Agrawal 06 PDF

6/111
6 Static drives and

energy saving
Contents
6.1 Speed control in squirrel cage motors 6/113 6.14 PWM inverter drives causing shaft currents 6/165
2
5-
6.1.1 One winding 6/113 6.15 Energy conservation using static drives 6/166
6.1.2 Two windings 6/113 6.15.1 Illustration of energy conservation 6/166
2-
6.2 Speed control through solid-state technology 6/113 6.15.2 Computation of energy saving 6/167
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6.2.1 Theory of application 6/115 6.16 Application of static controllers 6/169
6.2.2 Effects of variable-supply parameters on the
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6.16.1 Soft starting 6/169
performance of an induction motor 6/115 6.16.2 Soft stopping 6/171
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6.3 V/f or v.v.v.f. control (speed control at constant 6.16.3 Slip-recovery system (to control wound rotor
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torque) 6/115 motors) 6/171
6.16.4 Operation of a process plant 6/173
6.4 Phasor (vector) control 6/117 : 6.16.5 Other applications 6/176
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6.4.1 Single phasor (vector) control 6/118
6.4.2 Field-oriented control (FOC) 6/120 6.17 Speed variation through variable-speed fluid
couplings 6/177
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6.4.3 Direct torque control (DTC) 6/123

6.5 Use of phasor control for flux braking 6/125 6.18 Static drive versus fluid coupling 6/177
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6.6 Control and feedback devices 6/125 6.19 D.C. drives 6/181
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6.6.1 Speed sensors 6/125 6.20 Retrofitting of EE motors and drives 6/181
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6.7 Evolution of solid-state technology 6/126 Relevant Standards 6/182

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6.7.1 Power diodes 6/126

6.7.2 The power transistor family 6/127 List of formulae used 6/183
6.7.3 The thyristor family 6/130
C.
Further Reading 6/183

6.7.4 Applications of power semiconductor devices 6/134
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6.8 Conduction and commutation 6/142

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6.9 Circuit configurations of semiconductor devices 6/145

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6.9.1 Converter or rectifier unit 6/145

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6.9.2 Inverter unit 6/151

6.9.3 Voltage source inverter (VSI) 6/153
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6.9.4 Current source inverter (CSI) 6/154

6.9.5 The regenerative schemes 6/155
6.10 Smoothing ripples in the d.c. link 6/156
6.11 Providing a constant d.c. voltage source 6/157
6.12 Providing a constant current source 6/157
6.13 Generation of harmonics, over-voltages and voltage surges
in a static device switching circuit and to mitigate their
effects 6/157
6.13.1 Harmonics generated by phase-controlled rectifier
units 6/157
6.13.2 Over-voltages and voltage surges 6/159
6.13.3 Grounding practices and shielding of signals in
electronic circuits 6/164
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2-
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Static drives and energy saving 6/113
6.1 Speed control in squirrel cage size of the generator when a captive power is used to
feed the load.
motors 3. It is possible to operate a motor in both directions
eliminating the use of an additional reversing starter.
Speed control in slip-ring motors has been discussed in
the previous chapter. Squirrel cage motors have limitations The method for speed control as discussed earlier are
in their speed control in view of their fixed rotor only conventional and can only provide a discrete speed
parameters. Speed variation, in fixed steps, however, is variation say, from 3000 r.p.m. to 1500 r.p.m. to 750
possible in such motors if the stator is wound for multi- r.p.m. or vice versa. They cannot provide a smoother
poles and such motors are known as pole changing motors. speed variation between any two speeds. The application
Up to four different speeds can be achieved in such motors of variable voltage is also not practical nor advisable,
economically, in combinations of 2/4, 4/6, 4/8, 6/8, 6/12, for it means a poor performance by the machine at lower
2/4/6, 4/6/8, 2/4/6/12 and 4/6/8/12 poles etc. or any other voltages, whereas a higher voltage (more than 5% of the
similar combination. For limitation in the motor size and rated) is not permissible. Moreover, through this method
flux distribution, winding sets of more than two are not the speed can be varied only within a very limited span
recommended. The two windings can be arranged for due to very unstable conditions below the Tpo region, and
2
two, three or (maximum) four different speeds. a more than proportionate reduction in the h.p. developed.
5-
The torque also reduces in square proportion of the voltage.
6.1.1 One winding For such applications, therefore, which required smoother
2-
speed variation and over a wide range, one had no choice
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The single winding can be connected in delta/double star but to select d.c. drives. These drives were costly and
(D /YY) to give two combinations of poles in the ratio of needed higher maintenance because of commutators, slip-
01
2:1, i.e. 4/2, 8/4 or 12/6 poles etc. as shown in Table 6.1. rings and brushes etc. that caused continuous arcing and
Consequent poles like 4/6, 6/8, 8/12 motors can also be
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required constant checks and maintenance. Also more
made with one winding.
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down-time, which a process industry could least afford.
Therefore combined systems were used but that required
6.1.2 Two windings very elaborate arrangements, using two or more a.c.
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When more than two or non-multiple speeds are required machines, rendering the whole system very cumbersome,
(e.g. 4/6 or 6/8 etc.) then two windings can also be used. vulnerable and yet more expensive. Since the speed was
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Each winding can further be connected in D /YY as noted normally changed through the variation in frequency
above to give one additional speed for each winding and (N µ f ), these systems were basically frequency changers
(converters) and were known as
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can thus be arranged for three or four different speeds as

shown in Table 6.1.
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• Cascade connections (concatenation)

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Use of two motors and the prime mover was a slip-

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6.2 Speed control through solid- ring motor.

• Frequency converters.
state technology • Schrage type motor (commutator brush shifting
C.
arrangement).
In the following text we discuss how, with the application
K.
• Leblanc or Scherbius Advancers.

of varying supply parameters (V and f ), one can alter the
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characteristics of a fixed parameter induction motor in These systems were evolved to provide a variable –
or
any desired way. We then deal with the application of frequency supply source to feed directly the stator
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solid-state technology to obtain the variations in the fixed terminals of the a.c. motor or its rotor through the slip-
supply parameters to achieve the required controls in an rings. The motors had to be invariably a combination of
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a.c. machine. two or more slip-ring motors to receive the rotor frequency
The static drives also provide a few more advantages voltage from the other machine or feedback the rotor
such as frequency voltage to another machine. The easiest method
was to have a variable-frequency supply source, which
1 They transform an unbalanced supply system was not possible, unless the supply source itself was
automatically to a balanced supply system through captive and earmarked for this drive alone or a combination
the switching logistics of the IGBTs* or the SCRs*. of these drives on the same bus.
The feature is termed dynamic phase balancing. There was thus a practical limitation in employing an
Note a.c. motor for all such applications that required frequent
Wherever IGBTs or thyristors are mentioned in this book they speed variation. Since these drives are no longer in
would mean the latest versions in their respective families and practice, we have not considered it relevant to provide
are discussed in Sections 6.7.2 and 6.7.3. more details of these systems.
2 The starting inrush current can be kept moderate for The above methods provide speed variation either in
all types of drives, that can economize not only on steps, as in squirrel cage motors or call for two machines
ratings of the switchgears and cables but also on the or more, as in frequency converters, and cannot be used
for a process line requiring frequent and precise speed
*IGBTs – Insulated gate bipolar transistors controls. Until a few years ago there was no other option
SCRs – Silicon-controlled rectifiers (thyristors) for all such applications except to use d.c. motors. D.C.
6/114 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Table 6.1 Connection diagrams for multispeed motors
No. of wdgs Poles Connection Connection diagram
One 8/4 or 4/2 etc., also Delta/double star a

6/8 or 4/6 etc. a b c a b c
a¢ c¢
c a¢ b ¢ c ¢ a¢ b¢ c¢
b
b¢
Motor winding 8-pole 4-pole

(i) (ii) (iii)
Two 8/6 or 6/4 etc. Star/star or delta/delta a a¢
b c b¢ c¢
2
8-pole 6-pole
5-
(i) (ii)
2-
Two 8/6/4 or 6/4/2 etc. One delta/double star a
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and one star or delta a b c a b c
a¢ c¢
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c a¢ b¢ c¢ a¢ b¢ c¢
b
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b¢
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Winding no. 1 8-pole 4-pole
8/4-pole
: (i) (ii) (iii)
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Winding no. 2
6-pole
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(iv)
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Two 12/8/6/4 etc. Two delta/double star a

Ag
a b c a b c
a¢ c¢
a¢ b¢ c ¢ a¢ b¢ c¢
C.
c b
b¢
K.

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12/6-pole
or
(i) (ii) (iii)

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d
d e f d e f
d¢ f¢
d¢ e¢ f¢ d ¢ e¢ f¢
f e
e¢

8/4-pole
(iv) (v) (vi)
motors possess the remarkable ability of precise speed 2 Continuous arcing as a result of the above, give rise
control through their separate armature and field controls. to fire hazards, particularly at installations that are
In d.c. motors the speed control below the base speed contaminated with explosive gases, vapour or volatile
can be achieved through the armature control at constant liquids or are handling materials that are hazardous.
torque and above the base speed through the field control 3 The maximum size of d.c. motor is limited due to
at constant h.p. (Figure 6.7(b)). But a d.c. machine also limitation of maximum voltage across commutator
has a few limitations: segments for satisfactory commutation.
1 Frequent maintenance due to continuously rubbing An induction motor, particularly a squirrel cage motor,
brushes mounted on a commutator. is cheap, robust and is devoid of any such operating
limitations and, has an obvious advantage over d.c. 6.3 V/f or v.v.v.f. control (speed
machines. It alone can provide an ultimate answer to
such limitations. With the advent of static technology control at constant torque)
as discussed later, it has now become possible to make
use of cage motors with the same ease and accuracy of This is also known as variable frequency control. Consider
speed control and even better than d.c. machines. Static the following equations from Chapter 1:
drives respond extremely fast as they can be S ◊ ss e 22 ◊ R2
microprocessor based. They can compute process data Tµ (1.3)
and provide system corrections almost instantly (called R22 + S 2 ◊ ss X 22
‘realtime processing’) as fast as within 1–2 ms and even and T µ fm · Irr (1.1)
less. In Table 6.5 we show a broad comparison between
a d.c. machine and a static drive using cage motors. It and e2 = 4.44 Kw · fm · Zr · fr (1.5)
gives an idea of applying static technology to all process \ for the same supply voltage V1
requirements with more ease and even better accuracy.
With the advent of this technology, the demand for e 2 µ fm · Z r · f r
d.c. machines is now in decline as noted in Section 6.19. e2
2
i.e. fm µ
5-
fr
6.2.1 Theory of application
2-
e2
and T µ fm µ
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The application of solid-state technology for the speed fr
control of a.c. motors is based on the fact that the
01
characteristics and performance of an induction motor i.e. for the same design parameters (fm remaining the
same) and ratio e2/fr, the torque of the motor, T, will
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can now be varied, which until a few years ago were
considered fixed and uncontrollable. With the advent of remain constant. Since both e2 and fr are functions of the
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solid-state technology, which was introduced around 1970 supply system, a variation in V and f can alter the
for industrial applications, the motor’s parameters and performance and the speed–torque characteristics of a
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motor as required, at constant torque. By varying the
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therefore its performance can now be varied by varying
the supply parameters of the system. For example the frequency smoothly from a higher value to a lower one
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voltage and frequency in cage motors, and rotor resistance or vice versa (within zero to rated), an almost straight
or rotor current in slip-ring motors, as discussed in Chapter line torque can be achieved (Figure 6.3). This type of a
1. This technology can also provide a varying resistance control is termed variable voltage, variable frequency
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in the rotor circuit of a slip-ring motor by varying the (v.v.v.f or V/f) control. At speeds lower than rated, the
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rotor current as discussed in Section 6.16.3 without the natural cooling may be affected, more so at very low
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loss of power in the external resistance. It is thus also speeds, and may require an appropriate derating of the
machine or provision of an external or forced cooling.
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suitable to provide speed control in a slip-ring motor.

Speed control of slip-ring motors with the use of solid- The practice of a few manufacturers, up to medium sized
motors, is to provide a cooling fan with separate power
C.
state technology is popularly known as slip recovery

systems, as the slip power can also be fed back to the connections so that the cooling is not affected at lower
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source of supply through a solid-state feedback converter speeds.

bridge, discussed later. Note
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or
The speed of the motor can be varied by varying the frequency

alone but this does not provide satisfactory performance. A variation
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6.2.2 Effects of variable supply parameters on in frequency causes an inverse variation in the flux, fm for the same
system voltage. The strength of magnetic field, fm, develops, the
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the performance of an induction motor

torque and moves the rotor, but at lower speeds, f would be reduced,
Here we analyse the effect of variation in the incoming which would raise fm and lead the magnetic circuit to saturation.
supply parameters (voltage and frequency) on the For higher speeds, f would be raised, but that would reduce fm,
which would adversely diminish the torque. Hence frequency
characteristics and performance of an induction motor variation alone is not a recommended practice for speed control.
(such as its flux density, speed, torque, h.p., etc). We The recommended practice is to keep V/f as constant, to maintain
also assess the effect of variation of one parameter on the motor’s vital operating parameters, i.e. its torque and fm, within
the other, and then choose the most appropriate solid- acceptable limits.
state scheme to achieve a required performance. We The above is valid for speed variation from zero to
generally discuss the following schemes: the rated speed. For speed variations beyond the rated
speed, the theory of V/f will not work. Because to maintain
1 V/f or v.v.v.f. (variable voltage variable frequency) the same ratio of V/f would mean a rise in the applied
control (speed control at constant torque) voltage which is not permissible beyond the rated voltage,
2 Phasor (vector) control and which has already been attained by reaching the
– Single-phasor (vector) control rated speed. The speed beyond the rated is therefore
– Field-oriented control (FOC), commonly known obtained by raising the supply frequency alone (in other
as double-phasor or phasor (vector) control and words, by weakening the field, fm) and maintaining the
– Direct torque control (DTC). voltage as constant at its rated value. We can thus achieve
a speed variation beyond the rated speed by sacrificing its duration. V/f is a concept to vary the speed, maintaining
its torque and maintaining the product T · f as constant. a constant torque. Through a static drive, however, it is
Since P µ T · Nr and Nr µ fr, therefore speed variation possible to vary one parameter more than the other, to
can now be achieved at constant power output (see Figure obtain any speed–torque characteristic to meet a particular
6.4). We have combined Figures 6.3 and 6.4 to produce duty cycle. By varying the rectifier and inverter
Figure 6.5 for more clarity, illustrating the speed variation parameters, a whole range of V/f control is possible.
at constant torque below the base speed and at constant High-inertia loads, calling for a slip-ring motor for a
h.p. above the base speed. safe and smooth start, can now make use of a standard
V/f is the most commonly used method to control the squirrel cage motor. Open- or closed-loop control systems
speed of a squirrel cage motor. The fixed frequency a.c. can be employed to closely monitor and control the output
supply, say, at 415 V, 50 Hz from the mains, is first voltage and frequency so that the ratio of V/f is always
rectified to a constant or variable d.c. voltage, depending maintained constant.
upon the static devices being used in the inverter circuit
and their configuration. This voltage is then inverted to Limitations of V/f control
obtain the required variable-voltage and variable-
frequency a.c. supply. The basic scheme of a V/f control Figure 6.1 illustrates theoretical speed–torque curves. In
2
is illustrated in Figure 6.6. The approximate output voltage, fact at very low speeds, say, at around 5% of Nr (at 5%
5-
current and torque waveforms are shown in Figure 6.7(a). f) or less, the motor may not be able to develop its
2-
The torque curve is now almost a straight line, with only theoretical torque due to a very low stator voltage, on
moderate pulsations, except for some limitations, as the one hand, and relatively higher proportion of losses
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discussed later, enabling the drive to start smoothly. When, and a lower efficiency of the machine, on the other.
01
however, a higher starting torque is required to start the Figure 6.2 illustrates a realistic torque characteristic at
motor quickly, it is also possible to boost the starting different supply frequencies. They display a sharply
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torque to a desirable level (up to the designed Tst of the drooping and rather unstable performance at very low
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motor) by raising the voltage to Vr, through the pulse speeds. For more accurate speed controls at such low
width modulation (PWM), discussed in Section 6.9.2. speeds, one may have to use phasor-controlled drives,
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The starting current can also be reduced to only 100– discussed later, or cyclo-converters, which are relatively
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150% of the rated current or as desired, to the extent very costly and are used, for very large drives. Phasor-
possible, by suitably varying the V/f. The control can controlled drives are available at reasonable cost and
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thus also provide a soft-start switching. It may, however, can provide extremely accurate speed controls even at
be noted that there is no control over the starting current, very low speeds, 5% of Nr and less. Typical applications
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which is a function of the applied voltage, and the calling for such a high torque at such low speeds could
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minimum voltage during start-up will depend upon the be a steel plant process line or material handling (e.g.
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motor, the load characteristics and the thermal withstand holding a load stationary at a particular height by the
time of the motor (Section 2.8). With the use of static crane, while shifting material from one location to
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control drives, it is however, possible to minimize the another).

starting inrush current to a reasonable level but with a
C.
loss of starting torque. To do so, it is advisable to match Tpo

K.
the load and the motor starting characteristics and

determine the minimum starting torque required to pick
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up the load. For this starting torque is then adjusted the Tst 1
or
starting voltage. The magnitude of the starting current

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will then depend upon this voltage. Tst 2

2
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Torque µ V
The static drives too are defined by their over-current Tst

capacity and its duration. IEC 60146-1-1 has defined it Tst 3
as 150–300%, depending upon the type of application, Tst 4
for a maximum duration of one minute. For instance, for Tst 5
centrifugal drives, which are variable torque drives Tr
(Figures 2.10 and 2.11) such as pumps, fans and
Tst 6
compressors etc. an over-current capacity of the order of
110% for one minute would be adequate. For reciprocating
drives, which are constant torque drives (Figures 2.12
and 2.13), such as ball mills and conveyors, a higher
0
over-current capacity say, 150–300% for one minute, NS3 NS2 NS1 NS = 1 NS4 NS5 NS6
would be essential. For higher starting currents or longer At NS 5% f=1
durations of start, the drive may have to be derated, and less, the V=1
which the manufacturer of the drive alone will be able to motor is not f decreasing f rising
able to maintain Speed or frequency
suggest. Drive ratings are basically selected on the basis
its TSt and TPO
of motor rating and the starting currents and are rated for levels
a starting current of 150% for one minute. If more than
150% is required, then the rating of the drive is worked Figure 6.1 Approximate theoretical representation of speed
out on the basis of the starting current requirement and versus torque for V / f control of a motor at different values of f
4 3 2 1
TSt4
*
TSt 3
Tr
Torque
TSt 2
Torque
TSt1
1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Hz
Below the base speed Above the base speed
0 0.25f1 0.50f1 0.75f1 1.00f1
2
Frequency (Speed)
N S4 N S3 N S2 N S1
5-
Speed
2-
1 1
* Drooping torque at lower speeds. At higher 1 TSt 1 µ 2 TSt 2 µ
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speeds too, the torque profile is variable 1.0f 0.75f
1 1
3 TSt 3 µ 4 TSt 4 µ
01
0.5f 0.25f
(V/f control fmax constant)
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Figure 6.2 Actual speed–torque characteristics by a conventional
frequency control (V/f control)
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Figure 6.3 Speed variation at constant torque
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ÈT max 2 = 3/2 T max 1 ˘ Tor

ÍÎ at f 2 = 2/3 f1 ˙˚ que
line
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ÈT max 1 ˘
Torque
ÍÎ at f1 ˙˚
Ag
ÈT max 3 = 2/3 T max 1 ˘

C.
ÎÍ at f 3 = 3/2 f1 ˚˙
K.
:
or
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S=1 ÈN S2 = 2/3 N S1 ˘ È N S1 ˘ ÈN S3 = 3/2 N S1 ˘

Í ˙ Í ˙ Í ˙
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Î at f 2 = 2/3 f1 ˚ Î at f1 ˚ Î at f 3 = 3/2 f1 ˚
Speed
(Variation in frequency)
Figure 6.4 Speed variation at constant HP
Application energy during a load variation (see Example 6.1 for more
clarity). Rating, however, is no bar.
In a V/f control generally, only the frequency is varied to
obtain the required speed control. Based on this frequency,
the switching logistics of the inverter control circuit control 6.4 Phasor (vector) control
the inverter’s output voltage using the PWM technique
to maintain the same ratio of V/f. A V/f control is, however,
not suitable at lower speeds. Their application is limited A simple V/f control, as discussed above, will have the
to fan, pump and compressor-type loads only, where speed following limitations:
regulation need not be accurate, and their low-speed • Control at very low speeds is not possible.
performance or transient response is not critical and they • Speed control may not be very accurate.
are also not required to operate at very low speeds. V/f • Response time may not be commensurate with the
controls are primarily used for soft starts and to conserve system’s fast-changing needs.
Stator voltage control Field control 6.4.1 Single phasor (vector) control
T µ V/f HP µ T · f
Let us consider the simple equivalent motor circuit diagram
as shown earlier in Figure 1.15. The no-load component
of the current, In, that feeds the no-load losses of the
machine contains a magnetizing component, Im · Im
produces the required magnetic field, in the stator and the
rotor circuits, and develops the rotor torque so that
T µ fm · Irr (1.1)
Torque
The magnetizing current, Im, is a part of the motor stator

current I (Figure 1.15). The rotor current is also a
reflection of the active component of this stator current,
as can be seen in the same figure, so that
2
0 Constant torque region Constant HP region I = In + Ia
5-
2-
Speed (f)
= I m¢ + I m + I a (6.1)
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Figure 6.5 Speed control in an a.c. motor All these are phasor quantities. Ia is the active component
01
responsible for developing the rotor torque and Im the
All these parameters are extremely essential for a magnetic field. Varying Ia would mean a corresponding
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process line. With the R&D in the field these limitations variation in the torque developed.
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have been overcome with the use of phasor controls. To
implement these controls different manufacturers have :Variation of speed below the base (rated) speed
adopted to different control and feedback systems to
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The machine now operates in a constant torque region

monitor and control the torque and field components. (Figure 6.7(b)). The frequency is reduced as is the voltage
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They have also given these controls different trade names. to maintain the same ratio of V/f. At lower voltages, I
While the basic technological concept may remain the and therefore Ia will diminish, while fm and Im will rise,
same, process implementation may vary from one so that fm · Irr is a constant.
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manufacturer to another. Below we attempt to identify Equation (6.1) can be rewritten, for better analysis
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the more common phasor controls introduced by a few with little error as
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leading manufacturers.
Ag
3–f a.c. supply

C.
Fixed a.c. 1 Isolator

K.
voltage
1 2
:
Fuse
or
5
3 Diode bridge rectifier (converter)
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2 8
4 Inverter unit IGBT or thyristor,
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9 depending upon the size of machine.

3 CT
6
10 Tacho-generator for open loop or
7
d.c. encoder for a closed loop control
link
voltage 8 Speed potentiometer
11
or 4
9 Speed comparator
Variable a.c. 10 Speed amplifier and controller

voltage and 12
11 Current comparator
frequency
5 12 Current amplifier and controller
6
= 13 13 Gate control in case of thyristor
inverters only
7
TG
or
3–f Motor
Figure 6.6 Typical block diagram of a V/f control scheme with open- or closed-loop control scheme
Armature voltage control Field control

(Field strengthening region) (Field weakening region)
Constant torque region Constant HP region

V µ f, T µ f · Ia = constant
Voltage
1 = Torque curve
2 = Output curve
Armature voltage fixed Ia = Armature current
field current reduced
HP µ T · Nr
Current Constant torque µ V / f
Torque
Tr
1
e
bl
r ia
va To
rq
ge ue
re
lta du c
vo r es µ
µ 1 /N
re N
u µ
2
at
m HP
5-
Ar 2
2-
Torque
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0 N Nmax
Base speed
01
Speed (µ f)
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Base speed – It is normally the rated speed at which the rated
parameters are referred (Tr, HP and Vr )
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Figure 6.7(a) Approximate Figure 6.7(b) Variation of torque with speed in a d.c. machine (same for an a.c.
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characteristics of vital parameters machine)
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after pulse width modulation
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I Ia + Im mathematical model. The motor is calibration* run on

no-load at different voltages and speeds and the drive is
where,
able to establish near-accurate vital parameters of the
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Ia µ T µV1 and machine in terms of the equivalent circuit diagram shown

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Im µ f in Figure 1.15 earlier. With these parameters known, it is

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now possible to achieve the required speed controls noted

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Therefore a normal V/f can also be transformed into a above. Since these parameters are fixed for a motor, the
phasor control, I a and I m being torque- and flux- motor has to be selected according to the load duty and
C.
producing components respectively. These components may require a pre-matching with the load.
are represented only theoretically. In fact they are not
K.
separate and hence the difficulty in controlling each of Application

them more precisely.
:
or
Such a control is good for machines that are required to

operate at low speeds with a high accuracy. Now the
th
Variation of speed beyond the base (rated) speed phasor I, in terms of Im, is varied according to the speed
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required. Figure 6.2 now changes to Figure 6.8, which is

See Figure 6.7(b). The machine now operates in a constant a marked improvement on the earlier characteristics. The
h.p. region. The frequency is raised but the voltage is torque variation with speed is now almost constant, except
kept constant at its rated value (as it should not be raised at very low speeds. The reason for poor torque at low
beyond rated). The flux will diminish while I and also speeds is the method of speed variation which is still
Irr will remain almost the same. The torque therefore based on V/f. Now a motor’s mathematical model is used
reduces so that the h.p. developed remains almost a to vary the speed of the machine by sensing the component,
constant (h.p. µ T · N). This is also known as the field Im, of the machine. Any variation in the actual Im than
weakening region. the desired pre-set value in the inverter switching logistics
In the above schemes the two quantities (Ia and Im)
are not separated. Initially it was not easy to separate
them and the whole phasor I was varied to achieve a
speed variation. Yet close speed control was possible but *1 Calibration run or auto-tuning is a feature of the motor’s
mathematical model that can establish the motor parameters
the motor’s basic parameters were essential to achieve with its test run.
more accurate speed control. Since it may not be practical 2 If the actual motor data are available from the motor manufacturer,
to obtain all the parameters of each motor promptly, the a calibration run will not be necessary. The motor’s mathematical
drive software is designed so that the name plate particulars model can now be fed with the explicit data to achieve more precise
of a motor (V, Ir, Nr, and kW) alone are enough to determine speed control.
the machine’s required parameters through the motor’s 3 All the motor models are implemented by microcomputer software.
I a2
Nearly constant torque speed
control with very little droop
I a1
Torque
q2
2
012 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 Hz q1
5-
Below the base speed Above the base speed I m(constant)
2-
Frequency (Speed)
Figure 6.9 Phasor representation of field current (I m) and
64
Figure 6.8 Speed–torque characteristics by flux (I m) control stator active current (I a )
(single phasor control)
01
is made up by the PWM technique. The field-oriented achieve a required level of speed control the stator current,
-9
block diagram illustrated in Figure 6.12 can be suitably Ia, field current, Im, and phasor angle, q, can be suitably
81
simplified for Im control. Tachogenerator or pulse encoder varied. Since it is the phasor of the rotor flux (rotating
feedback devices can be employed to achieve higher field), i.e. the magnitude and its angular position with
:
accuracy in speed control. respect to the active current of the stator, which is being
BN
With years of research and development in the field of varied, to achieve the required speed control, this phasor
static drives, it is now possible to identify and separate control is called field oriented control (FOC). The theory
IS
these two parameters (I a and I m ) and vary them of field orientation was first introduced by F. Blascke in
individually, as in a d.c. machine, to achieve extremely 1972 (see Blascke (1972) and EPE Journal (1991)).
al
accurate speed control, even slightly better than in d.c. Having been able to identify the rotor field phasor it is
w
machines. In d.c. machines the armature current and the now possible to vary this and obtain a speed control in a
ra
field strength are also varied independently. A.C. machines squirrel cage machine similar to that in a d.c. machine.
can now be used to provide very precise speed control, For field-oriented controls, a mathematical model of
Ag
as accurate as ± 0.001% of the set speed, with closed- the machine is developed in terms of rotating field to
loop feedback controls. This technique of speed control represent its operating parameters such as Nr, Ia, Im and
C.
is termed field-oriented control (FOC) and is discussed q and all parameters that can influence the performance
below. of the machine. The actual operating quantities are then
K.
computed in terms of rotating field and corrected to the

:
6.4.2 Field-oriented control (FOC) required level through open- or closed-loop control
or
schemes to achieve very precise speed control. To make

th
This is commonly known as double phasor or phasor the model similar to that of a d.c. machine, Equation
(vector) control. If we analyse Equation (1.1) in Chapter
Au
(6.2) is further resolved into two components, one direct

1 we will observe that f is a function of stator magnetizing axis and the other quadrature axis, as discussed later.
current, Im, and Irr is a transformation of the stator active Now it is possible to monitor and vary these components
current, Ia. individually, as with a d.c. machine. With this phasor
Hence, Equation (1.1) can be rewritten as control we can now achieve a high dynamic performance
and accuracy of speed control in an a.c. machine, similar
T µ Im ◊ Ia to a separately excited d.c. machine. A d.c. machine
provides extremely accurate speed control due to the
Both of them are phasor quantities, and are shown in independent controls of its field and armature currents.
Figure 6.9. In absolute terms, they can be represented by Different manufacturers have adopted different methods
T = k · Im · Ia sin q (6.2) with minor changes to achieve almost the same objective.
For example, field-oriented control was first introduced
where q represents the electrical position of the rotor by Allen Bradley in the USA in 1981 and a similar technique
field in space with respect to the stator. In other words, was introduced at the same time by ABB of Finland. ABB
it is the phasor displacement or slip angle between claim their technique to be still faster in responding, as it
I m and I a and will continue to vary with variation in eliminates the modulation section of the drive (which we
load (torque). For instance, referring to Figure 6.9, the will discuss later, when discussing drives), and the torque
smaller the load Ia1, the smaller will be sin q1 and the could be controlled directly. They call it direct torque
larger the load Ia2, the larger will be sin q2. Thus to control (DTC).
The phasor I a and I m are separated and then controlled of the field frame. Figure 6.11 shows these two equivalent
separately as discussed later. For more precise speed stator side phasors transformed to the rotor frame.
control a pulse encoder feedback device can also be
employed. The characteristics now improve to Figure I a¢ = corresponding stator phasor for active current,
6.10. The torque can now be maintained constant at any referred to the rotor side
speed, even at zero speed. I m¢ = corresponding stator phasor for the magnetizing
With different approaches to monitor and control the current, referred to the rotor side
basic parameters of the motor, i.e. Ia, Im and sinq, many q = phase displacement between the stator active and
more alternatives are possible to achieve the required magnetizing current components
speed variation in an a.c. machine. Control of these b = angular displacement of the rotor field with respect
parameters by the use of an encoder can provide an to the stationary stator at a particular instant. It
accuracy in speed control as good as a d.c. machine and will continue to vary with the movement of the rotor.
even better. The phasor diagram would suggest that:
To implement the FOC 1 I a¢ sinq can be regarded as the quadrature component.
2
It is the torque component on which will depend the
The field phasor is a continuously rotating phasor in the
5-
torque developed by the rotor. It is this component
space, whose angular position keeps changing with the that will be varied for speed variations below the
2-
position of the rotor with respect to the stationary stator. base speed, maintaining the field current constant
64
Let the rotor field displacement under the stationary according to the rated condition. It is similar to the
condition with respect to the stator be denoted by angle b
01
armature current control in a d.c. machine.
as shown in Figure 6.11. This displacement will continue
to change and will rotate the rotor (field frame). All the 2 I m¢ can be regarded as the direct axis field component
-9
phasor quantities of the stator are now expressed in terms responsible for the field flux. This can be weakened
81
(reduced) for speed variations above the base speed,
: which is the constant-output, constant-voltage region.
Now the torque component will diminish. It is similar
BN
to the separately excited field control in a d.c. machine.

