Prefix Abbreviation Factor by which unit is multiplied

giga G 109

mega M 106

kilo k 103

centi C 10 -2

milli -3
m 10
micro _t 10 -6

nano n 10 -9

pico P 10-12

Unit Conversion Factors

The following table expresses the definitions of units of measure used in the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Preliminary Science Report as exact numerical multiples
of coherent SI units and provides multiplying factors for converting to SI units.
The first two digits of each numerical entry represent a power of 10. An asterisk
follows eaeh number which expresses an exact definition.

To convert from - To - Multiply by -

angstrom meter -10 1.00"

atmosphere newton/meter 2 +05 1.013 25*

Celsius (temperature) kelvin

t K=t C + 273.15
foot meter -01 3.048*

gram kilogram -03 1.00"

inch meter -02 2.54*
pound mass (Ibm avoir- kilogram -01 4.535 923 7*
dupois)

torr (0 ° C) newton/meter 2 +02 1.333 22

B-2
 APPENDIXC

HARDWAREVENDORS

Experiment Equipment supplied Vendor

Microbial Exchange Experiment hardware General Electric Company

(AR-002) Houston, Tex.

Stratospheric Aerosol Experiment hardware University of Wyoming

Measurement (blA-007) Laramie, Wyo.

Multipurpose Electric Experiment hardware Westinghouse Astronuclear

Furnace (MA-010) Pittsburgh, Pa.

Electrophoresis Tech- Experiment hardware Teledyne Brown Engineering

nology (MA-011) Huntsville, Ala.

Thermoelectric assembly Ohio Semitronics

Columbus, Ohio

Column assemblies NASA George C. Marshall Space

Flight Center
Huntsville, Ala.

Electrophoresis Experiment hardware Messerschmitt-BSlkow-Blohm

(MA-014) Ottobeuren, West Germany

Crystal Growth Experiment hardware Rockwell International

(MA-028) Science Center
Thousand Oaks, Calif.

Camera equipment and accessories NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Houston, Tex.

Soft X-ray Observation Experiment and ground-support Bali Brothers Research Corporation
(MA-048) equipment (GSE) Boulder, Colo.

Data subsystem New Mexico State University

Las Cruces, N. Mex.

Ultraviolet Absorption Experiment, optical system, Johns Hopkins University

(blA-059) and GSE Applied Physics Laboratory
LaurQ1, Md.

Retroreflector optics (built Precision Lapping and Optical Company

and tested) Valley Stream, N.Y.

Ultraviolet (UV) light source Intraspaee International Inc.

(built) Toronto, Ontario, Canada

UV light assembly (design Lockheed Electronics

and assembly) Houston, Tex.

Retroreflector mount, UV and N_kSA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

incandescent light sources, Houston, Tex.
and GSE

Extreme Ultraviolet Experiment and GSE BaH Brothers Research Corporation

Survey (MA-083) Boulder, Colo.

Telescope Applied Optics Center

Burlington, Mass.

UV filters Luxel Corporation

Santa Barbara, Calif.

C-1
 Experiment Equipment supplied Vendor

Interstellar Helium Experiment and GSE Bali Brothers Research Corporation

Glow (MA-088) Boulder, Colo.

Helium pressure vessel Supplied by NASA

Helium system valves Sterer Valves Engineering

Manufacturing
Los Angeles, Calif.

UV filters Luxel Corporation

Santa Barbara, Calif.

Doppler Tracking Transmitter, receiver, Raytheon Company

(MA-089) and GSE Equipment Division
Sudbury, Mass.

Ultrastable oscillators for trans- Frequency Electronics, Inc.

mitters and receivers, crystal New Hyde Park, N.Y.
filters for transmitters

Transmitter battery development Eagle Picher

Joplin, Mo.

Receiving antenna (design and Ball Brothers Research Corporation

development) Boulder, Colo.

Data recording system NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Houston, Tex.

Light Flash (MA-106) Experiment hardware Lawrence Livermore Laboratory

University of California
Berkeley, Calif.

Biostack (MA-107) Experiment hardware Messerschmitt-BSlkow-Blohm

Ottobeuren, West Germany

Earth Observations 70-ram cameras, magazines, Victor Hasselblad, Aktiebolag

and Photography lenses, and accessories for Sweden
(MA-136) photography

20X binoculars for visual Tasce Sales, Inc.

observations Miami, Fla.

Standard color chips for visual Munsell Color Company

color comparisons Macbeth Division
Baltimore, Md.

Zoom telescope for visual Bushnell Optical Corporation

observations Pasadena, Calif.

Variable intervalometer for Perkin Elmer Corporation

sequencing photography; Aerospace Division
16-mm camera equipment Pomona, Calif.
for complementary strip
mapping

Crystal Ac_vation Experiment hardware NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

(MA-iSi) Greenbelt, Md.

Science Demonstrations Experiment hardware NASA George C. Marshall Space

Flight Center
Huntsville, Ala.

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 APPENDIX D

POINTS OF CONTACT

Experiment no. Science coordinator

Engineering development manager

NASA Lyndon B o Johnson Space Center

AR-002 m_
G. R. Taylor, DD7
MA-007 J. R. Bates, TN3
MA-028 C. J. LeBlanc, ED6 J. R. Bates, TN3
MA-031 --B
S. L. Kimzey, DB7
MA-032 S. L. Kimzey, DB7
MA-048 E. L. Weeks, ED6 S. N. Hardee, TN3
MA-059 L. W. McFaden, ED6 S. R. Mansur, TN3
MA-083 J. M. Sanders, ED6 R. R. Baldwin, TN3
MA-088 J. M. Sanders, ED6 R. R. Baldwin, TN3
MA-089 A. R. Cunningham, EE6, P. E. Lafferty, TN3
and J. S. Kelley, EE3
MA-106 J. D. Lem, DE4 R. A. Hoffman, DD6

MA-107 H. S. Anton a J. V. Bailey, DD6

MA-128 P. E. Lafferty, TN3
MA-147 G. R. Taylor, DD7
MA-148 R. T. Giuli, TN3
MA-151 S. R. Mansur, TN3
MA-161 R. A. Hoffman, DD6

NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

MA-010 A. Boese, EL55 A. Boese, EL55

MA-011 R. E. Allen, EH35 R. E. Allen, EH35
MA-014 R. S. Snyder, EH12 R. S. Snyder, EH12
_IVI_
-041 A. Boese, EL55 R. C. Ruff, ES12
044 A. Boese, EL55 L. L. Lacy, ES24
MA-060 A. Boese, EL55 C. F. Schafer, ES12
MA-070 A. Boese, EL55 C. S. Griner, EH12
MA-085 A. Boese, EL55 M. C. Davidson, ES12
MA-131 A. Boese, EL55 M. H. Johnston, EH12
MA-150 A. Boese, EL55 A. Boese, EL55

aMinistry of Research and Technology, Federal Republic of Germany,

Gesellschaft Fuer Weltraumforschung, 505 Porz-Wahn, Linder Hoehe, West Germany.

O S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1976--0--675--606

D-1