Constant torque Both these phasors can be regulated separately like a
IS
speed control
d.c. machine to achieve any speed variation with high
precision and accuracy and provide a high dynamic
al
performance. Leading manufacturers have developed

w
mathematical models with microprocessors to

Torque
determine the modulus and the space angle b of the

ra
rotor flux space phasor through Ia and speed. The

Ag
space angle of the rotor flux space phasor is then

obtained as a sum of slip angle q and the field angle
C.
b. The slip angle q can be calculated from the reference

values Ia and Im (an indirect method, as no sensors
K.
0 1 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Hz are used). With these parameters known, it is now

:
Below the base speed Above the base speed possible to identify the position of the rotor flux phasor
or
and then orientate the stator current phasor to

th
Frequency (Speed) determine the relative displacement between the two

in the space, to achieve a phasor diagram as shown
Au
Figure 6.10 Speed–torque characteristics by field-oriented

control (FOC) (flux and torque control) (Source: Allen Bradley) in Figure 6.11. The phasor diagram provides crucial
parameters and must be established accurately to
obtain accurate results from the control of I a¢ and I m¢ .
ld ng
) The relationship between these two phasors,
fie tati
r
to (r o I a¢ and I m¢ , is then monitored closely and controlled
Ro me by adjusting the supply parameters to the stator of
fra
q the machine. The supply parameters can be controlled
I a¢
sin through a VSI (voltage source inverter) or CSI (current

I ¢a
source inverter), which are discussed later, depending
I ¢m upon the practice of the manufacturer.
e) The microprocessor plays the role of an electronic
gl
an controller that transforms electrical quantities such as V,
lip
(S le) I and N etc. into space flux phasors, to be compared with
q ang
pace the pre-set data. It then creates back V, I and N etc.,
b (S
Stator static frame which are the controlling variables, in terms of correction
required and feeds these to the machine through a VSI or
Figure 6.11 Rotor field reference frame CSI to achieve the required controls.
Mathematical modelling of the machine is a complex control in an induction machine. With this technology
subject and is not discussed here. For this, research and (any of the three methods noted above), it is now possible
development works carried out by engineers and the textbooks to obtain a high performance of the machine, i.e. torque
available on the subject may be consulted. A few references up to 100% of Tr at speeds down to zero.
are provided in the Further Reading at the end of this chapter. Since the motor’s fixed parameters can now be varied
In the above analysis we have considered the rotor flux as to suit a particular load requirement, there is no need to
the reference frame. In fact any of the following may be pre-match a motor with the load as was necessary in a
fixed as the reference frame and accordingly the motor’s single phasor control. Now any motor can be set to achieve
mathematical model can be developed: the required characteristics to match with the load and
its process needs. Full-rated torque (Tr) at zero speed
Rotor flux-oriented control – when the rotor is considered (during start) should be able to pick-up most of the loads
as the reference frame. smoothly and softly. Where, however, a higher Tst than
Stator flux-oriented control – when the stator is considered Tr is necessary, a voltage boost can also be provided
as the reference frame and during the start-up to meet this requirement. (See also
Magnetic field-oriented control – when the field is Section 6.16.1 on soft starting.) The application of phasor
considered as the reference frame. (vector) control in the speed control of an a.c. motor is
2
The rotor flux-oriented control is more popular among shown as a block diagram in Figure 6.12.
5-
different manufacturers to achieve high precision of speed
2-
AC supply
64
Sw
01
-9
Fuses
81
1 3
wref Dwr Ia sin q (ref) DIa sin q DIa sin q (amplified)
2 4 : 10
BN
Converter
6 11 unit
wr DIm (amplified)
Iasin q
IS
b DC link
al
DIm
w
Ia
ra
12
Ag
Inverter
unit
C.
b
K.
Ia sin q
9 CTS
:
Im (ref) Im
or
7
th
8
13
Au
AC Motor
1 Speed comparator: to determine the speed error (wref – wr) where, 8 Field current comparator (DIm) to determine (Im(ref) – Im).
wref = required speed reference and
9 Motor flux mathematical model to determine prevailing Ia sin q and
wr = actual speed.
Im and also the space field displacement angle with respect to the
2 Speed control amplifier to feed the reference torque data stator ‘b ’.
Ia sin q(ref.) to the torque error detector. This is the quadrature
10 Current comparator to compute the error between the actual line
component. quantities and the desired quantities from block 6 and give
3 Current comparator: It is the torque error detector, to detect the command to the control unit 11.
torque component error DIa sin q (Iasin q(ref) – Ia sinq ). 11 Switching block controls the switching of the inverter unit to regulate
4 Torque error amplifier to feed the torque error to carry out the its output to the preset reference line quantities.
desired correction through block 6. 12 Inverter unit.
5 Field error DIm amplifier. 13 Pulse encoder – To feed back actual speed of the motor and the
6 Phasor rotator to transform the field frame coordinates to the stator angular position of the rotor with respect to the stator at a particular
frame coordinates. instant.
7 Field weakening unit to command the field strength Im(ref.) for speed
regulation above the base speed.
Figure 6.12 Block diagram for a flux-oriented phasor control
Application through an encoder to the motor model. The controllable

variables now are only f and T. It is therefore called a
FOC drives are capable of providing precise speed control direct torque control (DTC) technique. There is no need
and are used for applications calling for high performance to control the primary control variables V or I and N now
and precision (e.g. machine tools, high-speed elevators, as in a flux phasor control. This scheme eliminates the
mine winders, rolling mills, etc.). These drives are capable signal processing time in the absence of a PWM and also
of regulating a number of variables at the same instant an encoder circuit, both of which introduce an element
such as speed, position, acceleration and torque. of delay. As these drives control f and T directly, they
respond extremely quickly and it is possible to achieve
6.4.3 Direct torque control (DTC) a response time as low as 1–2 ms. They are thus a corollary
to the sensor-less flux control drives. For reference, a
This is an alternative to FOC and can provide a very fast rough comparison between the various types of drives is
response. The choice of a static drive, whether through a given in Table 6.2.
simple V/f control, field-oriented phasor control or direct
torque control with open or closed-loop control and Basic scheme of a DTC drive
feedback schemes, would depend upon the size of the
2
machine, the range of speed control (whether required to A simple block diagram as shown in Figure 6.13 illustrates
5-
operate at very low speeds, 5% Nr and below), the accuracy the operation of a DTC drive. It contains two basic
of speed control and the speed of correction (response
2-
sections, one a torque control loop and the other a speed
time). The manufacturers of such drives will be the best control loop. The main functions of these two control
64
guide for the most appropriate and economical drive for circuits are as follows:
a particular application or process line.
01
This technology was introduced by M/s ABB of Finland 1 Torque control loop
-9
to achieve an extremely fast and highly accurate speed
Section 1
81
control in an a.c. machine. This is also based on phasor
control, but the field orientation is now obtained without
This measures
using a modulation (PWM) control circuit. The
:
BN
manufacturer makes use of only motor theory, through a • the current in any two phases of the motor
highly accurate mathematical motor model, to calculate • the d.c. bus voltage, which is a measure of the motor
IS
the motor torque directly. There is no need to measure voltage

and feed back the rotor speed and its angular position • the switching position of the inverter unit.
al
w
Table 6.2 Comparison of conventional V/f control with different modes of phasor control drives
ra
Ag
Variable-frequency Phasor (vector) control drives

drives
Serial no. Performance Flux (Im) control Double-phasor (vector) or Direct torque control
C.
parameters V/ f control (single-phasor field-oriented control (DTC)

control) (FOC)
K.
Without With
encodera encoderb a, c Without With Without With
:
or
encodera encoderb encodera encoderb

th
d
1 Response time in 200–400 ms 100–200 ms 125–250 ms 10–20 ms 5–10 ms 1–2 ms
Au
adjusting the
speed (regulation)
2 Accuracy of speed ± 1.0% ± 0.1% ± 0.5% ± 0.5% ± 0.001% ± 0.1% ± 0.001%
control (regulation)
3 Speed range 40 :1 40 :1 120 :1 120 : 1 1000 :1 100 : 1 100 :1
4 Ability to maintain Not possible Not possible Not possible Yes Yes Yes Yes
100% rated torque
at zero speed ¨ (Figure 6.2) Æ (Figure 6.8) ¨ (Figure 6.10) Æ ¨ (Figure 6.10)Æ
Notes
1 All values are approximate and are for reference only. For exact values consult the manufacturer.
2 All these drives are based on pulse width modulation (PWM) and hence would produce over-voltages at the inverter output and require
over-voltage protection for cable lengths of 100 m (typical) and above, depending upon the steepness of the wave (Section 6.13.2).
3 The performance of the drive would also depend upon the accuracy of the motor’s mathematical model used for the phasor control.
4 The choice of the type of drive would depend upon the degree of speed regulation required by the process.
a
Open-loop controls
b
Closed-loop controls
c
These drives are normally open loop (sensor-less) without encoder. For higher regulation, it is better to adopt a two-phasor control, such
as a field-oriented control (FOC) or a direct torque control (DTC) drive.
d
Response time without an encoder is sufficiently low. Where response time alone is the prime consideration, the encoder is not necessary.
Speed control loop Torque control loop AC supply
Sw
5
Internal Fuses
6 torque
Flux reference Torque Torque
Torque reference Optimum Switch
controller comparator
reference status pulse position
Converter
Speed selector commands
Control
unit
controller
Flux signals
Speed comparator Flux
PID
reference status
DC link
Internal flux reference
Actual torque
+ Acceleration 4
Actual flux
compensator 3
Flux reference
controller
Flux optimizing
2
V
5-
(ON/OFF)
f Switch positions
V
2-
Flux braking Adaptive
(ON/OFF) motor model DC bus voltage
64
f Inverter
T
Field weakening
01
Motor current
(ON/OFF) f
-9
Actual speed Motor current
81
7 1
2
:
BN
PID – Proportional, Integrative, 13
Derivative (a feedback control algorithm) Pulse
AC Motor
IS
(for brief details see Section 13.2.3) encoder
Figure 6.13 Block diagram of a direct torque control inverter circuit (Source: ABB)
al
w
Section 2 Section 4
ra
This is a highly advanced motor model, which is first This determines the switching pattern of the inverter
Ag
made to read and store the machine’s vital parameters unit, based on the T and f error signals, obtained from
such as R1, L1, saturation coefficients and its moment the torque and flux comparators. Since these signals are
C.
of inertia during an autocalibration run. The motor is obtained at very high speed, the inverter IGBTs are also
run under a locked rotor condition and the mathematical switched with an equally high speed to provide a quick
K.
model is capable of computing its basic characteristics response and an accurate T and N.
in terms of these parameters or any data that may be of
:
or
use to actuate the control logistics. The block diagram 2 Speed control loop
th
is drawn in an open-loop condition, which would suffice

for most process lines. For still higher accuracy in speed
Au
control, an encoder may be introduced into this circuit, Section 5

as shown by the dotted line in Figure 6.13. The quantities This is a torque reference controller which controls the
measured in Section 1 are also fed into this section, speed control output signal through the required torque
which are able to compute the actual operating values reference signal and the d.c. link voltage. Its output
of T and f about every 25 ms, i.e. around 40 000 times torque reference is fed to the torque comparator (Section
every second. These are the output control signals of 3).
this section.
Section 6
Section 3 This is the speed controller block that consists of both a
The above actual operating data are fed into a torque PID (proportional integrative derivative, a type of
comparator and a flux comparator, which are already programming) controller and an acceleration compensator.
supplied with predefined reference data to which the The required speed reference signal is compared with the
machine is required to adjust. Any errors in these two actual speed signal obtained from the motor model (section
data (reference and actual) are compared by these 2). The error signal is then fed to both the PID controller
comparators at an extremely fast speed as noted above and the acceleration compensator. The sum of these two
and provides T and f error signals to the switching logistics is the output signal that is fed to the torque reference
of the inverter unit. controller (Section 5).
Section 7 parameters through the inverter controls. A microprocessor

This is the flux reference controller which provides the is a semiconductor device and consists of logic circuits
absolute value of stator flux to the flux comparator (Section in the form of ICs (integrated circuits), capable of
3). The value of this absolute flux can be varied to fulfil performing computing functions and decision making.
many functional requirements from the inverter unit such These capabilities are used in carrying out process
as corrections by providing the necessary timing and control
corrective signals to the switching logistics of the inverter
• Field strengthening – to obtain speed variation below unit.
the base speed A microprocessor is capable of solving complex
• Flux braking – to carry out braking duties mathematical problems very rapidly and can analyse a
• Field weakening – to obtain speed variation above system more closely and accurately. It can be fed with a
the base speed. variety of measuring and control algorithmic software
that may be necessary for system monitoring and control.
Inference It is also capable of performing supervisory and diagnostic
functions and carry out historical recording to store
1 With the application of static drives, induction motors, information related to process and drive conditions, to
2
both, squirrel cage and slip-ring, can be easily facilitate reviews of data for continuous process
5-
controlled to achieve the required characteristics by monitoring, fault analysis, diagnostics, trend analysis,
2-
the application of solid-state technology. etc.
2 With the availability of phasor control technology, The control logistics such as PWM or frequency
64
by which one can separate out the active and controls are digital circuits and are microprocessor based.
01
magnetizing components of the motor’s stator current They can compare the actual inverter output parameters
and vary them individually, it is now possible to with pre-set reference parameters and help to implement
-9
achieve higher dynamic performance and accuracy the required precise adjustments in the system’s parameters
81
of speed control in an a.c. machine similar to and instantly by providing corrective command signals to the
even better than a separately excited d.c. machine. switching circuits of the inverter unit. This in turn adjusts
:
3 With this technology it is now possible to achieve the system variable parameters within the required limits
BN
extremely accurate speed control of the order of by adjusting V and f as in a simple V /f control or Im and
± 0.01% to ± 0.001%. To achieve such high accuracy f as in a flux phasor control (single phasor control), or Ia,
IS
in speed control, closed-loop feedback control systems Im, b and f as in a field-oriented control or the torque
and microprocessor-based control logistics can be phasor control as in a direct torque control technique etc.
introduced into the inverter control scheme to sense,
al
As a result of their accuracy and speed, they are capable

monitor and control the variable parameters of the
w
of achieving prompt corrections, high reliability, better

motor to very precise limits.
ra
flexibility and hence a high dynamic performance of the

4 A very wide range of speed controls is available drive.
Ag
through this technology as it is possible to vary There are many types of sensors used to feedback the
frequency on both sides (±) of the rated frequency. process operating conditions to the switching logistics
C.
of an inverter unit. They can be in terms of temperature,

K.
pressure, volume, flow, time or any activity on which

depends the accuracy and quality of the process. Direct
6.5 Use of phasor control for
:
sensing devices used commonly for the control of a drive

or
flux braking and used frequently in the following text are speed sensors,
th
as noted below.
Au
It is possible to perform braking duties by the motor by

raising the level of magnetization (field strengthening). 6.6.1 Speed sensors
By raising flux, the speed reduces (Figure 6.7(b)) and
the stator current rises. This is an apparent advantage in These are closed-loop sensing devices and are mounted
this kind of a speed control, as the heat generated by the on the machine or a process line. They are able to sense
motor during braking appears as thermal energy in the the operating parameters and provide an analogue or
stator rather than in the rotor. Also it is easier to dissipate digital feedback input to the inverter switching logistics.
heat from the stator than from the rotor due to its (stator) For example:
bulk and outer cooling surface, which is open to the 1 Tacho generator (TG) – This is an analogue voltage
atmosphere. feedback device and can provide a speed input to the
inverter control circuit. It provides only a low level
of speed regulation, typically ± 0.4% of the set speed.
6.6 Control and feedback devices 2 Pulse encoder – This is a digital voltage feedback
device and converts an angular movement into
The control and feedback circuits are also solid-state electrical high-speed pulses. It provides speed and
devices and offer high reliability and accuracy. The output also the angular position of the rotor with respect to
from these devices can be interfaced with a microprocessor the stator field when required for field-oriented control
to carry out the required corrections in the system’s to the inverter control circuit to achieve the required
speed control. It is a high-accuracy device, and time and readers are advised to contact the leading
provides accuracy up to ± 0.001% of the set speed. manufacturers for details on the latest technology.
(See the simple feedback control scheme shown in Diodes are purely static power switching devices and
Figure 6.12.) are used extensively with thyristor and transistor power
schemes. Transistors are relatively cheaper and easy to
handle compared to thyristors. The latter are more
6.7 Evolution of solid-state expensive and more complex as noted below. With the
technology use of these devices an induction motor can be employed
to perform variable duties through its stepless speed control
logistics by close monitoring of load requirements during
This field is very vast and a detailed study of the subject a particular process or while performing a specific duty
is beyond the scope of this handbook. We will limit our cycle. The controls are assisted by microprocessor-based,
discussions to such areas of this subject that relate to the open- or closed-loop control techniques, which can sense
control of a.c. motors and attempt to identify the different and monitor many variables such as speed, flow of
solid-state devices that have been developed so far and material, temperature, pressure or parameters important
put to use with their application in the control of a.c. for a process or a duty cycle. With these techniques, it is
2
motors. Only the more common circuits and configurations possible to achieve any level of automation. Open-loop
5-
are discussed. The brief discussion of the subject provided systems are used where high accuracy of controls and
here, however, should be adequate to help the reader
2-
feedback is not so important and closed-loop where a
understand this subject in general terms and to use this high degree of accuracy of control is essential. With
64
knowledge in the field of a.c. motor controls to achieve solid-state technology it is now possible to utilize a
01
from a soft start to a very precise speed control and, more conventional machine to perform a variable duty. The
importantly, to conserve energy of the machine which is advanced versions of these devices are capable to handle
-9
wasted otherwise. For more details of static controllers large powers and with their series parallel combinations
81
and their design aspects see the Further Reading (Sr. nos. very very large powers. They can now handle all
2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12 and 15 onwards) at the end of the chapter kinds of power requirements and their controls. Like
:
or consult the manufacturer. To bring more clarity to the HV d.c. power transmission, reactive power controls,
BN
subject of power semiconductor devices we have also large rectifiers and all sizes and duties of induction
discussed their applications in different fields other than motors.
IS
motor controls. At appropriate places passing references

to a d.c. machine are also provided. To make the discussion
more complete different configurations of converter units 6.7.1 Power diodes
al
are also discussed for the control of d.c. motors.

w
These are uni-directional* and uncontrollable† static

In the past more than five decades solid-state devices
ra
electronic devices and used as static switches and shown

such as diodes, transistors and thyristors have attained a in Figure 6.14. A diode turns ON at the instant it becomes
Ag
remarkable status and application in the field of electronic forward biased and OFF when it becomes reverse biased.
power engineering. Diodes and thyristors were introduced By connecting them in series parallel combinations, they
C.
in the late 1950s, while the basic transistor (BJT – bipolar can be made suitable for any desired voltage and current
junction triode) was introduced in 1948. In India they ratings. So far these devices have been developed up to
K.
appeared much later (thyristors were introduced in the 6.5 kV, 6.0 kA and even more. Whether it is a transistor
1970s and power transistors in the 1980s). This technology
:
scheme or a thyristor scheme, they are used extensively

or
is now extensively applied to convert a fixed a.c. power where a forward conduction alone is necessary and the
th
supply system to a variable a.c. supply system, which in scheme calls for only a simple switching, without any
turn is utilized to perform a required variable duty of a
Au
control over the switching operation. They are used

fixed power system or a machine. They are all extensively in a rectifier circuit to convert a fixed a.c.
semiconductor switching devices and constitute two basic supply to a fixed d.c. supply.
families, one of transistors and the other of thyristors
and these two resulting into their hybrids also like MCTs
and IGCTs (MOS – controlled thyristors and integrated
gate commutated thyristors). The more prevalent of them A (anode)
are discussed here to give readers an idea of the use of
this technology in today’s domestic and integrated
applications, power generation, transmission, distribution
and their controls etc. K (cathode)
More emphasis is provided on the control of induction
motors. Research and development in this field is a Figure 6.14 Circuit symbol for a power diode as a switch
continuous process and is being carried out by agencies
and leading manufacturers. This aims to advance and
optimize the utility of such devices by improving their
* A unidirectional switch is one that can conduct in only one direction
current-handling capability and making them suitable and blocks in the reverse direction.
for higher system voltages, switching speeds etc. There †A controllable switch is one that can be turned ON and OFF by
may be more advanced versions available in course of switching a control circuit ON and OFF.
6.7.2 The power transistor family causes a high loss and dissipation of heat. This adverse
feature of their characteristics renders them unsuitable
The solid-state technology in the field of transistors in as power switching devices for efficient power conversion.
particular has undergone a sea-change, beginning in the Therefore they are generally used as electronic control
1950s from the basic bipolar junction transistor (BJT) to devices rather than power devices in electronic control
the more advanced insulated gate bipolar LV transistor circuits and are not produced in higher ratings.
(IGBT) by the 1990s, integrated gate commutated
thyristors (IGCTs) by the 1997 (a hybrid of transistors
and thyristors), MV IGBTs by 1998, symmetrical gate Two-junction transistors or power Darlingtons
commutated thyristors (SGCTs) by 1999 and latest These also have three terminals as illustrated in Figure
transistorized power device injection enhanced gate 6.16. They are fabricated of two power transistors and
transistors (IEGTs) by 2000. The following are some of are used as a single transistor and are suitable only for
the more prominent of the power transistor family that control circuits. They are used to reduce the control current
are commonly used in power circuits. requirement and hence cause lesser heat dissipation,
particularly during switching operations.
Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
2
MOSFETs
5-
These are the basic transistors (triodes) and are illustrated
in Figure 6.15. They are uni-directional and controllable
2-
These are metal oxide semiconductor field effective
and are capable of handling large currents and high transistors and are shown in Figure 6.17. They are capable
64
voltages and also possess high switching speeds (faster of switching quickly (but are more sluggish than BJTs)
than thyristors). However, they require a high base current
01
and handle higher switching frequencies. But they can
due to the high voltage drop across the device, which deal with only lower currents and withstand lower voltages
-9
and thus possess a low power-handling capability. They
81
C C are bi-directional and can operate as controlled switches
in the forward direction and uncontrolled switches in the
:
N P reverse direction. MOSFETs are composed of a diode
BN
B P B N and a BJT or IGBT in anti-parallel. They are voltage

controlled devices and require a negligible base current
IS
N P
at their control terminals to maintain the ON state and
E E hence are low-loss devices. MOSFETs are used
al
A npn A pnp extensively as fully controllable power switches, where

they are required to handle only low powers. The normal
w
junction junction
trend is to use them only as control devices.
ra
Circuit symbols
The power BJTs and power MOSFETs have provided
Ag
C C two very useful static switching devices in the field of

transistor technology. But while the former can handle larger
C.
B B powers, they dissipate high heat, the latter poses a limitation

in handling large powers. As a result of these shortcomings,
K.
E E they are used mostly as control circuit switching devices.

:
Such limitations were overcome by yet another development

or
Electrical representation
in the 1990s, in the form of an IGBT.
B base
th
E emitter
Au
C collector Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)

(Note A diode has only one p–n junction) These are unidirectional transistors and have an insulated
Figure 6.15 Circuit symbols and electrical representation of a
gate (G) instead of base (B) as in a bipolar transistor
basic triode or power transistor (BJT) (BJT) and are represented in Figure 6.18. They are a
C C
Drain
B
pnp
B
Gate
(kind of a base) G or simply
Source (kind of a base)
E E
Figure 6.16 Circuit symbol for a two- Figure 6.17 Circuit symbol for a Figure 6.18 Circuit symbol for an IGBT
junction transistor or power Darlington power MOSFET
hybrid of a pnp bipolar transistor which is connected to switchings of the devices and affect their reliability, though
a power MOSFET like a two-junction transistor (Power it has been overcome to a great extent. Nevertheless low
Darlington, Figure. 6.16). A positive voltage between voltage IGBTs up to about 1.5 MVA are seen to be more
the gate and the emitter, switches ON the MOSFET and economical and a unanimous choice for all standard
provides a low resistance effect between the base and applications.
the collector of pnp bipolar transistor and switches this They are used extensively in a voltage source inverter
ON as well. The combination of two transistors offers an (VSI) circuit to convert a fixed d.c. supply to a variable
insulated gate that requires a low base current which a.c. supply for motor drives. Since they are more expensive
makes it a low-loss device. When the voltage between compared to power diodes, they are usually not used in
the gate and the emitter is reduced to zero, the MOSFET a rectifier circuit where power diodes are mostly used.
switches OFF and cuts off the base current to the bipolar However, when the power is to be fed back to the
transistor and switches OFF that as well. With slight source of supply, they are used in the rectifier circuit
modification in construction and upgradation of the bipolar also to adjust V and f of the feedback supply with that of
and MOSFET transistors, it is possible to produce a low- the source. Such as during energy conservation when
loss IGBT, suitable for fast switching, handling large being used as a motor drive or during power conversion
currents and withstanding higher voltages. The turn-on when being used in a wind generator (Section 7.21).
2
and turn-off delay is about 1 ms only. A typical inverter circuit using IGBTs is illustrated in
5-
The dramatic change and advancement of this hybrid Figure 6.19. In addition to being suitable for high switching
2-
combination in a bipolar transistor has greatly enhanced frequencies (typically 2–30 kHz), these transistors generate
the application of power transistors in the field of power very low harmonics of the order of 1% or less of the
64
conversion, variable speed drives and energy conservation. system voltage and virtually retain the sinusoidal
01
It possesses the qualities of the power bipolar transistor waveform of the motor currents. The motor current
(BJT) as well as the power MOSFET. Like a power containing lesser harmonics also causes lesser heating
-9
MOSFET, it too is a voltage controlled switching device of the motor windings. In most cases it eliminates the
81
that permits fast switching and gate voltage control. And use of costly filter circuits making them yet more
as a bipolar transistor it allows a large power handling economical. It also causes lesser pulsation in torque and
:
capability. The switching speed of IGBT is also higher low motor noise. The motor also runs smoother, even at
BN
than that of a bipolar transistor. It thus provides an efficient low speeds. Now V and f both can be varied through this
power conversion device. single device and a fixed voltage power diode bridge
IS
rectifier is sufficient to obtain fixed d.c. voltage, rather

IGBTs for LV systems than using a phase-controlled thyristor rectifier to obtain
al
a variable d.c. voltage.

w
During 1990s they had revolutionized industrial power IGBTs themselves do not generate switching surges
ra
conversion in the low voltages. Single IGBT inverters but when switched frequently such as during PWM
on low voltages (690–1000V) can be economically operation, the output supply will contain moderate
Ag
designed up to about 1.4 kA or about 1 MVA with forced switching surges that may be detrimental to the motor
air-cooling and up to about 1.5 MVA with liquid (ethyl- windings as discussed in Section 6.13.2. Depending upon
C.
glycol) cooling. For still higher ratings, they may be the type of installation, a surge protection, in the form of
arranged in parallel to obtain higher currents. But parallel
K.
dv/dt protection through a snubber circuit (Figure 6.37) or

switchings may pose some limitations in simultaneous a d i/dt protection through a choke or a combination of
:
or
th
Au
DC link fuse
Smoothing
capacitor
I/C
AC M
supply
Power diode DC link Feedback unit Inverter unit

converter
* Uncontrolled line side diode bridge rectifier. When a variable d.c. is required, it can be replaced by thyristors.
Figure 6.19 A typical inverter circuit using IGBTs, also showing a feedback unit
both to attain a yet more accurate sinusoidal waveform d.c. voltage, metal industries (earlier cyclo
(Section 6.13.2) may become essential at the output (motor converters or load commutated inverters
side) of the inverter with such drives. Particularly when (LCIs) or GTO inverters were used).
the cable length from the drive to the motor is long or Descaling pumps in steel plants.
when the motor is rather old and may not be possessing Cold rolling mills.
a sound dielectric strength. More details on this aspect
are discussed in Section 6.13. Injection enhanced gate transistors (IEGTs)
IEGT is yet another addition in the family of transistors.
IGBTs for HV Systems It is a high power handling semiconductor device making
Initially it was attempted to use LV IGBTs in series to use of transistor technology and also retaining its fast
raise their operating voltages. But experience with series switching capability. It can be operated at high frequency
connected IGBTs for HV applications has not been (several kHz) and provide smooth control of machines.
encouraging because of some limitations such as, It is compact, has low losses and is more economical.
Rating is provided in Table 6.2a.
– Problem in simultaneous switchings of devices There are yet more switching devices in the field of
2
affecting their reliability
5-
– Higher losses during ON-state and turn ON transition
2-
– Very high turn off di/dt
– Series parallel combination requires more space Table 6.2a Ratings of high capacity power devices developed
64
– It makes them expensive at higher operating voltages so far
01
– More number of devices also lead to lesser relia-
bility. Rating
-9
Device
These limitations of IGBTs on medium voltages shifted Voltage kV Current kA
81
thrust on thyristor based devices that culminated in IGCTs
and SGCTs as discussed later. But work on IGBTs Power Diodes
:
General use 2.8 3.5
BN
continued and with gradual and consistent development
Fast switching 6.0 3.0
in their design, it has now been possible to develop HV
IS
SCRs
IGBTs also with much larger ratings such as up to 4.5 General use 12.0 1.5
kV, 1.2 kA as noted in Table 6.2a. They also possess the Fast switching 1.2 1.5
following features
al
Light triggered 8.0 3.6

w
– They are compact and possess high efficiency GTOs 6.0 6.0
ra
– Can perform at high switching frequencies IGBTs

– Possess high blocking voltage and snubberless LV 1.0 1.2
Ag
operation with simple firing circuit HV 4.5 1.2

MCTs 3.3 1.2
– Switching surges are low
C.
IGCTs 6.0* 1.2

– They require only about 5 A to switch it ON or OFF.
6.5* 6.0
K.
– Intermediate control is possible up to any level between SGCTs 6.0 5.0

ON and OFF. IEGTs 4.5 4.0
:
– They can control the current on their own. The emitter

or
current being a function of gate emitter voltage and

th
Based on Toshiba, GE, Alstom & Mitsubishi Electric technical

temperature. During a fault condition on the inverter reports.
Au
output side the voltage drop across the emitter and

collector rises but the voltage across the gate and * Under development
emitter is controlled by the gate drive circuit and hence Notes
the fault current is limited automatically. 1. Ratings noted above are only for a general reference and may
– Transistor family becoming capable to handle such large vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
powers on LV and MV systems is surely an intrusion 2. Ratings up to 3–4 MVA usually refer to with air cooling and
into the domain of GTOs and thyristors (SCRs). would rise with liquid cooling.
3. These are all high power handling devices. There being no rule
Note of thumb to decide the use of a particular device for a particular
They are now more reliable and simple but at still high powers application. It can depend upon the inventions and the
when using a number of them in series and parallel they may have manufacturing practices of a manufacturer, availability of vital
switching problems as noted above. components and most importantly cost consideration. Brief details
provided in the present text, however, will provide a fairly good
Applications: In inverter circuits for idea to the reader or a user about the applications of these
LV IGBTs – Sugar centrifuges, conveyor belts, pumps, devices.
fans, compressors, ID fans and cement 4. With the fast changing semiconductor technology and
plants. transistor or transistor-thyristor based hybrid switching devices
HV IGBTs – Ship propulsion drives, frequency gradually becoming state-of-the-art large power handling devices,
converters or PWM converters with constant thyristors (SCRs) and GTOs are gradually losing their hold.
semiconductor devices as developed by different delay is known as the firing angle of the switching element.
manufacturers, such as Here we have denoted this angle by a. For diodes a = 0,
while for thyristors it can be adjusted as illustrated in
– MOS controlled gate turn-off thyristors (MCTs), a Figure 6.23. We will not go into more detail on the
hybrid of MOSFETs and gate turn-off thyristors construction of this device and will limit our discussion
– Integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCTs), a only to its application in a power system.
hybrid of bipolar transistors (BJTs) and gate turn-off They are high power semiconductor devices compared
thyristors and to transistorised devices. The device constitutes a large
– Symmetrical gate commutated thyristors (SGCTs). family, but only the more prevalent of them are discussed
here, i.e.
All these devices are hybrid of transistors and thyristors.
As they are capable of handling large powers, we have • Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs). These are basically
discussed them with thyristors in the next section. thyristors and unless specified, a thyristor will mean
Continuous research is a buzzword with semiconductor an SCR.
devices to further enhance their ratings, switching • Triacs
capabilities, efficiency of operation and reduction in losses. • Gate turn-off switches (GTOs)
2
Different manufacturers may assign different trade names • MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs)
5-
to identify their products depending upon the device and • Integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCTs) and
the technique used. In the brief text provided here we • Symmetrical gate commutated thyristors (SGCTs)
2-
have discussed only the basic devices and their applications
64
and it is expected that it will suffice the reader to know Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs)
the developments in the field of electronics and their
01
applications in large to very large power handling. The most popular of the thyristor family is the SCR,
-9
which was first developed in 1957 by General Electric,
USA. The SCR is similar in construction to that of a
81
6.7.3 The thyristor family junction diode, except that it has three junctions instead
of one, and a gate to control the flow of power. The SCR
:
The thyristor is a semiconductor device made of
BN
germanium or silicon wafers and comprises three or more is commonly represented as shown in Figure 6.20(a) and
junctions, which can be switched from the OFF state to can be regarded as a semiconductor switch, similar to a
IS
the ON state or vice versa. Basically it is a pnpn junction, toggle switch. An SCR is uni-directional and conducts
as shown in Figure 6.20(a) and can be considered as in one direction only and can also be termed a reverse
blocking triode thyristor (a symmetrical device). When
al
composed of two transistors with npn and pnp junctions,

as illustrated in Figure 6.20(b). It does not turn ON when anode A is positive with respect to K, it is in the conducting
w
it is forward biased, unlike a diode, unless there is a gate mode and is termed forward biased. The V–I characteristics
ra
firing pulse. Thyristors are forced commutated (a technique are similar to those of a semiconductor diode, as shown
Ag
for switching OFF) and hence call for a complex circuitry, in Figure 6.21. When K is positive with respect to A, it
more so in a 3-f system, where six of them have to operate is in the nonconducting mode and conducts a very low
C.
simultaneously. The control device has to be very accurate leakage current. In this mode it is termed reverse biased.
to trigger all the thyristor devices at the same instant. A In this condition, when the reverse voltage is raised a
K.
slight error in the firing angle may cause a short-circuit, state is reached when the low-leakage reverse current
increases rapidly as a result of the dielectric breakdown.
:
whereas a transistor can be switched OFF simply by

or
removing the base signal. Thyristors are therefore also This stage is called the reverse avalanche region (Figure
6.21) and may destroy the device.
th
known as phase-controlled rectifiers. The phase angle

Au
A A
Anode A
+ A
P P
N N
N
P
G P G P G
g Gate
N N
– K K
Cathode
K K
(a) Thyristor
(b) Equivalent 2-transistor representation
Figure 6.20 A basic thyristor [silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)]

When a load and a power source is connected across positive (anode) or negative (cathode) terminals. They
the anode and the cathode of the SCR, there will be no now become suitable for a.c. supply. But in view of their
conduction and no current will flow, even when the anode very low power handling capability they are no longer
is made positive with respect to the cathode unless the used for heavy duty applications. Their application is
gate is also made forward biased with the application of limited to only control of low power devices such as
a positive potential at the gate. After the conduction small single phase motors, fans and domestic appliances.
commences, the gate potential can be removed and the
device will continue to conduct. It is the gate signal that Reverse conducting thyristors
plays the most vital role in achieving the desired variation
in the voltage. The main power connections to the device The triacs inherit some limitations in handling frequencies
are made to its terminals A and K and a turn-on signal is higher than normal. In such cases, they can be simulated
applied between the gate and K. An SCR can easily by using two SCRs in inverse parallel combinations as
provide a variable voltage source by varying its firing illustrated in Figure 6.22(b). Now it is known as a reverse
angle. In view of its simplicity, it is the most commonly conducting thyristor. An SCR has no frequency limitations
used thyristor in a phase-controlled rectifier unit at least up to ten times the normal. The required voltage
(converter). Gate control is now simple, as it is connected and current ratings are obtained by series-parallel
2
on the a.c. or the line side, which provides it with a connections of more than one thyristor unit.
5-
natural commutation. The thyristor gets switched OFF
2-
at every current zero. This may therefore also be termed Gate turn-off switches (GTOs)
a line commutated rectifier.
64
The use of SCRs in an inverter circuit is intricate This is a development of 1980s. The gate can only turn
01
because of the absence of a natural commutation. Now the thyristor ON but it cannot turn it OFF (commutate).
only a forced commutation is possible, as it is connected Switching OFF can be accomplished only by reducing
-9
to a d.c. source which provides no current zeros and the conducting current to less than the thyristor’s holding
81
hence facilitates no natural commutation. A forced current which may be up to 1/3rd the load current. To
commutation calls for a separate switching circuit, which achieve such a high gate current in amplitude and di/dt
:
is cumbersome, besides adding to the cost. As a result of several high power MOSFETs are required in parallel in
BN
this feature, they are also called forced commutated the firing circuit and the circuit must possess an extremely
thyristors. low impedance. A device that allows the gate to switch
IS
OFF is called the gate turn-off switch (GTO) or gate

Triacs control switch (GCS). The GTO turns it OFF by firing
al
(applying) a negative potential between the gate and the

cathode as shown in the modified representation of an
w
Unlike an SCR, which is unidirectional making them

SCR, Figure 6.22(c). It therefore calls for a sophisticated
ra
suitable only for d.c., a triac is a bidirectional thyristor

switch and conducts in both directions. It can be considered firing circuit. Since they allow only ON or OFF conditions,
Ag
as composed of two SCRs, connected back to back with intermediate controls are not possible.
a single gate, as shown in Figure 6.22(a). Since the Once they are ON, external resistance or reactance
C.
thyristor now conducts in both directions there is no alone can limit the current through GTOs. It is the most
commonly used device in a thyristor inverter circuit.
K.
They are rugged and robust and can handle high voltages
:
+ Forward and currents (typically up to 6kV and 6kA). Their switching

or
conduction speed is very high (up to 10–100 ns (n is 10 9)) but lack

region
th
high frequency switching (<10 kHz) and require a snubber

Forward current (I)
Au
Normal operation
(“ON” state)
Forward
blocking region
K
– Reverse voltage (V) +
0 Forward voltage (V) G Supply
Reverse current (I)
Reverse blocking
region
Load
g
Reverse avalanche A
region
Figure 6.22(a) Schematic Figure 6.22(b) Use of two
representation of a triac SCRs in inverse parallel
–
combination to simulate a
Figure 6.21 V-I characteristics of a thyristor (SCR) without a triac (reverse-conducting
gate voltage thyristors)
during turn-off. A short-circuit on the inverter output during turn-off. This allows operation without any snubber
side can be quite severe and calls for an effective short- and reduces the total switching losses to only 50% that
circuit protection. of GTOs at load and nearly zero at no-load. They can
Applications – Suitable for handling very large powers have a switching frequency up to 2–3 kHz and gate power
where IGBTs, IGCTs and SGCTs may pose a limitation. 60–70% that of GTOs. They also (like IGBTs) generate
only low harmonics of the order of 1% or less of the
MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs) system voltage. IGCTs are available as disc-type elements
which are reverse conducting type (asymmetrical). The
They consist of two MOSFETs and a GTO. MOSFETs reverse conducting IGCTs have an anti-parallel
are used to have full control over the thyristor as shown freewheeling diode, which is required for most switching
in Figure 6.22 (d). Upper MOSFET is used to trigger the operations and can be a separate device or integrated
thyristor that results in an extremely low gate current into the wafer. This reverse conducting element adds to
requirement. A positive gate voltage triggers the device significant losses to the complete power structure and
to switch on while a negative one forces it to turn off. limits the maximum permissible di/dt capability during
Zero gate voltage allows it to maintain status-quo. They the turn ON transition.
are used for MV systems and have similar utilities as of Gate turn – ON or OFF
2
IGCTs.
5-
– An IGCT requires almost the same current at the gate
2-
Integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCTs) as the momentary load current. To achieve such a
64
They are now a reality and can handle very large powers. high gate current in amplitude and di/dt several high
They can be considered an improvised version of GTOs powered MOSFETs can be required in parallel in the
01
with integrated gate driver utilizing their excellent turn firing circuit and the circuit must have an extremely
low impedance.
-9
off advantages. They are represented as shown in Figure
6.22(e). Their power handling capabilities achieved so – They are capable of high switching frequency,
81
far are noted in Table 6.2a. Leading manufacturers compared to GTOs and SCRs and generate high
worldwide are gradually using this device in their new
:switching surges.
BN
large motor drives and other high power handling – They have high blocking voltage and snubberless
applications. They have been specially developed with a operation.
IS
focus on a 2 level, 3 level and multiple level voltage

source inverters (VSIs) with d.c. bus capacitor. For current Since IGCTs are not provided with insulation to ground,
source inverters (CSIs) a reverse blocking element is the individual semiconductor switches are mounted onto
al
required for which symmetrical GCTs (SGCTs) have been separate heat sinks which are insulated if necessary.
w
developed and are discussed next. The gate driver required is part of the IGCT. Because
ra
The IGCTs combine the excellent forward of ease of operation, switching speed, reduced losses
Ag
characteristics of thyristors and switching performance and high power handling capability they too like IGBTs
of bipolar transistors. As they use thyristor technology are an intrusion into the domain of thyristors (SCRs)
C.
they are rugged and robust. By means of a “hard-drive” and GTOs. IGCTs are however, economical only for
gate control with unity gain turn-off, the element changes high power requirements 1MVA and more. They permit
K.
directly from the thyristor mode to the transistor mode construction of air-cooled solutions for 2-level inverters
:
or
Anode
th
+A
Au
Anode
+A
Anode
+A
Gate
G circuit
Gate pulse
–K –K
Cathode Cathode
–K
Cathode
Figure 6.22(c) Representation of a Figure 6.22(d) Circuit symbol for Figure 6.22(e) Representation of an
gate turn-off-switch (GTO) a MOS controlled thyristor (MCT) integrated gate commutated thyristor
up to about 5 MVA and 3-level inverters up to about 10 6.22(f) which is similar to IGBTs circuit except its
MVA without a need to make parallel circuits. With inverter unit that now replaces IGBTs with IGCTs. Figure
liquid cooling, these ratings can even be doubled. A 6.22(g) shows IGCT wafers and an IGCT drive unit in
typical inverter circuit using IGCTs is shown in Figure its housing.
DC link fuse
G G G G G G
Smoothing
I/C
capacitor
AC M
supply
G G G G G G
2
Power diode DC link Feedback unit Inverter unit
5-
converter G – Gate circuit
2-
64
01
Figure 6.22(f) A typical three-phase inverter circuit using IGCTs. Also showing a feedback unit
-9
81
:
BN
IS
al
w
ra
Ag
C.
K.
:
or
th
1. IGCT Reverse conducting GCTs with wafer

2. Diode on the same wafer and diameters 38, 51,68 and 91 mm
Au
3. Gate
Drive circuit
IGCT
Cooler
IGCT, and drive circuit slide into the cooler

IGCT, drive circuit and the cooler and together they form a single inverter unit
Figure 6.22(g) A 51 mm IGCT disc 6 KV, 520 A (Courtesy: Alstom)

Applications shows SGCTs mounted on a circuit board. For more

details consult the manufacturer or see Further Reading.
– Converter and inverter circuits They are used in inverter circuits. Brief description
– Traction of PWM-CSI a.c. drives using these devices is provided
– Static var compensators in Section 6.9.4. Figure 6.29 illustrates the scheme and
– Large power handling Figure 6.22(i) the modules of PWM-CSI a.c. drive. The
– Motor drives for different applications inverter has current source characteristics at the d.c.
terminals using a reactor and voltage source characteristics
Symmetrical gate commutated thyristors (SGCTs) at the a.c. output terminals using a capacitor. Using
sensorless direct phasor control the drive can measure
They are an advance version of IGCTs and possess reverse
motor flux rather than only making an estimate of it and
blocking capability (making them symmetrical devices)
hence perform better than V/f. This also enables the motor
and have no free wheeling diode (unlike in IGCTs that
torque to be changed promptly similar to a d.c. machine
have free wheeling diode and are reverse conducting).
(Figure 6.51).
In other words they are modified gate turn-off thyristors
There are six SGCT switches for 6.6 kV drive. While
(GTOs) with an integral gate drive. Integrated gate drive
operating they interface with the a.c. and the d.c. sides.
2
improves their turn-off capability and they can offer higher
They are operated so as to avoid an open circuit on the
5-
switching frequencies and double sided cooling. Integrated
d.c. link or a short-circuit on the a.c. side. That means at
gate driver and ‘hard-drive’ gate control make the device
2-
any instant there are only two switches conducting, one
to switch off faster than any GTO directly from thyristor
in the top half of the bridge and one in the bottom half.
64
mode of the ON static operation to the transistor mode
Figure 6.22(j) illustrates a few waveforms,
during turn-off transition. Symmetrical wafer processing
01
and creating two blocking junctions on the same silicon i. shows the uni-directional current waveform for a
-9
wafer and series connection of a diode with an typical seven pulse switching pattern
asymmetrical turn-off device can be an IGBT or an IGCT.
81
ii. shows the blocked bi-directional voltage waveform
IGCTs having high blocking voltages and low losses is iii. shows the inverter output current and
a more preferred choice. Positioning the gate drive close iv. shows the line to line motor voltage and current
:
BN
to GTO makes it a low inductance path providing higher
efficiency and uniform gating to the device (SGCT). Applications
IS
Now it can handle fluctuating voltages and currents

more easily than a GTO while switching ON and OFF They are high capacity devices usually over 1 MVA and
during gating. SGCT blocks voltages in both directions are used for both rectifier (converter) and inverter (VSI
al
unlike IGCTs that are capable for only forward voltage and CSI) applications. Figure 6.22(i) shows a typical 6.5
w
blocking. The bi-directional voltage blocking characteristic kV SGCT drive.

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of SGCTs make them most useful in pulse width With the availability of IGBTs, IGCTs and SGCTs
Ag
modulated current source inverters (PWM-CSIs) where the three very large capacity semiconductor power
current is uni-directional while the voltage can assume switches, there is no bar to applying them to any size of
C.
both polarities making them inherently regenerative drives. power handling requirement like, static var generators
Because SGCTs are capable of blocking voltage in or compensators in reactive power management, d.c.
K.
both directions, many components required for IGCTs power transmission, large drives and railway traction
or IGBTs control gating and current flow can be reduced etc. They are an ideal solution for applications demanding
:
or
in size even eliminated from SGCT drives. Figure 6.22(h) greater stability under fluctuating loads.
th
Au
6.7.4 Applications of power semiconductor

devices
Many manufacturers with their extensive R&D back-up
are inventing new products every day with better
properties, low losses and higher power handling
capabilities and introducing them in the market. The
semiconductor switching devices considered above are
for general reference only and may vary from manufacturer
to manufacturer, depending upon their inventions,
manufacturing practice and technology in vogue. All these
devices are intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) and with
the use of telemetry softwares (communication protocols)
and media (Section 24.11.5) can transmit data to a remote
control station for a total automation of a power system
or a process line.
Major applications of these devices have been in the
Figure 6.22(h) SGCT and gate components mounted on the field of soft starting and speed control of a.c./d.c. machines
same circuit board for quick replacement (Source: Rockwell and their active power management (APM) (feeding the
Automation and Mitsubishi (Ref. 22))
Power Cage housing rectifier and inverter units.
6.5kV SGCT power semi conductors
Operator interface terminal
Cable terminations
DC link inductor to limit fault current.
Temperature sensing and feedback on rectifier and

inverter modules
Common control boards
∑ Floating point digital signal processors (DSP)
∑ Field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) for high speed
2
5-
diagnostics and fault handling
2-
∑ External I/O with 16 digital inputs and 16 digital outputs
64
∑ Customer Interface Board communicates via DPI or
SCANPort™
01
Available with RS-232/485 serial interface, deviceNet™,
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ControlNet™, or Remote I/O
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Cooling fan
:
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Allen-Bradley
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A 16-line, 40-character display in the menu driven screen

Ag
to perform various drive operations such as set-up,

monitoring and troubleshooting
C.
B Membrane keypad includes function keys, cursor selection

K.
keys and number keys for menu navigation, item selection

:
and data entry.

or
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C Standard operator device cluster includes, start, stop and

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emergency stop pushbuttons, local/remote selector switch
and local speed potentiometer
Operator interface
Figure 6.22(i) Modules of typical PWM – CSI based a.c. drive (Power Flex 7000) using SGCTs (Courtesy: Allen-Bradley)
surplus power back to the system). These devices have rather than a.c. D.C. causes no skin effect (Section 28.7)
also found their utility in many other industrial and large and transmits power at unity p.f.
power handling applications. A few major power Large power transmission on d.c. with the application
applications utilizing these devices are noted below, for of semiconductor devices is no limitation in view of
the benefit of readers and making the subject a little technological advances and high power handling
more lucid and comprehensive. capabilities achieved in these devices discussed already.
At the point of transmission a.c. is first converted to
1. HVDC Transmission fixed d.c which can be up to 500 kV or more. It is then
transmitted through a monopolar (single conductor) or
It is economical to transmit large powers over short bipolar (double conductor) transmission system to the
distances ( 50 km) to long distances (>800 km) on d.c. receiving station where it is inverted back to a.c. through
– Back to back stations: These are a.c.-d.c.-a.c.

conversion stations and are used to inter-connect two
a.c. power transmission or HV distribution systems
having different voltages and/or frequencies. A feature
of static technology not possible by other means. These
I
Curve (i)
stations convert the different voltages and frequencies
of different systems to a fixed d.c. voltage and then
invert it back to the desired a.c. voltage and frequency.
Figure 6.22(k) shows a valve stack unit consisting of
GTOs for HVDC back to back stations. A simplified
single line diagram is shown in Figure 6.22(k1).
V
Curve (ii)
2
5-
2-
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Curve (iii)
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I
V
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Curve (iv) Time

Curve (i) – Device current Curve (iii) – Inverter output current
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Curve (ii) – Device voltage Curve (iv) – Motor current and voltage
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Figure 6.22(j) Typical waveforms for a CSI (Source : Rockwell

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Automation and Mitsubishi (Ref. 22))

Ag
C.
an inverter circuit. In case of monopolar system the low

K.
voltage return path can be via cables, ground or sea.

Basic converter and inverter circuits remain the same as
:
Figure 6.22(k) Picture of liquid cooled valve stack consisting

or
shown in Figure 6.26(a). of GTOs for HVDC back to back station 2500MW (Courtesy:
th
D.C. transmission is economical because of reduced Alstom)

cost of transmission due to fewer numbers of conductors.
Au
Over long distances the savings can even outdo the cost
Thyristor
of conversion in the very first instance and effect huge

IGBT
recurring savings in the long run because of lesser line

losses due to, or
– Unity p.f. At higher p.fs. the line losses (I 2R) are low
for the same power transmitted. AC AC
– The effective resistance of the conductor does not system 1 dc system 2
increase in absence of skin effect. The line losses are
therefore further reduced. Represented
– It is estimated that a d.c. transmission system can as
transmit about threefold more power at the same cost
as an a.c. transmission system.
AC DC AC
To cope with the ever rising power generation and system 1 system system 2
transmission systems to cater for the constantly rising
power demand the world over for industries, services
and households, it is becoming a common practice to Figure 6.22(k1) Back to back stations interconnecting two
adapt to d.c. transmission to save on space and cost. ac power systems with different voltages and frequencies
– This arrangement can also be extended to a large grid Figure 6.31 but without the additional inverter unit
inter-connecting many transmission and distribution used for feedback as this duty shall be performed by
systems in form of a d.c. grid as shown in Figure the other inverter unit.
6.22(k2). Some power systems may have variations
in their voltages and/or frequencies and some may be (ii) Switching of large machines
of different voltages altogether. All these different Frequency converters can also be used as soft starting
voltages and frequencies are converted to a fixed d.c. devices for large to very large machines 1 MW to 10s of
voltage and then inverted back to the desired a.c. MW by ensuring optimum matching between the SFC
voltage and frequency for each transmission or HV and the complete system start-up. Since they are only
distribution. soft start-up devices they are in the circuit only during
– Such an arrangement can be called a multi-terminal start-up period and then removed. They can also be used
a.c.-d.c.-a.c. configuration. If the grid is feeding some for two or more machines at a time. One such scheme is
d.c. transmission lines, the d.c. voltage is inverted shown in Figure 6.22(l) for start-up of a gas turbine or
back to the required a.c. voltage and frequency at the combined cycle (steam and gas turbines together) by
receiving end. running the generator as a motor (as prime mover). Figure
6.22(m) shows an SFCs general arrangement in a modular
2
Basic circuit configuration – similar to Figure 6.26(a)
form.
5-
Devices used – SCRs and GTOs
2-
(iii) Speed control of machines
2. Static frequency converters (SFCs)
64
SFCs can also be used for speed control of machines not
(i) Conversion of wind power requiring very accurate speed controls.
01
Windmills operate at varying speeds because of frequently
-9
Circuit configuration:
changing wind pressure. Varying speed means varying
81
Load commutated inverter (LCI)
frequency and voltage. It is therefore essential to convert
IGCT or Thyristor converter, and
these variable parameters to a constant source of supply
IGCT or Thyristor inverter.
:
before supplying it to a grid. This is possible through
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frequency converters using IGBTs or other devices

Applicable quadrants (Table 6.4) : 1 to 4. No energy saving
IS
discussed already (earlier power thyristors were used).

The use of frequency converters also helps in achieving as the drive is employed only for start-up of a system.
low cut-in wind speed and increasing operating hours.
Likely applications
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For details on windmills see Section 7.21. The wind

– Pumped storage schemes (like huge pumping of liquids
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power generation in practice is usually in the range of 50

to greater heights such as to a hill top)
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kW-6 MW, 0.4–6.6 kV. Other applications of frequency

– Gas turbine power plants
converters in power handling can be mini and micro-
Ag
– Short-circuit generators for test benches

hydro power generations.
– Gas compressors
C.
Circuit configurations: – Synchronous condensers

(a) In case of wound rotor generators it will be in the – Boiler feed pumps
K.
form of a slip recovery system as shown in Figure – Propulsion drives

6.47. Stator connected to the fixed supply side (grid)
:
or
and rotor having IGBT converter / IGBT voltage (iv) Cyclo converters
th
source inverter (VSI) also connected to the same

grid to feed the wind-power back to the grid. In addition to the above inverter systems there is one more
Au
Applicable Quadrants (Table 6.4) – 1 and 4 feeding system in the family of frequency converters, called a
wind-power back to the grid. cyclo-converter system. These drives are employed for
(b) In case of cage rotor generators it will be similar to very large, very low speed motors usually in MWs and use
Main
*Coupling Generator
transformer
AC AC switchgear
system 2 system 3 G
turbine
turbine
Steam
Gas
supply
Main
Starting
SFC device
AC DC AC
system 1 system system 4
Optional
excitation
device
SFC
AC AC
system 5 system 6
* Isolates after performing the starting duty
Figure 6.22(k2) Multi-terminal back to back ac-dc-ac Figure 6.22(l) Scheme of a starting SFC for starting a gas
configuration turbine combined cycle (Courtesy: Alstom)
2
5-
2-
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Front view with doors removed
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Front view with doors closed
81
Figure 6.22(m) Starting SFC in a modular form (Courtesy: Alstom)
:
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thyristor or GTO drives. IGBTs and IGCTs in such ratings Applicable quadrants (Table 6.4): 1 to 4 with active power
may pose some limitation. It converts the fixed a.c. supply management.
IS
frequency to a variable frequency, lower than rated (0–

100% f) directly and without rectifying it to a d.c. source. 3. High current rectifiers
al
Better performance is achieved at lower speeds (0–(30– Electrolytic processes call for large and reliable supply
60) % f), while it is ideal at around 30% f. They are basically
w
of d.c. power. Current fluctuations in such processes

frequency converters. This system is more complex and
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adversely effect the efficiency and quality of the process.

expensive and has only limited applications, such as for
Ag
A short duration power loss may sometimes result in

very large squirrel cage, wound rotor or synchronous motors enormous loss of production. Likely applications of such
that are to operate at very low speeds (e.g. in cement plants rectifiers can be,
C.
and steel mills). For details see Further Reading.

(i) Electrolysis processes:
K.
Circuit configuration (Figure 6.22(n)): Electro-metallurgy – To refine aluminium, zinc,

:
Thyristor or GTO frequency converter unit provides a copper, cobalt, nickel and magnesium. Power
or
variable frequency to the machine, for achieving speed requirement can be of the order of 20–500 kA, 100–
th
variation 0–100% Nr. 1500 V d.c. (up to 750 MW).

Electro-chemistry – To produce chlorine, chlorate,
Au
hydrogen and graphite. Power requirement can be of

the order of 15–250 kA, 100–400 V d.c. (up to
100 MW).
(ii) Arc furnaces and smelters
Circuit configuration – like controlled rectifier units,
Figure 6.24(a).
Figure 6.22(o) shows the view of a large rectifier unit
with its cooling unit.
Devices used – Diodes, SCRs, GTOs and IGCTs or SGCTs
4. Static VAr compensators (SVCs)

These are employed for large fluctuating loads that may
cause severe voltage fluctuations, line disturbances even
outages. Such loads would demand for prompt reactive
support to restore the normal supply conditions and
Figure 6.22(n) Circuit configuration of a thyristor based save the system. Likely applications can be generating
frequency converter unit (Cyclo converter) (Courtesy: Alstom) stations, power transmission and distribution networks,
2
5-
2-
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Rectifier unit Rectifier cooling unit

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Figure 6.22(o) Rectifier unit 66kA / 1200 V at Pechiney Nederland (Courtesy: Alstom)
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large loads like rolling mills, induction and arc furnaces for of an SVC for a rolling mill. Part (i) of the figure illustrates
industrial heating and large rating rectifiers as noted above. the TCR portion and a filter circuit to absorb harmonic
w
Figure 6.22(p1) shows a simple single line diagram currents caused by TCR, while part (ii) shows the different
ra
harmonic filter circuits for the system and arc furnace

Ag
harmonics. Figure 6.22(p2) shows the valve hall with

11 kV
thyristor power units for the TCR (thyristor controlled
C.
reactors). For details see Section 24.10. Figure 6.22(p3)

shows the shunt reactors and Figure 6.22(p4) the capacitor
K.
banks for p.f. improvement and filter circuits installed in

:
the open yard.

or
SVCs can also be employed for old substations that

th
may have become over-utilized with time or are under-

compensated and are ailing with perennial problems of
Au
flickering and outages. If the substations have space

L R L L limitations or other constraints to accommodate SVCs at
this stage, SVCs support can still be provided by mounting
them on a mobile trolley placed at a convenient location
to provide the needed reactive support promptly.
C C C
Device used – Mostly thyristors (SCRs).
For more details on SVCs see Section 24.10.
26 MVAr 13 MVAr 12.6 MVAr

5. Static Drives
TCR
TCR harmonic
filter Depending on the rating and type of drive and its functional
Filter circuits for requirements one of the following combinations can be
Thyristor controlled SVC different harmonics employed.
Part (i) Part (ii) For converter unit – Power diodes, IGBTs, IGCTs, SGCTs,
SCRsa or GTOsa.
Figure 6.22(p1) Single line diagram of a typical SVC for a For inverter unit – IGBTs, IGCTs, SGCTs, SCRsa or
rolling mill (Courtesy: Alstom) GTOsa.
2
5-
2-
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Figure 6.22(p2) View of a valve hall with thyristor power pack unit for the TCR (Courtesy: Alstom)
IS
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Ag
C.
K.
:
or
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Figure 6.22(p3) SVC substation with shunt reactors in the foreground (Courtesy: Alstom)
2
5-
2-
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Figure 6.22(p4) PF control and SVC filter capacitor banks installed in the open yard (Courtesy: Alstom)
w
ra
Ag
a
Note will not be able to auto-calibrate the data of a different
SCRs being line commutated are mostly used in converter circuits size of motor. Such a situation may also arise when the
(for rectifiers) and GTOs being gate commutated in inverter circuits.
C.
Because of higher generation of harmonics their controls are not so

drive is a retrofit to an existing conventional starter and
accurate beyond a certain rating. the motor rating may not match the rating of the drive on
K.
similar grounds.
Speed control These drives are extensively used for control of a.c.
:
or
and d.c. motors and synchronous motors. The usual devices

Use of V/f or FOC (phasor or vector control) and so also used are noted in Table 6.2(b).
th
the use of open loop or closed loop control systems will

Au
depend upon the accuracy demand and the functional Note

requirement of the motor these devices are controlling The switching devices noted above are for a general reference only.
(for clarity see Table 6.2). A manufacturer may adapt to any of them depending upon his own
Drives up to a certain range (say up to 5 MW (although development of newer devices and manufacturing practices.
rating is no bar)) need not be custom built any more as
the mathematical model of the drive can establish the Compact sizes
motor parameters through auto-calibration and vary the
same as desired using only a standard motor as discussed Such drives are extremely compact. Figure 6.22(q)
in Section 6.4.2. For accurate controls, however, only illustrates a few drives in smaller ratings and their typical
FOC must be used. Depending upon the field experiences dimensions for a few ratings of a particular brand, for
and industrial requirements most manufacturers have general reference.
developed their own standard drives that would suit most
applications. Such drives are usually available off-the- Remote drive and telemetry software
shelf.
Custom built drives may become necessary only when The drive is an intelligent electronic device (IED). It
it is known that the motor may have to operate under- can be programmed and controlled locally via a PLC
loaded or is oversized and a smaller size of drive may through a laptop computer (PC) and a keyboard as
serve the purpose (to cut on cost). Now the drive which shown in Figure 6.22(r). It can also be made to
is designed with parameters of a particular size of motor communicate with a remote control station for
Table 6.2b Configuration of Static Drives

Parameters Cage motors Wound motors Synchronous D.C. motors
motors
When no active power When active power It would mean energy Discussed
management (APM) management (APM) conservation briefly in
(feedback) is required (feedback) is required Section 6.19
Rating up to Very large Rating up to Very large Rating up to Very large All ratings All ratings
a few MWs ratings a few MWs ratings a few MWs ratings
(a) Converter Power Thyristors IGBTs, GTOs, IGBTs, GTOs, Thyristors, Anti parallel
unit – Devices Diodes IGCTs, IGCTs, IGCTs, IGCTs, IGCTs, thyristors
Used SGCTs SGCTs SGCTs SGCTs SGCTs or
GTOs
(b) Inverter IGBTs IGCTs, IGBTs, IGCTs, IGBTs, IGCTs, Thyristors,
unit – Devices IGCTs SGCTs, IGCTs, SGCTs, IGCTs, SGCTs, IGCTs, _
Used GTOs SGCTs GTOs SGCTs GTOs SGCTs or
2
GTOs
5-
Speed control With FOC (vector control) it is possible to vary the speed up to
2-
1000 : 1 Nr with accuracy up to 25–100% Nr, – As for cage
± 0.001% with closed loop control schemes (Table 6.2) motors
64
01
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Ag
C.
Typical dimensions
K.
Drive rating 0.37 kW 355 kW

L (mm) 130 666
:
H (mm) 128 1000

or
D (mm) 151 421

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Weight (kg) 1.7 150

Au
Figure 6.22(q) PWM inverter AC drives (Courtesy: Bhartia Cutler Hammer (BCH))
monitoring, control and automation, using communication 6.8 Conduction and commutation
protocols and media (field communication network)
(Section 24.11.5). The local and remote control stations A thyristor can be turned ON by the gate at any angle a,
can set parameters, store, receive, transmit and save with respect to the applied voltage waveform as shown
data from and on a PLC with keyboard emulation. It in Figure 6.23(a) and (b) for half-wave and full-wave
also allows remote service to the inverter via an internet controlled rectifiers respectively. By varying the firing
connection through a modem. The remote drive software angle, which is possible through the firing circuit, the
allows spontaneous communication between the user of d.c. output voltage through a converter circuit can be
the drive and the manufacturer’s trouble-shooter desk varied, as illustrated in the figure. The voltage is full
or their technical support centre round the clock, to (maximum) when the firing angle is zero. Now the
provide required assistance to the user in the hour of conduction angle is 180∞. As the firing angle increases,
need. the conduction angle decreases and so does the output
Figure 6.22(r) gives a typical power and control voltage. The output voltage becomes zero when the firing
terminals diagram of a PWM inverter a.c. drive along angle becomes 180∞ and the conduction angle becomes
with terminal details and a remote control keypad for a zero. Thus the conduction, i.e. the power through a
general reference. thyristor, can be varied linearly by varying the gate voltage
Braking resistor
(optional) + B Braking module
R MFl
+ – (optional)
Input reactance + B +BU – Output reactance

(optional) 47/50 48 51 49/52 (optional)
R 41 44 R¢
power supply
Three-phase
Y 42 EMl 45 Y¢ M
filter
B 43 46 B¢
Output filter
Ground
(optional)
2
Ground Inverter sinus K
5-
MODBUS RTU
CMA 1
2-
A
1-3
RS 485
Serial line
64
0+10V VREF1 2
Current reference input connector B
2-4
01
VREF2 3
0 – ±10V
+10V
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4
17 A01
81
Enable 6
Start 7 :
Analog 18 A02
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Reset 8 Indications:
outputs RUN Run lights
MDl1 9
REF Reference lights
IS
MDl2 10 20 CMA TRM Terminal lights

Digital inputs
MDl3 11 REM Lights ON to indicate
Ground that commands come
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MDl4 12 from serial port

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MDl5 13 24 MODC Keys:

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CMD 14 Scroll down button

25 MODE 48V – 50mA Scroll up button
Ag
15 PROG Program button

+24V
SAVE Save button
C.
Ground MENU Menu button

26 RL1-NC
RESET Reset button
N AUX 19 PID input
Digital for the alarm
K.
27 RL1-C 250Vac – 3A
±10V CMA 20 outputs 30Vdc – 3A START Start button
28 RL1-NO STOP Stop button
:
I REF 21
or
29 RL2-C Remote control keypad

0 + 20mA Current
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or operator interface for

4 + 20mA CMA 22 reference input 30 RL2-NO 250Vac – 3A parameter programming
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30Vdc – 3A and viewing

31 RL2-NC
Ground
Notes
■ Connection terminals of the braking resistor for different sizes of drives terminals 47 and 48, or 50 and 48
■ Connection terminals of the external braking module for different sizes of drives terminals 51 and 52, or 51 and 49
■ Terminals for inverter power supply from DC source: terminals 47 and 49
Figure 6.22(r) Typical power wiring diagram of a PWM inverter ac drive. The control terminal details are
given below. (Courtesy: Bhartia Cutler Hammer)
Control terminal details
Terminal Name Description I/O Features
1 CMA OV for main reference. Control board zero volt
2 VREF1 Input for voltage Vref1 main reference. ¸

Ô
Vmax ± 10 V, Rin: 40 kW
3 VREF2 Input for voltage Vref2 main reference. ˝
Ô Resolution: 10 bits
˛
4 + 10 V Supply for external potentiometer. +10/Imax: 10 mA
6 ENABLE Active input: inverter running with
¸
vector modulation (IFD) control for
general applications
Fluxed motor with sensorless vector Ô
(VTC) control for heavy torque performance ˝ Optoisolated digital input
Inactive input: in neutral Ô
regardless of the control mode.
˛
2
7 START Active input: inverter running.
5-
Inactive input: main ref. is reset Optoisolated digital input
2-
and the motor stops with a
64
deceleration ramp.
8 RESET Active input: the inverter operation Optoisolated digital input
01
is reset after an emergency stop.
9 MDI1 Multifunction digital input 1. Optoisolated digital input
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81
12 MDI4 Multifunction digital input 4. : Optoisolated digital input
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PTC with respect to BS4999
IS
Pt. 111 (DIN 44081/DIN44082)

14 CMD 0V optoisolated, multifunction Optoisolated digital input
digital inputs. input zero volt
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15 +24 V Auxiliary supply for optoisolated, +24 V

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multifunction digitial inputs Imax: 100 mA

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17 AO1 Multifunction analog output 1. 0 10 V

Ag
Imax: 4 mA, 4–20 mA or 0–20 mA

Resolution: 8 bits
C.
18 AO2 Multifunction analog output 2 0 10 V

Imax: 4 mA, 4–20 mA or 0–20 mA
K.
Resolution: 8 bits
19 INAUX Auxiliary analog input. Vmax: ± 10 V, Rin: 20 kW
:
or
Resolution: 10 bits
20 CMA 0 V for auxiliary analog input. Control board zero volt.
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21 IREF Input for current main reference Rin: 100 W

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(0–20 mA, 4–20 mA). Resolution: 10 bits

22 CMA 0V for current main reference. Control board zero volt
24 MDOC Open collector digital output ¸ Open collector
(collector terminal). Ô
25 MDOE Open collector digital output ˝ NPN/PNP, Vmax: 48 V
Ô Imax: 50 mA
(emitter terminal). ˛
26 RL1-NC Multifunction digital relay output1
(NC contact). ¸
27 RL1-C Multifunction digital relay output1 Ô 250 VAC, 3A
(common). ˝ 30 VDC, 3A
28 RL1-NO Multifunction digital relay output1 Ô
(NO contact). ˛
¸
29 RL2-C Multifunction digital relay output2
(common).
30 RL2-NO Multifunction digital relay output2 Ô 250 VAC, 3A
(NO contact). ˝ 30 VDC, 3A
31 RL2-C Multifunction digital relay output2 Ô
(NC contact). ˛
1 2 3 4 5
a = 0∞ a = 30∞ a = 60∞ a = 90∞ a = 180∞
V=0
V
a – the firing angle.

a 3–f half wave controlled
30∞ 60∞ 90∞ rectifier. (Current flow-
Magnitude of rectified wt unidirectional)
voltage can be varied
2
5-
2-
1 2 3 4 5
a = 0∞ a = 30∞ a = 60∞ a = 90∞ a = 180∞
64
30∞ 60∞ 90∞ V=0
01
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81
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a – the firing angle.

IS
b 3–f full wave controlled

30∞ 60∞ 90∞ rectifier. (Current flow in
Magnitude of rectified wt both directions)
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voltage can be varied

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Figure 6.23 Phase control of voltage through different gate firing angles
Ag
and its firing angle. Such control is termed phase control, 6.9 Circuit configurations of
C.
and a rectifier or converter unit, employed to convert

a.c. to a variable d.c., is called a controlled rectifier or a semiconductor devices
K.
controlled converter.
:
In thyristor technology the switching OFF of a thyristor Semiconductor devices, as noted above, are used widely
or
is conventionally termed commutation. In a.c. circuits, to convert a fixed a.c. supply to a fixed or variable d.c.
th
when the current through a thyristor passes through its supply, and then from a fixed d.c. supply to a variable
a.c. supply, for example, for variable a.c. drives. A variable
Au
natural zero, a reverse voltage appears automatically and

turns OFF the thyristor. This is a natural commutation. d.c. supply is used for the variable d.c. drives. The
No external circuit is now required to turn OFF the conventional nomenclature to identify the various types
thyristor. They are therefore commonly called line of these circuits and their applications is
commuting thyristors, like those used for a.c.–d.c. • Converter or rectifier unit
converters. But this is not so in d.c. circuits, as the current • Inverter unit
wave now does not pass through a natural zero. The
forward current can now be forced to zero only through
some external circuit to turn the thyristor OFF. This is
6.9.1 Converter or rectifier unit
termed forced commutation, such as when used for d.c.– A converter unit is used for the control of d.c. machines
a.c. inverters. Unlike a thyristor, a transistor can be and also to provide a d.c. source to an inverter unit
switched OFF simply by removing the base signal and it controlling an a.c. machine. In d.c. drives the d.c. voltage
requires no separate circuit to switch it OFF. In Table 6.3 after the converter unit should be variable, whereas for
we show a brief comparison between transistor devices an a.c. drive it is kept fixed. The voltage is varied by the
and the basic thyristor (SCR). The triacs and GTOs and inverter unit. A converter unit is the basic power conversion
other thyristor devices fall in the same family, but with scheme to convert an a.c. supply to a d.c. supply.
different features of conduction and commutation to suit Conventionally they are also known as rectifier units
different switching schemes. Other important characteris- and can be arranged in four different modes to suit different
tics are also shown in the table. applications of a motor as follows:
Table 6.3 A brief comparison between a transistor and basic thyristor technology
Parameters Basic transistor technology Basic thyristor technology
1 As a static switch Type of switch Unidirec- Bi-direc- Control- Uncontrol- Type of Unidirec- Bi-direc- Controllable Uncontrol-
tional tional lable lable switch tional tional lable
Power BJT and ✓ – ✓ – SCR ✓ – ✓ –
power Darlington
– ✓ Controllable in forward ✓ –
Power MOSFET GTO ✓ –
and uncontrollable in Controllable in –
TRIAC – ✓
reverse direction both directions
Au
IGBT ✓ th – ✓ – Reverse – ✓ Controllable in –
Conducting both directions
thyristor
or
:
Note: The above switching devices by themselves or in conjunction with power diodes have been developed into a variety of new devices to suit any power conversion and
control application. MCTs and IGCTs are a few such hybrid devices. See Section 6.7.3 and Table 6.2a.
K.
2 Switch OFF This calls for no switching OFF circuitry, since a transistor
C. can be switched OFF Once fired, a thyristor cannot be controlled. It requires a forced commutation to switch it off
characteristics simply by removing the base signal. and the gate control is quite cumbersome. To switch OFF, the conducting current is reduced
Ag to less than its holding current. The commutation circuitry is therefore highly complex and
also influences the reliability of a thyristor application.
ra
3 Controls These require only the base signal to switch ON. Thus providing a simpler technology. There are six thyristor firing circuits required for a 3F system, as there are two thyristors
w connected back to back each phase. The whole scheme is therefore complex and less reliable.
al These can be connected in anti-parallel.
4 For conduction in Generally two circuits are used.
both directions
5 Switching
I
Power MOSFETs (now being used as a control circuit switching device) and IGBTsS Very low switching frequency, but a GTO is suitable for frequent switchings.
frequency can handle much higher switching frequencies, compared to a thyristor. In an a.c. B
motor control, fast switching is mandatory (when using PWM technique in the N
inverter circuit) and therefore transistors are preferred. :
6 Rating (a) Can handle only moderate currents and voltages. A BJT is used mostly in
81
electronic control circuits. As they are small, hundreds can be placed on a -9
small PCB (printed circuit board).
(b) IGBTs alone are used for power applications. See Section 6.7.2. IGBTs and their hybrids can handle much larger powers. Typical V and ƒ ratings for each
01
a a
unit can be upto and even than V 6 kV and I 6 kA (see Table 6.2a)
a
Subject to applicable deratings. See also Table 6.2a. These ratings can be enhanced by connecting them in series-parallel In series to enhance the voltage
64highercombinations.
rating and in parallel to enhance the current rating. But the controls may not be so accurate as with a single device.2
-5
7 To vary V and ƒ Both V and ƒ can be varied with the help of pulse width modulation (PWM) in the By varying the gate firing angle, V-can also be varied. With SCRs frequency variation is
inverter circuit. The converter unit normally is an uncontrolled power diode rectifier. not possible. Note: Since an inverter2 is not line commutated, the SCRs have a switching
limitation and hence a limitation in frequency variation. When thyristors are to perform
frequent switchings, GTOs are used in the inverter circuit.
8 Heating effect Compared to thyristors high heat dissipation. With continuous developments and improvements in design and construction, their heat
loss has been greatly contained. But their relatively low switching frequency capability
makes IGBTs, IGCTs and SEGTs as more preferred choices.
9 Cost factor Much more economical compared to a thyristor drive in this range. In smaller ratings they are economical. In an a.c. to d.c. converter, for instance, for the
control of a d.c. motor, where a variable d.c. voltage is desirable, SCRs are used extensively
and the voltage variation is obtained by varying the firing angle. Since the SCRs are now
line commutated, they pose no switching OFF problem.
1 Uncontrolled rectifier units These can be firing angles. Phase control of positive and negative half
• Half wave similar to Figure 6.24(a) configurations (B) waves of each phase can be infinitely varied to meet any
and (C), using one diode per phase instead of a thyris- power demand.
tor, or A half-wave rectifier is able to provide only a uni-
• Full wave similar to Figure 6.24(a) configuration directional d.c. power source which may also contain
(A), using two diodes in anti-parallel per phase instead many a.c. ripples (Figure 6.24(a)). A full-wave rectifier
of thyristors or in the form of a centre-point is employed to reduce such ripples, on the one hand, and
configuration. provide a d.c. power in forward as well as reverse
Figure 6.24(b) shows a thyristor controller unit. directions, on the other. A fixed forward and reverse d.c.
power is required for an inverter unit when it is employed
2 Controlled rectifier units These can also be to control an a.c. machine. Now an uncontrolled rectifier
• Half wave (Figure 6.24(a)), configurations (B) and unit is adequate as V and f control is obtained through
(C) using one thyristor per phase, or the inverter unit.
• Full wave (Figure 6.24(a)), configuration (A), using A controlled rectifier unit is necessary when it has to
two thyristors in anti-parallel per phase or in the form control a d.c. machine, which would call for a variable
of a centre-point configuration. d.c. voltage. When the d.c. machine has to operate in
2
only one direction (quadrants I or III) a half-wave
5-
Note controlled rectifier will be adequate and when the machine
A half-wave rectifier is a single-bridge rectifier and is suitable for
2-
only single-quadrant operations I or III. A full-wave rectifier is a
has to operate in either direction, a full-wave controlled
rectifier will be essential.
64
double-bridge rectifier and suitable for multi-quadrant operations
particularly quadrants II and IV. See Table 6.4. For operations in quadrants II and IV it is essential to
01
have an unrestricted flow of reverse power and hence an
The uncontrolled rectifier units are simple rectifiers additional feedback inverter unit would also be essential,
-9
and use power diodes universally. The rectification as shown in Figures 6.31–6.33, depending upon the
81
obtained is uncontrollable and provides only a fixed d.c. configuration of the converter unit.
voltage output from a fixed a.c. supply. The diodes have
Note
no control over their switching instants. These rectifier
:
BN
units are used extensively to provide a fixed d.c. source It is possible that at some locations there is no a.c. source available,
such as for battery-operated lifts and motor vehicles. Such
to an inverter unit when being employed to control an
IS
applications may also call for a variable d.c. source. When it is so,
a.c. machine. Since there is no switching of diodes it can be achieved with the use of a chopper circuit which uses the
involved, there are no voltage surges across the diodes. conventional semiconductor devices. The devices are switched at
There is thus no need to provide a snubber circuit high repetitive frequencies to obtain the required variation in the
al
across the diodes to protect them against such surges, as output voltage as with the use of a phase-controlled thyristor rectifier.
w
discussed later. A typical chopper circuit is shown in Figure 6.25, using diodes and
ra
a controlled uni-directional semiconductor switch, which can be a

When, however, a variable d.c. voltage output is thyristor or an IGBT.
Ag
required, controlled rectifiers are used. Now the diodes

are replaced by one or two phase-controlled thyristors
C.
(SCRs) in each phase, one thyristor per phase for a half Relevance of different quadrants of a converter unit
wave and two per phase in anti-parallel for a full wave
K.
Depending upon the mode of operation of a motor, the

rectification. The required voltage variation is achieved type of converter unit can be decided. For simplicity, the
by adjusting the delay time of the gate-firing pulse (a) to
:
operation (conduction) of a motor can be represented by

or
each thyristor unit. Thyristor circuits are possible up to four quadrants as illustrated in Table 6.4.
th
any rating by arranging them in series-parallel

combinations. With the advances in this technology, it is • Quadrant I Both V and T are positive. The machine
Au
possible to achieve a total matching of switching sequences can be run only in one direction (say, forward). Braking
of all the thyristors to ensure an accurate and fully cohesive operations are possible. It is a converter mode and either
operation (switching of all thyristors at the same instant). a half-wave or a full-wave rectifier can be used.
Unlike diode, a thyristor does not turn ON automatically • Quadrant II Now T is in the reverse direction and
at the instant it becomes forward biased and requires a the machine can be run in the reverse direction. Braking
gate pulse at its gate terminal to switch it ON. This is and regeneration are possible. For regeneration an
obtained through a control circuit which is a part of the additional bridge will be essential as discussed later.
rectifier unit. The gate-firing pulse is provided at the For current to flow in either direction, a full-wave
appropriate instant to each thyristor in each switching rectifier will also be essential.
cycle, positive half to negative half, to obtain the required • Quadrant III Now both the voltage and the torque
voltage. The switching is automatic as the thyristors are are in the reverse direction otherwise it is similar to
line commutated and at each half cycle the voltage Quadrant I. The machine can now be run in the reverse
waveform passes through its natural zero. The instants direction.
may be delayed from 0∞ to 180∞ electrical to obtain the • Quadrant IV Now the voltage alone is in the reverse
required infinite control in the output supply, as illustrated direction and the machine can be run in the forward
in Figure 6.23(b). The d.c. output is controlled by adjusting direction. Braking and regeneration are possible. The
the delay time of the gate-firing pulse. A few voltage machine in the forward direction can generate, when
waveforms are illustrated in Figure 6.23(b) at different it is brought down from a higher speed to a lower
Thyristor Winding arrangement and thyristor a No. of phases (pulse number,

configuration rectifier configuration n and voltage phasor)
1:1
(A) Bi-phase Vph/2 c d
a I dc(h) Lf I dc
(Single phase Vph
centre point) N n=2
b Vph /2
(Full wave Vph/2 Vph /2
rectifier)
N
Vdc(h) Cf V dc Vph
2
5-
2-
64
n=3
01
B Vph B
1:1
-9
(B) 3-phase, Vph Ib
c d
(Half wave Ir I dc(h) Lf I dc
81
N R
rectifier)
Vph Vph
:
Iy R
BN
Vᐉ Y Cf Vdc
= ÷3 · Vph
IS
3f neutral point Y
Vph
al
w
ra
Ag
1:1 n=6
b ¢c
C.
Vph /2 Vph /2
c B Y¢
K.
/2
b¢ c
I dc(h) Lf
d
I dc
ph
c ¢a a ¢b
V
:
Vᐉ
e
(C) 6 -phase R¢
or
N Vph /2
(Half wave = ÷3 · Vph a¢ a
Vph /2
th
rectifier) R
Au
Cf Vdc
c¢ Y B¢
b
Vph /2 Vph /2
Notes a Considering the firing angle a = 0, the values are same for power diodes also.
b (i) This ratio is true for power diodes. Or thyristors with a = 0,
(ii) Vac is considered as the phase voltage of each transformer limb. Even Vph/2 is considered as Vac, for simplicity.
(iii) To derive this equation refer to Vithayathil (1995).
c I dc(h) – d.c. output with ripples
Figure 6.24(a) (Contd.)

Output voltage with Ratio of d.c.to a.c.

Voltage and current firing angle a voltage Current on the a.c.
waveforms 2 ◊n b side (tryristor a current)
2 ◊n
sin p cos a
b
V dc = V dc
for a = 0 p = I I
p I av = dc I rms = dc Ipeak=Idc
¥ Vac sin p cos a
V ac n
for a = 0 n n
n
d.c. output a b a.c voltage
voltage ripples
Vdc(h)
d.c. output
voltage after
(A) I dc
smoothing 2 2Vac I dc
cos a 0.9 Idc
p 2 2
Input voltage
waveform a
b
2 p /2
2
5-
Current output waveform. Each
phase conducting for 2 p/2 = 180∞
2-
d.c. output voltage a.c. voltage
64
after smoothing ripples
d.c. output
01
voltage without
smoothing
-9
81
(B)
Vb Input voltage 3 6V ac I dc I dc
cos a
Vr Vy
: 1.17 I dc
waveform. 2p 3
BN
3
Ir
IS
Iy
al
Ib
2 p /3
w
ra
Current output waveform each

phase conducting for 2p/3 = 120∞
Ag
Y¢ R B¢Y R ¢ B Y R¢
C.
K.
:
or
(C)
I dc
th
3 2V ac 1.35 I dc I dc
cos a
Ir p 6 6
Au
Iy
Ib
2p/6
Current output waveform. Each
phase conducting for 2p /6 = 60∞
d I d c – d.c. output with minimal ripples

e The six secondary phases are obtained by shorting the centre points of each of the three-phase windings of a 3f transformer secondary.
f For use of L and C refer to Figure 6.34.
Figure 6.24(a) A few configurations of controlled rectifier units (for uncontrolled rectifier units the thyristors (SCRs) are replaced
with diodes)
Table 6.4 Operation of a motor in different modes and the corresponding conducting quadrants of a controlled converter unit
+V
Quadrant II Quadrant I
Operations – driving and braking (reverse motoring) Operations – driving and braking (forward motoring)
– reverse regeneration Configuration – half wave or full wave
Mode of operation – converter
T
N
Configuration – only a full wave T
– an additional bridge for regeneration
Mode of operation – when motoring – converter
when regenerating – inverter
–T +T
2
5-
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
Operations – driving and braking (reverse motoring) Operations – driving and braking (forward motoring)
2-
Configuration – half wave or full wave – forward regeneration
64
Mode of operation – converter Configuration – only a full wave
– an additional bridge for regeneration
01
T Mode of operation – when motoring – converter
N – when regeneration – inverter
-9
81
T
: N
BN
IS
Reverse-running quadrants Forward-running quadrants

–V
al
w
ra
Ag
C.
K.
:
or
th
Au
Rear view Front view

Figure 6.24(b) Thyristor cubicles for high-power static converter units (Courtesy: Siemens)
L
S1 and S2 are static
S1 S2 unidirectional switches,
which may be an IGBT
or a thyristor
I/C
R Li L¢ R¢
AC
Supply =
C
DC source
R Li
A power diode
fixed voltage
rectifier
Figure 6.25 A typical bi-phase chopper scheme
2
speed or when feeding a load going down hill etc. 1 Using IGBT devices These are the latest in the field of
5-
For regeneration, an additional bridge will be essential static power control. They are easy to handle and control,
2-
as noted above, and for the current to flow in either besides being inexpensive in the presently developed
direction, a full-wave rectifier. ratings compared to GTOs. A fixed d.c. voltage is obtained
64
through a power diode converter. The conversion from a
The changeover from motoring to regeneration, i.e.
01
fixed a.c. supply to a variable a.c. supply is thus cheap
from Quadrant I to Quadrant IV or from Quadrant III to and easy to handle. A complete system composed of a
-9
Quadrant II or vice versa, is achieved by first bringing converter and an inverter unit, as used to control an a.c.
the torque to zero by ceasing the firing of one bridge and
81
motor, is more commonly called an inverter. In Figure
commencing that of the other. 6.26(a) we show a basic IGBT or thyristor (GTO) inverter
:
unit. Single IGBTs developed so far can handle machines
BN
6.9.2 Inverter unit up to 1.4 MVA. There are some deratings of an IGBT on
account of a lower r.m.s. value of the inverted power,
IS
The purpose of an inverter unit is to invert a fixed d.c.

compared to the power input to the inverter, the
power to a variable a.c. power which can be achieved in
configuration of the inverter (which defines the inverted
two ways:
al
waveform), the ambient temperature, safety margins etc.

w
ra
Dedicated transformer
7 5
Ag
Li L
I/C AC supply
Li C 6
C.
R M
Li
K.
Switch
1 2 3 4
:
or
8
th
1 Rectifier or converter unit

Au
Converts a.c to d.c. and can be a power diode fixed voltage for a.c. drives (phase controlled thyristor converter for d.c. drives)
2 D.C.link circuit connecting 1 to 3
3 Inverter unit
Inverts d.c. to variable a.c. and can be an IGBT, or a thyristor (GTO) circuit.
4 Variable V with an VSI (Figure 6.28(a)) or variable I with a CSI (Figure 6.29), and variable f a.c. power output
5 Inductor L
(i) It is necessary to smooth a.c. ripples, whether it is a power diode or a thyristor rectifier. It also suppresses harmonics when, 1 is a
controlled rectifier, producing a.c. ripples and harmonics
(ii) Can be a large size inductor, when 3 is a current source inverter (CSI) (Figure 6.29)
(iii) Provides a short-circuit protection for a fault in d.c. link, by adding to its impedance
6 Charging capacitor, to hold the charge, by smoothing the output ripples and providing a near constant voltage source to the inverter circuit,
when it is a voltage source inverter. When the converter is a thyristor converter, a resistance R is also provided with C to make it suitable to
perform its duty under frequent thyristor switchings, by quickly discharging it through R. Now it becomes a snubber circuit, to also protect
the inverter devices from dv/dt.
7 (a) Current limiting reactor on I/C side, to control di /dt during switching of thyristor units when 1 is a phase controlled rectifier. Its rating is
usually 2–4% of the source impedance (Section 6.13.1). Not necessary when the unit is supplied through a dedicated transformer.
(b) Also required to limit d i /d t to the solid-state circuits when the source of supply is large and is protected by current limiting device
(Section 6.13.2, Figure 6.35).
8 Inverter unit (conventional name). Converts fixed a.c. to variable a.c.
Figure 6.26(a) Basic IGBT or thyristor (GTO) inverter unit

than this or a start longer than one minute may call for a
higher derating. Figure 6.26(b) shows a small rating
inverter unit.
IGBTs can be used for still higher ratings as shown in
Table 6.2a by connecting them in series-parallel
combination. For still higher ratings, thyristors (GTOs)
are preferred for better reliability. More number of IGBT
in series-parallel combination may sometimes act
erratically and perform inconsistently. The latest in the
static power devices is the hybrids of transistor and
thyristor families as noted already.
2 Using thyristor devices (GTOs) Thyristor (GTO) inverter
circuits are used for very large machines and handling
large powers such as reactive power management, HVDC
transmission and large rectifiers etc.
2
5-
To obtain variable V and f
2-
In IGBTs through pulse width modulation (PWM) The
64
frequency in the inverter circuit is varied by frequently
01
switching the IGBTs ON and OFF in each half cycle.
While the voltage is controlled with the help of pulse
-9
width modulation, which is a technique for varying the
81
duty cycle or the zeros of the inverter output voltage
pulses. The duty cycle or CDF (cyclic duration factor) of
:
the pulses is the ratio of the period of actual conduction
BN
in one half cycle to the total period of one half cycle.

For Figure 6.27(a)
IS
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 + t 5 + t 6
CDF = (6.3)
al
T
w
where t1, t2, … t6 are the pulse widths in one half cycle.
ra
Figure 6.26(b) A small rating IGBT inverter unit If V is the amplitude of the output voltage pulses, then
Ag
(Courtesy: Kirloskar Electric) the r.m.s. value of the output a.c. voltage
(Vr.m.s.)2 = (CDF) · V 2
C.
Their over-current capacity is defined by the over-load

current and its duration. IEC 60146-1-1 has defined it as or Vr.m.s. = V ◊ CDF (6.4)
K.
150–300%, depending upon the application, for a duration

By varying the CDF, i.e. the pulse widths of the a.c.
:
of one minute. The manufacturer can derate a device for

or
a required load cycle (over-loading and its duration) output voltage waveform, the output, Vr.m.s. can be varied.
The CDF can be controlled by controlling the period
th
according to the application. Unless specified, the present

normal practice is to produce such devices for an over- of conduction, in other words, the pulse widths (periodic
Au
current of 150% for one minute. A higher starting current time period, T remaining the same). Thus the a.c. output
Pulse widths
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
AC output
voltage pulses
Vmax V
Vrms
AC input
instantaneous
voltage T
waveform
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 + t 5 + t 6
C.D.F. =
T
and Vrms = V C.D.F .
Figure 6.27(a) Varying the output a.c. voltage with PWM technique
voltage in an IGBT inverter can be controlled with the would be fed by an almost constant voltage source. The
help of modulation. The modulation in the inverter circuit capacitor in the circuit also provides an indirect protection
is achieved by superposing a carrier voltage waveform from the voltage surges.
of much higher frequency on the natural voltage waveform. The above method is used to vary the frequency and
Figure 6.27(b) is a simple block diagram for a PWM the voltage of the inverter output (motor side) according
scheme, the natural voltage being the voltage obtained to the process needs, irrespective of the electronics scheme
by the switching of the IGBTs. The carrier wave can be adopted to obtain the required speed control.
of any shape, the frequency of which is altered, to obtain
the required degree of modulation, and hence the voltage, Note
while the amplitude is kept fixed. The amplitude is a The variation of frequency is generally up to its fundamental value,
i.e. 0–50 or 0–60 Hz, in view of the fact that the motor is generally
matter of scheme design. (For more detail refer to the required to operate below the base speed. At higher frequencies the
textbooks in the Further Reading.) Generally, a triangular motor will overspeed, for which its own suitability as well as the
wave is used as shown in Figure 6.27(b) to obtain a suitability of the mechanical system must be pre-checked. When,
more uniform sinusoidal voltage waveform. By Fourier however, such a situation be desirable (field weakening region, Figure
analysis we can establish the amplitude of voltage and 6.7(b)), the frequency may be varied to the desired level by switching,
keeping the output voltage to the rated value. Since the torque of the
quality of waveform (distortions), and by controlling the motor will now reduce a1/N, this must be checked with the load
2
pulse widths through the frequency of the carrier wave,
5-
requirement.
we can decide the best modulation to obtain the required
2-
amplitude and a near sinusoidal output voltage waveform. In GTOs
(For details of Fourier analysis, refer to a textbook.)
64
The frequency in the inverter circuit is varied by switching
This is the most commonly used technique in the inverter the GTO pairs ON and OFF repeatedly through their
01
circuit to obtain the required V/f pattern. It is also gate control in each one half cycle. The rate of frequency
economical and can be used to control multi-motor drives
-9
variation will depend upon the frequency of switching
through a single unit. To obtain an accurate V/f control, of the GTO pairs. The voltage variation is obtained by
81
it is essential that the voltage is maintained uniform varying the gate firing angle, a.
(without ripples) as much as possible. This can be achieved :By using converter–inverter combinations in different
by providing a capacitor across the d.c. link as shown in
BN
configurations and by applying a proper gate control, a
Figure 6.26(a). The purpose of the capacitor is to hold variety of fixed and variable output parameters of a fixed
the charge and smooth the output a.c. ripples of each
IS
parameter a.c. input power can be obtained. When the

diode and hence provide a near-uniform d.c. voltage. motor is operating at very low speeds, say, below 5% of
The charge retained by a capacitor can be expressed by Nr, the motor voltage demand is also low. If the inverter
al
circuit is load commutated (motor side), its phase current

Q = C dv
w
(6.5) will have to commutate with a very low voltage at the

dt
ra
load side. It is difficult to guarantee reliable commutation

Ag
where at such low voltages. Pulse width commutation is therefore

Q = charge stored by the capacitor unit also employed in thyristor drives when the motor has to
C.
C = capacitance of the capacitor operate at very low speeds. Where the motors are very
dv = rate of voltage change or a.c. ripples in the d.c. link large, cyclo converters can also be employed. Below we
K.
dt discuss a few inverter configurations. Generally PWM

(for IGBTs) and gate control schemes (for thyristors)
:
The higher the value of C, the lower will be the voltage

or
may be applied to these inverter circuits to obtain the

overshoots in the rectified voltage and the inverter circuit required variable a.c. supply parameters at the output
th
line to suit a particular requirement.

Au
L 3
6.9.3 Voltage source inverter (VSI)
C M
This is the most commonly used inverter for the control
Vac of a.c. motors and is shown in Figure 6.28(a). The fixed
d.c. voltage from the uncontrolled rectifier converter acts
as a voltage source to the inverter. Since the variation is
1 based on voltage, the inverter is called a voltage source
inverter (VSI). The voltage in the inverter unit is varied
2 Firing to the required level by using a pulse width modulation,
Modulator circuit as noted earlier. Through the switching circuit of the
1 Reference voltage inverter the frequency of the output supply is varied by
Inverter natural voltage waveform before modulation, improved repeated switching of the IGBTs. The frequency of
to a near sinusoidal waveform, with the use of L and C. switching of the IGBTs determines the frequency of the
2 Carrier voltage output a.c. voltage and is a matter of system design and
Triangular voltage waveform of fixed amplitude
3 Variable frequency and modulated voltage output (V /f ) as desired.
practices adopted by a manufacturer. For a general
reference it may be in the range of,
Figure 6.27(b) Varying the output a.c. voltage with PWM
technique – Low rating motors say, up to 200 kW – 8–16 kHz
High voltage Low current Nearly constant

and current ripples voltage source
ripples
– Use of C is to hold the charge and provide
L a near constant voltage source to the
I/C inverter
AC C M – Use of L is to improve the quality of d.c.
supply power to the inverter, in turn to improve
the quality of power to the machine.
A power diode Inverter
fixed voltage unit
rectifier
Figure 6.28(a) A voltage source inverter (VSI)
3–f AC supply
– Medium rating motors say, up to 1 MW – 4–8 kHz
– Large motors above 1 MW or so – 2–4 kHz
The inverter unit (converter–inverter unit combined) can
2
be considered as comprising 1
5-
1 Rectifier unit (converter) This is a fixed voltage 2 6
2-
uncontrolled diode bridge rectifier.
64
2 Smoothing circuit To obtain a near-constant voltage
source for the inverter circuit a smoothing capacitance 3 7
01
dv
across the d.c. link is used to smooth the ripples
dt
-9
present in the d.c. link after conversion. The capacitor 8
81
retains the charge and provides a near-constant d.c.
voltage output. : or 4
3 Inverter unit This inverts the fixed d.c. voltage to a
BN
variable V and f a.c. voltage. Such a system can control

multi-motor drives, operating on the same bus and
IS
5
requiring similar speed controls as illustrated in Figure
6.28(b). The inverter parameters can be closely controlled
al
with the help of feedback controls and sensing devices.

w
ra
6.9.4 Current source inverter (CSI)

Ag
(to vary Iᐉ and f )

This is similar to a voltage source inverter, except that
C.
now it is the rectified current that is varied rather than

the voltage. On the input side of the inverter it acts as a
K.
current source. Since this current is already pre-set for

:
the required a.c. output current Iᐉ, the motor current is

or
always within its permissible loading limits. The current

th
control, therefore, provides self-control to the motor. As

before, as shown in Figure 6.29, a fixed d.c. voltage is
Au
provided through an uncontrolled diode bridge rectifier.

This voltage is converted to a constant current source
with the help of a large series inductor in the d.c. link.
The purpose of this inductor is to provide a near-constant
current source by reducing the di/dt ripples. The inductor M M M M
plays the role of a current source and acts like a current
chopper. Since, the voltage across the inductor can be 1 Isolator
expressed by 2 Fuse
di 3 Diode bridge rectifier (converter)
VL (ignoring R of the circuit) (6.6)
dt 4 Inverter unit IGBT or thyristor depending upon the size of machine
the higher the value of L, the lower will be the current 5 CT

overshoots, i.e. the rate of the current change di/dt, through 6 Current comparator
the inductor. A high value of the inductor would make it 7 Current amplifier and controller
possible to provide a near-constant current source for 8 Gate control in case of thyristor inverters only.
the inverter circuit. With more modifications, the above
Figure 6.28(b) Single line block diagram showing cascade
can be made to operate according to a pre-defined current connections of motors on a variable voltage common bus,
waveform for very accurate speed control of a motor. using a VSI
High current Nearly constant

ripples current source
L
I/C
AC M Large L is essential to smoothen ripples and
supply provide a near constant current source to the
inverter.
A power diode Inverter
fixed voltage unit
rectifier
Figure 6.29 A current source inverter (CSI)
Now they may be called current regulated inverters. With and lead to an unwanted trip of the machine or over-
feedback controls, precise control of a motor can be heating. It may also endanger the static devices used in
achieved. A current source inverter provides a simpler the inverter circuit or the components in the d.c. link.
and better control and may be preferred for large drives, One simple way to do this is to consume these in a
particularly where regenerative controls are involved. resistor as shown in Figure 6.30. This is known as dynamic
2
Now the frequency of the a.c. output current is also braking, and the regenerative energy is wasted. The resistor
5-
varied through the switching of the IGBTs in the inverter is introduced in the circuit through a bus voltage sensor.
2-
unit, as noted earlier, and the current is varied by varying As soon as the bus voltage rises beyond a pre-set limit,
64
the output a.c. voltage, using the same PWM technique the resistor is switched into the circuit. In smaller motors
as for a VSI. Through this scheme only single-motor it is common practice to dissipate the heat of regeneration
01
control is possible, as different motors will have different in this way but in larger machines it can be a substantial
currents, as they may be of different ratings. However, it drain on the useful energy, particularly when the machine
-9
is more suitable for larger drives, as it is easy to handle is called upon to perform frequent variations of speed,
81
currents rather than voltages. Only limitation is poor reversals or brakings. It is, therefore, advisable to conserve
dynamic response. : this energy by feeding it to the other drives or by
BN
transferring it back to the source of supply, which can be
6.9.5 The regenerative schemes done in the following ways.
IS
When controlling an a.c. machine, the converter is

A motor can fall in a generator mode when the machine usually a full-wave, power diode fixed-type rectifier and
is energized and is run beyond its synchronous speed, the V/f is controlled through the IGBT inverter. For
al
such as when driving a load, travelling downhill or when regenerative mode, the d.c. bus is connected in anti-
w
its speed is reduced to perform a specific duty. The same parallel with a full-wave voltage-controlled inverter as
ra
conditions will appear when a running machine is reversed, shown in Figure 6.31.
whether it is an a.c. or a d.c. machine.
Ag
During a regenerative braking, the d.c. voltage starts

In any of the above generating modes if the surplus to rise, which the inverter regulates to the required level
energy is not fed back to the supply source it may have (V and f ) and feeds back the regenerative energy to the
C.
to be dissipated in some other form. Otherwise it may source of supply. This is known as synchronous inversion.
K.
raise the d.c. link voltage beyond its acceptable level, When the inverter is of a lower voltage rating than the
:
Power
or
*Resistor for
transistor dynamic
th
for braking braking

Au
Smoothing
capacitor
I/C
AC M
supply
Power diode DC link Inverter unit

converter
* Mechanical braking or non-regenerative braking:
For small brake power, resistance unit is small and can be located within the main enclosure. But for higher power
that may call for large resistance units and have to dissipate excessive heat, it is mounted as a separate unit. The
resistance units are short-time rated depending upon the duty they have to perform.
Figure 6.30 An IGBT inverter unit with dynamic braking
DC link
Smoothing
capacitor
I/C
AC M
supply AC motor
2
5-
2-
Thyristor inverter
64
in antiparallel,
to feed energy
01
back to source
-9
81
to match the supply
source voltage :
BN
Figure 6.31 Regenerative energy feedback arrangement for an inverter unit
IS
supply source, a transformer between this and the supply be provided on the d.c. bus, on which may occur a fault
source as shown will also be necessary to regulate the or whose voltage may rise beyond the pre-set limits. A
al
feedback voltage to the required level. The delta side of similar inverter circuit is used in a d.c. machine also
when the regenerative energy is to be fed back to the
w
the transformer may be connected to the supply side to

source of supply (Figure 6.32).
ra
eliminate the third harmonic quantities to the source.

Over-voltage, over-load and short-circuit protections may It is also possible to use an IGBT converter instead of
Ag
a power diode or a thyristor converter. A single IGBT

converter unit is capable of performing both the jobs,
C.
converting the fixed a.c. supply to a fixed or variable

d.c. voltage to control an a.c. machine and during a
K.
regenerative mode, feeding the regenerative energy back

I/C
:
to the source of supply. A separate transformer will not

or
AC M DC
supply be necessary now, as the same IGBT circuit will act as a
motor
th
regenerative inverter. The switching of an IGBT is now

an easy feature. The harmonics are also too low, and the
Au
p.f. can be maintained up to unity. Now the IGBT converter

can be called a sinusoidal converter, as it will provide a
near sinusoidal waveform of voltage and currents during
a feedback. The d.c. bus can also be made a common bus
to feed a number of drives through their individual IGBT
inverters to cut on cost. This is possible when a number
of such drives are operating in the vicinity or on the
same process line. Figure 6.33 illustrates a simple scheme
*
with a common d.c. bus.
6.10 Smoothing ripples in

the d.c. link
* Fully controlled thyristor
inverter in anti-parallel to A power diode rectifier unit feeding a fixed d.c. power
feedback energy to an inverter unit to control an a.c. motor. Or a thyristor
Figure 6.32 Regenerative energy feedback arrangement for rectifier unit, directly controlling a d.c. motor. Both contain
a converter unit a.c. ripples in their d.c. outputs, as illustrated in Figure
to suppress the harmonics to retain a healthy supply side

of the system.
The inductance in the d.c. link may cause a reverse
voltage spike across the power diodes or thyristors as a
Smoothing
capacitor
result of the decay of the reverse current (release of its
M
stored energy). A power device may be protected
against such voltage spikes through an R–C snubber
circuit, as shown in Figure 6.37. (Snubber circuit is
discussed later.)
6.11 Providing a constant d.c.

voltage source
Smoothing
capacitor
After smoothing the d.c. voltage may contain moderate
2
M ripples (dv/dt) not desirable when a constant voltage
5-
d.c. source is needed. To achieve this, a charging capacitor
2-
C is also provided across the d.c. link for all sizes of
drives as shown in Figures 6.24(a) and 6.28(a).
64
01
6.12 Providing a constant current
-9
source
81
Smoothing
capacitor
Instead of a charging capacitor C, a large size series

:
M
BN
inductor L is introduced in the d.c. link (Figure 6.29).
Since V = L di/dt, the larger the value of L, the lower will
IS
be the current overshoots (di/dt) and a near-constant d.c.

link current source is obtained for the inverter unit.
al
Circuit
w
interrupter IGBT
6.13 Generation of harmonics, over-
ra
inverter units
voltages and voltage surges in
Ag
A group of AC drives being

fed from a common DC bus a static device switching circuit
and to mitigate their effects
C.
K.
6.13.1 Harmonics generated by phase-controlled

:
rectifier units
DC line
I/C
or
AC A switched static device (particularly a thyristor) produces

th
supply
voltage and current transients similar to inductive or
Au
capacitive switching (Section 17.7). They also produce

harmonics. However, a power diode converter unit having
no switching sequence is devoid of such a phenomenon.
A thyristor (SCR) switched phase-controlled converter
unit produces large quantities of harmonics on the supply
(+ve) (–ve) IGBT converter and
feedback inverter units (a.c.) side, also in the d.c. link and also voltage and
Common current surges on the incoming supply side. All these
DC bus factors are not desirable and must be suppressed or tamed
Figure 6.33 An IGBT converter-cum-inverter unit to feed back right at the point of occurrence to save the connected
regenerative energy equipment and the devices. Keeping in line with EMC/
EMI regulations (Section 23.18) it is mandatory on the
6.24(a). It is essential to smooth these ripples to improve part of all those who generate electro-magnetic (EM)
the quality of d.c. power. To achieve this, a series inductor disturbances to suppress the same to the desired level.
L is provided in the d.c. link as shown in Figures 6.24(a) IEEE-519 and G5/4 (UK Engineering recommendations)
and 6.28(a). In the process it also reduces the harmonics provide the recommended values for each harmonic (see
on the input side. To cut on cost, it is possible to limit the Tables 23.2 and 23.3). Similarly the electronic circuits
use of such inductors to say, 10 h.p. and above. In smaller must also be protected and made compatible with EMI
drives the ripples may not significantly influence the effects. See IEC 61800-3 for static drives. Below we
performance of the machine. Nevertheless it is advisable discuss these phenomena and their possible remedies.
Current harmonics on the incoming a.c. supply side depending upon the pulse number, n of the circuit
and configuration adopted, as discussed in Section
• The presence of harmonic quantities in the electronic 23.6(b). These harmonics add to the inductive loading
circuit distorts the sinusoidal incoming supply system of the circuit since XL µ fh and diminish the p.f. of the
to a non-sinusoidal one, the magnitude of which will system, although they hardly influence an induction
depend upon the configuration of the converter circuit motor, (Section 23.5.2(B)). The 3rd harmonics are
and the variation in the connected load. The line side totally absent because mostly six pulse thyristor
converter unit draws a somewhat squarish waveform converters are employed, which eliminate all the 3rd
current from the mains, as analysed in Figure 23.7. It harmonics from the voltage and the current output
may adversely influence the power equipment waveforms. Thyristors in other configurations such
operating on the incoming supply side of the system, as 12, 18 and 24 pulses are also possible, which can
which may be a motor, a transformer or a generator, eliminate most of the harmonics from the input and
due to higher no-load losses as a consequence of high output waveforms. This is also known as phase
harmonic frequencies (Equations (1.12) and (1.13)) multiplication method using one transformer and two
and higher level of electromagnetic noise. It may also secondaries for 12 pulse or three secondaries for 18
cause over-loading of the capacitor banks connected pulse or four secondaries for 24 pulse rectifier units.
2
on the incoming side and subject all these equipment Figure 6.34(a) shows a 12 and 18 pulse converter
5-
to higher voltage stresses. The higher inductive loading circuits respectively. The higher the pulse number,
2-
also diminishes the p.f. of the system. To contain the the closer it approaches the mean and effective (r.m.s.)
influence of these features, the use of filter circuits to
64
values of the rectified voltage and the voltage
suppress the harmonics and power capacitors, to
approaches a near peak value (Section 23.6(b)). (See
01
improve the system p.f. on the incoming side are
also Figure 23.10.) However, higher pulse thyristor
mandatory to maintain a healthy supply system,
converters become very expensive and are employed
-9
particularly when it is feeding a few phase-controlled
only for very large power applications.
81
converter units, handling large machines and generating
high harmonics. Figure 6.34 shows the use of an
Current harmonics in a d.c. link
inductor in the incoming circuit to suppress the
:
BN
harmonics and limit current overshoots. Power To limit the current harmonics generated in the d.c. link,
capacitors are not shown, which can be provided for
IS
series smoothing reactors are inserted on the d.c. side as

the whole system at a centralized location. The design shown in Figure 6.24(a). They are large iron core
of filter circuits and the size of power capacitors, to unsaturable reactors (L). (For details on reactors see
adopt a more appropriate corrective method, will
al
Chapter 27.) They provide high impedance paths to the

require a meticulous network analysis to determine
w
different harmonic quantities and suppress the more

the actual numbers and magnitudes of such harmonics
ra
prominent of these at the source, and provide a near

present in the system. The subject is dealt with in
Ag
smooth d.c. output voltage waveform. For large power

more detail in Section 23.5.2. In Figure 6.24(a) we
applications, requiring a near-constant d.c. output, more
have shown a few more common types of thyristor
C.
accurate L–C circuits (even more than one) may be

configurations, their voltage and current waveforms
provided in the d.c. link to suppress the more prominent
and the application of reactors to suppress the
K.
harmonics and smooth a.c. ripples. As a rule of thumb of the harmonic quantities.
in absence of network analysis the inductor is usually A large inductor in the d.c. link may also play the
:
following roles:
or
considered about 2–4% of the source impedance (it is

th
preferred to keep it as low as possible to avoid extra 1 In the event of a fault in the d.c. link it will add to the
inductive loss and voltage drop). This inductor is not circuit impedance and limit the rate of rise of fault
Au
necessary when the unit is supplied through a dedicated current, since under a transient condition
transformer.
• Phase-controlled rectifier circuits generate excessive di
V=L
odd harmonics such as 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc., dt
High voltage Low current Nearly constant

and current ripples voltage source Li – To limit harmonics and di /d t
ripples L – To smoothen harmonics and
Li L ripples
C – To hold the charge and act as
Li C a constant voltage source for
I/C D.C.
AC M the d.c. machine
R motor R – The combination of C–R acts
supply Li
as snubber circuit to protect
Switch Fuse electronic (static) components
Phase controlled from high dv/dt.
variable voltage
rectifier
Figure 6.34 Application of inductor and capacitor with a controlled bridge rectifier (for control of d.c. machines)
(a) A 12 pulse rectifier circuit
2
5-
2-
64
M
01
-9
81
:
BN
IS
(b) An 18 pulse rectifier circuit

Figure 6.34(a) High pulse rectifier circuits to reduce harmonics on the I/C supply side (Courtesy: Allen Bradley)
al
w
A high value of L will limit the rate of rise of fault feeders are protected by current limiting devices, HRC
ra
current for the same voltage and save the circuit fuses or breakers. In the event of a fault, on a large
Ag
components. outgoing feeder, as illustrated in Figure 6.35, the

2 A low di/dt will also absorb the current over-shoots protective device will trip and trap an electromagnetic
C.
and help smooth the d.c. link current waveform.

3 It has a disadvantage as it may have a sluggish response
K.
to the control circuit demands due to its high time (I sc – i sc)

constant (t = L /R)
:
I sc
or
(Cut-off i sc
6.13.2 Over-voltages and voltage surges
th
current) Current limiting

device
Au
A voltage transient generally is a phenomenon of HV

systems, as discussed in Chapter 17. Moderate long-
duration switching surges (voltage spikes), other than
lightning and the transference of surges however, are Energy trapped Large inductive
noticed on an LV system also as discussed in Section = 1 L (I sc
2 2
– i sc )
source
17.7.6. See also IEEE-C62.41. Some of it may be due to 2
switchings of static devices and affect motors and
semiconductor devices connected on it. O/G feeders.
Some of them may
• LV systems that are prone to frequent faults and outages be feeding solid
or constitute a number of inductive or capacitive state circuits
switched loads and welding transformers may generate
temporary over-voltages (TOVs) and voltage surges.
Such systems must be studied carefully, and when
felt necessary, a metal oxide varistor (MOV) or a Trapped energy gets
large inductor be installed at the incoming side of the discharged into the
healthy feeders/circuits
semiconductor circuits.
• Fault condition particularly when the LV distribution Figure 6.35 Trapped energy distribution of a large feeding
is fed through a large transformer and the outgoing source during a fault clearing by a current-limiting device
(EM) charge within the transformer and the inter- • Voltage transients (dv/dt) When a thyristor switches
connecting cables, with an energy equivalent to from a closed to an open condition, i.e. from a
1
2
L ◊ ( I sc
2 2
– isc ). L is the inductance of the transformer conducting to a non-conducting mode, a transient
and the inter-connecting cables up to the static circuits recovery voltage (TRV) appears. This is a transient
and isc the cut-off current of the prospective fault condition and the rate of change of voltage can be
current Isc, at the instant of fault. The clearing of fault expressed by
by a current limiting device is a transient condition of
dv
the transformer and is synonymous with a switching Q = C¢ ◊
condition and may generate switching surges. This dt
energy is discharged into the circuits located down where
stream of the feeding source. The trapped energy is a Q = charge stored within the devices before
source of danger to all healthy circuits that are located occurrence of the switching
near the source, and the worst affected are the feeders, C¢ = leakage capacitance of the thyristor between
that may be switched at such instants. its junctions
All the above surges and even the transference of a dv/dt = rate of rise of recovery voltage (r.r.r.v.)
2
lightning surge from an overhead line through inter- During a switching OFF sequence this charge must
5-
connecting cables are uni-directional and reflect in nearly be dissipated quickly otherwise it may cause dangerous
full at a junction and cause a doubling effect, hence they
2-
over-voltages, which may damage the static devices
are more dangerous. The semiconductor devices can be used in the circuit or turn them ON when this is not
64
saved from such harmful effects by absorbing the trapped wanted. A thyristor is switched ON only when there
energy. The effect of a trapped charge is somewhat a
01
is a current pulse applied to its gate. It is possible that
replica of a discharge of a surge arrester. In a surge arrester, the gate may turn ON without this pulse as a result of
-9
the energy above the protective level of the arrester is excessive forward dv/dt due to leakage capacitance
81
discharged through the ground (Section 18.5). In this between the thyristor junctions. The leakage
case, it is discharged into the healthy circuits down stream. capacitance may cause a charging current through the
Normal practice to tackle such a situation is to provide
:
gate. When it exceeds its threshold value, it can turn
BN
an inductor L2, sufficient in size, to absorb this energy at the gate ON. dv/dt is therefore a very important limiting
the receiving end of the static circuit as illustrated in parameter to avoid an erratic turn ON of the thyristors,
IS
Figure 6.36. This protection is applicable to all types of which may corrupt the output parameters and lead to
electronic circuits. It is equally applicable even in a power malfunctioning of the whole system or cause a short-
diode converter unit, involving no switching operations.
al
circuit and damage the static devices used in the circuit.

w
It is therefore important to suppress such transients

Voltage surges within the converter unit
ra
within safe limits. It is possible to contain them,

provided that the stored energy can be dissipated
Ag
This is applicable to thyristor (SCR) circuits to protect all quickly into another source. This is achieved by
the semiconductor devices used in the switching circuit, providing a snubber circuit across each static device
C.
such as diodes (also power diodes) or IGBTs, in addition as noted below, similar to the use of a quenching
to SCRs. The same protection can be applied to all the medium in an HV interrupter (Section 19.2).
K.
semiconductor circuits likely to experience high dv/dt. • Snubber circuit More conventional protection from
The role of SCRs is to vary the supply parameters,
:
high dv/dt is to provide an R – C circuit across each

or
which require frequent changes in V, i.e. dv/dt and in I, device, as shown in Figure 6.37. The circuit provides
i.e. di/dt in an energized condition. Because of momentary
th
a low impedance path to all the harmonic quantities

phase-to-phase short-circuit, dv/dt occurs during switching
Au
and draws large charging currents and absorbs the

OFF and di/dt during switching ON sequences. Both are energy released, Q, and in turn damps dv/dt within
transient conditions and may damage the semiconductor safe limits across each device. Now Q = C (dv/dt)
devices used in the circuit. To protect the devices, the where C is the capacitance used across the device.
transient conditions can be dealt with as follows: During a turn OFF operation the stored energy, Q, of
L2 L1
I/C
AC M
supply
L
Large feeding
source
L – Inductance of the supply source
L1 – Inductor to smooth ripples
1 L ◊ (I 2 – i 2 )
L2 – Inductor to absorb the trapped energy up to sc sc [partly absorbed by the feeder’s own impedance and other feeders
2
connected on the same line]
Figure 6.36 Use of inductor on the supply side of a static drive to absorb the trapped energy
A dedicated transformer. The inductor will absorb the

magnetic charge and damp the rate of rise of current.
di
It may R Now V = L i
dt
be a
thyristor or Li is the additional series reactance. The higher the value
or an IGBT G of Li, the lower will be the rate of rise of current.
C The inductor on the input side also suppresses the
harmonics in the incoming supply, as high Li will provide
a high impedance path to higher harmonics. For
K suppression of harmonics, where the supply system is
already substantially distorted, additional L–C filter
Figure 6.37 Use of a snubber circuit across a power switching circuits may be provided on the incoming side for more
device
prominent harmonics. (For details of filter circuits see
Section 23.9.) The main purpose of inductance here is
protection, rather than suppression of harmonics.
2
the circuit will discharge into this capacitor and charge Due to a high time constant of the damping circuit t
5-
the same to its optimum level (charging time constant = Li/R (R being the resistance of the circuit) it will also
t = RC) and slow down the rate of rise of TRV (r.r.r.v.),
2-
delay occurrence of the fault by which time the circuit’s
i.e. dv/dt across the static circuit and limit the voltage
64
protective scheme may initiate operation. It also adds to
spikes, similar to motor surge protection discussed in the line impedance to contain the severity of the fault
Section 17.10.1. The higher the value of C, the lower
01
conditions.
will be the voltage (commutation) overshoots. During From the above we notice that the current surges can
-9
a switch ON the capacitor discharges its total energy be caused either by the tripping of a current limiting
81
into the R and prepares for the next switching operation. device, when the distribution is through a large transformer
The power dissipation into R is proportional to the on which is connected the static circuits, or by switching
switching frequency. R also limits the peak value of
:
of the SCRs within the converter circuit itself. The
BN
the discharge current through the static device and protective scheme for both remains the same and is located
damps the oscillations. Here the use of C is to hold
IS
at the incoming of the semiconductor circuits. There can

the charge and then release the same into R and not to be two situations. When the static circuits are being fed
smooth the ripples. through a dedicated transformer in all probability no
• Current transients A similar situation will arise when
al
additional inductor will be necessary. Not even when

a switching ON operation of the rectifier unit occurs
w
there is a large transformer feeding a large distribution

when it is a thyristor rectifier. Under load conditions,
ra
network on which is connected the semiconductor circuits.

the stored magnetic energy in the incoming supply It is, however, advisable to carry out the trapped energy
Ag
system, which can be the feeding transformer and the calculations to ensure that there is adequate inductance
line reactances similar to a fault condition discussed already available in the switching circuits of the
C.
earlier, may cause a current transient which can be semiconductor devices.

expressed by
K.
When there is no dedicated transformer and these

di circuits are connected on the system bus directly a large
:
V = – L◊ inductor will be essential at the incoming of the static

or
dt circuits, sufficient to absorb the trapped charge within

th
where the transformer and the inter-connecting cables up to the

Au
V = applied voltage converter unit. The size of the inductor can be calculated
L = inductance of the total circuit up to the d.c. depending on the size (kVA) of the distribution
link and transformer, its fault level and the characteristics of its
di/dt = rate of change of current, as the switching ON current limiting protective device. An inductor sufficient
is a transient condition and causes over-load to absorb ist2 ◊ L of the transformer and the cables may
and short-circuits. This is maximum at the be provided at the incoming of the static circuits.
commencement of switching ON and becomes
zero on its completion. It is analogous to contact Voltage surges in the inverter circuit
making in an interrupter (Section 19.1.1).
The same situation will arise even during a Generally, voltage surges on an LV system are of little
fault condition. Excessive rate of change of relevance as analysed in Section 17.7.6. Instances can,
current may cause an over-load and even a however, be cited of motor insulation failures, even on
short-circuit. an LV system, when the machine was being controlled
through a static drive, which may be an IGBT switched
The rate of current change must therefore be controlled or a thyristor (GTO) switched inverter. The reason being
to a safe limit by providing a damping circuit on the a steep rising switching wave generated through the
supply side. This can be a series inductance as shown in inverter circuit. The output of the inverter unit being in
Figures 6.26(a) and 6.34. This inductance may not be the shape of a non-sinusoidal voltage waveform also
necessary when the unit is being supplied through a adds to the switching transients. To visualize the effects
of fast switching in a static circuit, it is relevant to Prospective or

peak voltage
corroborate these with the switching of a conventional
HV interrupting device, discussed in Section 17.7. The Vt
static devices also cause switching surges and their severity = 3.1 Vr
is also defined by their amplitude and the rise time (Figure
17.2). These devices are seen to produce voltage surges
with an amplitude up to two to three times the voltage of 1.0
the d.c. link and a rise time as low as 0.05–0.4 ms
(typically) in IGBTs and 2 to 4 ms (typically) in GTOs
Surge voltage
(see Lawrence et al. (1996) and the Further Reading at
the end of the chapter). 0.5
Drive manufacturers usually prefer using high
switching frequencies as a measure to reduce harmonics
and motor noise level but it gives rise to steep fronted
waves. Higher the switching frequency shorter becomes
the rise time (t1) and steeper becomes the travelling wave 0 t1 Time (m s)
2
= 0.1 m s
(r.r.v = Vt /t 1 becomes very high) (see Figure 17.3). For
5-
significance of rise time see Section 17.6.2. Their severity Figure 6.37(b) Severity of a surge damps as it propagates
2-
increases when they cause a reflection (doubling
phenomenon) at the motor terminals. The amplitude of
64
safe to use in this case as the subsequent transient peaks
the reflected wave will depend upon the length of the can be more severe because of continuous switchings in
01
inter-connecting cables, between the inverter and the the PWM inverter circuit. The surge severity surely damps
machine besides the switching frequency of the inverter as it propagates (Figure 6.37(b)) because of cable surge
-9
unit. The amplitude of the wave after reflection may impedance but now the situation is more severe because
81
exceed the BIL (basic insulation level, Table 11.4 for LV of continuous switchings than discussed in Section 17.6.2.
and Table 11.6 for MV motors) of the machine, particularly The leading manufacturers of static drives specify, as
:
when the machine is old and its insulation has deteriorated a standard practice, the amplitude and the rise time of
BN
(Section 9.2). One such failure as a consequence of fast the switching surges of their devices at a particular
rising wave is detected in Figure 6.37(a). It is observed
IS
voltage and switching frequency of their inverter unit

that this voltage may rise up to twice the d.c. link voltage (normally 2–16 kHz depending upon the rating of the
or 3.1 Vr with a rise time as short as t1 ≥ 0.1ms. In IGBTs machine as noted in Section 6.9.3). Also the maximum
al
particularly, the rise time is too short and the surges safe cable lengths (similar to HV interrupters (Section
w
behave like an FOW (front of wave, Section 17.3.3), 17.8.1)). While most installations may not need separate
ra
which are all the more dangerous for the end turns of the surge protection, it is advisable to take precautions against
connected machine. The length of cable from the inverter
Ag
any contingency during actual operation to protect the

to the machine plays a vital role. The longer the cable, machine against these surges under the most onerous
the higher will be the amplitude of the voltage surge at operating conditions.
C.
the motor terminals. This aspect is discussed in greater

K.
detail in Section 18.6.2. For example, for a switching Derating of motors using static drives
surge with a wave front of 0.1 ms and prospective
:
amplitude as 3.1 Vr, propagating at about 60 m/ms in the – Insulation: As per IEC 60034-17 (also MG-I part 30)
or
cable connecting the motor (Section 17.6.6), the safe motors rated up to 500 V are usually capable to
th
cable length to arrest the wave reaching its first peak withstand such contingencies but motors above 500
Au
(3.1Vr) by the time it reaches the motor terminals should V and up to 690 V may call for enhanced insulation
be less than 0.1 ¥ 60 or < 6 m. system (usually termed as inverter duty insulationa)
Too long a cable (multiple of safe length) will not be if adequate preventive measures as noted below are
not taken. Nevertheless it is advisable to choose motors
with enhanced insulation system only at least for new
* installations, to take care of any eventuality and ageing.
a
Inverter duty insulation: It would mean better slot insulation,
phase separators (Figure 6.37(c)) and reinforcement and bracing of
overhangs etc. Besides better impregnation with additional
immersions of the whole stator in the insulating varnish similar to
power house treatment (Section 9.3.1). It is noticed that sometimes
in absence of an inverter duty motor being readily available the
user may instead choose for a higher class of insulation motor such
as class F or H. This measure too can bear the severity of surges
and harmonics to some extent and also enhance the rating of the
machine. It is, however, advisable to use an inverter compatible
*Failure of insulation usually in the first turn near the lamination motor as far as possible and check the safe cable length with the
stack. drive supplier and take extra precautions if the actual length exceeds
Figure 6.37(a) Typical inverter spike damage to motor windings the safe length.
optimum size of motor to save on unwanted extra

rating and consequent higher cost of drive. One must
however choose for EE and inverter duty motors as
far as possible.
Remedies from harmonics, over-voltages and

voltage surges
The remedies are the same as those discussed in Section
17.10 on the protection of electric motors. For example,
surge capacitors for most of the motors will prove
sufficient and economical to protect the machine by taming
the steepness of fast rising surges at the motor terminals.
(See curves 1 and 2 of Figure 17.21.) The surge capacitor
is provided with a discharge resistance as standard practice,
as also noted in the snubber circuits. The resistance would
2
help the capacitor discharge quickly and prepare for the
5-
next operation. The load side steep rising wave can also
2-
be tamed by
64
i. Load side reactor (to tame di/dt ) (Figure 6.37(d))
Figure 6.37(c) Insulation separation of end coils These are specially designed reactors to reduce
01
di /dt, i.e. rate of rise of current surge and in turn
-9
For existing installations undergoing retrofitting with dv/dt. The value of L1 is decided as per cable length
81
inverter drives (to have smoother control of motors such that by the time the wave reaches the motor
and to also conserve on energy such as in case of terminals the transient voltage rise is within safe
limits. As a standard practice drive manu-
:
pumps, compressors and fans) it is advisable to retrofit
BN
the old motors with EE motors suitable for inverter facturers furnish different cable lengths for their
duty (enhanced insulation system). And where it may drives and one can choose a drive suiting his cable
IS
be onerous to change the motor, measures may be length.

taken through dv/dt and di/dt controls to limit the ii. Load side filters (to tame dv/dt ) (Figure 6.37(d))
Now L-C filter circuits are used to damp dv/dt in
al
severity of switching surges on the load side as noted

both magnitude and steepness typically to < 500 V/
w
next.
ms.
ra
– Rating: It may be checked on case to case basis. Where

the variation in speed is by virtue of load demand iii. Sinusoidal filters They are also filter circuits like
Ag
itself such as in pumps, fans and compressors the the above but more closely tuned to suppress voltage
normal inverter duty motor would suffice, as the drive over-shoots and provide a near sinusoidal waveform
C.
is primarily for energy conservation. But where the at the motor terminals. It is a costly arrangement.
K.
motor is required to perform specific duty at constant Note

torque at lower speeds (Figure 6.7(b)), the derating A manufacturer of static drives would usually give an option to the
:
of the motor must be considered for poor cooling, user to operate their inverter circuit (IGBTs or IGCTs normally) at
or
lower efficiency and extra heating due to harmonicsb, high PWM carrier frequencies (typically 2–16 kHz) to smooth the
output (load side) voltage. But at high frequencies, the propagation
th
besides the cable length factor. Some consultants of surges becomes faster and may cause quick reflections, which
Au
consider this derating as 10%. It will however, be would require either a shorter cable or the use of a surge suppressor.
more prudent to do an actual analysis to arrive at the High-frequency operations also raise the noise level in the ground
b
Harmonics cause extra I 2R stator and rotor copper and iron losses.
HIgh voltage
and current Low voltage
ripples ripples
Li 7 5
L L1
I/C AC supply
Li C 6 C1
M
R R
Li
Switch
1 2 3 4
8 Nearly constant
L1 for di /dt control to obtain sinusoidal waveform voltage source
C1 for d v /dt control
Note: For more details see Figure 6.26(a)
Figure 6.37(d) Taming the PWM inverter output waveforms

path and can cause sensitive devices like PLCs, sensors and analogue – Isolate sensitive equipment from inductive loads
circuits to behave erratically, as they are all connected through the (inductive loads generate high EM disturbances).
ground circuit. It is therefore desirable to operate the IGBTs/IGCTs – Eliminate shared circuit equipment problems
or SCRs/GTOs at lower frequencies, preferably 2–6 kHz, as this
will cause low ripples as well as a low noise level. A moderate (unbalanced loads with shared neutrals).
carrier frequency will also help in taming the arriving surges at – Eliminate noise by separating case (electronic circuits)
motor terminals with only moderate steepness. and equipment grounds. Also providing an effective
low resistance safe path to electronic data and signal
6.13.3 Grounding practices and shielding of shielding. Ground to eliminate noise means an equi-
signals in electronic circuits [For EMC/ potential ground system as noted above.
EMI requirements see Section 23.18]
Isolated star ground system is the most preferred system
An electronic circuit may be associated with many in- for electronic circuits to eliminate neutral circuit and
house services such as management information services hence, the voltage ingredient between neutral and ground.
(MIS), data transfer for a process, system automation as While it may not be the best grounding procedure as
for a SCADA system (Section 24.11) and required to noted in Section 20.3, it provides the least compromise
perform the following, in case of electronic circuit grounding. This is now the
2
latest approach to controlling noise in audio systems to
5-
– Sensing of operating conditions
– Voice mail communication and serial data transfer to comply with EMI/EMC norms as per Audio Engineering
2-
peripherals. Society (AES), USA.
64
– Services within cabinets and
Isolated ground (IG) or Clean ground
01
– Services between cabinets etc
(see also IEC 61000-5-2 and IEEE 142)
-9
These services, usually part of a power system, are subject
to strong EM disturbances. To make the power information Isolated ground (IG) or clean ground is a technique for
81
and data transfer system free from EM effects it would sensitive electronic circuits (ECs) to reduce
call for meticulous electromagnetic (EM) and radio frequency (RF)
:
BN
interferences and provide a noise-free system besides
(i) Grounding System – that should be an isolated or a preventing personnel from electric shocks. IG insulates
clean grounding system, and
IS
the ground of sensitive electronic circuits from the

(ii) Shielding of data and signals in cables before electrical equipment ground system. Thus, the ground
grounding them. potential shift due to stray ground currents flowing in
al
the electronic grounding circuit is eliminated and provides

w
(i) Grounding System the required EMI/RFI shielding. It may clearly be noted
ra
Purpose that electronic equipment grounding circuit is not a

Ag
– Not only safety to personnel by limiting the touch separate ground as it also ultimately gets connected to
voltage to 50 V but also to possess reliability, integrity the same main ground. In fact there cannot be more than
C.
and noise control (EMI effects) for sensitive electronic one grounding system for one installation. We can instead
equipment and devices connected to it, to discharge say that there are two isolated ground paths terminating
K.
the above services reliably. The maximum EMI at the same (main) ground. A separate ground system
isolated from power ground is not only ineffective and
:
problems in the form of noise ‘humming’ originate

unsafe it can even cause more noise, because of potential
or
from ground loop and that is due to potential ingredients

ingredients between the two grounds.
th
between two safety grounds separated by a large

distance.
Au
Note
– Reduce common mode voltage between neutral and – In a separate grounding system potential difference between
ground. It should be less than 0.5 V. Higher voltage different ground locations such as between electronic grounding
loop and building main ground may cause circulating currents
would mean system lock-up, communication through data cables and computer printer cables and become a
distortions, corrupted or unreliable data even danger source of noise and EMI disturbances to all electronic devices
to equipment. and gadgets connected to it.
– Handle high harmonic voltages and currents. – Other than line disturbance or fault condition difference in
– Provide safe path for the discharge of ground faults potential can also be a result of bad joints or bonding.
and lightning strokes. For easy identification this kind of IG system is provided
– Provide safe path through the cable shields to with a colour code, usually.
electrostatic discharges in case of high harmonic • Ground circuit for clean ground – Green (according
electronic circuits, particularly PWM inverter fed loads. to IEEE 142 green with yellow strip)
Like providing path to bearing currents (Sections 6.14 (IEC 60439-1 specifies twin coloured, green and
and 10.4.5). yellow)
– It is of utmost importance to save the signals from [To identify clean ground circuit the IG receptacles are
drive to equipment, shaft currents and the provided with an orange triangle on their faces as a
communication network. caution not to bond them with the main ground circuit.]
– Provide safe path to EMI and RFI waves and comply • Main ground wire – Bare copper (green*)
with EMI/EMC requirements. • Case/body neutral – White or yellow (white*)
• Phase wires – red, yellow, blue (black*) be used. But a.c. and d.c. control voltages should not be
*According to IEEE 142 mixed. There must be separate cables for a.c. and d.c.
voltages.
(ii) Shielding of signals Digital signals (24V d.c.) – Cables as for analogue signals
but now a single screen twisted and multi-core cable is
Routing and segregation of cables permissible.
Routing, segregation, separation distances and directions TG analogue or pulse encoder cables – They should be
of cables are important parameters to provide a desirable twin twisted pair with an overall screen. The screen should
degree of shielding, e.g. remain continuous up to the encoder. If it needs to be
broken such as when entering or leaving a junction box
– Wiring between the main input and an RFI filter must or metal box (usually Faraday cage), the integrity of the
be separated by a minimum of 300 mm. So also it screen must be maintained by enclosing the terminations
must be separated from all other drives and drive inside the box in such a fashion that it makes close bonding
output components (enclosures, modules, inductors as if within a Faraday cage. The screen of the encoder
and motor cables). Electrical separation is a means to cable also shall terminate to the main ground terminals
2
minimize proximity effect. For details on proximity at both ends. The length of the cable should be restricted
5-
effect see Section 28.8.4. (say within 15 m) to limit the voltage drop to maintain
2-
– Control and power wiring must cross at 90∞ and be the necessary encoder voltage at the encoder terminals.
also separated by a minimum of 300 mm.
64
– If an EMC filter is fitted, cables on the input side of Communication cables – The cables recommended for a
01
the filter must be separated as above from cables and particular communication standard should only be used
components on the drive side of the filter. and installed as recommended by the appropriate ‘body’.
-9
– Ribbon cables should be run along the grounded metal Such as in case of DeviceNet, a deviceNet recommended
81
and not through the air. If ribbons are too long they cable such as Belden 3084 A must be used and installed
may be folded rather than rolled to nullify the EM as recommended by Open DeviceNet Vendors Association
:
distortions. (ODVA)*.
BN
– The screen of screened cables must be bonded to

ground at both ends at the main ground point.
IS
– Where the cable of electronic circuits enters or leaves 6.14 PWM inverter drives causing
an enclosure it should be bonded with its own isolated shaft currents
al
ground.
w
An electronic equipment manufacturer would know the When a motor is driven through a PWM inverter unit, a
ra
potential locations that may give rise to ground voltages peculiar phenomenon of bearing currents and their failure
Ag
and electrostatic leakage currents that cause noise. For as a consequence of it is noticed in certain range of
instance high frequency capacitors usually leakage motors. Typically for frame sizes ≥315 and inverter
C.
capacitances that discharge at high frequencies, or high switching frequency fs >10 kHz. The situation becoming
value (kVAr) electrostatic capacitors in electric power worse at higher frequencies (IEC 60034-17 and ref. 11
K.
circuits cause electrostatic leakage currents. Such as on under Further Reading).

the load side of a PWM inverter there are electrostatic The windings leakage capacitances (Figure 10.6(a))
:
or
discharges in a motor (Sections 6.14 and 10.4.5). Even at high pulses of the inverter output voltage offer a very
d.c. link during switching operations causes heavy leakage low reactance (X c µ1/fs) and may discharge even at low
th
currents. All these electrostatic discharges are potential stator voltages. The effect of high frequency now is similar
Au
sources of ground voltages and responsible for noise. to, rather worse than that of high voltages in MV motors
Manufacturers take preventive measures to eliminate noted in Section 10.4.5 and induces shaft voltages as a
the same at source by proper shielding and grounding of result of capacitive coupling. In fact the very high
cables. Brief philosophy of shielding of signals is presented frequencies cause much higher shaft voltages and
in Section 13.3.6 and Figure 13.13. Below we provide consequent much larger leakage currents than in MV
some vital information about shielding of various kinds motors. These shaft voltages are noticed up to 10–30 V
of electronic signals needing integrity and reliability. (for frame sizes above 315). At high frequencies (>10
kHz) the grease dielectric may break down at about 10–
EM compatible control cables 15 V and allow the leakage current flow through the
bearings. As a result bearings emanate sort of a scratching
It is important to use correct types of control cables for noise. These currents if not prevented are dangerous and
electronic circuits to comply with EMC/EMI requirements may cause bearings’ failure. Prevention from shaft currents
Analogue Signals – Each analogue signal must use a
separate double screened twisted pair of cables. A common * ODVA is an international organization that supports network
return path will corrupt the signals. technologies built on the Common Industrial Protocols (CIP), such
as DeviceNet, EtherNet/P, CIP syn and CIP safety. CIP allows
Digital Signals (110/230 V a.c.) – Cables as for analogue companies to integrate I/O control, device configuration and data
signals, but now an unscreened multi-core cable can also collection across multiple networks.
in PWM inverter drives is similar to as discussed in There may be many types of drives in an industry,
Section 10.4.5. particularly when it is a process industry. The most
common drives are fans, pumps, and compressors etc.,
employed for the various utilities, storage and process
6.15 Energy conservation using activities of the plant. The plant may be chemical or a
static drives petrochemical, water treatment or sewage disposal, paper
and pulp unit or even a crane or a hoist application.
The method of speed or flow control by throttling,
While the motor is operating under-loaded damping (vane control) or braking, indirectly reduces
In the various types of static drives discussed so far, the the capacity of the motor at the cost of high power loss
supply voltage would adjust automatically at a level just in the stator and slip loss in the rotor circuit, as discussed
sufficient to drive the motor to meet its load requirements. above. These losses can now be eliminated with the
Hence it is not necessary for the motor to be applied effective use of static control variable-speed drives or
with full voltage at all times. The voltage adjusts with fluid couplings. We will show, through the following
the load. This is an in-built ability of a static drive that illustrations, the energy saving by using such controls.
would save energy and losses. One would appreciate
2
Throttle, damping or vane control
5-
that most of the industrial applications consider a number
of deratings and safety margins while selecting the size
2-
of the motor to cope with a number of unforeseen For ease of illustration we will consider the characteristics
and behaviour of a centrifugal pump which is similar in
64
unfavourable operating conditions occurring at the same
time. This is discussed in Chapter 7 (see also Example behaviour to radial/axial flow fans and centrifugal/screw
01
7.1). The size of the motor is therefore chosen a little compressors. Figure 6.38 shows the mechanical
connection of a flow valve to control the output of the
-9
larger than actually required. As a consequence even
when the motor may be performing its optimum duty, it pump or the discharge of the fluid through the throttle of
81
may hardly be loaded by 60–80% of its actual rating the valve. Figure 6.39 illustrates the characteristics of
causing energy waste by extra iron and copper losses the pump:
:
BN
and operating at a reduced p.f. Static drives are therefore • Discharge versus suction head, i.e. Q versus Hd and
tangible means to conserve on such an energy waste. • Discharge versus pump power requirement, i.e. Q
IS
versus h.p.
While performing a speed control
al
A very important feature of solid-state technology is energy

w
R Y B
conservation in the process of speed control. The slip
ra
losses that appear in the rotor circuit are now totally

Ag
eliminated. With the application of this technology, we

can change the characteristics of the motor so that the Sw
C.
voltage and frequency are set at values just sufficient to

meet the speed and power requirements of the load. The
K.
power drawn from the mains is completely utilized in

doing useful work rather than appearing as stator losses,
:
3
or
rotor slip losses or external resistance losses of the rotor

circuit. Many industries use fixed speed motors for variable
th
C
speed requirements through gears or belt-drives. These
Au
devices add to losses and the motor may also be running

4
under-loaded on many occasions. This is a colossal drain 2
OCR
of useful energy and must be saved at all costs (Section Discharge
1.19). With the thrust on energy conservation one must
use energy efficient (EE) motors and static drives and
adapt all such practices that minimize losses and conserve 1
energy as far as possible. More so when the payback
period is so short.
6.15.1 Illustration of energy conservation

In an industry there may be many drives that may not be 1 Venturimeter – to measure the velocity of fluid
required to operate at their optimum capacity at all times. 2 Probe to sense the velocity of fluid
The process requirement may require a varying utilization 3 Flow meter or sensor – To convert the velocity of fluid
of the capacity of the drive at different times. In an to the rate of flow
induction motor, which is a constant speed prime-mover, 4 Motorized sluice valve – To throttle the flow of fluid
such a variation is conventionally achieved by throttling
the flow valves or by employing dampers. Figure 6.38 Conventional throttle control
A3 Pump head capacity

Hd3 curve at fixed speed R Y B
A2
Hd2
Sw
ling
g
lin
rott A1
ott
Hd1
thr
h th
Nr1
Head H d
ith
es e
Wit
rv nc
cu ta
sis
C
Re rott
ling
t th
hou
Wit OCR
3
0 Q3 Q2 Q1
Discharge ‘Q ’
(a) Discharge versus suction head. 4
2
5-
2
2-
P1 Discharge
64
P2
01
1
Pump power (h.p.)
-9
P3
81
:
BN
1 Venturimeter – To measure the velocity of fluid

IS
2 Probe to sense the velocity of fluid
0 Q3 Q2 Q1 3 Flow meter or sensor – To convert the velocity of fluid

Discharge ‘Q ’ to the rate of flow
al
(b) Discharge versus pump power. 4 Variable voltage (fixed frequency) static control
w
ra
Figure 6.39 Power requirement and rate of discharge on a Figure 6.40 Energy conservation through static control
throttle control
Ag
C.
The rated discharge is Q1 at a static head of Hd1 and valve is eliminated, which in turn eliminates the extra
a motor h.p. P1. In the process of controlling the discharge head loss or system resistance. Figure 6.41 illustrates
K.
from Q1 to Q2 and Q3, the valve is throttled, which the corresponding characteristics of the pump with this
increases the head loss of the system (or system type of flow/speed control.
:
or
resistance) from Hd1 to Hd2 and Hd3 respectively. The To reduce the discharge from Q1 to Q2 and Q3 in
operating point on the Q–Hd curve now shifts from this case, the speed of the pump, and so also of the
th
point A1 to A2 and A3 as a result of back pressure. The motor, reduces from Nr1 to Nr2 and Nr3. The Q–Hd
Au
pump power requirement now changes from P1 to P2 characteristics change according to curves Nr2 and Nr3,
and P3 on the Q–h.p. curve. We can see that, due to at a corresponding pump power requirement of P2¢ and
added resistance in the system, while the discharge P¢3 respectively, according to power curve P ¢. These
reduces, the corresponding power requirement does not power requirements are significantly below the values
reduce in the same proportion. of P2 and P3 of Figure 6.39 when discharge control was
achieved by the throttle. The system resistance curve
Flow control through static control remains unaffected, whereas the pump power demand
curve traverses a low profile as in curve P' due to lower
The same operating control, when achieved through the speeds Nr2 and Nr3. The power requirement diminishes
use of a solid-state control system will change the directly with speed in such pumps.
mechanical system to that of Figure 6.40. We have used The energy saving with this method is considerable,
a simple, full-wave, phase-controlled, variable-voltage compared to use of the throttle, which is also evident
solid-state device, employing a triac (two SCRs in anti- from curve P ¢ of Figure 6.41.
parallel). The voltage to the motor is monitored through
a flow sensor, which converts the flow of discharge 6.15.2 Computation of energy saving
through a venturimeter to electrical signals. These signals
control the voltage and adjust the speed of the motor to Consider Figure 6.42 with typical Q–Hd curves at different
maintain a predefined discharge flow. The use of a throttle speeds and different system resistances, introduced by
Pump head
N r1 capacity curves
N/Nr = 1
1.25
N/Nr = 0.9 B
B1 Hd2 1.138 5
H d1 N/Nr = 0.90 A
N r2 Hd1 1.00 Rated
N/Nr = 0.86 point
N/Nr = 0.80
Head (H d / H n )
Head H d
H d2 0.75 E
B2
N r3
ve
cur N/Nr = 0.65
B3 nce
H d3 ista
R es 0.50 N/Nr = 0.60
Hd3 0.45
C
0 Q3 Q2 Q1 N/Nr = 0.5
Capacity ‘ Q ’
0.25
(a) Discharge versus suction head
2
5-
Q1
0
2-
0.25 0.50 0.67 0.75 1.00
rve P
Power cu Q
64
P2
90
P¢
A
e
(PA) 85
01
rv
Power saving C
cu
with static (PC) 82

%h
er
control w 80
-9
P3
Pump power (h.p.)
po
d (PB) 73
ve B
81
ro 70 65
P2¢ mp 0.
1
I
=
r1
=
2
N
Power required
: Nr
BN
with static 60
P3¢ control Speed
IS
Hd – Head Q – Discharge
0 Q3 Q2 Q1 Hn – Rated head Qn – Rated discharge
Capacity ‘Q ’ N – Actual speed h – Pump efficiency
al
(b) Discharge versus pump power Nr – Rated speed

w
Figure 6.41 Power saving with the use of static control compared Figure 6.42 Discharge versus head curves of a pump at
ra
to throttle control different speeds and resistances introduced by throttle

Ag
C.
the throttle. Point A refers to the rated discharge Q1 at static control over the conventional and more energy
rated speed Nr1 and head Hd1 when the throttle valve is consuming throttle control.
K.
fully open. Lets us consider the condition when the

discharge is to be reduced to say, 0.67Q1. Extent of energy saving
:
or
Throttle control Example 6.1

th
This can be determined by

Au
The system resistance increases and discharge reduces Hd ◊ Q ◊ d

at the same rated speed Nr1. This condition refers to P= (6.7)
36 ◊ h
point B, to which the earlier point A, has now shifted.
The system now operates at a higher head Hd2, whereas where
the actual head has not increased. This condition has P = shaft input in kW
Hd = head in bar
occurred due to higher system resistance offered by the Q = discharge in m3/hour
throttle. The pump and the prime-mover efficiency will d = specific gravity of the liquid in gm/cm3
now reduce to 73% from its original 85%. h = efficiency of the pump
(i) Rated power required by the pump
Static control
Hd ◊ Q ◊ d
P=
The same discharge of 0.67 Q1 is now obtained without 36 ¥ 0.85
throttling the valve, but by controlling the speed of the (ii) Power required when discharge is controlled through the
motor to 0.65 Nr1. Point A now shifts to point C on the throttle,
Q–Hd curve for 0.65 Nr1. For this reduced discharge of head H d2 = 1.138 H d 1
0.67 Q1 the suction head Hd also reduces to 0.45 Hd1 and discharge = 0.67 Q
so also does the system resistance. The efficiency of the h = 0.73
system is now set at 82%. 1.138 H d1 ¥ 0.67 Q ◊ d
\ Power =
There is thus an obvious energy saving by employing 36 ¥ 0.73
Ratio of power through throttle and slip power,

\
Rated power required Ps = (1 – 0.75) ¥ 316 kW
1.138 ¥ 0.67 ¥ 0.85 = 0.25 ¥ 316
=
0.73
= 79 kW
0.89
i.e. the power reduction with this method is around 11% of Considering the efficiency of slip recovery system as 95%
the rated power requirement. and 300 operating days in a year, the power feedback to the
main supply source through the slip recovery system in 20%
(iii) Power required when discharge is controlled through static of the time,
control, i.e. by speed variation;
= [0.95 ¥ 79] · [0.2 ¥ 300 ¥ 24]
Head H d3 = 0.45 H d1
= 108 072 kWh
discharge = 0.67 Q
And in terms of costs at a tariff rate of Rs 1.2 per unit,
h = 0.82
= Rs 1.2 ¥ 108 072
0.45 H d1 ¥ 0.67 Q ◊ d
\ Power
2
= Rs 129 686.4 per year
36 ¥ 0.82
5-
2-
\ Ratio of power through speed variation 6.16 Application of static controllers
Rated power required
64
0.45 ¥ 0.67 ¥ 0.85 6.16.1 Soft starting (reduced voltage starting)
01
=
0.82
-9
0.31 This facilitates a stepless reduced voltage start and smooth
i.e. the power reduction through speed control is 69% that of acceleration through control of the stator voltage. The
81
the rated power requirement. smooth voltage control limits the starting torque (Tst)
Thus the energy saving in this particular case by employing and also the starting inrush current (Ist) as illustrated in
:
the method of speed control over that of throttle control will be
BN
Figure 6.43. This is achieved by arranging a full-wave
= 69% – 11% = 58% phase-controlled circuit by connecting two SCRs in anti-
IS
parallel in each phase as illustrated in Figure 6.44. Varying

Example 6.2 the firing angle and the applied voltage will also affect
To determine saving of costs through speed control, consider the dynamic phase balancing in each phase, and control
al
the following parameters, for the above case: the Ist and Tst as programmed. Increasing the firing angle
w
P = 100 kW decreases the angle of conduction and causes the voltage

ra
to decrease, as seen in Figure 6.23. The starting voltage,

Ag
Discharge = 67% of the rated flow i.e. the angle of firing, is pre-set according to the minimum
Duration of operation at reduced capacity = say, for 25% of voltage required, to ensure a desired minimum Tst and
total working hours.
C.
permissible maximum Ist which can be predetermined

Energy tariff = say, Rs.1.2 per kWh with the help of the motor characteristics and the load
K.
\ Total energy consumed per year, considering 300 operating requirements. The voltage is raised to full, gradually and
days/year and 24 hrs/day smoothly, but within a preset time, as determined by the
:
motor and the load characteristics. The size of the static

or
= 100 ¥ 24 ¥ 300 starter will depend upon the starting current chosen and
th
= 720 000 kWh the corresponding starting time. Generally, the normal
Au
practice of the various manufacturers, as noted earlier, is

Energy consumed while operating at the reduced capacity
for 25% duration = 0.25 ¥ 720 000
to define the size of their soft starters, based on a starting
current of 150% of Ir and a starting time of up to one
= 180 000 kWh minute. A higher starting current or a higher duration of
\ Energy saving = 0.58 ¥ 180 000 start may call for a higher deration or larger starter. The
starter therefore provides no control over the starting
= 104 400 kWh
current, which is a function of the applied voltage.
And total saving in terms of cost = 1.2 ¥ 104 400 It is also possible to perform a cyclic duty having
= Rs.125 280 per year some no-load or a light load and some fully loaded periods,
as discussed in Section 3.3. The firing angles of the
Example 6.3 SCRs can also be programmed accordingly to reduce the
Energy saving in a slip recovery system applied voltage to the motor to a minimum possible level,
Consider an I.D. fan of 750 kW, running at 75% of Nr for at during no-load or light-load periods, and hence conserving
least 20% of the day. Considering the load characteristic in an otherwise wasted energy by saving on the no-load
cubic ratio of speed, losses. Different mathematical algorithms are used to
\ P at 75% speed achieve the desired periodic T–N characteristics of the
machine.
= (0.75)3 ¥ 750 kW
During start-up, the firing angle is kept high to keep
316 kW the V and Ist low. It is then reduced gradually to raise the
Tst 1 Volta Ist1

ge V
1
Voltage
Tst 2 V 2 Ist 2
Tst 3 Voltage
V 3 Ist 3
Torque
I
Tr Ir
2
5-
2-
0 NS 0
Speed N r3 N r2 N r1 Speed N r3 N r2 N r1 NS
64
V1 > V2 > V3
01
Ist1 > Ist 2 > Ist 3
Ts1 > Ts2 > Ts3 (a V 2) [Ist a V ]
-9
N r1 > N r2 > N r3
(b) Ist control
81
(a) Tst control
Figure 6.43
:
Speed control by varying the applied voltage (use of higher-slip motors)
BN
R Y B
This may be a good alternative to Y/D or autotransformer
IS
starting by eliminating current overshoots during the

changeover from Y to D in a Y/D or from one step to
al
another in an autotransformer start. It also prevents an

open transient condition (Section 4.2.2(a)). Also in a
w
soft start the switching SCRs are bypassed through a

ra
contactor after performing a starting duty similar to a

Ag
Y/D, A/T or a wound rotor start. In conventional startings

also the star contactor, the autotransformer or the external
C.
resistances, respectively, are cut off from the circuit, after

performing their starting duty. Such a provision protects
K.
the starter unit from avoidable voltage strains, saves heat

:
a2 b2 c2 losses and cools it to prepare it for the next switching

or
operation. The starter is also free to perform switching

th
Stator duties on other machines of a similar size connected on

b1 the same line, if so desired, to save costs. The starter can
Au
a1 c1
be even used as a switching kit for a group of similar-
sized motors.
Rotor The voltage can be varied from 0% to 100% and hence
the Ist can be limited to any required level. Such a linear
voltage variation may be suitable in most cases,
Variable V, constant f control
particularly when the motor has to pick-up a light load
Figure 6.44 Stator static voltage control (soft starting)
or is at no-load. Motors driving heavy inertia loads or
loads requiring a high starting torque or both may not be
able to pick-up smoothly with a linear voltage rise from
voltage to the required level. There is thus a controlled 0 volts. This may cause a locked rotor or stalling condition
acceleration. The maximum Ist can also be regulated to a until the voltage rises to a level sufficient to develop an
required level in most cases, except where the T st accelerating torque, capable of picking up the load. It is
requirement is high and needs a higher starting voltage, also possible that it may need a prolonged starting time
when it may not be possible to limit the Ist to the desired not commensurate with the thermal withstand time of
level. The scheme is a simple reduced voltage start and the motor or a larger starter. In such cases, it is essential
does not facilitate any speed control. Since the starting to have a minimum base or pedestal voltage as illustrated
current can now be regulated to a considerable extent, the in Figure 6.45(a). The voltage is adjusted to the lowest
scheme is termed a soft start. Now Tst µ V2 and Ist µ V. possible level, so that the Ist is kept as low as possible. In
Figure 6.45(b) we illustrate a motor with a normal starting This is accepted practice in most cases and the machine
current of 650% Ir at the rated voltage. To limit this to a stops as shown in Equation (2.13). A higher moment of
maximum of 350% of Ir, we have provided a base voltage inertia (MI) of the driven masses will mean a reasonably
of about 350/650 or 54% of the rated voltage. The longer duration to come to a standstill, while a low MI
minimum T st is, however, matched with the load will mean a faster stop. But in loads requiring high braking
requirement to attain the rated speed within its thermal torques, such as conveyor systems, escalators and hoists,
withstand time. For more details see Section 3.5 and the stopping time may be too short. In some cases, such
Example 7.1. The voltage is then raised so that during as a pump duty, the stoppage may be near-abrupt. Such
the pick-up period the Ist is maintained constant at 350%, a situation is not desirable and may cause shocks to the
until the motor reaches its rated speed. As a usual practice motor. In a pump, an abrupt stoppage may cause severe
these starters are provided with ramp-up and ramp-down shocks and hammering effects on pipelines, due to back-
facilities to meet such a situation. flow of the fluid. Shocks may even burst pipelines or
Since it is not practical to custom-build each starter, the reduce their life when such stoppages are frequent. They
normal practice by manufacturers of soft starters is to may also damage non-return valves and other components
provide a variety of motor parameters to which nearly all fitted on the lines and thus weaken the whole hydraulic
motors will fit and the user may select the motor that best system.
2
suits the load requirements. Such starters from small to A gradually reducing voltage rather than an instant
5-
very large sizes (even up to 5 MW) are usually available switch OFF is therefore desirable for all such applications.
2-
off the shelf. And as noted before can be used as starting This would also gradually reduce the flow of the fluid,
kits for many motors of similar ratings in the same plant. leading to a strain-free and smooth stopping of the
64
The other advantages of a solid-state soft start are that machine. In such cases, a soft stop feature, similar to a
01
an unbalanced power supply is transformed to a balanced soft start, can be introduced into the same starter, which
source of supply automatically by suitably adjusting the would gradually reduce the stator voltage and facilitate
-9
firing angle of each SCR through their switching logistics. a smooth and shock-free stop.
81
Also a low starting current can economize on the size of
switchgears, cables and generator where a captive power
6.16.3 Slip recovery system (to control wound
:
is feeding the load. These starters are very cheap as there
BN
is no inverter or rectifier unit now. rotor motors)

IS
As discussed earlier, the motor speed–torque

6.16.2 Soft stopping characteristics depend largely upon the rotor current
The normal method to stop a motor is to do it instantly. (Equation (1.1)) and rotor resistance (Equation (1.3)).
al
w
ra
Curren
Ag
Accelerating 650 t
torque
C.
3
K.
Torque 2
:
Tst Linear voltage

or
% Torque
%V
%V
% Current (I)
rise Run 350

100 100
th
Run
1 ge r ise
lta
Au
Vo ltage
Ta vo
Voltage ar
4 54 4 L ine 54
2
1
.29Tst Ir
3
Tr
Nr 5 Nr
5
Speed (in terms of pre-defined time) Speed (in terms of pre-defined time)
(1) Approximate torque curve during a soft start (1) Approximate current curve during a soft start
(2) Normal torque curve (2) Voltage can be adjusted to maintain the starting current constant
(3) Load torque at 350% (or any desired value)
(4) Base or pedestal voltage (3) Normal torque curve
(5) Soft starter can be removed from the circuit and used to start other (4) Base or pedestal voltage
motors, if desired. (5) Soft starter can be removed from the circuit and used to start other
motors, if desired.
(a) Torque characteristics (b) Current characteristics
Figure 6.45 Current and corresponding torque characteristics of a motor during a soft start
The higher the rotor current or resistance, the higher will The inverter may be a current source inverter, rather
be the starting torque as illustrated in Figure 6.46, and than a voltage source inverter (Section 6.9.4) since it
the higher will be the slip and slip losses as well as will be the rotor current Irr that is required to be varied
reduced output. The maximum torque is obtained when (Equation (1.7)) to control the speed of a wound rotor
R2 and ssX2 are equal. Speed control can be achieved by motor, and this can be independently varied through the
varying the rotor resistance or by varying the rotor current control of the rotor current. The speed and torque of the
Irr. The slip recovery system provides an ideal control, motor can be smoothly and steplessly controlled by this
employing a basic converter unit, supplemented by a method, without any power loss. Figures 6.47 and 6.48
vector or field oriented controlled inverter unit in the
rotor circuit of the motor, as illustrated in Figure 6.47. Main supply
The inverter unit controls the power flow from the rotor
to the mains, thus acting as a variable resistance. The
stator operates at a fixed frequency.
Switch
2
5-
Tst = max. Fuse
2-
when, R2 = ssX2
Tst(max.) Fixed frequency
64
AC supply
415 V, 50 Hz
01
200
Low
Stator
-9
R2
M
Hi
81
gh Rotor
% Torque
R
2 :
BN
100 or
Tst
IS
Fuse
+
S2 > S1 –
al
w
Variable AC voltage and DC voltage to fixed

ra
Speed S2 S1 frequency converter frequency and voltage

Slip (IGBT or thyristor) a.c. supply inverter
Ag
Figure 6.46 Effect of rotor resistance on torque Figure 6.47 Slip-ring motor control showing slip recovery system
C.
K.
3–f A.C. supply

1
¸
:
˝Isolators
or
4
1 11 ˛
th
12
2 3-f slip-ring motor
Au
13 3 Tacho generator
5 Starting resistor
2
TG 3 14 6 Variable a.c. voltage and frequency IGBT or thyristor
11 converter
7 Inductor
4 5 15 8 D.C. voltage to fixed a.c. voltage and frequency
diode bridge inverter
9 CTs
16 10 Dedicated transformer
12 Speed potentiometer
6 or
13 Speed comparator
14 Speed amplifier and controller
10 15 Current comparator
7
16 Current amplifier and controller
9
8
Figure 6.48 Typical block diagram of a large slip recovery system using IGBTs or thyristors
illustrate a typical slip recovery system and its control The use of PLCs is essential in the control of motors
scheme, respectively. to closely monitor the operating parameters of the process
The major difference in this configuration from that of line on which the motors are connected. The inverter
a V/f control is the variable voltage and frequency from unit controlling the motors then conducts the required
the rotor circuit that is first converted to a d.c. voltage correction in each motor speed through its switching
and then inverted to a fixed frequency supply voltage in logistics, which may be activated by the motor side V, f,
order to feed the slip power back to the supply source. Im, Ia or b etc., depending upon the inverter logistics
The converter–inverter combination acts like a variable being used. All such parameters are predefined for a
current source and in turn like a variable resistance. The particular process and are preset.
power saving by this method is twofold. First, the power
loss in the external resistance is totally eliminated and A brief description of the process and the use of
second, the rotor power is fed back to the main supply static drives
source. This system has a very high initial cost and is
therefore preferred for large wound motors above 250 We have divided the total process line into three sections:
kW. Nevertheless, it is advisable to employ a slip recovery
system even for lower rating motors which are required Uncoiler section
2
to perform frequent speed variations. Also the regular
5-
power saving would offset the heavy initial cost in the 1 Pay-off reel no. 1 feeds the raw MS sheet to the
2-
first few years only and then provide a recurring energy process section via feed pinch rolls nos 1 and 2 which
and cost saving. straighten the sheet before it enters the welder.
64
2 To maintain continuity and achieve an uninterrupted
01
6.16.4 Operation of a process plant process line a second parallel feed route is provided
through a second pay-off reel no. 2.
-9
With the use of static drives for speed control of induction 3 These rolls are driven by motors M1 and M2 whose
81
motors, through open or closed-loop feedback control speed is controlled through the tension of the travelling
systems, it is now possible to monitor and control a sheet. The tension of the sheet is adjusted by
:
process line automatically, which would not be feasible monitoring the diminishing diameter of the payoff
BN
if carried out manually. We will consider a simple process roll and the thickness of the sheet.
line of a continuous galvanizing plant to demonstrate the 4 The pay-off roll is unwound by the tension of the
IS
application of this technology in automatic and accurate sheet, caused by the speed of the recoiler at the
control of a process industry. finishing line and the bridles positioned at different
al
The total engineering of such a system is custom-built. locations. The pay-off roll motors therefore operate
w
It first requires a thorough study of the process, dividing in a regenerative mode and can feed back the energy
ra
the process into various activities and then monitoring thus saved to the source of supply, if desired. This
and controlling each activity through these controls to can be done by using a full-wave synchronous inverter,
Ag
achieve the required process operation. as shown in Figures 6.31 or 6.33.

Figure 6.49 illustrates a continuous hot-dip galvanizing However, this is a more expensive arrangement. A
C.
line to perform zinc coating of MS sheets so that the more economical method is to use a full-wave, diode
production line has no discontinuity even when the supply bridge converter and an IGBT inverter unit
K.
of sheet is exhausted, or during a changeover from one combination as shown in Figure 6.50 in place of an
:
feeding route to another or at the finishing line during a additional thyristor or IGBT feedback circuit. The
or
changeover from a completed roll to an empty one. All d.c. link bus is now made a common bus for all the
th
this is possible with the use of this technology as described drives operating on the process. During a regenerative
below.
Au
mode, such as during uncoiling the pay-off reels, the

The process line indicates only the vital areas. There voltage of the d.c. bus will rise and will be utilized to
may be many more auxiliary drives and controls, inter- feed the other drives. This process will draw less
connected within the same process line, to adjust the power from the source. The regenerative energy is
process and its quality more closely. They have not been now utilized in feeding the process system itself rather
shown in the figure for the sake of simplicity. We do not than feeding back to the source of supply. There is
discuss the duration of one cycle, its speed, the temperature now only one converter of a higher rating, reducing
of the furnace or the hot dip zinc vessel etc. and other the cost of all converters for individual drives and
important parameters. These all are a matter of detailed conserving regenerative energy again at a much lower
engineering and process requirements. We describe the cost.
process only broadly, to give an idea of applying the There is no need to introduce a resistance for the
technology to a process line for very precise control. We purpose of dynamic braking for the individual drives,
employ encoders to give a pulse output of speed of a but a large resistance will be necessary on the d.c.
particular drive, and PLCs* to implement the process bus to absorb the heat energy during shutdown
logics through the various drives. (braking) of the process. The useful energy during
shutdown cannot be fed back to the source due to the
configuration of the converter–inverter combination.
*PLC – Programmable logic controller (the registered trademark This arrangement can feed the regenerative energy
of Allen Bradley Co. Inc., USA). to its own process only.
control desk
Set Sheet Set

Through
tension thickness/dia. position Tensiometer
From
Through
Tension Sheet head Entry speed Entry accumulator Tension Process speed
PLC
process position control

calculation end control ramp calculation ramp
end
2
5-
2-
Furnace
M4
64
M1 E M2 E E M3 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9
E E E
01
-9
81
Feed Feed
Payoff Payoff pinch pinch
Entry Tension
reel-1
:
reel-2 roll-3 roll-4
BN
accumulator
Shear-2 Welder T2
IS
T1 T2
Bridle-1
Entry T1
Guide
al
side Bridle-2 rollers Hearth rolls

w
Feed Feed Shear-1 guide

Loop
ra
pinch pinch Defector pits

roll-1 roll-2 roll
Ag
Uncoiler section Process section

C.
E – Encoder (Fixed speed and tension)

K.
Figure 6.49 (Contd.)

:
or
th
The scheme also facilitates conservation of 8 For further alignment of the edge width just before
Au
regenerative energy if there are more of such drives entering the welder the sheet is guided again through
without any additional cost. an entry-side guide.
5 Shear no. 1 is used to shear the edges of the sheet of 9 With the help of bridle no. 1 driven by motors M3
pay-off reel no. 1 at the beginning as well as at the and M4, the uncoiler section speed is controlled by
end of the coil before it enters the welder to smooth monitoring the tension of the travelling sheet and
this for a correct welding with the outgoing edge. At hence maintaining constant speed of the sheet in the
the beginning of the coil this edge is welded with the uncoiler section. The tensile difference of T1 and T2
tail end of the previous coil and at the end it is welded determines the speed of the uncoiler. Speed and tension
with the edge of the fresh coil at the beginning from of the sheet must remain constant for absolute
pay-off reel no. 2. Pay-off reel no. 2, driven by motor synchronization between the uncoiler process and
M2, is arranged parallel to pay-off reel no. 1 to provide the recoiler sections.
a second feed route for an uninterrupted and continuous 10 To allow for welding time, a buffer of a certain sheet
process flow. length, in the form of entry accumulator, is maintained,
6 The deflector roll guides the sheet to another pinch generally in a vertical formation, to save space. This
roll no. 4 to carry out precise alignment of the edges feeds the line ahead until the welding operation is
before they enter the welder. completed and the second route is installed to feed
7 Pinch roll no. 4 aligns the edge of the sheet through the process.
a feedback control. 11 The time gap in carrying out the welding is
Set
tension
Exit accumulator Exit speed Tension

position control ramp calculation
IGBT controlled
A.C. drives
2
5-
2-
M10 M11 M12 M13 M14 M15 M16 M17
64
E E E E
01
Deflector Feed Edge Feed
-9
roll pinch guide pinch
roll-5 unit roll-6
81
Cooling tower & T2
blower 1, 2, 3 Exit :
accumulator T1 Weld hole
BN
Shear-3
detector
Bridle-4
Fans Recoiler
IS
T1 T2
al
Bridle-3
w
Zinc pot Loop

pits
ra
Ag
Process section Coiler or finishing section

(Fixed speed and tension)
C.
Figure 6.49 Typical process layout of a continuous hot dip galvanizing line
K.
:
or
compensated by raising the speed of the second route The thickness of the coating is monitored by two
now introduced until the predefined buffer of an excess rollers through which the coated sheet is passed. The
th
length of sheet is produced with the help of time of welding, degreasing, heating and hot
Au
accumulator drive motor M5. dipping are synchronized so that the welding operation
takes the same time as the degreasing, heating and
Process section hot dipping.
16 Bridle no. 3, driven by motors M12 and M13, is the
12 The tension and speed in the process section is process section master controller and controls the
maintained again with the help of bridle no. 2, driven speed and travel of the sheet in the process section.
by motors M6 and M7.
13 The sheet is now fed through a pair of guide rollers Coiler or the finishing section
to a furnace section through a de-greasing tank, where
it is preheated for drying and raising the temperature This section is almost the same as the uncoiler section.
of the sheet up to a required level (400–465∞C typical)
17 The hot galvanized sheet is cooled by blowers and
before it enters the hot galvanizing pot for the desired
fed to an exit accumulator driven by motor M14, similar
thickness of zinc coating. The movement of the sheet
to the entry accumulator, via a deflector roll to adjust
through the furnace is helped by motors M8 and M9.
its position.
14 The hot-treated sheet is cooled to the required level
18 Before the finished sheet is finally cut into lengths as
by fans, driven by motors M10 and M11 before it enters required or rolled into recoilers its exit speed and
the molten zinc pot. tension is monitored and controlled again by bridle
15 The required thickness of zinc coating is achieved no. 4, driven by motors M15 and M16.
by dipping it in the molten zinc pot for a preset time.
I/C-1
Sw
* * Interlocked so that only two
or MCCB
can be made on at a time.
CT A
ASS
h1 h 2 h 3 V
415V, 50Hz 3f, 4 VSS *
wire A.C. bus Bus-coupler
Sw
or MCCB
Sw Sw
Fuse
2
Fuse
5-
A A
2-
CT CT
ASS ASS
64
Emergency PB Emergency PB
01
Stop PB Stop PB
-9
81
Regenerative
:
drive
BN
IS
al
w
M1 M2 M3 M4 M6 M7 M12 M13 M15 M16

ra
Ag
Figure 6.50 (Contd.)

C.
K.
19 The sheet may also be inspected for the quality of accuracy through a feedback network, this technology
welding and checked for pin-holes by a weld-hole finds many applications in such process industries as the
:
or
detector before it is finally cut into lengths or wound following:

onto rolls.
th
20 It then passes through a pair of guide rollers, pinch • Textiles

Au
rollers no. 5, a shear, an edge guide unit (to align the • Sheet and plate metal working
width of the sheet) and a final alignment pinch roll • Packaging
no. 6 as shown. • Material handling
21 The recoiler is driven by motor M17 that adjusts its • Steel rolling
speed and tension as calculated for the whole process • On- and off-shore drilling platforms
line. It is this drive and the bridles that maintain the • Machine tools
required tension throughout the process and make • Process industries such as sugar, printing machinery,
the pay-off reel drives operate as regenerative units. cement mills, chemicals, paper
• Thermal power plant auxiliaries such as flow control
Note of primary air fan, ID fan and forced-draught fans,
• We have considered all drives as a.c. although d.c. drives are also boiler feed pumps, circulating water pumps and
in use. Earlier only d.c. drives were used.
• IGBT inverters have been considered.
condensate pumps, coal handling plant (e.g. ball mill,
• All activities can be monitored through a control desk. wagon tippler, and stacker reclaimer)
• All controls and precise adjustments are carried out by a PLC. • Mining. A solid-state semiconductor device has no
physical contacts to make or break the current. There
6.16.5 Other applications is thus no arc formation during switching of these
devices. Therefore they have a very wide application
In view of the low maintenance cost and high reliability in mines and other hazardous areas using flameproof
of solid-state devices, combined with precision and a.c. motors where d.c. machines cannot be used.
I/C-2
Sw *
or MCCB
CT A
ASS * Interlocked so that only two
can be made on at a time.
h1 h 2 h 3 V
VSS
Sw Sw Sw
2
Fuse Fuse Fuse
5-
2-
CT A CT A CT A
ASS ASS ASS
64
Emergency PB Emergency PB Emergency PB
01
Stop PB Stop PB Stop PB
-9
81
:
BN
IS
al
w
M8 M9 M10 M11 M5 M14 M17

ra
Ag
Figure 6.50 Power distribution arrangement for the galvanizing process of Figure 6.49
C.
K.
6.17 Speed variation through of energy it will be able to conserve. The application
engineer would be a better judge to make a more
:
variable-speed fluid couplings

or
appropriate choice between the two, based on system

th
requirements. We give a brief comparison between these

The speed of the motor can also be varied by a variable- drives in Table 6.5. This comparison should help in making
Au
speed fluid drive as discussed in Section 8.4. a more judicious choice of drive.
Fluid couplings larger than, say, 400 kW can be
6.18 Static drive versus fluid employed with ease in achieving the required speed
control. They also provide a mechanical coupling between
coupling the drive and the load. A variable-speed fluid coupling
also results in energy saving along the lines as discussed
Variable-speed drives are essential for many industrial in Example 6.1. In many countries this device is classified
applications requiring variable operating parameters as ‘energy saving’ and attracts subsidies from the state.
during the course of operation. Such variations can be in They are simple to operate and are highly economical in
the flow of fluid and pressure of air or gas etc. The their initial cost compared to static drives. The only case
conventional method of throttle control through a vane against their use, despite the exorbitant costs of static
or a damper causes a considerable waste of energy. To drives, is their recurring power losses, as mentioned in
obtain a variable speed and yet save on energy, one can Table 6.5 (items 19 and 20). It is a constant and recurring
use either a static drive as discussed earlier or a variable drain on useful energy. A static drive, irrespective of its
speed fluid coupling (Chapter 8). The choice between cost, has a pay-off period of three to four years, depending
the two will be a matter of system requirements and an upon the size of drive, frequency and duration of speed
overall assessment of the ease of application, economy control and its accuracy. Thereafter it achieves regular
and accuracy of speed control in addition to the amount and high energy saving. This advantage is not possible
Table 6.5 Comparative study of performance of an a.c. drive, variable speed fluid coupling and a d.c. drive
Features A.C. drive Variable speed fluid coupling D.C. drive

1 Manufacturing range Any range 40 to 30 000 kW by USA 0.1 to 10 000 kW
2 Starting acceleration Soft and stepless start Soft and stepless start Soft and stepless start
3 Starting current (Ist) Can be controlled to any desired Cannot be controlled. Although Can be controlled to any
level subject to the minimum Tst duration of the starting inrush desired level. Normally up to
required is very short because of no- 1.5 times the rated current
load start
4 Starting torque (Tst) As desired As desired As desired up to 5–6 times the

Tr, through field forcing (i.e. by
raising the field voltage during
the start up period)
2
5 Variation in torque with ∑ Through V/f control, the torque T µ N2 Characteristics are similar to an
5-
speed can be kept constant induction machine as shown in
Ê e2 ˆ Figure 6.51:
2-
Á T µ fm ◊ I r µ = constant ˜
Ë fr ¯ (i) Up to the base speed N, torque
64
up to a desired speed, N. Since can be kept constant through
h.p. µ T.N., h.p. varies with armature voltage control,
01
speed V µ Ia, field current (Im µ f),
∑ Beyond N, the h.p. can be kept remaining constant
-9
constant by keeping the voltage f ◊ Ia
(T µ = constant, Ia,
81
fixed and raising f (h.p. µ T · N). N
The speed-torque characteristic is being the armature current)
similar to a d.c. machine as shown
: (ii) Beyond the base speed N, h.p.
BN
in Figure 6.51 can be kept constant (h.p. µ
T · N) by reducing the field
IS
current (Im µ f) and keeping

the armature voltage as
constant (I a = constant).
al
Torque will now diminish

exponentially, since f
w
diminishes and N rises, N

ra
being in denominator, has the

Ag
same effect as f (Figure 6.51)
6 Magnetising losses of Vary with f Remain at 100% Remain constant for speed
C.
the motor variations within the required

speed N, as the field current is
K.
kept fixed and only the

armature voltage is varied. For
:
or
speed variations beyond N,

however, when the armature
th
voltage is kept constant and the

Au
field current is varied, the

magnetizing losses also vary
7 Copper (I2R) losses Low at reduced speeds, due to No reduction because of same At lower speeds more than the
low magnetizing current (Im) and magnetizing losses and a.c. drives as Im remains the
correspondingly lower I1 therefore relatively higher I1 same and a relatively higher Ia
8 Power factor Although Im is low, overall p.f. may Low as Im remains the same Lower than the a.c. drive
be slightly lower on the line side, because of same field current
because of harmonic contents and
inclusion of L. L is introduced to
(i) Limit the current harmonics and
(ii) Limit the rate of rise of current,
i.e. ripples (di/dt)
9 Combined efficiency of At rated speed 90% and more. (i) At rated speed 87–90% At rated speed up to 80–90%.
the motor and the drive Reduces slightly at lower speeds (coupling efficiency as At lower speeds reduces more
because of poor efficiency of the high as 97–98%) than the a.c. drives because of
(Contd.)
machine at lower speeds. Losses in (ii) At two thirds of the input fixed field losses
the a.c. controls do not normally speed 50%
exceed 0.5–1.5% (iii) at 20% of the input speed
66%. See Figure 6.52
10 Voltage dip during start- Nil High because of same Ist but Nil
up for a very short duration as the
motor picks up lightly
11 Fault level Low High because of high Ist Low
12 Any cost reduction in Yes; because of lower capacity of Similar cost reduction possible Yes, as in a.c. drives
electricals (motor, motor, cables and switchgears and a but all requirements to be
cables, switchgears low fault level suitable for slightly higher fault
etc.). level because of high Ist
2
5-
13 Range of speed control Very wide and stepless up to zero Moderate to accurate, Very wide and stepless as for
speed depending upon the accuracy of a.c. drives
2-
controls. Stepless up to 20% of
64
Nr at constant h.p. and up to
33% of Nr at constant torque is
01
possible. Pumps, ID fans etc.,
that call for speed variation
-9
during a process need may not
necessarily be too accurate. Or
81
variation in flow of fluid, gas
or temperature etc. not calling
:
for very accurate controls, that
BN
such drives find their extensive

use. It may be made more
IS
accurate, but at higher cost of

controls
al
14 Accuracy of speed Up to ± 0.01% in open-loop and Moderate to precise controls as Very accurate speed controls up
w
control ± 0.001% in closed-loop control for a.c. drives possible with the to ± 0.01%
ra
systems use of microprocessor-based

control systems
Ag
15 Monitoring of operating Very accurate controls through Moderate to microprocessor- Same as for a.c. drives
C.
parameters microprocessor-based closed-loop based, fully programmable

feedback control systems logic controls and feedback
K.
control systems are available,

to provide smooth speed
:
controls as good as a.c. drives

or
th
16 Acceleration and braking Possible Possible Possible

Au
17 Reversal Possible Not possible. Although coupling Possible

is bidirectional, it can be run in
any one direction only
18 Inching Possible Possible Possible
19 Power loss No loss except in the form of motor Relatively higher losses Losses are high because of
inefficiency at lower speeds because of field system, but comparatively
(i) High starting current much less than fluid and eddy
(ii) Coupling slip up to 15–16% current couplings. At lower
at two thirds the input speed speeds the losses rise in the
and about 20% at 20% of the form of motor inefficiency
input speed (slip reduces at
lower speeds as illustrated in
Figure 6.52
20 Energy saving Optimum saving up to 100% Good saving. But low compared Slightly low, 90–94%, because
(no loss) to a.c. drives because of high slip of field losses (up to 5–7%)
losses. As it saves energy, it is
also entitled to state subsidies
(Contd.)

21 Harmonics They generate high harmonics nk ± There arises no such Higher than even a.c. drives,
1 (Section 23.6(b)) and must be phenomenon because of commutator arcing
suppressed by using filter circuits which it produces at high
frequencies
22 Unfriendly environmental Not suitable. The static controls must No problems as it is a sealed Not suitable at all, as the motor
conditions such as be located away from such areas in unit. But for controls which itself cannot be relocated in
dustladen areas, fire well-protected rooms may be located separately safer areas
hazardous, corrosive and
contaminated locations
23 Heating (i) Moderate in transistor controls Very high at lower speeds and Moderate
but requires extensive cooling
(ii) Excessive in thyristor
controls. The higher the rating
2
the higher the temperature
5-
rise. They require extensive
cooling arrangements which
2-
may be external or forced
64
24 Maintenance and May be high. For efficient Very low maintenance. Where a Downtime due to brushes is
01
downtime maintenance high-skilled operators mechanical ruggedness is about 1 hour only in 6 months’
and their proper training are essential, required, a fluid coupling to a year’s time. However,
-9
besides stocking enough spares as provides a more reliable meticulous monitoring of
recommended by the manufacturer. solution brushes and commutator
81
Yet the expert services of the condition is important and so
manufacturer may sometimes be : also the environmental
necessary. At times, the spares may conditions. Controls will also
BN
not be readily available or it may need similar attention as for

not be possible to repair them a.c. drives. In a breakdown, the
IS
immediately. In such cases either it motor cannot be run in any

is a total shutdown or the controls way (unlike a.c. motors) and
have to be bypassed and the machine would lead to a total shutdown
al
run on DOL
w
Note:With the availability of remote

ra
service facility with the drive

manufacturers through remote drive
Ag
and telemetry software as noted in

Section (6.7.4(5)), it is now easy to
C.
communicate with the manufacturer

and avail of their instant on line
K.
expert services in most cases.

:
25 Cost consideration A costly arrangement It is generally cheaper than a Quite economical compared to
or
static drive in all ranges an a.c. drive. The following

th
may give a rough idea:

Up to 10 kW – price difference
Au
not significant
Above 10–40 kW– a.c controls
may be costlier by 30–40%
Above 40–130 kW – a.c.
controls may be costlier by
40–50%
In the range of 500 kW and
above – a.c. controls may be
costlier by 2.5 to 3 times and
even more in still higher
ranges. Remote service facility
is available here also.
in a fluid coupling due to higher power losses. particularly for drives that have to undergo frequent
Conservation of energy is therefore the main criterion in and wide speed variations during their normal course of
the selection of static drives. operation, or which require very accurate speed control.
Until a few years ago, when static technology was For applications not needing very precise speed control
still in its infancy, variable-speed fluid drives had very or wide variations in speed (e.g. high-capacity pumps
wide application. With the advent of static technology, or ID fans) variable-speed fluid couplings are still the
the trend is shifting in favour of static controls, best choice.
6.19 D.C. drives motor. An induction motor is maintenance free. But older
installations still use d.c. motors and may continue to do
so for a few more years, until they go in for a retrofitting
The use of d.c. motors for precise speed controls is long
of the existing d.c. motor system with an a.c. motor and
practised and it had been a unanimous choice until a few
drive system or the next modernization of the installation.
years ago. It still is, in a few applications, purely on cost
Many leading d.c. motor manufacturers have already
consideration. But its use is now gradually waning out
discontinued the manufacture of such machines due to a
due to their maintenance and down-time which a process
sharp decline in demand. There are a few manufacturers
industry can ill afford and also more advanced technology
still in the field and may continue until would exist a
now being available in static controls to control an a.c.
demand for replacements and extensions of existing load
lines. A few manufacturers who have discontinued the
production of this machine have established links with
those still in the field to cater for replacements. Therefore
this book has dealt only briefly with this machine. Figure
6.32 shows a converter circuit for the control of a d.c.
machine, also showing a fully controlled thyristor inverter
2
unit for regenerative energy feedback. Figure 6.50(a)
5-
shows the outside view of a digital converter d.c.
2-
drive.
To make a better comparison between an a.c. and a
64
d.c. drive we illustrate in Figure 6.51 for a d.c. motor,
01
the likely variation in its torque, with variation in the
applied voltage, below the base speed and with a constant
-9
voltage but variable field strength, above the base
81
speed.
:
BN
6.20 Retrofitting of EE motors and

IS
drives
Substantial energy and consequent generation of heat
al
can be saved (recurring cost saving apart) by adapting to

w
EE motors and also employing variable speed drives

ra
when motors are to perform variable duties. The payback

Ag
Figure 6.50(a) Digital converter DC drive (Courtesy: BCH) period, irrespective of cost of retrofitting may not exceed
C.
K.
Armature voltage control Field control

(Field strengthening region) (Field weakening region)
:
or
Constant torque region Constant HP region

V µ f, T µ f · Ia = Constant
th
Au
Armature voltage fixed

field current reduced Ia = Armature current
HP µ T · Nr 1 = Torque curve
Constant torque µ V /f
Torque
Tr 2 = Output curve
1
b le
ria To
va rq ue
e
lt ag red
u
vo Nr ce s 1
µ µ
u re HP
N
at
Arm 2
Base speed – It is normally the rated speed at which
the rated parameters are referred
0 N Nmax (Tr, HP and Vr)
Base speed
Speed (µ f)
Figure 6.51 Variation of torque with speed in a d.c. machine (the same as for an a.c. machine)
25 duty and in the second retrofitting the drive (taking care

of cable length). Providing only a drive without changing
the motor is a job half done because,
20
– The old motor even if it is not oversized is still a
100% drain on useful energy by way of higher losses and
s
os 98% lower efficiency even if it operates under controlled
15 rl
po we supply parameters just adequate to meet its duty
% Power losses
requirements.
s
rv
10
N 66% – The insulation level of the motor may have aged out
h
and may not be adequate to meet the PWM switching
50%
surges on the motor side.
5
– The inverter drives cause additional heating to the motor
windings due to high harmonic contents and may call
2–3% for a derating of the motor. It is possible that the motor
was chosen over-sized initially but has no reserve
2
0 25 50 capacity now as the load demand may have risen over
66 75 100
5-
20 Nr the period. If it is still adequate to meet the present load
Speed (Nr)
demand, it is possible that it may not be suitable for
2-
Figure 6.52 An approximate illustration of h and loss variation, inverter duty causing extra heating. In most cases,
64
with change in speed in a variable-speed fluid coupling however, this may not be necessary as the motors usually
have enough reserve capacity. In any case analysis for
01
motor suitability is mandatory.
-9
– The old motors would call for bearing insulation
a year or so depending upon the running hours/year. If
81
whenever bearing parasitic currents may exist as
the motor was running under-loaded before the retrofitting, discussed before.
the payback period may even be less because most energy :
BN
saved now, was being consumed and paid for before. It Therefore, it is advisable that with drives, existing motors
is therefore recommended to replace the existing motors may also be replaced with EE motors suitable for inverter
IS
with EE motors and conventional starting to soft staring duty. In certain applications close co-ordination between
when it is a fixed load drive or a variable speed drive the motor, the drive and the length of the inter-connecting
when the load is fluctuating. It is strongly recommended cable may be mandatory to ensure total compatibility
al
that motor and switching device both be retrofitted for and safety to perform the desired duty within safe
w
optimum advantage. It may even be done in phases – in parameters and also ensure safety at hazardous locations.
ra
first changing the motor to EE motor suitable for inverter See also Section 7.17.1.
Ag
C.
Relevant Standards
K.
IEC Title IS BS ISO

:
or
60034-1/2004 Rotating electrical machines. Rating and performance. 4722/2001,325/2002 BS EN 60034-1/1998 –

th
60034-17/2003 Cage induction motors when fed from converters. – – –

Au
Application guide.
60146-1-1/1991 Specifications of basic requirements for power converters. 14256/2000 BS EN 60146-1-1/1993 –
60439-1/2004 Low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies. 8623-1/1998 BS EN 60439-1/1999 –
Requirements for type-tested and partially type
tested assemblies.
60947-4-2/2002 Low voltage switchgear and controlgear – contactors – – –
and motor starters – a.c. semiconductor motor
contactors and starters.
60947-4-3/2000 Low voltage switchgear and controlgear – contactors and – – –
motor starters – a.c. semiconductor controllers and
contactors for non-motor loads.
61000-5-2/1997 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 5 – Installation – – –
and mitigation guidelines Section 2 – Earthing and cabling.
— Code of practice for selection, installation and maintenance 10118-2,3/2001 – –
of switchgear and controlgear: Part 3 – Installation.
61800-3/2004 Adjustable speed electrical power drive systems. EMC – BS EN 61800-3/2004 –
requirements and specific test methods.
Related US Standards ANSI/NEMA and IEEE

ANSI/IEEE-142/1991 Grounding of industrial and commercial power systems. (IEEE Green Book)
ANSI/IEEE-519/1993 Guide for harmonic control and reactive compensation of static power converters.
ANSI/IEEE-C37.21/1998 Standard for control switchboards.
ANSI/IEEE-C62.41/1991 Recommended practice for surge voltages in low voltage a.c. power circuits.
NEMA/ICS-1.1/1998 Safety guidelines for the application, installation and maintenance of solid state control.
NEMA/ICS-7/2000 Industrial control and systems. Adjustable speed drives.
NEMA/ICS-7.1/2001 Safety standards for construction and guide for selection, installation and operation of adjustable speed drive systems.
NEMA/ICS-9/1993 Industrial control and systems. Power circuit accessories (requirement for brakes).
NEMA/ICS-16/2001 Motion/position control motors and cables.
NEMA/LS-1/1992 Low voltage surge protection devices.
NEMA/MG-1,Part 30/1998 Application considerations for constant speed motors used on a sinusoidal bus with harmonic contents
NEMA/MG-1,Part 31/1998 Motors and generators ‘Definite-purpose inverter-fed polyphase motors’
DIN 6-1800-3/2002 Cage induction motors when fed from converters. Application guide.
Notes
2
1 In the table of relevant Standards while the latest editions of the Standards are provided, it is possible that revised editions have become
5-
available or some of them are even withdrawn. With the advances in technology and/or its application, the upgrading of Standards is
2-
a continuous process by different Standards organizations. It is therefore advisable that for more authentic references, one may consult
the relevant organizations for the latest version of a Standard.
64
2 Some of the BS or IS Standards mentioned against IEC may not be identical.
01
3 The year noted against each Standard may also refer to the year it was last reaffirmed and not necessarily the year of publication.
-9
81
List of formulae used dv/dt = rate of voltage change or a.c. ripples in the d.c. link
:
BN
Speed control through phasor control Current source inverter (CSI) to vary I1 and f
V L di (ignoring R of the circuit)
IS
I1 = I m¢ + I m + I a (6.1) dt
(6.6)
I1 = line current V = voltage across the inductor
al
Im¢ = loss component L = large series inductor

w
Im = magnetizing component di = a.c. ripples

ra
Ia = active component dt
Ag
Field-oriented control Computation of energy saving in a pump

C.
T = k · Im · Ia sin q (6.2) Hd ◊ Q ◊ d
P= (6.7)
36 ◊ h
K.
q = phasor displacement between I m and I a (electrical

P= shaft input in kW
:
position of rotor field in space with respect to stator)

or
Hd = head in bar
Q= discharge in m3/hour
th
To obtain variable V and f in IGBTs through PWM d= specific gravity of the liquid in g/cm3
Au
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 + t 5 + t 6 h= efficiency of the pump

CDF = (6.3)
T
t 1, t 2 … t 6 are the pulse widths in one half cycle Further Reading
T = one half of a cycle
1 ABC of Drives, Siemens Catalogue DA 662 (1993).
Vr.m.s = V CDF (6.4) 2 Berde, M.S., Thyristor Engineering, Khanna Publishers,
India (1900).
V = amplitude of output, voltage pulses 3 Blascke, F., ‘The principle of the field oriented transvertor
Vr.m.s = r.m.s. value of the output, a.c. voltage as applied to the new closed loop control system for rotating
field machines’, Siemens Review 34, 217–220 (1972).
To smooth output a.c. ripples 4 Humphries, J.T., Electronic AC Motors and Controls, Merrill
Publishing, Columbia, OH.
5 Indo-British Workshop on Power Electronics, Energy Saving
Q = C dv (6.5) Machine Control and Simulation Vol. I and II, 14–18
dt
December 1992. Organized by IIT Delhi, India.
Q = charge stored by the capacitor unit 6 Leonard; W., ‘30 years space vectors, 20 years field
C = capacitance of the capacitor orientation and 10 years digital signal processing with
controlled a.c. drives’, EPE Journal, 1 No. 1, July (1991) Industry Applications, 35, No. 2, March-April (1999), pp.
and 1, No. 2, Oct. (1991). 487–495.
7 Microprocessor Application Programme. Department of 17 Electromagnetic compatibility, Good Grounding Practices
Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, for EMC, Alstom T&D Power Conversion, Issue 01/2000.
India. 18 Prabhuraj, Bhopalpur., Schmitt, Benoit., Neeser, Gerhard.,
8 Nath, R., ‘Saving energy with variable speed drives’, Siemens Siemens Singapore/Germany ‘HV IGBT Drives and Their
Circuit, XXII, Oct. (1987). Application’, IEEE 1999 International Conference on Power
9 Publication 1204-1.0, March 1996, Allen Bradley, USA. Electronics and Drives Systems, PEDS’99, July (1999),
10 Saunders, L.A., Skibinski, G.L., Evon, S.T. and Kempkes, Hong Kong.
D.L. ‘Riding the reflected wave’, IEEE PCIC, Sept. (1996). 19 The next generation of A.C. Drives, Rockwell Automation’s
11 Performance Characterization of MOS Turn off Thyristors, New Power Flex TM , AB Journal, March (2000),
IEEE Industrial Applications Society Annual Meeting, Rome, www.abjournal.com
Italy, Oct. 8–12 (2000). 20 Ishii, Kazufumi., Yamamoto, Masanori., Trends in High
12 Vithayathil, J., Power Electronics – Principles and Voltage, High Capacity Power Devices, Mitsubishi Electric
Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York (1995). Advance, March (2000).
13 Wind Energy Technology, Kirloskar Electric Co., India. 21 Weber, A., Dalibor. T., Kern, P., Oedegard, B., Waldemeyer,
2
14 Suresh, R., Wind Technologies, Tata Energy Research J., Carroll, E., Reverse Blocking IGCTs for Current Source
5-
Institute, New Delhi, India. Inverters, ABB Semiconductors AG, Switzerland.
2-
15 Variable Speed Drives and Motors – Motor insulation 22 Zargari, Navid., Rizzo, Steve., Xiao, Yuan., Rockwell
64
voltages stresses under PWM inverter operation, Automation Cambridge, ON, Canada, Iwamoto, Hideo.,
GAMBICA/REMA Technical Report, No. 1. Sato, Katsumi., Mitsubishi Electric Co., Japan, Donlon,
01
16 S. Bernet, R. Teichmann, A. Zuckerberger, P.K. Steimer, John., Powerex, Youngwood, PA, USA, A New Current
‘Comparison of High Power IGBTs and Hard-Driven Source Converter Using A Symmetric Gate Commutated
-9
GTOs for High-Power Inverters’, IEEE Transactions on Thyristor (SGCT).
81
:
BN
IS
al
w
ra
Ag
C.
K.
:
or
th
Au

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6/111

6 Static drives and

6.4.3 Direct torque control (DTC) 6/123

6.7 Evolution of solid-state technology 6/126 Relevant Standards 6/182

6.7.1 Power diodes 6/126

Further Reading 6/183

6.8 Conduction and commutation 6/142

6.9 Circuit configurations of semiconductor devices 6/145

6.9.1 Converter or rectifier unit 6/145

6.9.2 Inverter unit 6/151

6.9.4 Current source inverter (CSI) 6/154

can thus be arranged for three or four different speeds as

• Cascade connections (concatenation)

Use of two motors and the prime mover was a slip-

6.2 Speed control through solid- ring motor.

• Leblanc or Scherbius Advancers.

Table 6.1 Connection diagrams for multispeed motors

No. of wdgs Poles Connection Connection diagram

One 8/4 or 4/2 etc., also Delta/double star a

Motor winding 8-pole 4-pole

Two 12/8/6/4 etc. Two delta/double star a

Winding no. 1 12-pole 6-pole

(i) (ii) (iii)

Winding no. 2 8-pole 4-pole

suitable to provide speed control in a slip-ring motor.

state technology is popularly known as slip recovery

source of supply through a solid-state feedback converter speeds.

The speed of the motor can be varied by varying the frequency

the performance of an induction motor

control drives, it is however, possible to minimize the another).

loss of starting torque. To do so, it is advisable to match Tpo

the load and the motor starting characteristics and

starting voltage. The magnitude of the starting current

will then depend upon this voltage. Tst 2

The static drives too are defined by their over-current Tst

ÈT max 2 = 3/2 T max 1 ˘ Tor

ÈT max 3 = 2/3 T max 1 ˘

S=1 ÈN S2 = 2/3 N S1 ˘ È N S1 ˘ ÈN S3 = 3/2 N S1 ˘

Figure 6.4 Speed variation at constant HP

The magnetizing current, Im, is a part of the motor stator

The machine now operates in a constant torque region

3–f a.c. supply

Fixed a.c. 1 Isolator

9 depending upon the size of machine.

Variable a.c. 10 Speed amplifier and controller

Armature voltage control Field control

Constant torque region Constant HP region

I Ia + Im mathematical model. The motor is calibration* run on

Ia µ T µV1 and machine in terms of the equivalent circuit diagram shown

Im µ f in Figure 1.15 earlier. With these parameters known, it is

now possible to achieve the required speed controls noted

separate and hence the difficulty in controlling each of Application

Such a control is good for machines that are required to

required. Figure 6.2 now changes to Figure 6.8, which is

computed in terms of rotating field and corrected to the

schemes to achieve very precise speed control. To make

(6.2) is further resolved into two components, one direct

to the separately excited field control in a d.c. machine.

performance. Leading manufacturers have developed